Current and Electricity - Study Notes

Current
Electricity
PHYSICS
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Current Electricity
 Atoms are the fundamental particles of the known universe. We had already learned
about electrons, protons and neutrons are the subatomic particles of an atom.
Moreover few electrons are allowed to move freely from one atom to another and
considered as free electrons.
 An electron carries negative charge on it with the magnitude of 1.6 x 10 -19 Coulomb,
whereas the proton which stays at the centre of an atom carries the positive charge
with the magnitude same as of electrons. The protons do not move from one place
to another and are considered fixed.
 It is an electron that keeps moving and distributes the charges. When these charges
stay at a specific area or point they are static (not moving) in nature and those which
continuously flow from one point to another are dynamic.
 As we can see in our day to day life, the different forms of current that occur in
different natural phenomenons. We all heard about the wind current and water
current. The most common thing about the current is, they have a moving pattern.
Lightening is the one of such phenomena in which charges flow from clouds to the
earth.
 When the charges don’t move, we consider them as static charges and examine
their properties. What if the charges start moving in a particular direction?
Electric current and Voltage
What is electric current ?

The rate of flow of charges in a definite direction is termed as electric current.
While, the rate of flow of charges through any cross-sectional area of a conductor is
known as the measure of electric current.
PHYSICS | Current Electricity PAGE 2

 If through any cross-sectional area, ΔQ charges pass in time Δt then iav=ΔQΔt and
if the current is uniform then i=Qt.
 The SI unit of current is Ampere (A).
 It is a scalar quantity as it does not follow laws of vector addition.
 If through any cross-sectional area of a conductor when 1 coulomb of charge

passes in 1 sec, then it is termed as 1 Ampere
 Conventionally, electric current represents the direction of flow of positive charge.
 Since, the positive charge resides at the centre of an atom, it does not move. Only
the electrons move from one place to another. The electrons move opposite to the
positive charge.
 So, the Electric current is represented as opposite to the rate of flow of electrons
Flow of current through conductor

 Current can flow only through conductors because the conductors have free
electrons in it. These free electrons are able to move in different directions.
 Where the free electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom which can move
by taking extra energy from the atmosphere or external source. While in insulators
and semiconductors the number of free electrons is negligible or very few.
 Generally, metals are good conductors whereas non-metals are insulators and the
semiconductors lie in between them.
Electric Voltage
 Voltage is the electric potential difference between two points in a circuit, it acts as
the pushing force and allows the current to flow.
 Electric voltage is a relative quantity and can be easily understood by the dam
analogy.
 Let us consider the dam where the water is kept high.

 The higher the water level is, the more potential difference is created and it allows
more water to flow.
 Consider water level as the potential difference and flow of water as the flow of
charges/current.
Similarly, when a high potential difference is allowed between two points in a

conductor, more number of electrons can flow from one point to another until
resistance is kept low.
Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law states that if the physical state (i.e. length, temperature, mechanical strain,
material) of the conductor remains the same then the voltage applied across its ends is
directly proportional to the current flowing through it.
V∝I
V = I R (V = Voltage, I = current, R = resistance)

The below graph between V and I shows a straight line
Graph between V and I
This graph between V and I of a conductor at constant temperature shows that the
gradient of change in voltage (Δ V) is proportional to change in current (Δ I).
This makes the graph a straight line.
Drift velocity and mobility

 There are millions and billions of free electrons moving in a conductor at room
temperature.
 These randomly moving free electrons in metals collide and follow a zig-zag path,
this randomness of the free electrons in different directions cancels the overall
effect of net current, but can be effective in a specific direction when an electric field
is applied across it.
What is Drift Velocity?
When an electric field (E) is applied across the conductor, the free electrons
experience a force opposite to the direction of the field, velocity of this drift electrons is
called drift velocity (v_d).

