Effect of Urban Structure On Thermal Comfort and Walking Comfort in Jakarta

Effect of Urban Structure on Thermal Comfort
And Walking Comfort in Jakarta
M Donny Koerniawan*
2012 DBB 402
*Lecturer, Department of Architecture, Institute of Technology, Bandung,

Indonesia
*Phd Student, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, The University of
Kitakyushu
The University of Kitakyushu

Japan 2016
Effect of Urban Structure on Thermal Comfort
And Walking Comfort in Jakarta
ABSTRACT
The build environment accelerates the absorption of the heat during the daytime
and slow down release the heat at the night time these formations known as the Urban
Heat Island where the hot region surrounded by the cooler adjacent area.
City modifies meteorological conditions surrounding significantly; increasing
radiation higher; average temperatures of the city become hotter than the surroundings;
decreasing wind speeds due to the presence of buildings in the city; therefore make
relative humidity much lower in the city than surrounding. Activities conducted the city
residents outside of the building, such as walking and using public transportation should
be convenient and possible widely can interact with the urban environment comfortable.
Using the field measurement and simulation this research shows the parameters of the
urban structure, in the parks (Green Plot Ratio and Sky View Factor) and urban area
(Hide per width / H/W, Volumetric Compactness/Buildings Surface Area To Volume,
and SurfacePlot size including plot area of site to volume ratio), affected the thermal
comfort (PET and PMV).
The thermal comfort in theme parks in Jakarta was not comfortable. The value
of PET reached 35 oC average, that means people feel hot. The comfortable condition,
26oC-28oC PET, happens in morning 7am-9am, and in the evening 3pm-5pm. The
significant parameters that affect the thermal comfort in parks are shadowing (Sky View
Factor/SVF) and Green Plot Ratio (GnPR/the ratio of greenery in the study area). Based
on the coldest month (in March) and hottest month (in September) measurement, the
results show that the position of vegetation and building placement affect the thermal
comfort condition because of the sun position.
In the superblock, the sun radiation (Tmrt) is the significant factor affected the
thermal comfort, therefore shadowing (SVF) and greenery in the urban area is needed to
control the comfort condition in the urban. The Buildings, represented by Volumetric
Compactness, hinder the wind, which needed to release heat trapping among the
buildings. Not only thermal comfort, but also walking comfort is affected by the
shadowing and Green Plot Patio. The average distance of Walking Comfort in the hot
i
humid urban area like Jakarta reaches 350 m. The long distance can be reached is 1 km
in shaded area of vegetation in the morning. Walking comfort simulation can depict
how the urban designer or architect have to consider where to put the significant
facilities that can be reached in the walking comfort distance.
In the tropical humid climate city like Jakarta, open space used is almost during
the years, and they must have thermal comfort properly. The thermal comfort studies in
this open space are critical for evaluation studies and as a guideline for urban design and
architectural projects. Climate circumstances take part in a particular responsibility in
this context not only because climate change causes new challenges for urban areas, but
also because urban areas can play a lead task in humanity’s pursuit for an association
with the natural environment that permit societies to thrive and prosper for a long time
to come.
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CONTENT

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... i
CONTENT ...................................................................................................................iii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................ vii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................. xi
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Problem Statement .......................................................................................... 2
1.3. Objective of Study .......................................................................................... 3
1.4. Operational Definition Of Research ............................................................... 3
1.5. Scope of Study ................................................................................................ 4
1.6. Dissertation Outline ........................................................................................ 5
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW OF URBAN CLIMATE
2.1. Role Of Theory In Urban Climate .................................................................. 9
2.2. Climate And Urban Study ............................................................................. 10
2.2.1. Macro, Meso, and Microclimate....................................................... 11
2.2.2. Temperature ...................................................................................... 12
2.2.3. Relative Humidity............................................................................. 13
2.2.4. Air Velocity ...................................................................................... 14
2.2.5. Solar Radiation ................................................................................. 16
2.3. Classification And Definition System Of Urban Climate............................. 18
2.3.1. An Urban Open Space Configuration ............................................... 18
2.3.2. The Albedo of Urban Open Space .................................................... 18
2.4. Characteristics of Outdoor Environment ...................................................... 21
2.4.1. Buildings Configuration ................................................................... 22
2.4.2. Land Use And Materials ................................................................... 25
2.4.3. Urban Structure................................................................................. 27
2.4.4. Vegetation ......................................................................................... 28
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2.5. Thermal comfort ........................................................................................... 30
Chapter 3
LITERARTURE REVIEW OF THERMAL COMFORT AND WALKING COMFORT
3.1. Assessment of Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Environment .......................... 34
3.1.1. Human Energy Balanced .................................................................. 35
3.1.2. . Heat Transfer In The Human Body (Human Energy-budget) ....... 37
3.1.3. Assessment of Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Environment.............. 38
3.1.4. . Physiological Effective Temperature (PET)................................... 40
3.1.5. .Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) ........................................................... 42
3.2. Open Space and Activity............................................................................... 44
3.2.1. City and Walkability ......................................................................... 46
3.2.2. . Walking Activity and Climatic factors ........................................... 47
3.3. . Human Thermal Comfort ............................................................................ 49
3.3.1. . Studies of Heat Balance .................................................................. 49
3.3.2. . Outdoor thermal comfort indices .................................................... 50
3.3.3. . Walking comfort Simulation .......................................................... 52
3.3.4. Comfortable Measurement of Skin Wettedness ............................... 54
3.3.5. Partitional Calorimetry ..................................................................... 55
Chapter 4
FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY OF ASSESMENT IN URBAN OPEN
SPACE THERMAL COMFORT AND WALKING COMFORT
4.1. Conceptual Framework ................................................................................. 61
4.2. Structure of Research .................................................................................... 64
4.2.1. . Field Measurement ......................................................................... 68
4.2.2. . Measurement Tool .......................................................................... 68
4.2.3. . Measurement of Environmental Characteristics............................. 69
4.3. Phase of Analysis .......................................................................................... 72
4.3.1. . Rayman Model ............................................................................... 74
4.3.2. . EnviMet Model ............................................................................... 76
4.3.3. Sky View Factor Calculator Software .............................................. 79
4.3.4. Statistical Model ............................................................................... 79
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4.4. Methodology ................................................................................................. 80
4.4.1. . Research area .................................................................................. 80
4.4.2. . Jakarta’s Climate Condition ........................................................... 81
4.4.3. Location Study .................................................................................. 83
4.4.4. . Thermal Comfort Measurement ..................................................... 83
4.4.5. The most widely used thermal indices at present time ..................... 84
4.4.6. . Step-by-step walking comfort simulation....................................... 86
Chapter 5
THERMAL COMFORT IN THREE THEME PARKS IN JAKARTA
5.1. Jakarta’s Bioclimatic Characterization ......................................................... 89
5.2. Case Study .................................................................................................... 91
5.2.1. Taman Impian Jaya Ancol (TIJA) .................................................... 91
5.2.2. Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (TMII) ............................................... 92
5.2.3. Ragunan Zoo (Kebun Binatang Ragunan/KBR) .............................. 92
5.2.4. Field Measurement ........................................................................... 99
5.3. Measurement Results .................................................................................. 101
5.3.1. Result of Taman Impian Jaya Ancol (TIJA) .................................. 101
5.3.2. Thermal Comfort in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah ........................ 106
5.3.3. Thermal Comfort in Ragunan Zoo ................................................. 111
5.4. Urban Park Simulation of Thermal Comfort .............................................. 115
5.4.1. Validation of Simuation.................................................................. 115
5.4.2. Simulation and analysis at Taman Impian Jaya Ancol Theme Park
(TIJA) ................................................................................................................... 117
5.4.3. Simulation and analysis at Taman Mini Indonesia Indah............... 125
5.4.4. Region Spatial Analysis Ragunan Zoo (KBR) ............................... 128
5.5. Overall Analysis of the Theme Parks Simulation. ...................................... 132
Chapter 6
THERMAL COMFORT AND WALKING COMFORT INVESTIGATION AND
EVALUATION IN THE CITY’S SUPERBLOCK OF JAKARTA CASE STUDY
OPEN SPACES IN MEGA KUNINGAN
6.1. Mega Kuningan Superblock in Jakarta ....................................................... 140
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6.2. Thermal Comfort ........................................................................................ 145
6.2.1. Thermal Comfort ............................................................................ 145
6.3. Walking comfort ......................................................................................... 149
6.3.1. Object Study of Walking Comfort.................................................. 149
6.4. Thermal Comfort Simulation at Mega Kuningan Superblock in Jakarta.... 151
6.4.1. The initial condition of Simulation ................................................. 151
6.4.2. The result of Simulation ................................................................. 154
6.5. Conclusion .................................................................................................. 158
Chapter 7
STRATEGY ADDRESSING THE CLIMATE BARRIER IN URBAN
DEVELOPMENT IN HOT HUMID COUNTRY
7.1. Data usability .............................................................................................. 161
7.2. The Simulation of Urban Structure in Jakarta ............................................ 164
7.3. The urban structure determines the behavior of urban microclimate ......... 168
7.4. Correlation between urban structure parameters and climatic variables .... 171
7.4.1. Theme Park and climatic variables ................................................. 171
7.4.2. Correlation between Urban Structure Parameters and Climatic
Variables in Superblock........................................................................................ 177
Chapter 8
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
8.1. Contribution to knowledge ......................................................................... 184
8.2. Future work ................................................................................................. 184
8.3. Conclusion and Recommendation ............................................................. 185
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 187
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1. Outline of Dissertation ................................................................................... 7