Electron Movement
Mathematically, v
Where, e = charge on electron, E = electric field applied, m = mass of electron, =

relaxation time.
The negative sign represents the direction of drift velocity is opposite to electric field.
Relaxation time ( ): The time between two successive collisions of the electron in a
lattice is called the relaxation time.
Mobility (μ): The drift velocity per unit electric field is called the mobility of electrons.
.
Mobility of electrons =
Resistance
What is Resistance?
It is the property of substance by virtue of which it opposes the flow of current through
it, is known as electrical resistance

 The SI Unit of electrical resistance is “ohm (Ω)” or volt/amp
 The resistance of the conductor depends on the following factors:
1. Length (l): The resistance of the conductor directly proportional to its length
R ∝ l.
2. Area of cross-section (A): Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-

sectional area of the conductor R ∝ 1/A
3. The resistance of the conductor also depends on the nature of material and
temperature.
Now, from above the dependencies of resistance with different parameters.
Resistance (R) ∝ l ∝ 1/A
When removing the sigh of proportionality.
Where, ρ = resistivity of the conductor, it depends on the material of the conductor.
What is Resistivity/Specific resistance ?
 The constant of proportionality while calculating the resistance of the conductor that
depends on the nature of the material is termed as the resistivity of the material. It
is denoted by rho (ρ).
 The SI unit of resistivity is Ω-m
 Specific resistance of a material is defined as the resistance of unit length and unit
cross-sectional area of the material of the conductor. It is the intrinsic property of a
substance and differs from different materials.

Memory Tip
 Maximum resistivity: Fused quartz ρ = (1016 Ω-m)
 Minimum resistivity: Silver ρ = (1.6 × 10-8 Ω-m)
Conductivity and Conductance
Conductivity: It is defined as the reciprocal of resistivity and it is denoted by

mho (σ) (ohm spelt backwards).
Its SI unit is mho/m or siemen/meter
Memory Tip
 Most conductive metal: Silver (Ag).
 Least conductive metal: Mercury (Hg).
Conductance (G): The reciprocal of resistance is termed as electrical

conductance.
Its SI unit is “Ω-1 or Siemen”.

Stretching of wire
If the conducting wire stretches or compresses, its length increases and cross-
sectional area decreases and vice-versa but the volume remains constant.
Suppose the length of conducting wire is l1 cross-section area A1, radius r1 and
diameter d1.
Then it’s Resistance
If it is stretched to length l2 cross-section A2, radius r2 and diameter d2.
Then the new resistance
The ratio of resistance before and after stretching is:
If length is given, R ∝ l2 ⇒
If radius or diameter is given, R ∝ 1/r4 ⇒
Temperature Dependence of Resistivity

The resistivity of the material depends on the temperature. Resistivity of a material
changes at different temperatures.
Where,
Resistivity at temperature T
Resistivity at a reference temperature T0
The temperature coefficient of resistivity.

For metals as the temperature increases the resistivity decreases.

α is positive for metals
For semiconductors, when temperature increases the resistivity of the material
increases.
α is negative for semiconductor
Some materials like Nichrome, Manganin and Constantan, show their resistivity to very
weak dependency with temperature. Therefore they are widely used in standard
resistors and also used in heating materials.
Temperature Dependency of Resistance

At higher temperature, the number of free electrons in a conductor increases and
resistance being dependent on it. The below equation represents its dependency –
Where,
R0 = resistance of the conductor at 0 °C
RT = resistance of the conductor at T °C
α = temperature co-efficient of the resistance (it's unit →Per °C)
This equation valid for T ≤ 300 °C
Heating effect of current

When current passes through the conductor, it is heated accordingly by the resistivity
of the conductor.
There are various applications of this heating:
1) Glowing of filament lamp: The filament of the bulb is made up of tungsten
(W), having high resistivity and high melting point so it turns in white-hot and emits
light.
2) Element of heating devices (Heater, Geyser, Iron etc.): It is made up of high
resistivity and high melting point.

3) Fuse-wire: These wires are made up of tin-lead alloy (63% tin - 37% lead). It
should have a low melting point and high resistivity. It is used in series as safety
devices before the electric appliances and circuits and it is designed to melt when the
current passing through it exceeds the limiting value.
working of electric fuse
Limitation of Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law is not a universal law-
1. As this law is valid for a large class of materials but still there do exist
materials where ohm’s law is not valid
2. Ohm’s law is not valid on unilateral elements (where current can flow from
one direction) like diodes, transistors etc.
Even ohm’s laws do not show constant results between V and I over a long time on
elements with non-linear parameters like capacitance, resistance etc.
Ohmic and Non-ohmic elements

There are generally two type’s elements are categorized while plotting V-I curve:
1) Ohmic
2) Non-ohmic conductor

 Ohmic conductor: Those elements which follow ohm’s law are called ohmic
conductors while those which do not follow are non-ohmic conductors.
 Ohmic conductor – Copper, Aluminum etc.
 The V-I curves of the ohmic conductor are straight lines.
Graph between V and I for Graph between V and I for

Ohmic conductor semiconductor
Non-Ohmic conductor – Those materials which do not follow ohm’s law are non-
ohmic. Materials like semiconductors, diodes, gases, transistors etc.
The V-I curve of non-ohmic conductor are not a straight line
Power for an electrical circuit

Electric Energy
The total electric work done in the circuit.
Or
The energy supplied by the source of emf, to maintain the current in the electric circuit
for a given time is called electrical energy consumed in the circuit.
Electric energy, W = VIt
Electric energy = electric power × time
SI unit of electric energy is Joule.

1 Joule = 1 volt × 1 ampere × 1 second = 1 watt × 1 second.

The commercial unit of electric energy is called kilowatt-hour (kWh).
1 kWh = 1 kilowatt × 1 hour = 1000 watt × 1 hour
Electric Power
The rate at which electrical energy is consumed or dissipated into other forms of
energy is called electrical power.
Its SI unit is Joule/sec or Watt.
Memory Tip
1 Horse Power = 746 Watt
Combination of Resistors
We had already learned that the resistors are the materials which oppose the flow of
current. This property of the resistors are used in various circuit designs like reducing
the flow of current, voltages and power in the circuit. Though it can be connected in two
major designs:
1. Series connection
2. Parallel connection

Resistors in Series
 Resistors are said to be connected in series, if the same current is flowing through
each resistor when some potential difference is applied across the combination.
 In series combination the entry and exit point of current to resistors are the same
and we know that current is the rate of flow of charges.
 So, the charges do not pile up anywhere just somewhere its flow increased or
decreased accordingly to the resistance.
 Whereas the voltage drop is the point where electrical energy is converted to
another energy like light, heat or anything.
 The overall flow of charges in the circuit is constant therefore current is the same
everywhere in series combination.
Series combination of resistance
According to Kirchhoff’s loop law,

Let V be the potential difference across A and B, then V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
RAB = R1 + R2 + R3
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + …+ Rn
Memory Tip
 In the series resistance circuit, current is the same in each resistor.
 The voltage across any resistor is directly proportional to the resistance of the
resistor.
 The total resistance in series is more than the greatest resistance in the circuit.

Resistors in parallel
 When the resistors are connected in parallel, the potential difference across each of
them is the same and equal to the applied potential difference.
 In parallel connection at any junction, current gets divided accordingly to the

resistors (here inversely to resistance).
Parallel Combination of Resistor
At, junction A, three wires carry current i.e. there is a split of current taken place in
different branches later at junction B they meet as of Kirchhoff’s current law.
The voltage drop at point A and B is the same for all resistors.
Let V be the potential difference across A and B
The Current i = i1 + i2 + i3
Memory Tip
 In a Parallel resistance circuit, voltage is the same in each resistor and equal to the
applied voltage.
 The current across each resistor is inversely proportional to the resistance of the
resistor.