Figure 2.1.. Climate scale division according to space and vertical layers in the city
(Shepherd, 2005) ......................................................................................... 10
Figure 2.2. The division of the distance scale climate based on the distance (Harman,
2003) ............................................................................................................ 11
Figure 2.3. Level of wind speeds on different surfaces (Oke, 2004) ............................. 15
Figure 2.4. Orbit of the sun in the tropical (Oregon University, 2010) ......................... 17
Figure 2.5. Some aspects that make the quality of open space are useful for humans.
(PPS, 2000) .................................................................................................. 20
Figure 2.6. Physical variables that affect the microclimate change (Pinho, 2003) ....... 23
Figure 2.7. The level of the aspect ratio of a building will affect the microclimate in the
region (Toudert, 1997). ................................................................................ 24
Figure 2.8. Radiation values are included in an area under the influence of Sky View
Factor and albedo (Scudo, 2000). ................................................................ 25
Figure 2.9. Urban Structure Parameters related to Urban Microclimate (Bourdic, 2012)
..................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 2.10. The parts and functions of trees in open spaces (Scudo, 2001) ................ 29
Figure 2.11. The coefficient value based on GnPR Leaf Area Index (Ong, 2002) ....... 30
Figure 2.12. The Relation between the atmospheric environment and human thermal
comfort (Katzschner, 2006) ......................................................................... 33
Figure 3.1. Components of energy balance produced by humans and the environment,
(Houghton, 1977)......................................................................................... 36
Figure 3.2. Thermal equilibrium conditions in humans based on microclimatic
conditions, internal heat production and heat resistance of clothing. (Scudo,
2002) ............................................................................................................ 41
Figure 4.1. Research of Thermal Comfort diagram........................................................ 63
Figure 4.2. Research Framework.................................................................................... 66
Figure 4.3. The Phase of research ................................................................................ 67
Figure 4.4. The Environmental characteristics was crossed checked using CAD images
with the actual conditions in the area of measurement. .............................. 70
Figure 4.5. Rayman Interface ........................................................................................ 75
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Figure 4.6. The result of Rayman simulation ................................................................ 76
Figure 4.7. The Examples of EnviMet result ................................................................. 78
Figure 4.8. Process and the result of Sky View calculator ............................................. 79
Figure 4.9. Location of research area ............................................................................ 81
Figure 4.10. Seasonal pattern of temperature, air velocity, and relative humidity in
Jakarta, 2013 (Source: Wunderground.com) ............................................... 82
Figure 4.11. Wind direction at Jakarta on rainy season (November-April) and dry
season (May-October), 2013 ....................................................................... 83
Figure 5.1. Solar Chart of Jakarta ................................................................................... 90
Figure 5.2. Seasonal pattern of daily radiation in Jakarta, 2013 (Source: Meteonorm,
2014) ............................................................................................................ 90
Figure 5.3. Seasonal pattern of temperature, air velocity, and relative humidity in
Jakarta, 2013 (Source: Meteonorm, 2014) .................................................. 91
Figure 5.4. Map of TIJA, TMII and KBR, and the points of measurement ................... 94
Figure 5.5. Environmental characteristics of TIJA at the measurement point .............. 95
Figure 5.6. Environmental characteristics of TMII at the measurement point. ............. 96
Figure 5.7. Environmental characteristics of KBR at the measurement point ............... 97
Figure 5.8. Value of sky view factor calculated by Sky View Factor Calculator by
Lindberg and Holmer (2006). ...................................................................... 98
Figure 5.9. Average Ta, Tmrt and PET of Jakarta calculated by Rayman software based
on weather data 2012-2014 show the results at the day of field measurement
(March 20-25th and September 20-25th). ................................................... 100
Figure 5.10. Assessment Result in TIJA on March and September of PET, Ta, Rh, and
wind speed ................................................................................................. 105
Figure 5.11. Assessment Result in TMII on March and September of PET, Ta, Rh, and
wind speed ................................................................................................. 110
Figure 5.12. Assessment Result in KBR on March and September of PET, Ta, Rh, and
wind speed ................................................................................................. 114
Figure 5.13. R square of average thermal comfort (PET) between field measurement and
result of simulation .................................................................................... 117
Figure 5.14. Paved area, GnPR, and SVF comparison of Environmental Characteristics
at TIJA ....................................................................................................... 119
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Figure 5.15. Paved area, GnPR, and SVF comparison Environmental Characteristics of
TMII........................................................................................................... 120
Figure 5.16. Environmental Characteristics of KBR................................................... 121
Figure 5.17. EnviMet simulation of Art Market (TIJA A) and Entrance of Dufan (TIJA
B) ............................................................................................................... 122
Figure 5.18. EnviMet Simulation of Entrance of Sea Worlds (TIJA C) and Entrance
Gelanggang Samudra (TIJA D) ................................................................. 123
Figure 5.19. EnviMet Simulation of DUFAN park (TIJA E) and Main Entrance of TIJA
(TIJA F) ..................................................................................................... 125
Figure 5.20. EnviMet Simulation of the Main Parking Park TMII (TMII A) and North
Sumatra Pavillion Pavillion (TMII B) ....................................................... 126
Figure 5.21. EnviMet Simulation of Entrance Snow Bay Water Park (TMII C) and
Gelannggang Remaja (TMII D) ................................................................ 127
Figure 5.22. EnviMet Simulation of the Keong Mas Park (TMII E) and Pancasila Fire
Monument (TMII F) .................................................................................. 128
Figure 5.23. EnviMet Simulation of the Main Entrance (KBR A) and cage elephant-
giraffe (KBR B) ......................................................................................... 129
Figure 5.24. EnviMet Simulation of The Entrance of Picnic Park(KBR C) and
Flamingo area(KBR D) ............................................................................. 130
Figure 5.25. EnviMet Simulation of The Entrance of Picnic Park (KBR E) and The
entrance of the primate area (KBR F)........................................................ 131
Figure 5.26. PET comparison values, average Tmrt, and Ta of measurement result of
three big theme parks (TIJA, TMII, KBR) at March 21st and September 19th
from 7 AM to 5 PM ................................................................................... 135
Figure 5.27. Overall of EnviMet Simulation of TIJA .................................................. 136
Figure 5.28. Overall of EnviMet Simulation of KBR ................................................. 137
Figure 5.29. Overall of EnviMet Simulation of KBR ................................................. 138
Figure 6.1. 3D and map of Mega Kuningan Superblock .............................................. 142
Figure 6.2. Mega Kuningan Superblock and selected survey zones. Number represent
zones. ......................................................................................................... 143
Figure 6.3. Environmental Characteristic at point measurement. ................................ 144
ix
Figure 6.4. Graphic of Tmrt, Ta, RH and Wind speed measurement data obtained from
8 points on 2 February ............................................................................... 147
Figure 6.5. Graphic of Tmrt, Ta, RH and Wind speed measurement obtained from 8
points on 10 October.................................................................................. 147
Figure 6.6. PET result on February and October......................................................... 148
Figure 6.7. The R square of thermal comfort (PET) between field measurement and the
result of simulation .................................................................................... 154
Figure 6.8. Simulation Model ...................................................................................... 155
Figure 6.9. Simulation Result and XY axis division ................................................... 156
Figure 6.10. PMV result of Simulation ....................................................................... 157
Figure 6.11. Wind Speed and Tmrt result of Simulation............................................. 158
Figure 7.1. The three Weather Station location in Jakarta, Soekarno-Hatta Airport,
Halim Perdana Kusuma Airport, and Tanjung Priok Seaport. .................. 162
Figure 7.2. Simulation framework of urban structure comparison (modified from
Algeciras and Matzarakis, 2015) ............................................................... 163
Figure 7.3. PET classes based on Urban station in Jakarta 2009-2014 ........................ 164
Figure 7.4. Mean Monthly diurnal of PET based on original data from an urban climate
station in Jakarta, 2009-2014 ..................................................................... 165
Figure 7.5. Mean Monthly diurnal variation of simulated PET based on the data of
urban climate station in Jakarta, 2009-2014. ............................................. 166
Figure 7.6. The PET variation of mean monthly diurnal for simulations performed based
on the data of the urban climate station in Jakarta. Period: 2009–2014 .... 167
Figure 7.7. Detail of Annual Frequency of PET simulation based on data climate station
2009-2014 .................................................................................................. 171
Figure 7.8. Scatter plot of SVF and PET value in March ............................................ 175
Figure 7.9. Scatter plot of SVF and PET value in September ...................................... 175
Figure 7.10. The Scatter plot of SVF and Tmrt in March ............................................ 176
Figure 7.11. The Scatter Plot of SVF and Tmrt in September ..................................... 176
Figure 7.12. Correlation between SVF and PET in October ........................................ 179
Figure 7.13. Correlation between SVF and Tmrt in October ...................................... 180
Figure 7.14. Correlation between SVF and PET in February ..................................... 180
Figure 7.15. Correlation between SVF and Tmrt in February..................................... 181
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List of Tables
Table 2.1. Reflectivity value of various types of material (Valsson, 2008). ................. 26
Table 2.2. The Influence of air speed on thermal sensation of human .......................... 31
Table 3.1. PET scale and the scale of thermal comfort and the correlation of the level of
physiological stress (Matzarakis, A. - Mayer, H. 1996) .............................. 42
Table 3.2. PMV Scale ..................................................................................................... 43
Table 3.3. Comparison Scale PMV and PET in Europe and Tropical thermal sensation
with physiological stress level (modification Hoppe, 2000) ....................... 44
Table 3.4. PET value Source: aMatzarakis and Mayer (1996); bling
and Matzarakis
(2008)........................................................................................................... 53
Table 4.1. The Data of albedo, emissivity and heat Admittance (DR Brown and
Gillespie, 1995) ........................................................................................... 71
Table 4.2. Examples of field measurement data and CAD measurement compared with
the measured area (100 m x 100 m) ............................................................ 72
Table 4.3. The value of human activity
(http://personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bsapplec/thermal.htm) ................................. 73
Table 4.4. Coefficient values human clothing worn (Clo) for calculating thermal
comfort (http://personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bsapplec/thermal.htm) ................... 73
Table 4.5. PET Index Source: Lin and Matzarakis (2008) ........................................... 85
Table 5.1. Initial Condition of Theme Parks Simulation .............................................. 116
Table 6.1. Climate data which are used in walking comfort simulation ...................... 150
Table 6.2. The result of Walkability simulation (w = skin wettedness ) ..................... 151
Table 6.3. The initial Condition of Simulation............................................................ 153
Table 7.1. PET value Source: Lin and Matzarakis (2008) ........................................... 163
Table 7.2. Monthly frequency distribution of PET ...................................................... 164
Table 7.3. Annual percentage of threshold based on PET (climate station 2009-2014)
................................................................................................................... 170
Table 7.4.Environmet Characterictic of Point measurements in Theme park and average
Ta, Rh, v, Tmrt and PET on March ........................................................... 172
Table 7.5. Environmet Characterictic of Point measurements in Theme park and average
Ta, Rh, v, Tmrt and PET on September .................................................... 173
xi
Table 7.6. Correlation of Environment Characteristic and Climatic Variables on March
................................................................................................................... 173
Table 7.7. Correlation of Environment Characteristic and Climatic Variables on
September .................................................................................................. 174
Table 7.8. Measurement result of Urban structure parameters and climatic variables in
October ...................................................................................................... 177
Table 7.9. Measurement result of Urban structure parameters and climatic variables in
February ..................................................................................................... 178
Table 7.10. Correlation between urban structure parameters and climatic variables in
October ...................................................................................................... 178
Table 7.11. Correlation between urban structure parameters and climatic variables in
February ..................................................................................................... 178
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Some researchers explain that the climatic conditions in the city affected by
climate and the built environment (Landsberg 1981; Eliasson 2000; Oke 1984, 2006).
The build environment accelerates the absorption of the heat during the daytime and
slows down to release the heat at the night time these formations known as the Urban
relative humidity much lower in the city than surrounding (Landsberg 1981).
Along with global climate change, and the existence of several urban
development and uncontrolled industrial area at this time will result in a very
detrimental to society. The impact can be felt in the atmosphere with heat island above
the city. Atmospheric intense heat is an important factor to consider in this issue
because it affects the microclimate. According to Mangunwijaya, YB. (2000) in his
book, Introduction to Building Physics, five environmental problems in the hot humid
region that we need to consider are sunburn and sun glare, temperature, humidity and
weather, noise disturbance, and brighter of the light.
In hot-humid areas, such as in the country of Indonesia, the issue that is
important to note is the matter of thermal comfort. According to Vaughn Bradshaw
(2006) thermal comfort will affect the attitude of psychology and health for the
residents. This thermal influence can lead to a stroke or loss of consciousness when the
condition of the room or open space was too hot, and metabolism of blood does not
normally run when it gets too cold; it is said to be a very uncomfortable thermal
condition.
Thermal comfort conditions become a very significant influence in many places
where human beings gather at the same time, as in the open space or the recreation area.
Where According to Oke (1996), Tourism Recreation is one travel form, which is like
the tourism goal journey is to restore the physical and mental strength after doing work
1
or routine daily tasks. So it becomes a critical thermal comfort in the recreation area
because it is the task of a human restore the physical and mental freshness.
Man in tropical regions tends to be looking for a cold than hot. They will utilize
shadowing areas around buildings or under a tree during the day to do activities. The
characteristics of the microclimate in open space and the effects of thermal comfort in
humans are vital to be known so it can be a tool to design the open space to be more
comfortable and livable. For designers, it makes the way how they design, is much
easier not much effort were made to determine the thermal comfort in open spaces,
because of the complexity and the width of the data variable which they should prepare.
1.2. Problem Statement
One of the goals of the design of urban environments is creating the building and
the creation of thermal comfort in open space. According to Katzschner (2003) that the
consideration of thermal comfort in the design of open space is critical, because
environmental conditions will affect the wear rate of human behavior. The opinion was
supported by Nikolopoulou (1998) that the quality of life will increase with the
increasing environmental quality of open space because there is a positive relationship
between physical open space for the social interactions that occur within.
Environmental parameters and micro-climatic conditions will affect thermal
comfort. There are six variables that affect thermal comfort in open space. Solar
radiation, which affect climate change. Wind speed and direction, which can make
changes convection heat on the human body. Two other climate elements that affect
thermal comfort are temperature and humidity, and two additional factors are the level
of human activity and the type of clothing worn.
Thermal comfort is defined as a state of mind which expresses the satisfaction
level of human to thermal environmental conditions. Sometimes thermal environments
occupied by people not give the expected conditions.
1. What factors are affecting the quality of the microclimate in achieving
thermal comfort in open space?
2. How to develop criteria for empirical assessment and perceptional quality of
the microclimate in achieving thermal comfort in open space?
2
3. What methods are appropriate for the assessment of the quality of the
microclimate in achieving thermal comfort in open space?
4. How do the empirical characteristics and perceptional quality microclimate in
achieving thermal comfort in open space?
5. How does the urban structure development affect the performance of thermal
comfort and walking comfort in urban open spaces?
1.3. Objective of Study
This study has some objectives, as follows:

1. Mapping the actual conditions of thermal comfort in both open space, i.e.: in
the Theme Parks and Superblock in Jakarta.
2. Knowing the gap between the real and the ideal conditions of thermal comfort
in both open space, i.e.: in the Theme Parks and Superblock in Jakarta.
3. Analyzing the effect of the environment characteristics of open space, the
microclimatic conditions, and thermal comfort of both open space, i.e.: in the
Theme Parks and Superblock in Jakarta.
4. Performing physical interference of open space to improve the microclimate
conditions so that the minimum ideal condition of thermal comfort can be
achieved.
5. Performing the physical change of urban structure to improve the
microclimate condition to achieve the performance of thermal comfort and
walking comfort.
1.4. Operational Definition Of Research
Thermal comfort is defined as a state of mind which expresses the satisfaction

level of human to thermal environmental conditions. Sometimes thermal environments
occupied by people not give the expected conditions. Therefore, people have to make
efforts to achieve the conditions they want.
Microclimate is contained in a relatively small area. The difference between
microclimate and macroclimate, mainly due to the distance of the surface of the earth
(Gosling, 20014). Factors that influence the microclimate is the morphology of the area.
Morphology can be region-forming geometry, material or texture of the area, and the
3
number of vegetation. Geometry can be shaped curved in region (valley), convex shape
(mountain), and the lake. The location of the area also affects the microclimate, such as
industrial areas, urban areas, rural areas, and so on. Vegetation regions can be formed
by the plants that grow in swamps, forests, and others that affect the amount of radiation
and affect the wind profile.
Public open space, according to Handy (2005), is the basic form of the open
space of the building that can be used by the public or any person, and provide an
opportunity for various activities, such as roads, pedestrian, parks, plazas, cemeteries,
field flies, and sports fields.
The recreation area is part of the tourist activities that divided according to the
target and the purposes. Recreation is a type of tourism area to restore the physical and
mental strength after doing the task daily routine.
The urban structure is the combination of built environment and the natural
environment that effect on how people everyday-life and move to the city. The urban
structure development should consider developing the overall performance of the whole
society and living environment. Local actions towards a sustainable city have to be
mapped as the key strategy for urban development (Bourbia, F, Awbi, H.B 2004).
1.5. Scope of Study
The extent of this study is to discuss the existence of thermal comfort and
walking comfort to improve the microclimate that affect the urban structure.
The scope of the present study was to measure the micro-climatic conditions that
affect thermal comfort recreational open space in Jakarta. The selected open space is the
central open space of three biggest recreation park and superblock in Jakarta where
most visitors congregate. Recreational Parks in Jakarta measure determined in large-
scale recreation park most tourists that visit, i.e.: Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Taman
Impian Jaya Ancol, and Ragunan Zoo.
Research conducted on aspects that affect the quality of the microclimate that
directly influence to the thermal comfort in open space in Jakarta.
1) The assessment focused on the microclimate of open space in Recreation Park
and superblock in Jakarta.
4
2) The Measurement of thermal comfort and the activities do not involve human
clothing worn. The activities and the value of clothes are determined as a fixed variable
with a value of 2.5 as the activity of medium activity and value Clothing (Clo) 0.9
(trousers and shirts) which is the average value of clothing of visitors wore in the
recreation and open space area.
3) Thermal comfort values to be determined by the scale of PMV and PET.
Thermal comfort assessment by PMV and PET is a physical value assessment by
combining environmental and personal circumstances at the time the feeling of comfort.
4) Measurement of thermal comfort focuses on the three largest recreation areas
in Jakarta, i.e.: Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Ragunan Zoo and Taman Impian Jaya
Ancol and the famous superblock in Jakarta, namely: Mega Kuningan.
The open space planning has to take into account the climatic influence; thus, it
is necessary to conduct a more specific discussion about the climate. Climate talks as a
special topic with a broad enough coverage for the following purposes:
1) To deepen understanding of the nature and character of the place of human
conduct its activities to resolve the climate effect.
2) Deepening the understanding of 'macro environment' (macro environment)
with the parameters that affect the environment and its principles to achieve the
microenvironment by its inhabitants.
3) More scientific convince the form (as the final product of the work of
architecture, thus that the form in architecture is not only aesthetically pleasing but also
logical.
1.6. Dissertation Outline
This dissertation will be divided into several chapters:

Chapter 1 contains a description of the background research topics and issues.
AKN described in this chapter the research problem, research objectives and outcomes
to be achieved in the study. The end of this section, the analytical writing
Chapter 2 describes the literature review of urban microclimate with theoretical
descriptions of relevant theories that can be used to explain the variables to be studied,
as well as the basis for giving a temporary answer to the problem formulation and
5
preparation of research instruments. Also contains state of the art of research are among
the research that has been done.
Chapter 3 is a literature review of thermal comfort and walking comfort in this
chapter thermal comfort and walking comfort assessment and threshold are learned
more detail. The relevant theories are described and explained which to be used to
make framework of research and research methodology in the next chapter. Also in this
chapter the state of the art of thermal comfort and walking comfort is dug more deeply
Chapters 4, the framework and research method that will discuss the framework
for conducting research and research stages. Stages of research contain research-
preparation, a tool used in the study, data collection techniques and how to analyze the
data, and how to state the research location.
Chapter 5 and 6 is the main body of research that shows the existing conditions
of the case studies examined. In this chapter described three conditions exist of thermal
comfort and walking comfort in the recreation park in Jakarta; Taman Impian Jaya
Ancol, Taman Mini Indonesia Indah and Ragunan Zoo and superblock of Mega
Kuningan.
Chapter 7 Finding discusses the result and analysis after digging the existing
location assessment.
Chapter 8 contains details of elaboration and conclusion of the study in
submitting suggestions for further research and practical implications of this research.
The outline diagram of the dissertation can be seen in Figure 1.1.
6

Background
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Literature Review
Chapter 2 Chapter 3
LITERATURE REVIEW OF LITERARTURE REVIEW
URBAN CLIMATE OF THERMAL COMFORT
AND WALKING
COMFORT
Chapter 4
Method
FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY OF ASSESMENT IN

URBAN OPEN SPACE THERMAL COMFORT AND WALKING
COMFORT
Chapter 5 Chapter 6
Field Measurement and Simulation
THERMAL COMFORT IN THERMAL COMFORT AND

THREE THEME PARKS IN WALKING COMFORT
JAKARTA INVESTIGATION AND
EVALUATION
IN THE CITY’S
SUPERBLOCK OF JAKARTA
CASE STUDY OPEN SPACES
IN MEGA KUNINGAN

Chapter 7
Finding


Conclusion
Chapter 8

Figure 1.1. Outline of Dissertation
7
8
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW OF URBAN CLIMATE
Summary
In the tropical humid climate city like Jakarta, open space used is almost during
the years and they must have thermal comfort properly (Koerniawan 2014). The thermal
comfort studies in this open space are important for evaluation studies and as a
guideline to urban design and architectural projects.
Climate circumstances take part in a particular responsibility in this context not
only because climate change causes new challenges for urban areas, but also because
urban areas can play a lead task in humanity’s pursuit for an association with the natural
environment that permit societies to thrive and prosper for a long time to come.
2.1. Role Of Theory In Urban Climate
Some researchers explain that the climatic conditions in the city are affected by
climate and the built environment (Landsberg 1981; Eliasson 2000; Oke 1984, 2006).
The build environment accelerates the absorption of the heat during the daytime and
slows down to release the heat at the night time these formations known as the Urban
relative humidity much lower in the city than surrounding (Landsberg 1981).
In the measurement of albedo in the city, the area covered by paved area is
hotter than natural ground. The heat, re-radiated back to the atmosphere by the paved
areas, creates the city hotter; therefore, a shady area is necessary to open spaces and
pedestrian areas, by creating a microclimate of shade (Akbari et al. 2001, 2009).
O’Hare (2006) stated that urban development tends to steer the development in
the use of private transport modes and excessive air conditioning appliances. System
development and use of technology are not friendly to the environment. The city must
understand microclimate if a city does not want to tend to the development-oriented
mode of personal transport. Activities conducted the city residents outside of the
building, such as walking and using public transportation should be convenient and
9
possible widely can interact with the urban environment comfortable. In Jakarta, the city
with the conditions of the hot humid tropical city, the extreme heat conditions, high
humidity and many rainy Transit Oriented Development (TOD) to be a challenge for
developers to create a more comfortable atmosphere.
2.2. Climate And Urban Study
Microclimate definition according to the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia is a

climatic condition in a relatively small area. Microclimate can reach several meters
above and below the earth or only on the area under the canopy of trees. Microclimate is
influenced by several factors such as temperature, humidity, the wind, dew, evaporation,
soil, vegetation, the topography of an area, geography, altitude above sea level, and
weather. Sometimes even the weather and macroclimate in some ways are influenced by
the balance of microclimatic conditions.
Figure 2.1.. Climate scale division according to space and vertical layers in the city (Shepherd, 2005)
According to Valsson (2008), microclimate is the climate patterns in the