CELL, EMF and Internal resistance
What is Cell?
It is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy known as an
electric cell. Cell is the source of constant emf but not constant current.
Primary and secondary cells

 Primary Cell:
 Primary cells have high density and discharge very slowly. Since it has no fluid
inside these cells are also termed as dry cells.
 The internal resistance of these cells are high and the chemical reaction going in
the cell is irreversible. The cost of these cells are reasonable and easy to use.
 Examples: Alkaline batteries, dry cells and button cells are the most
common primary cells.
 Secondary cell:
 Secondary cells have low energy density as compared to primary and are made of
molten salts and wet cells.
 The internal resistance of the secondary cell is low and the chemical reaction taken
part to generate emf is reversible.
 The initial cost of making these cells are a little high and is a bit complicated to use
when compared with the primary cell. Examples: Lithium-ion battery and nickel-
cadmium.
Cell and Battery

Alessandro Volta invented the first primary electric battery and thus the unit of electric
potential is termed as Volt (V).

Cell and Battery
 The energy stored in the cell is a source of energy, which turns chemical energy
into electrical energy.
 When two or more cells are connected then it is called a Battery.
 The examples of cells are i.e. Zn Cu cell, Ni-MH cell, Li-ion, etc.
Cell terminology
EMF of a cell (E):
 The amount of energy (chemical) which is transformed into electrical energy per
coulomb of charge is called as EMF of the cell.
Or
 The Potential difference across the terminals of the cell when it is not supplying
any current.
Potential difference (V):
 The voltage across the terminal of a cell when it is supplying current to external
resistance is called potential difference or terminal difference.
 Potential difference is equal to the product of current and resistance, i.e. V= iR
Internal Resistance of a Cell (r):
 The electrolyte of the cell offers a resistance to the flow of electric current, it is
known as the internal resistance of the cell. It is denoted by r.
 Now, consider circuit diagrams as shown in the figure.

Cell with Internal Resistance
If ‘E’ and ‘V’ are the readings of voltmeter when the key ‘S’ is open and closed
respectively. That is if E represents emf and V the potential difference of the cell, then
V = E – i r …………………(1)
Since, (Since R and r are in series with each other)

Putting this value of ‘i’ in equation (1), we get,
Thus,
Knowing E, V, and R, the value of ‘r’ can be calculated.

Cell in series and parallel
Series combination of Identical Cells

Cells are adding in +ve terminal of one cell to –ve terminal of another and so on.
Series Combination of Cells Equivalent Cells
Applying Kirchhoff’s Law,
So,
Equivalent emf of the combination
Equivalent internal resistance
In series combination, the emf of each cell is added.
Parallel combination of Identical Cells
Cells are adding +ve terminal to +ve terminal of another and –ve to –ve terminal
respectively.

Parallel Combination of Cells Equivalent Cells
Applying Kirchhoff’s law,
So,
Equivalent emf
Equivalent internal resistance
In parallel combination, the current capacity of a battery is increased while the
voltage remains as original emf of the cell.
Memory Tip
To get maximum current, cells must be connected in series if effective internal
resistance is less than external resistance and in parallel if effective internal resistance
is greater than external resistance.

Kirchhoff’s Rules
 Kirchhoff’s circuit laws are considered as the heart of any electric circuit analysis.
With the help of these laws and the equation for individual components (resistor,
capacitor, and inductor), we analyze circuits.
 The Scientist named Gustav Robert Kirchhoff was in the nineteenth century who
contributed very much to this theory, and he provides a better understanding of
electrical circuits. He also discovered that the current flows at the speed of light in a
conductor.
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws
Before moving to laws let’s learn few Circuit Terms
1. Circuit: It is a closed path through which current flows.
2. Path: A path is considered as a single line, which consists of circuit elements

and sources.
3. Node: A node is defined as a terminal or a junction at which two or more
elements will be joined together and thus have a common point for more than one
branch.
4. Branch: A branch consists of elements like resistors and sources connected
between two nodes.
5. Loop: A loop is a closed path in which elements are counted just once.
6. Mesh: A mesh is an open-loop and open path with no elements in it.