relatively small region. Microclimate may occur in the area under the shade of a tree,
the area around the pool or in the open space area that has similar climate patterns.
10
Microclimate influenced by climatic variables, i.e.: temperature, humidity, wind speed
and wind direction, season, time, and physical characteristics of the region.
Figure 2.2. The division of the distance scale climate based on the distance (Harman, 2003)
According to Oke (2006), about the elements of spatial climate formation, the
climate is divided into time and space scale in atmospheric. The division of the climate
regions can be seen in Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2. On a scale of time and space, the
climate can be divided into three spatial scales.
2.2.1. Macro, Meso, and Microclimate
Microclimate: the order of the range until the unit kilometers, and the time scale
of the order of seconds to several minutes. This scale is often referred to as the Local
Scale. In the micro-scale, local meteorological factors have a significant effect, such as
the wind land and sea breezes coastal areas, air circulation urban and rural, urban heat,
and so on. Local scale transport processes, generally cause an accumulation of relatively
above pollution sources of pollution, due to the atmospheric inversion layer that limits
the dispersion of pollutants.
Mesoscale, with a range of kilometers up to hundreds of kilometers, and the
timescale of minutes to hours. This scale is often also known as a regional level. The
wind that affects the movement of the atmosphere from the geostrophic wind level is
above the boundary layer of the earth (Planetary Boundary Layer). The release of the
pollution by the direction of the wind, in the horizontal and vertical range that is much
greater.
11
Macro scale or scale of continental, with a range of over thousands of
kilometers, with time scales greater than one day. The elements are relatively stable
pollutants, will be able to survive, remain in shape, and achieve distance away.
Medium Harman (2003) states that climate influence macro distance, local and
microclimate can be distinguished based on distance. As illustrated in Figure 2.2.
With a scale of 100m, the climate is influenced by the climate of the planning
level on a scale of roads and buildings. Furthermore is the scale neighborhood (housing)
1000 m, the climate will be affected by the spread of pollution to the extent of the effect
of planning on Urban Energy Balance. 10,000m city scale climate effects must be
considered is the Urban Heat Island, while the regional-scale climate influences the
weather becomes very significant.
Therefore, the earth's rotation on its axis that is always changing in the journey
around the sun, and then each of latitude on the Earth receives much different solar heat.
2.2.2. Temperature
Hottest areas on the surface of the earth are the most affected areas in the
equatorial.
The amount of heat received by the earth's surface area is dependent on:
1) The length of the place or the area exposed to the sun
2) The angle of sunlight on earth
The maximum heat received at the earth is when the sun is above our heads and
the minimum acceptable amount of heat when the sun lies low because the energy that
reaches the earth lost by a certain degree of the line to the earth's atmosphere due to the
longer distance.
The fall sun angle decreases with spot away from the equator, but instead the
days of summer will be longer because the effects of the sun. So the maximum daily
solar radiation will occur between latitudes 300 - 450. However, for the average value
due to the influence of winter highest annual irradiation located at latitude 150.
Also, the temperature is also affected by place between land and sea. In the land
the temperature will be hot two times faster than in the water about the same size, this is
due to many areas of the water lost to evaporate the Enertia.
The air temperature is determined by the air that touch the ground so there was a
high temperature coupled with low humidity and vice versa high humidity will
12
accompany low temperatures. These symptoms occur at the same latitude and season at
the same time, lowest temperature occurs above the water surface, and the maximum
temperature on the mainland, and would be otherwise in the winter.
In normal daily temperature, highest heat will be achieved in 2 hours in the
afternoon, because solar radiation at that time immediately join with the already high air
temperatures.
The temperature outside the building will affect the temperature inside the
building. It can be seen that the largest hot occurs on the west facade of the building.
Also, the temperature is also influenced by the height of a point on the sea surface. The
higher the location of a place, then the lower temperature. The decrease of temperature
on the average height is 0.6 oC every increase of 100m or 3.6 oF every rise 1000feet.
2.2.3. Relative Humidity
Humidity is the moisture content in the air. Humidity can be high depending
fluctuated of temperature changes. The higher the temperature, the higher the air's
ability to absorb moisture. Absolute humidity is the density of the water that is on every
unit volume of dry air, which are expressed in grams per kilogram of dry air. The
humidity is expressed in percent (%) is often referred to as the relative humidity (Rh).
This moisture can also be measured at the pressure that is on the air in Kilo Pascal (kPa)
as the water vapor pressure. Relative humidity shows a comparison between the water
vapor pressure of the water vapor pressure of the maximum possible (degree of
saturation) in particular air temperature conditions.
Saturation water vapor depends on temperature. The air is saturated air at a
given temperature which cannot absorb water, it has been the achievement of maximum
water vapor pressure. Hot air can load the moisture content of the air cooler. The upper
limit for the amount of water vapor charge the certain air with a certain temperature is
measured by the quantity of the charge saturation and refers to the absolute number of
air humidity levels.
It can assume that at 38 oC the air can absorb ten times more water than the
temperature at 0 oC, the saturation point of the air will rise with increasing temperatures.
Wet Bulb Temperatures (WBT) or so-called humid temperature shows a combination of
dry-temperature measured at standard conditions and levels of humidity.
13
The higher moisture content a combination of high temperatures. Evaporation of
water from the skin, which causes cooling, start hard occurred at high humidity because
the air is saturated and people began to be felt unpleasant. On the building, the degree of
humidity in a room depends on the level of humidity of the outside of the building and
the proposed use of the space. Comfortable humidity is at around 40-70% with
temperatur18-25 oC.
2.2.4. Air Velocity
The solar radiation reaching the earth's surface affect the intensity heat on earth
and causes the difference in heat or temperature at the surface of the earth and the
distinction in air density. The air pressure is directly relative to its density. The
difference in air pressure in certain areas of this the air will move from areas of high
pressure to areas of low pressure, the flow is called the wind.
Macro wind movement is having causal inter-regional or inter-oceanic continent,
so very broad movement. Others are commonly called micro or local winds. The wind
movement often experiences barriers that promote the occurrence of a change of
direction in the horizontal, vertical, changes in wind speed and the turbulence. The
resistance experienced by the movement of the wind depends on the shape and type of
surface in its path. Style wind movement barriers would be even greater if the closer to
the surface. The wind speed will increase in the higher location above the land and in
the open area. Can be seen in Figure 2.3.
14
Figure 2.3. Level of wind speeds on different surfaces (Oke, 2004)
Air movement can be seen on the scale of Beaufort (Figure 2.3) which define the
magnitude of the wind stream smoke rising symptoms vertically until the onset of a
hurricane with a speed of 120 km/h.
Air movement is a crucial factor in the planning because the influence of
climatic conditions. The larger the air flows faster evaporation of existing on the skin of
the human body this happens when the air temperature is lower than the temperature of
the skin. If the temperature is higher, there will be warming the body.
15
2.2.5. Solar Radiation
Solar radiation is the cause of all the common characteristics of climate and
influence on human life. An effective strength is determined by the energy of the
emitted directly, reflection on the surface of the earth, the reduced radiation by
evaporation, and radiation flows. All this formed the thermal balance on earth.
As many as 43% of solar radiation reflected back, 57% is absorbed, 14% by
43% by the atmosphere and the earth's surface. The shortest distance vertically radiation
is radiation, theoretically insolation (radiant energy) will occur if the highest beam
reaches the face of the earth is perpendicular.
Solar radiation conditions at a place determined by:
1. Duration of the Sun
The length of solar radiation will depend on:
a) The Season
b) The geographical latitude
c) Dense cloud
In tropical regions like Indonesia, a dimly lit morning and dawn relatively short
time, the irradiation time of approximately 11 hours starting around 06.00 and ends at
17.00. Light lunch begins and ends about 180 below the horizon line.
2. The intensity of irradiation
The intensity of solar radiation is determined by:
a) The absolute solar energy
b) The loss of energy in the atmosphere
c) The angle falls on exposed areas
d) The spread of radiation
3. Angle Fall Irradiation
In astronomy, the Sun does not move, but the earth revolves around the sun.
However, in the depiction of the sun, we can imagine walking on the surface of the
earth. The sun rises from the east and sets in the west.
To measure the position of the sun at any given point in time required angle is:
a) Solar altitude angle: is the angle between the earth's surface and the line from
a point on the earth to the sun
16
b) Azimuth angle is the angle between the north-south axis of the earth and a
line from a point on the earth to the sun
Broadly speaking, the fall sun angle depends on the position of the sun during its
circulation in one year, season or month, and time of irradiation (irradiation time daily).
Sunlight irradiation conditions that come to the surface has to be considered for
the location, relation to the circle of the sun line. If the building is in the south of the
equator, the sun is in the northern hemisphere longer than in the southern hemisphere. If
the location of the building on the equator, the sun in the north circulation time equal to
the time movement in the south.
Solar declination angle is the angular distance of the sun from the equator of
time to time. The declination angle varies continuously between 23.50 LU corner on 21
or June 22 and 23.50 LS on 21 or December 22. On 21 March and 21 September, the
sun is directly above the equator, so that the length of night and day alike. On that date,
the sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west. Orbits the sun can be seen
in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4. Orbit of the sun in the tropical (Oregon University, 2010)
17
Indirectly, a building will receive direct solar radiation, diffuse solar radiation,
and radiation reflection. Besides, the building also receives and emit long-wave
radiation. Also, the reflection of sunlight is affected by certain building materials and
colors that will be able to affect certain thermal conditions.
2.3. Classification And Definition System Of Urban Climate
2.3.1. An Urban Open Space Configuration
A. Recreation Park
Recreation, Yoeti (1996), is part of the tourist activities are divided according to
the intent and purposes is done. Recreation is a type of tourism that is the intent journey
to restore the physical and mental strength after doing the task daily routine
Moderate travel is travel activities or in part of these activities are carried out
voluntarily and temporarily to enjoy the objects and tourist attraction. Tourism is
essentially an activity related to the movement of people, both large and small
quantities, of a place or region of origin to the destination. This displacement based on
the interests that vary, in general, it can be said to represent the interests of the quest for
new things, one that has not been known or unknown, and the atmosphere and the new
environment that is different from everyday life.
2.3.2. The Albedo of Urban Open Space
Open space, according to Judge Rustam (1987), is the space formed by the
surrounding buildings, this space can be used by the public or any person, and provide
an opportunity for various activities, such as roads, pedestrian, parks, plazas,
cemeteries, airfields, sports fields.
According to Roger Trancik (1986), Finding Lost in Space disclosed that open
space is divided into:
1. Hard Space
Hard Space is everything in principle limited by the wall architectural and
usually as a place together for social activities. The realization of this is hard space:
square and street, open space, great space, and intimate space, and open space.
2. Soft Space
18
Soft Space is everything that is dominated by the natural environment, such as
parks, public gardens, and the green line that can provide opportunities for recreation.
Form of Open Space
A form of open space by Rob Krier in the Urban Space (1979) classified into
two types, that is:
1. Shaped lengthwise:
This open space only has boundaries on the sides, for example, roads, rivers,
pedestrian. It creates an open space corridor.
2. Shaped cluster:
This public space has boundaries around it, for instance, plaza, square, square,
and circle. This open space forms pockets that serve as spaces of activity accumulated
in urban activities.
Recreational open space is not just a physical form, one of the design elements
of the entire recreation area, but should be seen as a single integrated spatial region, see
Figure 2.5. Recreational open space is not only physical function as an open space, but
the core of its existence in a recreation area is a place of social interaction without
having to look at the social status, regardless of their interests, but the need for self-
actualization as residents, which is not limited. Where the process of social interaction
has the potential to generate a variety of new cultural diversity, a culture that can enrich
the treasury of human beings as living beings.
According to the PPS (Project for Public Spaces, 2000), four aspects affect the
quality of open space, to be precise, 1) sociability 2) Uses and Activities 3) Access and
Linkage 4) Comfort and Image. Leisure / Comfort related in some ways, namely,
thermal comfort, visual and audible.
19
Figure 2.5. Some aspects that make the quality of open space are useful for humans. (PPS, 2000)
While Avila (2001) says seven factors affect the quality of open space 1) The
characteristics of the environment (including topography and climate) 2) socio-cultural
Community 3) physical features and functions 4) Politics 5) economic system 6)
Recreational and 7) health needs of society. It is told that the system environment,
especially the climate and topography will greatly affect the quality of their life in the
open space and natural setting in the open space. In the comfortable conditions of life
will be more dynamic open space. Nature will provide the balance of the natural-man-
made, and natural open space which will give live quality in open space.
The Fundamental human needs for recreation is also an important consideration
presence in the midst of urban communities that are too crowded and saturated with
walls of concrete barrier activity.
In the end, should be seen in the presence of open space in the recreation area as
a unity between culture and layout, that man showing their culture through the forms of
space to accommodate its activities. The relationship between culture and spatial, and
20
how the arrangement of space creates a cultural environment that is functional for the
structures of certain activities.
2.4. Characteristics of Outdoor Environment
Over the last years, the interesting research on an issue concerning making cities
easier to live has considerably grown, some of the most important issues are
climatology and thermal comfort. The usefulness of open space and the green area
has increased the awareness of sustainable city development raised. Open space and
green area are essential elements of the city in giving possibilities for relaxation,
physical workout, and people interaction. Reported by Landsberg (1981), that
quality of outdoor spaces contributes to the satisfactory quality and generate social
interaction. This agreement is similar to the results obtained by several authors
(Eliasson 2000; Oke 1984, 2006).
In the tropical humid climate cities, open spaces are used during the year, and
they must provide proper levels of thermal comfort. The condition surrounds
buildings, vegetation, shading, water pond, and open field influence site
environmental conditions. The thermal comfort in open spaces is essential for
evaluation studies and to guide urban and architectural projects. A critical aspect is
the understanding of the activities that will take place in a given space so that the
planning promotes the user’s comfort. Mayer (2008) reported the usage of open
public places in cities is more numerous if they propose thermophysiological
comfortable microclimate.
O’Hare (2006) stated the parameters that interfere with thermal comfort in open
space are similar to those of inside spaces, but they are more extended and variable.
Due to that complexity, regarding variability, temporality, and specialty, as well as
the immense possibilities of different activities of the users, the understanding of
comfort conditions in these spaces has been the object of many past studies.
Akbari et al. (2001, ) reported the microclimatic analysis of open space must
consider conditions such as solar incidence and radiation exchanges, local
characteristics of the wind, topography, vegetation and the presence of water. Bruse
(2007) has shown that beyond these factors, the urban design, the morphology of the
buildings, the characteristics of the surfaces and the behavior of the individuals are
21
also factors that influence the thermal conditions of these spaces.
Thermal comfort studies are mostly limited to the temperate regions, the lack of
thermal comfort indices are shown in the tropical climate region. There are some
studies from the tropical climate region could be seen by several researchers (Chen,
2012; Honjo, Mishra, 2013). Tropical climate region cities have some challenging
conditions; everyday life during the year faces abundant sunshine, solar radiation,
high rainfall, and high humidity in the tropical climate region cities. Sunshine is
about six hours per day. Thus, thermal comfort investigation based on climatology
parameters along with human parameters is required in the humid tropical climate.
According to Valsson (2008) characteristics that affect the microclimate region
can be divided into three, as follows:
2.4.1. Buildings Configuration
A building will receive direct solar radiation, diffuse solar radiation, and
radiation reflection. Besides, the building also receives and emit long-wave radiation.
Also, the reflection of solar radiation is affected by certain building materials and colors
that will be able to affect certain thermal conditions. Measurement of radiation levels
can be seen in three ways, namely:
1. Albedo / Solar reflectivity, which measures the ability of a material to reflect
sunlight (visible light, infra-red and ultra-violet). Scale albedo (SRI = Solar Reflection
Index) of 0-1 (0% - 100%), 0 means that the material absorbs all the sun, 1 means
reflects all solar radiation
22
Figure 2.6. Physical variables that affect the microclimate change (Pinho, 2003)
2. The ability emissivity material re-release the heat received on the scale 0 -1
(0% - 100%).
3. Infrared emissivity is a measure of the ability of the surface of the material to
release energy received from the sun in the form of solar radiation.
Configuring the building period that affects the microclimate is determined by
the density of buildings, aspect ratio, and the sky view factor. In a study conducted by
Oke (1997) phenomenon of urban areas will experience high temperatures in rural areas
compared to that indicated that the higher the temperature of the solid buildings of the
area.
According to Pinho (2003), physical characteristics affect microclimate
variations can be divided into two parts, 1) Building (dimensions, material, color, and
texture) 2) open space (land cover materials, colors, textures, designs and green space
distribution, and the type of trees and vegetation). Pinho split the microclimate change
can be influenced by the physical characteristics of the district scale and cells.
23
Figure 2.7. The level of the aspect ratio of a building will affect the microclimate in the region
(Toudert, 1997).
In a district scale topographic an effect on the area of micro-climatic conditions.

Mountain regions will have lower temperatures than the coastal regions. The wind
speed is also different; coastal winds will bring the heat while mountain winds will
bring cold temperatures. Higher areas will have a lower air pressure than the lower area.
A complete this further division can be seen in figure 2.6.
Also, to the physical characteristics presented by Pinho, Ali Toudert (1997)
suggests that the aspect ratio also influences the microclimate. The aspect ratio is the
ratio of building height and width of the road (H / W) which affects the temperature of
the region due to the influence of shadowing in the area. High aspect ratio means the
strong level of shadow and the low-temperature region. The level of aspect ratio can be
seen in Figure 2.7.
24
Figure 2.8. Radiation values are included in an area under the influence of Sky View Factor and
albedo (Scudo, 2000).
Also, to the aspect ratio of a regional climate can be measured by the level of
sky view factor (SVF). SVF is a measurement of the degree of obstruction incoming
solar radiation in the open space. Obstruction can be a building, a tree, or a combination
of both. This obstacle will affect the level of the incoming radiation levels in the open
space. SVF 1 means that there is no obstruction of radiation into the open space while
SVF 0 is a full obstructed where direct sunlight cannot enter the area. With this obstacle
level can be measured how much the effect of radiation on micro-climatic conditions in
the region. This can be seen in Figure 2.8.
2.4.2. Land Use And Materials
According to Valsson (2008) that the differences in land use in the open space
will affect the microclimate temperature conditions. Temperatures around the element
25
of water in open space will be lower than the temperature in the area with paving
blocks.
Table 2.1. Reflectivity value of various types of material (Valsson, 2008).
Surface Details Albedo

Soil Dark & wet versus 0.05
Light & Dry 0.4
Sand 0.15 - 0.45
Grass Long 0.16
Short 0.26
Agriculture Crops 0.18 - 0.25
Tundra 0.18 - 0.25
Forest Deciduous 0.15 - 0.20
Conferos 0.05 - 0.15
water Small zenith angle 0.03 - 0.10
Large zenith angle 0.10 - 1.0
Snow Old 0.4
Fresh 0.95
Ice Sea 0.30 - 0.45
Glacier 0.20 - 0.40
Clouds Thick 0.60 - 0.90
Thin 0.30 - 0.50
This area covers material effect on the level of reflectance, permeability, and
temperature of the material. Reflectance level, permeability, and temperature of the
material are influenced by the material color, texture, and material Bulk Thermal
Properties.
Quality material (Bulk Thermal Properties) can be measured by:
1. Heat Capacity, which is a measure of heat capacity material, the greater the
heat capacity of the material, the greater the amount of heat that can be
stored
2. Thermal Conductivity, which is a measure of thermal conductivity expressed
in:
A). R-value or resistance value is the ability of a material to withstand the
heat flow rate. Materials with high R means being able to withstand the heat
flow rate.
26
B). U-value, which is a measure of thermal conductivity of the material. The
high U-values mean that the material forward amount of high heat
nevertheless.
Some research results show that the material of land cover can affect thermal
comfort. In his research, Akbari (1999) stated the quality of the material in the open
space will affect the microclimate of open space, that the old building materials will be
worse in its albedo. Emmanuel (2000) stated that Land Use and Land Cover changed
affect the microclimate of open space. Land Cover is divided into two types: hard cover
(buildings, roads and pavement of the soil) and soft cover (trees, green area/grasslands,
shrubs and water bodies). Hardcover more provide thermal discomfort. Reflectivity
values of various regions covering material can be seen in Table 2.1.
2.4.3. Urban Structure
City is designed with the goal to make the urban areas functional, attractive, and
sustainable, which consists the larger scale of group buildings, public space, streets,
district and neighborhood, and entire cities. The connectivity between people and
places, movement and urban form, nature and the built environment shape the element
of urban form. Baurdic (2012) stated that urban forms influence the environmental,
social and economic aspects of sustainable development, but urban forms continue to
maintain their own autonomy.
Urban form indicators describe the component of urban fabric, that give the
details on the urban structure components (buildings, streets, and urban networks).
Bourdic stated that Volumetric Compactness is the urban structure indicators to analyze
urban heating. There are three variables in the Volumetric Compactness (Bourdic,
20102); Traditional Compactness, equal to surface area, S, of the building’s envelope
divide the volume of the buldings; Size Factor, tto the equivalent cube of its length; and
Form Factor is the bias introduced by the different size of the analysed objects has been
removed. Another factor that related to the urban microcimate parameters is Street form
Index (H/W) .
In this research Form Factor and Size Factor are not used because of in his
research of microclimate analysis in Dhaka, Bangladesh, Sharmin (2015) stated that
Form Factor and Size Factor are not ideal parameters to address the variation in
microclimate for the homogeneous geometry and land use pattern. However, it can be
27
really strong indicator for urban areas having variety in form. All the factors that related
to the urban structure in this research can be seen in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9. Urban Structure Parameters related to Urban Microclimate (Bourdic, 2012)
2.4.4. Vegetation
Trees can reduce the level of incoming solar radiation in the open space using
shadowing and minimize the amount of sunlight that reaches the ground (EPA, 2004).
In addition to functioning as a radiance barrier function, other trees are absorbing CO2
and replace it with O2, the tree can absorb water, which is then incorporated into the
soil so that the land would be cool to be able to lower the temperature underneath.
Vegetation can also affect wind speed, wind direction and wind pressure around it.
Trees by function in influencing the microclimate can be distinguished
according to height, width and geometry twigs, and the type of leaves. Placement and
how to classify trees also affect the microclimate beneath. Parts of the tree and its
function can be seen in Figure 2.10.
The value of vegetation in an area can be expressed in Green Plot Ratio (GnPR)
(Ong, 2002). GnPR is the value used to calculate how green the area. GnPR expressed
in units of the numbers. In calculating the value of GnPR can be distinguished into three
categories, namely vegetation of trees, shrubs and grass. This class is based on the value
of the coverage that is inscribed underneath the leaves. The value of each scope is
determined by the LAI (Leaf Area Index) is the ratio of the amount of leaf surface of
28
vegetation divided by the surface area of the land where the plant grows. Can be seen in
Table 2.2.
Figure 2.10. The parts and functions of trees in open spaces (Scudo, 2001)
Here are the details of GnPR calculation, also can be seen in Figure 2.11.
Tree Value = (Coverage shade trees) / (Area calculated) x 6 ........................ ......... (1)
Brush value = (Coverage shaded bush) / (Total Area calculated) x 3 ................... (2)
29
Grass Value = (Coverage shaded grass) / (Total Area calculated) x 1 .................... (3)
GnPR = Value Shrubs Trees + Value brush + Value Grass ..................................... (4)
Figure 2.11. The coefficient value based on GnPR Leaf Area Index (Ong, 2002)
2.5. Thermal comfort
Fanger (1970) stated that the thermal comfort is defined as a state of mind which
expresses the satisfaction level of human to thermal environmental conditions.
Sometimes thermal environments occupied by people not give the expected conditions.
Therefore, man to make efforts to achieve the conditions they want.
Humans are warm-blooded living beings undergoes metabolic processes. This
metabolic process, also, generating energy for the human body also produces heat. Heat
is generated to maintain the temperature of the body in ideal conditions at 37°C range.
Naturally, the human body has a low tolerance range to temperature changes. Increasing
the temperature by five to eight degrees or decrease in temperature up to 12oC of
temperature ideally can cause death to humans.
Humans always maintain the ideal temperature use various attempts. The work
done is not only affecting the temperature directly, but also other criteria that are
directly related to human thermal comfort, such as:
a. Dry air temperature
Dry air temperature normal to read on the thermometer chamber is free of air
temperature measured are not affected by radiation and humidity.
b. Relative humidity
30
Relative humidity is the concentration of water vapor contained in the air.
Humidity conditions influence the ability of air to remove sweat on the surface of
human skin. The sweat produced aims to maintain the temperature of the human body.
However, if not immediately evaporate, then sweat it, it is inconvenient.
c. The average of radiant temperature (Radiant Mean Temperature)
The average radiation temperature is the temperature of the radiation received by
the entire surface of the object obtained from the surrounding environment.
d. Airspeed
Table 2.2. The Influence of air speed on thermal sensation of human
Temperature
Wind Speed Thermal Sensation
reduction
fpm m/s (oF)
10 0.05 0 Stagnant air, a little less convenient
40 0.20 2 Barely perceptible, but comfortable enough

80 0.40 3.5 comfortable
Deeply felt and is suitable for areas with high
160 0.81 5
activity
The upper limit for the conditioned environment,
200 1.01 6
good speed for hot and dry areas
Good speed for natural ventilation in hot and

400 2.03 7
humid
900 4.57 9 Feels like a breeze
Air movement affects the human body's ability to maintain body temperature.
The flow of air going on the surface of the human skin will cause convection and
evaporation of sweat on the surface of the skin. The ability of air to cool the skin
through evaporation is referred to as evaporative cooling.
The cold sensation caused by the wind commonly known as the wind chill
effect. Table 2.2 demonstrates the influence of the flow velocity of air flowing on the
surface of the human skin will give the impact of a certain temperature reduction.
In many cases, using the air conditioning can be more comfortable. However, if
the air temperature exceeds 37 ° C temperature of the human body, the convection that
occurs on the surface of the human’s skin is no longer convenient to give the expected
31
effect. This condition increases the amount of heat that is in the body, so, in this case,
the more air that is in contact with the human body the less cooling factor occurs.
While Katzschner (2006) stated that the primary cause of thermal comfort
outside of the building can be divided into four groups of causes, i.e.: thermal
compound, air pollution, actinic complex, and the biotherapy. The four groups are
referred to as atmospheric environment or influence the microclimate. This division can
be seen in Figure 2.12.
1) The thermal complex is the influence of meteorological factors include air
temperature, humidity, wind speed and solar radiation also affects the health
of the human factor.
2) Air pollution including solids, liquids, and gasses that affect air. Air pollution
is a factor in the thermal comfort because it is highly relevant to human
health conditions. Air quality is also affected by thermal conditions above.
3) Actinic Complex associated with the appearance rate and wavelength
radiation emitted by the sun. Ultraviolet solar radiation that has a very short
wave affect the thermal effect.
4) Biotrophy is visible impacted on the human body due to climatological
factors.
32
Figure 2.12. The Relation between the atmospheric environment and human thermal comfort
(Katzschner, 2006)
Conclusion
Human thermal comfort is affected by six primary factors: Air temperature,

Radiant temperature, Airspeed, Humidity, Metabolic rate, Clothing insulation. Outdoor
Thermal Comfort studies that do exist have traditionally been predicated on the
assumption that indoor models will work outside, but some studies has shown that this
is not necessarily the case (Spagnolo & de Dear, 2003; Ahmed 2003). Spagnolo and de
Dear (2003) identified three areas on which outdoor thermal comfort research has
tended to focus:
1) Modifying the microclimates of outdoor locations which have been modified
in some way to moderate the full impact of the outdoor environment,
2) Climate and tourism,
3) The thermal comfort of pedestrians.
33
Chapter 3
LITERARTURE REVIEW OF THERMAL COMFORT AND
WALKING COMFORT
Summary
City significantly modifies meteorological of surrounding conditions. The city

can increase the radiation higher cause the average temperatures of the city become
hotter than the surroundings. The presence of buildings can decrease wind velocity in
the city, therefore, make relative humidity much lower in the city than surrounding
(Landsberg 1981). Planning and urban design can improve or worsen this situation. A
better understanding of climate and thermal comfort, especially outdoor environment,
can contribute improving the quality of urban spaces to live (Nikolopolou et al., 2001).
In the measurement of built environment elements in the outdoor spaces show that the
area covered by the paved area is hotter than natural ground. The heat re-radiate back to
the atmosphere by the paved area and it creates the city hotter. Therefore a shady area is
important for open spaces and pedestrian areas, by creating a microclimate of shade
(Akbari et al. 2001, 2009).
3.1. Assessment of Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Environment
Many researchers have carried out the thermal comfort assessment study. In the
early 1920s, Houghten and Yauglou (1923) in the laboratory of ASHVE (American
Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers) attempted to determine the 'comfort
zone.' In the UK, the motivation comes from industrial hygiene at the limits of thermal
comfort in working conditions. Vernon and Warner (1932) and then Bedford (1936)
conducted an empirical study among factory workers. Analytical work began in the
United States in the mid-1930s, where Winslow, Herrington and Gagge (1937) made a
significant contribution to the study of thermal comfort assessment.
During and after World War 2 increased research activities and the many
disciplines involved, in addition to engineering, from physiology and medicine,
geography and climatology. In architecture Victor Olgyay (1963) was the first to unify
the findings from various disciplines and interpret this research for practical purposes
the architecture.
34
According to Hoppe (2002), there are three approaches to thermal comfort
assessment: psychological approach, thermophysiological approach, and the approach
on the Human Body Heat Balance. These each approach have respective advantages.
The psychological approach is based on the thermal comfort of human
perception; the interview is a technique to perceive the human thermal comfort. The
thermophysiological approach is thermal comfort assessment approach based on
physiological data, such as age, gender, activity, clothing was worn at the time. The data
were the basis for conducting interviews that human perception of thermal comfort and
physiological data can be in comparison to determining the level of thermal comfort.
Heat balance approach on the Human Body is the assessment of the thermal
balance in the body and from the outdoor environment. If this balance is too hot, then
occur thermal uncomfort. There are some approaches to determining the thermal
comfort indices outdoor environment, are as follows:
3.1.1. Human Energy Balanced
The human energy balanced is the energy exchange balance produced by

humans and microclimate. Assessment of thermal comfort is very complex because of
the influence of human, and his environment is very complex. Error! Reference source
not found. shown that the energy is absorbed and released by human influence
perceived thermal comfort. Illustrated that the human condition, clothing, and activities
that are being carried out, became a major influence on the perceived thermal comfort.
35
Figure 3.1. Components of energy balance produced by humans and the environment, (Houghton,
1977)
--------------------------------------- (5)
Where:
----(6)
M : energy generated due to the body's metabolism
36
W : Human activities
Q* : The net amount of radiation by the body
Q : Heat transfer by convection
Qsw : The movement of the latent heat of evaporation of sweat effect.
QWS : Changes in heat due to respiration
QRE : Changes in heat due to respiration
S : The amount of heating or cooling.
3.1.2. . Heat Transfer In The Human Body (Human Energy-budget)
Human activity increase energy, such as eating, generates energy that is

produced in the body. The total energy produced is only about 20% is used by the body,
while 80% of which is surplus heat must be removed or disconnected environment. The
amount of heat production in the human body depends on human activity, clothing worn
at the time, gender, health, and age.
Temperatures in the human body must remain balanced and constant, at about
37oC. To maintain the temperature to stay at this temperature, then all surplus heat must
be removed to the environment, both the heat from the body and the heat gained from
the environment such as heat from solar radiation or the air hot. The heat of the body
release in several ways. Four major mechanisms at work: Radiation, Evaporation,
Convection, and Conduction.
The heat that generated from the body is given off to the surrounding
atmosphere. Radiation heat transfer is strongly influenced by the body's surface
temperature and surface temperatures of objects that deal. The amount of evaporation
will influence evaporation depends on the humidity and the amount of evaporation
depends on the humidity and the amount of air contained vapor evaporated in the dry
air, the faster evaporation.
Convective heat transfer is heat transfer from one place to another location by
the movement of fluids. A heat transfers from the body into the air when associated with
skin or clothes, and then picked up and moved and replaced by cooler air. Wind speed
affects the convective heat release.
In Human Comfort (ISO 7730-1993) thermal comfort depends on human
activity and clothing. Human activity is measured on a scale of 0-4. A scale of 0 means
that people who do not do the slightest movement or the dead people while the scale of
37
4 is people doing work that raises the loudest most energy. The scale of 1.5 is the only
standing people, the scale of 2 is walking people, the scale of 3 is running people.
While the clothing has the scale from 0 to 1, a scale of 0 means the man naked
without clothes on his body, scale 1 is the clothing worn by the north pole to bear up the
cold.
Heat released from the human body to the surrounding environment can be done
by convection, radiation, and evaporation. Koenigsberger, (1973), Bradshaw (2006),
stated thermal balance in the body can be described as follows:
MET – EVP  CND  CNV  RAD = 0 -------------------------------------(7)

Where:
MED : Metabolism
EVP : Evaporation
CND : Conduction
CONV : Convection
RAD : Radiation
3.1.3. Assessment of Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Environment
The complexity of the evaluation of thermal comfort becomes a constraint on

any research thermal comfort. For the evaluation of a particular place or a particular
region is not only the meteorological parameters are required, but the complexity of the
parameters of the climate and the thermo-physiological values needed to describe the
effects of thermal environment on humans.
In the development of many standard thermal comforts found. Szokolay (2007)
in Thermal Comfort; Passive and Low Energy Architecture International Design Tools
And Techniques wrote nearly 25 ways assessment of thermal comfort.
To introduce thermal comfort indices outdoor environment need to remember
the fundamental differences between indoor and outdoor space. While the indoor
environment tends to have a relatively stable microclimate and controlled, the condition
of the outdoor environment has a more complex radiation, and convection is defined by
the daily and seasonal variations that affect the microclimate of the Human Energy-
budget and subsequent thermal comfort.
38
In previous research of comfort in outdoor environment conducted by Thom,
EC, 1959, Steadman, RG, 1971, J. Unger, 1999, Matzarakis, A., et al. 2004, focused on
the bioclimatic index (Discomfort Index, thermohygrometric index (THI)) This study
only considers some meteorological parameters only. Then the new model is based on
research on human energy balance equation, generating what is called thermal comfort
indices that generate thermal comfort assessment of outdoor space, for example,
Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET).
To evaluate the thermal stress on the body, Fanger, PO 1972, Jendritzky, G. et
al. 1990, Hoppe, PR, 1993, 1999, VDI 1998, Matzarakis, A. et al. 1999, Spagnolo, J. -
de Dear, R., 2003, making Outdoors Standard Effective Temperature (OUT_SET *).
Some research thermal comfort index also did to be applied in a limited space. This
research was conducted by G. Jendritzky 1990, Matzarakis, A., 1999, Koch, E., 2005,
this index for example, to describe the thermal comfort of a relatively small area
(around the building , part of the way), which is useful for architects and urban
designers (Matzarakis, A., 2001, Mayer, H. Matzarakis, A. 1998).
Micro-scale studies (urban scale) conducted to provide data for urban planning
thermal comfort (Unger J. et al., 2005). Research to a larger area (scale territory or
state) is not only scientific value but the results of this study could be the basis of
regional planning, development of recreational areas and the development of tourism,
the study was conducted by Mayer, H., Matzarakis, A., 1997, Matzarakis, A. et.al, 1999,
Matzarakis, A. et.al. 2004.
The thermal comfort outdoor environment is not only influenced by the
physiological response parameter that is highly variable microclimate, but also by
psychological and cultural adaptations that regulate a variety of environmental stimuli
to avoid fluctuations in thermal stress and discomfort.
In recent years, many climatic and thermal comfort indices outdoor environment
has been elaborated. In a very simple way they can be classified into the following four
groups:
a. Thermal index little empirical linking climate parameters are usually spelled
out for specific climate-Wind Index Cill example, and the discomfort index.
39
b. Psycho-sociological index-climatic, connect the subjective perception (Actual
Sensation Vote / ASV, satisfaction index.) with a variable microclimate and
thermal comfort index (Nikolopoulos 2002).
c. Index-energy balance equation based on two models of heat transfer in the
human body and the evaluation of all relevant climate parameters, which are
usually made in pairs between the heat balance equation with a simplified
model for evaluating the average radiation temperature. The examples in this
index are: PET (Predicted Effective Temperature) (Hoppe, 1999), the New
Effective Temperature / ET New (Gagge et al. 1971), Standard Effective
Temperature (SET) and OUT_SET combined together outdoor radiant
temperature OUT_MRT ( J. Pickup, R. de Dear, 2000).
d. The energy balance equation is an index developed from the equation of
balance of energy in the human body, for example the index are Perceived
Temperature (PT) index developed from the index model Fanger combined
with the evaluation of solar radiation in the outdoor environment example of
this index is a Thermal Comfort Model, Comfort Formula (COMFA),
developed by Brown and Gillespie to assess thermal comfort in the landscape,
and the BEST which is developing a model of COMFA.
3.1.4. . Physiological Effective Temperature (PET)
In many studies of thermal comfort outdoor environment thermal comfort index