Circuit Terms
Points to Remember
If the elements are connected in series the current which flows through each one is the
same. If the elements are connected in parallel the voltage across each component
remains the same.
The First Law - Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

First law of Kirchhoff deals with the current in the circuit. According to this law, the
algebraic sum of currents at any node of a circuit is zero. The total current entering at a
junction is exactly equal to the total current leaving the junction. This law is based on
the Conservation of Charges.
From the below image we can say that:
Kirchhoff’s Current Law Kirchhoff’s Law

(i2 + i3 + i5 + i6 + i7) = (i1 + i4 + i8)

∑ iincoming = ∑ ioutgoing
Q. Find the current in the given circuit.
Kirchhoff’s law problem
A. At a node only one value of current is possible

So, here violation of KCL
So, no current possible in the circuit.
Memory Tip
 KCL applies to any lumped network irrespective of the nature of the network;
whether unilateral or bilateral, active or passive, linear or nonlinear.
 KCL does not apply to distributed networks.
 Current always travels in a less resistance path.
 KCL is always giving conservation of charge.
 The maximum amount of current is flowing in a short circuit because of zero

resistance.
 There is no flow of current in an open circuit because of infinite resistance.

The Second Law – Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

This law deals with the voltage drop in a circuit. When current flows in a circuit, the
magnitude of the current changes according to the product of current and resistance or
emf by which it is connected in the circuit. According to this law, the algebraic sum of
voltage (or voltage drops) in any closed path of the network in a specific direction is
zero.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law
The sign while going moving in the loop totally depends on the user,
If we consider while going from positive (+) to negative (–) (it depend on the user to
consider) it acts as a drop or gain.
The answer is unaffected from this sign.
Suppose we consider as drop (-) when going from positive (+) to negative (-).
 Let’s start from Resistance R1 here current goes from one point to another (positive
to negative) and the voltage drop is taken as negative (-).
 While moving from EMF E2 current goes from positive to negative and drop is taken
as –E2
 Similarly for R2 and R3
 Lastly while moving from E1 current goes from negative to positive and here gain is
taken.
-iR1 – E2 – iR2 + E1 = 0
E1 – E2 = iR1 + iR2

Q. Find current I in the given circuit.
Kirchhoff’s law problem
A. Apply KVL in the given loop then we get,

120 - 30 I - 2VA + VA = 0
120 = 30 I + VA …………… (1)
Also from ohms law at the output, we can get
VA = – 15 I ……………….. (2)
On solving equations (1) and (2) we get
I = 8 Ampere.
So, 8A current is flowing in the circuit.
Memory Tip
 KVL applies to any lumped network irrespective of the nature of the network;
whether unilateral or bilateral, active or passive, linear or nonlinear.
 KVL does not apply to distributed networks.
 The voltage drop across a short circuit is zero because of zero resistance.
 KVL is always conserving energy.
 A maximum amount of voltage is appeared across the open circuit because of

infinite resistance.
 Voltage is constant in a parallel path and is divided in a series path.

Applications of Kirchhoff’s Law
Kirchhoff’s law is used to find:
 The values of current, voltage and internal resistance in DC circuits.
 By applying this law we can also find the unknown resistance in the circuit.
 Wheatstone bridge is an important application of Kirchhoff’s law. It is used in

mesh and node analysis.
Limitations of Kirchhoff’s law:
 The laws of KCL and KVL are not suitable for AC circuits of high
frequencies. Current law is applied only when the electric charge in a circuit
is constant.
 Where KVL is applied in an assumption that magnetic fields do not change in

a closed circuit. So we cannot apply KVL when the magnetic field varies
within a circuit.
Kirchhoff’s circuit laws: Summary

 Gustav Kirchhoff gives a better understanding for solving and application of
electrical circuits.
 The first law of Kirchhoff states that the total current that enters a node or junction
is equal to the total current or charge leaving the node. It is based on the principle
of Conservation of Charge. This is also known as the junction rule.
 The second law of Kirchhoff states that the sum of voltage drops is equal to the
sum of voltage rise. This law is based on Conservation of Energy. This is also
known as the loop rule.

Wheatstone Bridge
What is the Wheatstone Bridge?