used is Physiological Effective Temperature (PET) and Predicted Mean Vote (PMV). In
some studies one of the most widely used index is a bioclimatic index (PET) as it is
known to have units in ºC (degree Celsius) as an indicator of thermal stress and thermal
comfort. This makes the results easy to be understood, especially for planners, decision
makers, and even people who may not be familiar with the theory of modern-
biometeorological.
PET significantly uses physiological ways to evaluate the thermal condition
(Hoppe, PR, 1999, Matzarakis, A. et al. 1999). It is defined as the air temperature in
which the Human Energy-budget for the condition of the building is assumed by the
temperature and the temperature of human skin on the state of the actual sweat on the
outdoor environment to be assessed. PET allows various users such as, to compare the
integrative effects of complex thermal conditions in an outdoor environment with a
40
space in the building. Besides PET can be used throughout the year and in different
climates (Hoppe, PR, 1999, Mayer, H. - Matzarakis, A. 1997).
Meteorological parameters that affect the human energy balance, such as air
temperature, humidity, wind speed and radiation of short wave and long wave, also
represented in the values of PET. PET is also considering the heat resistance of the
transfer of clothing (clo value) and the internal heat production (Value Met). The
condition of the balance between the human body and climatic conditions can be seen in
Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2. Thermal equilibrium conditions in humans based on microclimatic conditions, internal
heat production and heat resistance of clothing. (Scudo, 2002)
Figure 3.2 explains that the value of PET is hot at 43 °C with a combination of
microclimate and physiological data of the person. The value of PET as we can see
affected by Ta is at 30 °C, Radiation at 60 °C, and with wind speed 1 m/sec and a
humidity of 50%. Then the adjustment of the thermal environment is needed to obtain a
more comfortable thermal. This adjustment can regulate physiological data or looking
41
for a better place microclimate, such as shaded areas or under trees. Table 3.1 is a table
of thermal comfort scale PET based on research Matzarakis, A. - Mayer, H. 1996.
Table 3.1. PET scale and the scale of thermal comfort and the correlation of the level of
physiological stress (Matzarakis, A. - Mayer, H. 1996)
PET Thermal Sensation Physiological stress level
Very cold Extreme cold stress

4 …………….. ……………..
Cold Strong cold stress
8 …………….. ……………..
Cool Moderate cold stress
13 …………….. ……………..
Slightly cool Slight cold stress
18 …………….. ……………..
Comfortable No thermal stress
23 …………….. ……………..
Slightly warm Slight heat stress
29 …………….. ……………..
Warm Moderate heat stress
35 …………….. ……………..
Hot Strong heat stress
41 …………….. ……………..
Very hot Extreme heat stress
3.1.5. .Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)
Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) based on the study of the thermal comfort index is
an index of thermal comfort developed not only assessing microclimate with all its
elements but also involves psychological and physiological side of the wearer. Danger
(2002) revealed that human activity and clothes in determining the useful life
assessment of thermal comfort.
Based on the study Fanger analysis showed that the narrow range of skin
temperature and sweat evaporation rate determines the most significant sensation of
thermal comfort, which depends on the level of activity (more active people who feel
comfortable in a low skin temperature and evaporation rate is higher). By combining
this information and thermal energy balance equation above, he developed a set of
correlations that PMV as a function of six variables: air temperature, average radiation,
temperature, air velocity, air humidity, resistant clothing, and activity level.
42
Based on subjective criteria to determine the influence of environmental
parameters and individual (thermal equilibrium between man and the environment), and
given the sensation of analysis of thermal comfort suggested by PMV this model shows
seven-point scale, from very cold to very hot, combining the individual parameters
(metabolism and resistance clothing) and environmental parameters (temperature,
humidity, air temperature and radiant temperature). In this study, for the reception of the
thermal environment, the percentage of people who are not satisfied to be determined is
less than 10% (ISO 7730, 1994).
Based on the theory above PMV equation can be seen in the following equation
(ISO 7730, 1994):
PMV = [ 0,303.exp (-0,036.M) + 0,028] L......................................... (8)

Where:
PMV : Predicted Mean Vote
M : Heat production due to metabolism in the human body (W / m²)
L : The actual temperature of the human body (W / m²)
Table 3.2. PMV Scale
PMV Thermal Sensation

+3 hot
+2 warm
+1 Warm comfort
0 Comfort
-1 Cold comfort
-2 cool
-3 Cold
From these equations can be derived that the people who are on a scale of -3, -2,
+2 and +3 expressed dissatisfaction thermally while those who claim to be between -1
and +1 indicate that they are satisfied thermally. From these data can be derived
satisfaction scale in assessing a person's environment. Table 3.3, The following is the
PMV scale associated with a person's thermal sensation.
43
Hope (2000), brings together two values of thermal comfort between PMV and
PET and give the sensation of thermal comfort levels in two regions between Europe
and Tropical. As Table 3.3. as follows.
Table 3.3. Comparison Scale PMV and PET in Europe and Tropical thermal sensation with
physiological stress level (modification Hoppe, 2000)
PMV PET Thermal Comfort Thermal Comfort Physiological

o
C Europe Area Tropical Area Value
Extremely Cold Extremely Cold Stress feels cold

-3.5 4
Very Cold Very, very Cold Feels very cold
-2.5 8
Cool Very Cold Feels Cold
-1.5 12
Cold Comfort
Feels Comfort little bit
-0.5 16 Cold Comfort cool
20 Comfort
0.5 24 Comfort Feel Comfort
Warm Comfort
Feels Comfort little bit
1.5 28 Warm Comfort warm
Warm
2.5 32 Warm Feels warm
Hot Feels hot
3.5 36 Extremely hot Hot
40 Extremely Hot Stress feels very hot
3.2. Open Space and Activity
There is a relationship between open spaces users and thermal comfort that
stated by several studies (Nikolopolou et al., 2001; Thorsson, 2004; Zacharias et al.,
2004; Nikolopolou et al., 2006; Lin, 2009). Outdoor thermal comfort is one of the most
important impacts immediate and directly can be recognized that influenced by the built
environment. Recent years, most thermal comfort studies are about building
environment post-occupancy evaluation by applying field measurements or simulation
of outdoor thermal comfort parameters to predict models of human thermal comfort.
Moreover, the field measurement by involved large samples of actual occupants can
44
lead to a clearer understanding of thermal interactions between occupant and built
environment, a more comprehensive understanding of how thermal comforts interact
with outdoor built environment elements to impact overall occupant satisfaction.
Understanding outdoor thermal comfort is needed to improve the design of outdoor
more attractive and the quality of life of outdoor.
In the tropical humid climate city like Jakarta, open spaces are used almost
during the years and they must have thermal comfort properly. The thermal comfort
studies in this open space are important for evaluation studies and as a guideline to
urban design and architectural projects. Climate circumstances take part in a particular
responsibility in this context not only because climate change causes new challenges for
urban areas, but also because urban areas can play a lead task in humanity’s pursuit for
an association with the natural environment that permit societies to thrive and prosper
for a long time to come.
Spagnolo and de Dear (2003) stated buildings can become shadowing elements
of urban, thus buildings can shade pedestrians from direct solar radiation and deflect
wind velocity. Murakami et al. (1999) showed the vegetation is the important element in
the city, he mentioned about the effect of wind condition around the buildings.
Vegetation can reduce ground temperature by 2 to 4 degrees Celcius. Meanwhile,
Nikolopoulo et al. (2001) stated people tend to choose comfortable places to sit, and
they found the human response to microclimate is intuitive, and it was proof that the
modeling outdoor thermal comfort is more complex than the modeling physiological
effect.
Bekele et al. (2008) showed in their research that hot-humid climate cities need
maximum shade. Vegetations as natural elements of the city are the primary technique
to provide shade (Goncalves and Duarte, 2008). While Makamuri et al. (1999) found
surface temperature can be reduced 2 to 4 degrees Celsius by planting the vegetations
along the street. Lin et al. (2010) also stated shading area significantly affects outdoor
thermal environment. Natural vegetation has advantages not only providing shade in the
summer but also directing breezes. Goncalves and Duarte (2008) stated trees positioning
is important due to providing shade in urban area. Luxmoore et al. (2004) in their
research showed vegetation in cities is an exercise of re-vegetation due to natural plant-
life lost to urban development.
45
Studies of outdoor thermal comfort in tropical climates have shown by several
researchers (Chen, 2012; Honjo, 2009; Mishra, 2013). Cities that located at the equator
encounter abundant sunshine and solar radiation while the average sunshine is about six
hours per day. According to Bekele et al. (2008) statements, hot-humid cities need
street ventilation to release the heat quickly. They conducted wind-tunnel tests to
determine the optimal orientation and building placement to promote ventilation and air
circulation in the urban area. They found orient buildings at 45 degree angle to existing
winds creates both positive and negative air pressure that allowing breeze to be carried
out around buildings and promoting air circulation at the pedestrian level. While the
buildings which have a parallel orientation to existing wind directly facing the winds
under negative pressure creates a channeling effect that allows for less air circulation at
the pedestrian level. High rise building can block the existing wind before they can
move to the area. High rise buildings create wind velocity in the windward side while
causes decreased wind velocity on their leeward side due to the shielding effect. To
create better wind circulation among buildings, street-to-canyon ratios should be 0.7 or
less. Dominated high rise buildings in the city create a different pattern of air
circulation. Bekele et al. (2008) also recommended to promote further better air
circulation cities should have varying building heights.
The outdoor thermal comfort studies were mostly limited to the temperate
regions (Nikolopolou, 2001; Nikolopolou et al., 2007; Metje, 2008). There is a lack of
information on the outdoor thermal comfort in the tropical region in relation with the
quality of outdoor environment (Ahmed, 2003; Johanson and Emmanuel, 2006; Lin,
2009; Lin et al, 2010). Thus, investigation of outdoor thermal comfort condition in the
hot-humid climates based on weather condition along with human parameters is needed.
3.2.1. City and Walkability
O’Hare (2006) stated that urban development tends to steer the development in
the use of private transport modes and excessive air conditioning appliances. System
development and use of technology is not friendly to the environment. The city must
understand microclimate if a city does not want to tend to develop oriented mode of
personal transport. Activities conducted the city residents outside of the building, such
as walking and using public transportation should be convenient and possible widely
can interact with the urban environment comfortable.
46
A social interaction in the city is a key asset of livable cities which people can
access a wide range jobs, goods, services, and business value city location. A walkable
place which more convenient and more lively is a place with a variety of services and
destination in close proximity to one another. Walking is a marker of urban spaces-
places where people walk between destinations than to take other modes of
transportation.
Jacobs (1961) stated that the heart of urban vibrancy is walkability, where there
are a mix of urban function like short blocks, population density and diversity and a mix
of users, and building types and ages that all plays out in their own role. A walking
places that frequently used have characteristic: they are generally denser, better served
by transit, more central, and have more of a mix of different land uses. Litman (2007)
stated most walking research is a part of the urban transportation system study, which
transportation often focus exclusively on car and transit trips, ignoring pedestrian travel
as an important component. Consequently, they did not put walkability as a vital form
of urban transportation.
Carvaro et al., (2003) stated outdoor activities like walking, and using public
transportation naturally require interaction with the natural environment. Exposure to
extreme heat, humidity, and rainfall conditions are recognized as a significant barrier in
outdoor activities. The extreme heat conditions, high humidity and low air velocity are a
challenge for urban designers and architects to create a more comfortable space
atmosphere in Jakarta.
3.2.2. . Walking Activity and Climatic factors
More than 15 years, researchers on urban design have investigated that well-
connected street are associated with more walking. In the theory of urban design, the
basic building block of walkable neighborhoods is defined as the area covered by a 5-
minute walk (about 400 meters). Handy (2005) found that built-environment causes
some measure of physical activity. The key role of placing residential density,
commercial destination, and transit connectivity contribute make walking a more
efficient form of transportation and allow individuals to complete the tasks of daily
living without needing a car. The physical and social environment construction that
builds surround us create a healthy context for our lives (Lovasi, 2012).
47
While walkability as topics are frequently discussed, climatic factors is not a
significant theme. Eliasson (2000) found the result from the survey that the majority of
urban designers did not take into account climatic factor in their decision-making
process. Some literature reviews have discussed walking activity in detail, but did not
mention to climatic factors. Greenwald and Boarnet (2001) stated that Pedestrian
Environmental Factor was significant in determining the probability of non-work
walking travel at the neighborhood level but did not significantly talked about climatic
factors. Cervero and Duncan (2003) found that nonmotorized transport can be induced
by well-connected streets, small city blocks, mixed land uses, and proximity to retail
activities. They emphasized there were other stronger factors affected walking and
bicycling choice than built-environment factors; such as topography, weather, and
demographics, but they need more evidence data. The climate is barely mentioned in
several literature that discussed about neighborhood design and walkability from urban
planning, transportation design, and environmental health fields (Besser and
Dannenberg, 2005; Ewing et al., 2006; McGinn et al., 2007; Kashef, 2010).
The most literature stated how climate affects the walkability in the urban setting
comes from the public health field. O’Hare (2006) noted about active transportation, it
recognizes that walking, a part of the physical activity, is an inherent component of
transit use. Buys and Miller (2010) found that walking was more difficult in the climatic
conditions in Brisbane, Australia. Merril et al. (2003) found the physical activity has
been affected by the season and climate for adult in the United States. Psychological
factors play an important role in how people perceive weather and climate, stated by
Hoppe (1999); Nikolopoulo (2001); and Ahmed (2003).
The study of the impact of climate on the walkability in the pedestrian has not
been extensive. However, the studies from the thermal comfort literature found that
variables of biometeorological can be used to calculate the walkability. Furthermore,
walkability that affected by climate is implied walking comfort in this paper. It is how
far an individual might be able to walk before experiencing discomfort in an outdoor
setting. The distance is examined for how far the body’s physiological response can
walk while maintaining thermal comfort; it's called comfort shed (DeVau, 2011).
Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia, had experienced increasing temperature
since 1990 (Katarina and Syaukat, 2015). Abundant sunshine, high humidity, and
48
rainfall are conditions can be felt daily in this city. There are leaks of information of
outdoor thermal comfort studies in tropical cities needs to consider. This paper seeks to
investigate and evaluate the thermal comfort and walking comfort in the hot-humid city.
The results can be used as information creating walkable and comfort area in an outdoor
environment in the superblock for urban designer and architect.
3.3. . Human Thermal Comfort
3.3.1. . Studies of Heat Balance
The establishing of heat balance will work when heat is equal to gains and losses
on the human body. Sometimes the external environment does not allow the heat
balance work, and then the thermoregulation will be triggered. The human body will
produce sweat; it may evaporate, to take the heat away from the body to restore the
balance back (Hoppe, 1993). Producing extreme sweating to maintain the body heat
balance can make an uncomfortable situation, besides the clothes getting wet; there will
make the organic power tangled in the sweat secretion, and cause to the undesirable
effect leave on the skin (Alvarez et al., 1991). The ideal thermal comfort can be
achieved when the balancing of different energy/heat flow's works, so the heat loss
through sweating can be negligible in the summer. Even so, sweating will be required
when one the source of the heat gain increase, in terms of losing heat from the body and
getting thermal comfort. Regarding the heat balance equation, it is potential to calculate
all the parameters and to measure the different gains and the possibility of losses.
The thermal comfort situation can be achieved by increasing the favorable heat
flows (losses) and reducing the unfavorable ones (gain) wherever possible or by
transforming them into losses when the problems come. Natural techniques can be used
as a tool of heat balance through shading, for example: via trees, or specific cultivation,
as a natural shaded area, in other hand artificial shade has to be provided or with a
combination of technique employed.
For urban planner or landscape designer, in practice, these issues should be
taken into account to design open space which can control the variable such as solar
radiation, one of the biggest sources of heat gain, or in which can eliminate extreme
heat through convection by using the element of the landscape, such as water bodies or
fountains. There are two focuses parameters has to be taken into account regarding open
49
space design: 1) The meteorological parameters. Thermal comfort calculation cannot be
taken just from general parameters of the city which, measured by the meteorological
service bureau. The parameters have to be measured from field measurement because of
the urban structure that surrounded by buildings, vegetation, and road, modify those
parameters in micro-spaces. 2) Measurement in situ of the meteorological parameters
should involve human-biometeorological indices to calculate the balance equation with
the values obtained.
3.3.2. . Outdoor thermal comfort indices
Morgan and Baskett (1974) stated current studies of thermal comfort based on
two basic approaches: 1) An analytical or rational approach. The human energy balance
is used as a basic theory of this approach. 2) A synthetic or empirical approach. The
combination of variable of various meteorological is used to calculate the formula of
thermal comfort, unfortunately this approach does not consider the key role played by
human activity, thermal physiology, clothes and other human’s personal data (sex,
weight, height, age, etc.). Currently, as what Hoppe (1993) stated Rational indices much
to be used, relatively newer, match to the human energy balance, and easy to be used by
computing technique.
Recently, rational indices are widely used by many international researchers and
closely linked to the urban planning research. The Rayman Model by Matzarakis
developed for the calculation of the mean radiation temperature and thermal indices in
simple and complex environment, which based only on data of air temperature, air
humidity, and wind velocity (Matzarakis et, al., 2007), the model based on VDI
Guideline 3787, published by the Association of German Engineers (1998). Ochoa et al.
(1998) from The University of Sonora has published Microclimatic analysis of some
urban scenarios, based on research of Brown and Gillespie (1995). Nikolopoulou et al.
(2004) carried out the RUROS (Rediscovering the Urban Realm and Open Spaces)
Project for the European Union.
Psychological factors in the perception of individual comfort become an
important factor in research of thermal comfort in open space (Nicolopoulou and
Steemers, 2003; Nikolopoulou and Lykoudis, 2006; Lin, 2009; Lin et al., 2011; Lin and
Matzarakis, 2011; Lin et al., 2012, 2013). Jendritzky et al., (2012), studied about
50
comparing UTCI and PET last ten years, and some studies latter highlighted both
indices are ease to use.
The physiological equivalent temperature, PET, is used to calculate the thermal
comfort indices because of it is widely known using °C in its unit. Therefore, PET has
the advantage compared to other thermal indices. Base on the human energy balance of
the human body PET is very well matched to the humanbiometeorological evaluation of
the thermal component of different climates. Therefore, PET significantly and
consistently matches to thermophysiologically (Mayer and Hoppe 1987; Hoppe 1999;
Matzarakis, Mayer and Iziomon 1999).
PET value can be calculated using free software packages by Rayman
(Matzarakis, Rutz, and Mayer 2007), which can make precise predictions of thermal
environment (Gulyas et al. 2006; Lin et al. 2006). Rayman has been used to calculate in
several of outdoor thermal comfort with complex shading patterns. PET is easier to
estimate by temperature, RH (or VP), v, Tmrt, human clothing, and activity in the
model (Lin et al, 2010). Several parameters can be added to calculate following
analyses, i.e. Tmrt (the most important factor during hot condition when calculating
PET). Using Rayman Tmrt can be also estimated by global radiation (Gr), cloud cover
(Cd), fisheye photographs, and albedo. The Bowen ratio of ground surface and the
Linke turbidity including the shading effect can be estimated while calculating short-
and long-wave radiation fluxes.
Outdoor thermal comfort studies have been conducted in various spaces.
Nikolopoulou and Lykoudis (2006) conducted thermal comfort study in outdoor and
semi-outdoor environment in five European countries (subtropical country) and found
there is a strong correlation between thermal comfort and microclimate. Lin and
Matzarakis (2008) studied outdoor thermal comfort in Taiwan showed that the neutral
temperature of Taiwan is higher than that of western and central Europe.
Makaremi et al. (2012) studied outdoor thermal comfort in a context of hot-
humid climate at a university in Malaysia. Their results showed that the value of the
thermal comfort index (PET) in the selected shaded outdoor spaces was higher than the
comfort range defined for tropical climate (PET < 30 degree Celsius). Normally
condition that acceptable (PET < 34 degree Celsius) occurred during the early hours of
their measurement (9-10 am) and late afternoon (4-5 pm) while the high level of
51
shading is obtained from the plants and surrounding building had a longer thermal
acceptable period.
According to the previous investigation, research on outdoor thermal comfort in
hot-humid region is still very incipient. Makaremi et al. (2012) in their research outdoor
thermal comfort in Malaysia used thermal comfort index from Lin and Matzarakis
(2008). In order to identify thermal comfort range for hot-humid tropical region, Lin
and Matzarakis (2008) conducted thermal comfort study in an outdoor environment of
Taiwan. Their study focused to modify PET classes from moderate climates to suit the
condition of tropical and subtropical climates. Table 3.4 shows the comparison between
PET index hot-humid climate and subtropical region climate. In comparison with the
Western/middle European scale where the neutral temperature of PET between 19 and
23 C, the tolerance of higher neutral temperature of Taiwan’s resident corresponds to
PET values between 26 and 30 C. The result showed that the thermal comfort range of
Taiwan’s respondents was significantly higher than in Europe represented of the
moderate climatic condition. In this study, the thermal comfort range is applied from the
value of a PET hot-humid/Tropical region stated by Lin and Matzarakis (2008), see
Table 3.4.
3.3.3. . Walking comfort Simulation
The literature of walking comfort has a limitation, much of them comes from the
public health field and public transportation fields. O’harre (2006) stated walking,
including walking to public transit is a part component of physical activity that relate to
active public transportation. Buys and Miller (2010) conducted research using 24
qualitative interviews with resident of high-density dwellings in the subtropical climate
of the inner-city of Brisbane, Australia. The study showed a general perception that
walking in the climatic condition of Brisbane is difficult to achieve especially walking
in hot weather.
52
Table 3.4. PET value Source: aMatzarakis and Mayer (1996); bling and Matzarakis (2008)
PETa PETb Thermal Grade of Physiological

Moderate (Sub) Perception Stress
Region (°C) Tropical
Region
(°C)
Very Cold Extreme Cold Stress

4 14
Cold Strong Cold Stress
8 18
Cool Moderate Cold Stress
13 22
Slightly Cool Slight Cold Stress
18 26
Comfortable No Thermal Stress
23 30
Slightly Warm Slight Heat Stress
29 34
Warm Moderate Heat Stress
35 38
Hot Strong Heat Stress
41 42
Very Hot Extreme Heat Stress
Uncomfortable position also was seen when combining walking with the use of
public transit. In the other hand, they remarked that walking in sweaty condition to
public transport stop on hot-humid subtropical summer day was unbearable.
Merril et al. (2003) showed their research result at United State that season and
climate have a significant impact on the physical activity of adults. They remarked that
the results had stronger effect in areas with climates similar to Florida’s. Eves et al.
(2008) found physical activity can be more depressed in the summer season at
subtropical climate. They observed the number of individuals willing to climb stairs or
walk at least half of length of moving sidewalk in hot-humid climate of Hong Kong, and
the result showed the willingness of individuals to climb stairs or walk decreased along
with humidity increased.
Brown and Banister (1985) stated that solar radiation significantly increased
heart rate and cardiovascular strain. Meanwhile Eve et al. (2008) stated that high
humidity is an obstacle removing heat from the human body. Sheffield et al. (1997)
53
showed from their research that the humid condition and lower humidity can increase
rates of perceived exertion and discomfort.
3.3.4. Comfortable Measurement of Skin Wettedness
According to (deVau 2011, pp. 46) skin wettedness (w) are a suitable
measurement to calculate walking comfort. There are three variable to calculated skin
wettedness: subject surface area (m2), clothing units (clo), and metabolic rate (W.m-2).
The equation of skin wetedness is derived from (Fukuzawa and Havenith, 2009):
/ 0.06 (9)
Where; Qsw = required evaporative heat loss (W./m2) and Qemax= maximal
evaporative capacity of the environment (W.m-2), 0.06 is dimensionless of minimal
skin wettedness by skin diffusion.
Fukuzawa and havenith (2009); Djongyang et al. (2010) stated that discomfort is
strongly associated with skin wettedness in warm environments than skin temperature.
Gagge (1937) developed the measurement of skin wettedness over the body (w), and
Winslow et al. (1939) suggested as well to measure thermal discomfort using skin
wettedness (w). Havenith (2002); Fukuzawa and Havenith (2009) recognized skin
wettedness as one of the most convenient indices to predict the thermal comfort level
for human in warm conditions.
Djongyang (2010) stated the skin wettedness is a rationally derived from
physiological index. Skin wettedness is the ratio of the actual sweating rate to the
maximum sweating rate that occur when the skin is completely wet, and related to the
skin temperature that indicate the sensation of comfort and discomfort caused by
perspiration. Skin wettedness is used to determine the evaporative heat lose. The value
of skin wettedness ranges from 0.06 to 1. The value of 0.06 caused by the evaporative
heat loss due to the moisture diffusion through the skin alone (i.e. with no regulatory
sweating) for normal condition, and the value 1 occurs when the skin surface totally wet
with perspiration, a condition that occurs rarely in practice (Djongyang, 2010, p. 2364).
De Dear from the University of Sydney in Australia developed the web-based
tool calculator of Human-Heat Balance, he uses the source code originally developed by
Huizenga (1995) for ASHRAE’s comfort tool. The web-based calculator is available at
54
http://web.arch.usyd.edu.au/~rdedear/. De Dear calculator calculates values of thermal
comfort indices such as PMV/PPD and SET* using standard biometeorology inputs.
Furthermore, deDear calculator displays the results of two-node models main
physiological models (UTCI, 2011). One of these values is total evaporative heat loss
from the skin (Esw) that is equivalent to Qsw defined by Fukuzawa and Havenith
(2009), see equation 1. Another value which is important is skin temperature (Tsk). Tsk
is necessary to calculate qemax later. De Dear’s calculator not only can display the
result of Qsw and Tsk as the final values at the end of a set period of time, but also can
display values for each minute over a period of time. The result of every minute over a
period of time is needed for the purposes of the walking comfort analysis. All Qsw and
Tsk values on this paper were calculated using this tool.
3.3.5. Partitional Calorimetry
Atkin and Thompson (2000) from University of Sydney developed Partitional