 Wheatstone bridge, also specified as the resistance bridge, is employed to
calculate the unknown resistance by balancing two legs of the bridge, of which one
leg includes the component of unknown resistance. This method was invented by
Samuel Hunter Christie in the year 1833, which was later popularized by Sir
Charles Wheatstone in 1843.
 In this circuit the two known resistors, one unknown resistor and one variable
resistor connected in the form of a bridge. This bridge is extremely reliable as it
gives accurate measurements.
Construction and Working of Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the unknown resistance with the help of a
bridge circuit.
 It consists of four resistors of which two known resistors, one variable

resistor, and one unknown resistor.
 A galvanometer is connected as shown in figure 18, and the combination of

two series-parallel arrangements of resistors.
 The diagram below is the representation of Wheatstone bridge, it consists of

four arms PQ, QR, RS and PS which contains fixed and variable resistors
Here R1 and R2 are the fixed resistors while R3 is the variable resistor and Rx is the
unknown resistor. The resistor which can restrict and can control the flow of electric
current is called a Variable Resistor. This device can either increase or decrease its
resistance value and thus control the flow of current.

Wheatstone Bridge
The arms PQ and QR are known as Ratio Arms. We can see that a galvanometer is
connected between the terminal Q and S. Q and S is called the galvanometer arm. The
battery is connected to the other two terminals P and R. P and R is the Battery Arm. To
make this bridge balanced, we can adjust the value of the variable resistor so that the
deflection in the galvanometer becomes zero.
Method one for finding the unknown resistance
The bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current flowing through the
galvanometer.
 This means that the potential difference or voltage between the points Q and
S is zero. Also, we can omit this wire while solving the circuit analysis.
 In this case, the current flowing through the fixed resistors R 1 and R2 is the
same and let it be considered as I1.
 The current flowing through the variable resistor R3 and the unknown
resistor Rx will be the same and is I2.

Wheatstone Bridge
Here I1 R1 = I2 R3 ------ (1)

Now the voltage drop from point Q to point R is equal to the voltage drop from point S
to R. So I1 R2 = I2 RX ------ (2)
Now dividing Equation 1 by Equation 2 we get,
This unknown resistance is determined in terms of other known resistors in the bridge.
Q. Consider a bridge circuit where R1 = 50 Ω, R2 = 10 Ω, R3 = 20 Ω. Now find the

value of unknown resistance Rx

A.
Applications of Wheatstone Bridge
 The Wheatstone bridge is used for precise measurement of very low resistance
values.
 Wheatstone bridge along with an operational amplifier is used to measure the

physical parameters like temperature, strain, light, etc.
 The electrical quantities like capacitance, inductance, and impedance can also be
measured using the Wheatstone bridge.
 The light detector circuit is also constructed by using Bridge circuits, to measure the
intensity of light.
Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge

One of the major limitations of the Wheatstone bridge is that it can be used to measure
few ohms to megaohms and not used to measure very large resistance as the
galvanometer becomes insensitive in such cases.
Important point of Wheatstone Bridge

 Sir Charles Wheatstone proposed the bridge. As he brought attention to the device,
it was called the Wheatstone bridge.
 Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors of which two resistors are known
resistors, one variable resistor, one unknown resistor, and a galvanometer.

 The applications of the Wheatstone bridge include Meter Bridge, strain gauge,
thermistor, potentiometer, light detector, etc.
 The Wheatstone cannot be used to measure very large resistance.
Meter Bridge
 A meter bridge also termed as a slide wire bridge is an instrument that works on the
principle of a Wheatstone bridge. A meter bridge is used in finding the unknown
resistance of a conductor as that of a Wheatstone bridge.
Construction of Meter Bridge

A meter bridge is an apparatus utilized in finding the unknown resistance of a coil.
The below figure 12 is the diagram of a useful meter bridge instrument.
Metre Bridge

 It consists of wire of constantan or manganin of 1-meter length and uniform area of

cross-section.
 A meter scale is also fitted on the wooden board parallel to the length of the wire.
 Copper strip is fitted on the wooden board to provide two gaps in strips.
 Across one gap, a resistance box R and in another gap the unknown resistance S
is connected.
 The battery is connected to terminal A and the negative terminal at C through one
way key K1
 The circuit is now exactly the same as the Wheatstone bridge.
Procedure for Finding the Unknown Resistance

Using Meter Bridge
According to Wheatstone bridge principle,

Adjust the position of the jockey on the wire (say at D) were on touching, the
galvanometer shows no deflection.
Note the length AD say l1 to the wire. Find the length DC (100 – l1) of the wire.
We know that at balanced bridge,
If r is the resistance per cm length of the wire, then

AD = resistance of length l1 of the wire AD = l1r
DC = resistance of the length (100 – l1) of the wire DC = (100 – l1) r
Knowing l1 and R, we can calculate S.

Potentiometer
What is potentiometer ?
It is a device which does not draw any current from the given circuit and still measures
the potential difference and thus it is equivalent to an ideal voltmeter.
Construction
Potentiometer
Primary Circuit: It is set up with a strong battery so that the potential difference
between A and B is large enough for the measurement of other/secondary batteries.
Secondary Circuit: It is connected with a galvanometer and the jockey with

stretched wire so to measure the emf of the battery.
Principle of Potentiometer
The potentiometer works on the principle that when a constant current flows through a
wire of uniform cross-sectional area, the potential difference between its two points is
directly proportional to the length of the wire between the two points.

Use of Potentiometer to determine EMF of the cell

In this circuit, we have to find emf E1, Let the length of AB = L and at AC1 = l1
galvanometer shows no deflection. At this point we can find emf of E1
Use of Potentiometer to determine comparison of

EMF’s of two battery
In this circuit, we have to compare the Emf’s of two batteries; both E1 and E2 values
are noted one by one at zero deflection of the galvanometer.
Suppose for E1 we get length AC1 = l1 and AC2 = l2 and the total length AB = L
We have,

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Current

Electric current and Voltage

What is electric current ?

PHYSICS | Current Electricity PAGE 2

 The SI unit of current is Ampere (A).

 It is a scalar quantity as it does not follow laws of vector addition.

 If through any cross-sectional area of a conductor when 1 coulomb of charge

 Conventionally, electric current represents the direction of flow of positive charge.

Flow of current through conductor

 Let us consider the dam where the water is kept high.

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Similarly, when a high potential difference is allowed between two points in a

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The below graph between V and I shows a straight line

Graph between V and I

Drift velocity and mobility

What is Drift Velocity?

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Where, e = charge on electron, E = electric field applied, m = mass of electron, =

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 The SI Unit of electrical resistance is “ohm (Ω)” or volt/amp

 The resistance of the conductor depends on the following factors:

2. Area of cross-section (A): Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-

Where, ρ = resistivity of the conductor, it depends on the material of the conductor.

What is Resistivity/Specific resistance ?

 The SI unit of resistivity is Ω-m

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 Maximum resistivity: Fused quartz ρ = (1016 Ω-m)

 Minimum resistivity: Silver ρ = (1.6 × 10-8 Ω-m)

Conductivity and Conductance

Conductivity: It is defined as the reciprocal of resistivity and it is denoted by

Its SI unit is mho/m or siemen/meter

 Most conductive metal: Silver (Ag).

 Least conductive metal: Mercury (Hg).

Conductance (G): The reciprocal of resistance is termed as electrical

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If radius or diameter is given, R ∝ 1/r4 ⇒

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity

Resistivity at a reference temperature T0

The temperature coefficient of resistivity.

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For metals as the temperature increases the resistivity decreases.

Temperature Dependency of Resistance

Heating effect of current

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working of electric fuse

Limitation of Ohm’s law

Ohmic and Non-ohmic elements

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 Ohmic conductor – Copper, Aluminum etc.

 The V-I curves of the ohmic conductor are straight lines.

Graph between V and I for Graph between V and I for

Power for an electrical circuit

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1 Joule = 1 volt × 1 ampere × 1 second = 1 watt × 1 second.

Its SI unit is Joule/sec or Watt.

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Series combination of resistance

According to Kirchhoff’s loop law,

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