Calorymetry Calculator using a spreadsheet. This program uses Visual Basic to
calculate the heat storage and heat lost or gained through dry and evaporative heat
transfer pathways. The spreadsheet can be downloaded at
http://www.sportci.org/jour/003/ka.html, and the calculation manual are explained in the
accompanying article by Atkins and Thompson (2000).
qemax is calculated by Atkins and Thompson (2000), as follows: Calculation of
qemax (the maximal evaporative capacity of the environment) formula is taken from
McIntyre (1980):
(10)
Where is the permeation efficiency factor of clothing, is the evaporative

heat transfer coefficient (W.m-2.kPa-1), is the partial water vapor pressure at the skin
surface (kPa), and is the partial water vapor pressure of ambient air (kPa) (McIntyre,
1980).
Beginning calculation, there are two variable that have to be calculated using
automated Visible Basic element on the EnvironData tab of the spreadsheet, i.e.:
radiative heat transfer coefficient hr (W.m-2.K-1) and the partial water vapor pressure of
55
ambient air Pa (mmHg). To calculate hr require specific data of human activity (in this
case, walking) not include the clothing temperature, and to input Tmrt values in degrees
Celsius along with the relative humidity (Rh).
The converted Pa value from mmHG to kPa use the following equation by
Atkins and Thompson (2000):
∗ 0.1333 (11)
Where , the permeation efficiency factor of clothing is taken from Parson

(1993) formula:
1/ 1 0.344 (12)
Where is the convective heat transfer coefficient (W.m-2.K-1), and is the

effective clothing insulation (clo units) (parson, 1993).
Effective clothing insulation ( ) is taken from McIntyre (1980);
(13)
.
Where is the intrinsic clothing insulation (m2.oC.W-1), is the clothing area

-2 -1
factor (ND), and h is combined heat transfer coefficient (W.m .K ) (McIntyre, 1980).
The is determined from the standard clothing values from a variety of sources,
including ASHRAE 55P.
Clothing area factor ( (Parson, 1993), as follows:
1 0.31 (14)
.
Where is the intrinsic clothing insulation (m2.C.W-1) (Parson, 1993).

Values are determined from the value given in the literature.
56
(Convective heat transfer coefficient) is taken from (Kerslake, 1972), as
follows:
.
. . 8.3 (15)
Where is air velocity in m.s-1 (Kerslake, 1972).
Calculation of evaporative heat transfer coefficient ( is taken from Kerslake

(1972), as follows:
. . ∗ 16.5 (16)
Calculation of Combined heat transfer coefficient (h) is taken from Parson

(1993), as follows:
. . (17)
Where is the convective heat transfer coefficient (W.m-2.K-1), and is
radiative heat transfer coefficient

Calculation of as follows (from Parson, 1993):
. . 4. . . . 273.2 (18)
Where E is the emissivity of the skin surface (0.98: Gonzales, 1995, pp.299), s is
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10-8 W.m-2.K-4), A1Ad = ratio of the area of the body
exposed to radiation versus total body surface area (0.70 for seated postures, 0.73 for
standing postures), Tcl is mean surface temperature of the body, and Tmrt is mean radiant
temperature.
Calculation of saturated water vapor pressure at the skin surface is taken from
Fanger (1970), as follows:
57
1.92 25.3 (19)
Where Tst is skin temperature in degrees Celsius (Fanger, 1970). This calculation
of skin temperature is valid for skin temperature between 27 and 37 C (Atkins and
Thompson, 2000). Transient values of skin temperature are provided by de Dear’s
calculator.
Some of the values are constant while others change depending on
environmental and physiological variables. Clothing area factor (fcl) is directly change
based on the clo values which derived from literature, in this case clo clause use typical
tropical business clothing, 0.49. The clothing variables (fpcl) and lCl are changed along
with altered in heat transfer coefficient and/or clo value. Ps changes along with altered
skin temperature of the subject.
It is important to calculate qemax value in minute-by-minute in order to calculate
skin wittedness at the same resolution as skin temperature values (tsk) provided by de
Dear’s calculator.
As mentioned by (Gagge, Fobelets and Berglund 1986); (Hartog and Havenith
2009), 0.3 of wettedness is the limit condition of thermal comfort in the whole body.
Whilst (Djongyang, Tschinda and Njomo 2010) mentioned that thermal discomfort will
progressively increase when the value of whiteness reaches 0.3-0.05. An offering by
(Havenith, Holmer, and Parsons 2002) the walking comfort comfort based on skin
wettedness is reliant on activity level when w is less than 0.0012 M (metabolic rate) +
0.15.
Conclusion
Recently, research in urban climatology in term of making the city easier to live
in become popular issue. One proposed definition of a better place of the city is how
much outdoor space is acceptable in the presence of people activity. The build
environments speed up the absorption of the heat during the daytime and slow down
release the heat at the night time. These formations are known as the urban heat island
where the hot region surrounded by the cooler neighboring area. Some researchers
explain that the climatic conditions in the city affected by climate and the build
environment (Landsberg 1981; Eliasson 2000; Oke 1984, 2006).
58
Of the many assessments of thermal comfort thermal comfort studies in the
outdoor environment a new study. Formerly the scope of thermal comfort is intended
only for indoor, now can be used in the outdoors. The basic theories of human responses
to thermal stimuli under conditions also apply in space in an outdoor environment. The
fundamental difference from the assessment of thermal comfort and space in an outdoor
environment is the outdoor space has a condition that is always changing rapidly, so the
physiological adaptation of the micro-climatic conditions (acclimatization) is a factor
that affects the human preference for thermal comfort. Thus, the actual level of
discomfort cannot be stated with certainty, except by comparison of field surveys.
59
60
Chapter 4
FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY OF ASSESMENT IN
URBAN OPEN SPACE THERMAL COMFORT AND WALKING
COMFORT
Summary
Thermal comfort is defined as a state of mind that expresses satisfaction rate

human to the conditions of the thermal environment. Sometimes the thermal
environment occupied by humans, not give the expected conditions.
Environmental parameters like macroclimate and micro-climatic conditions will
affect thermal comfort. There are six variables that also include climate-forming
elements that affect thermal comfort in open space, i.e: solar radiation, wind speed, and
direction can make changes in the human body. Two other climate elements that affect
thermal comfort also, temperature and humidity, and two additional factors are at the
level of human activity and the type of clothing which worn by the people.
Environmental characteristics strongly contribute to the microclimate change
can alter the thermal comfort. The elements are the environmental characteristics of
building configuration, albedo, and Green Plot Ratio. Characteristic of this
neighborhood more influence change in wind and quantity of incoming solar radiation
in the area. By changing the elements of the environment can be achieved quality better
thermal comfort.
4.1. Conceptual Framework
Thermal comfort is defined as a state of mind which expresses satisfaction rate

man to the conditions of thermal environment. Sometimes the thermal environment
occupied by humans is not give the expected conditions.
Environmental parameters (climate Macro) and micro-climatic conditions will
affect thermal comfort. Six variables also include elements forming the climate affects
thermal comfort in open space. Solar radiation, affecting climate change. Wind speed
and direction, which are convection heat can make changes in the human body. Two
61
other climate elements that affect thermal comfort as temperature and humidity, plus
two additional factor is the level of human activity and the type of clothing worn.
Environmental characteristics strongly contribute to the climate change that can
alter the micro thermal comfort. The elements are the environmental characteristics of
building configuration, albedo and Green Plot Ratio. Characteristic of this neighborhood
more lead changes in the wind and the quantity of incoming solar radiation in the area.
By changing the elements of the environment can be achieved quality better thermal
comfort. Illustration of this relationship can be seen in Figure 4.1.
62
63
Figure 4.1. Research of Thermal Comfort diagram

4.2. Structure of Research
The first phase of this research is to study and search of literature from books or
expert opinion relevant to the theme of the research on thermal comfort of outdoor
environment. Then The literature review was developed in the review and evaluation of
thermal comfort in the humid tropical climates such as Jakarta.
Deepening the study and search of literature is intended that the outdoor
environment research thermal comfort can be more focused as the basis for analysis and
evaluation. From the study of literature is obtained the theory of outdoor thermal
comfort and how the outdoor thermal comfort affects the urban structure. How the
literarture review, assessment method, and research analysis are explained as follows.
For more details see Figure 4.2:
1) The development of the theory of the microclimate and thermal comfort
2) Develop assessment, thermal comfort of open space.
3) Development of a theory to establish the physical characteristics that affect
the microclimate and thermal comfort in open space.
64
4) Develop element analysis of physical characteristics affecting the

microclimate and thermal comfort.
5) Getting the case studies used as the test material for the assessment of
thermal comfort in outdoor environment.
6) Case studies later in the measuring field simultaneously to get its existing
thermal comfort.
Overall Framework of research can be described in Research Phases, see Figure
4.3. The Phase of research. At this stage of literature review found theories of
microclimate, thermal comfort assessment of open space, open space characteristics and
Green Plot Ratio.
This stage is getting more detailed microclimate variables, i.e. humidity,
temperature, wind speed, and solar radiation. Assessment of thermal comfort further
developed into a value that can be used later in the field of measurement and simulation,
thermal comfort assessment here used by way of measurement and calculation of the
scale the PMV and PET.
While the environmental characteristics after more in-depth study found the
buildings, and outdoor environment as a variable to be measured in the field, including
the interior and the orientation. Even though Green Plot Ratio (GnPR) including GnPR
environmental characteristics, but this has its own way in its calculations, which have
been discussed in chapter 2 Literature Review.
65
66
Figure 4.2. Research Framework

67
Figure 4.3. The Phase of research

4.2.1. . Field Measurement
Field measurements based on the existing studies on earlier stages. The stage is
divided in several ways, namely data collection, the equipment used, measurement
locations or points of measurement and the measurement of environmental
characteristics. More detailed stages are as follows:
The field measurement is the method to collect the data. Airy, Yacobs and
Razavich stated that the field measurement method was designed to obtain information
about the status of symptoms at the time the research was conducted in order to describe
what variables or conditions that exist in an existing (Rinehart, 1999).
In this stage, the measurement of microclimate variables that affect thermal
comfort, namely:
 Temperature / temperature (Ta, OC),
 Humidity (Rh, %)
 Air velocity (v, m / Sec).
 Solar radiation (° C)
This variable measurement technique is measured at a height of 1.5 m from the
ground at each location or point of measurement.
Time measurements were performed on each sunny conditions, i.e. conditions
that show a state where the skies are not cloudy or partly cloudy and in the absence of
rain. Time measurement is done in the rainy season in March and the dry season months
of September in 2009. Elections in March and in September based on the movement of
the sun, which are moving just above the equator. Time measurements were taken at
7am pm it open recreation time is up to 5pm pm. Measurements carried out later every
60 minutes or 1 hour.
4.2.2. . Measurement Tool
The equipment used in this study was REED LM-8000 using AA battery power.
This measuring tool has a feature the multi-function four-in-one (4-in-1), the
anemometer (to measure wind speed), RH meter (measuring moisture in%), Lux meter
(light gauge) and thermometer (air temperature gauge) digital K-type.
This tool has the level of detail in the measurement as follows: Humidity 10 to
95% RH, Lux meter: 0 to 20,000 Lux / 0 to 2,000 Ft-cd with units to choose between
68
Lux / Foot-candle, Anemometer (air flow rate) 80 -5900 fpm (feet per minute) with
units to choose between m/s (meters/second), km/h (kilometers/hour), mph (meters per
hour), knots, or ft/min (feet/min) , the detail of digital thermometer types of -K has the -
100 to 1300 °C with a unit that can be chosen between °C / °F. This tool can record the
maximum, minimum and average at each unit of measurement.
The black globe thermometer is used to measure the solar radiation. The black
globe thermometer is a thermometer which placed in a black globe, due to the limited
equipment, the black globe thermometer is then made by using a table tennis ball
painted with black and inserted the thermometer in it. Black globe temperature gauge
consists of 150 mm (6 inches) black ball with a thermometer located in the center.
Temperatures on the black ball is a reflection of the effects of radiation and wind.
Other tools are the i5 and laptop computers to record the data at the field
measurement. Software for data analysis used MS Word 2010 for writing reports and
Excel 2010 for statistical data analysis and graphics.
Cameras Nikon D80 to document images in the field at the time of the survey
and data retrieval. The term was in the field measurement, as follows:
 Ta: temperatures / Temperature (DBT ° C)
 Rh: Humidity (RH in%)
 V: Wind speed (v in m / s)
 GT: The temperature of the radiation. (GT in ° C)
Measurements of thermal conditions in the outside recreation space in Jakarta
were done by coding at each measurement point location.
4.2.3. . Measurement of Environmental Characteristics
During the microclimate measurement variables also performed environmental

characteristics measurement. This measurement was done in two ways: direct
measurement in the field and measurement through image scale using a CAD drawing.
Environmental characteristics were measured to assess the albedo, the
orientation of the building, open space orientation, Green Plot Ratio (GnPR), and Sky
View Factor (SVF). Figure 4.2 shows how the environmental characteristics assessed in
an outdoor environment. Determination of the measured areas was the area of coverage
microclimate, which is 100m x 100m (Oke, 2006). The value of the albedo can be seen
in Table 4.1.
69
Figure 4.4. The Environmental characteristics was crossed checked using CAD images with the
actual conditions in the area of measurement.
70
Table 4.1. The Data of albedo, emissivity and heat Admittance (DR Brown and Gillespie,
1995)
HOT
ALBELDO (%) EMISIVITY (%) ADMITANCE
(J/M2S1/2k)
Land 5 – 75
Deep Valley 5 -1 5 90 - 98
Valley 10 - 20
Dry Sand 25 – 35 84 - 91
Wet Sand 20 – 30
Hill Sand 30 – 75
Tanah Kering 600
Tanah Basah 2500
VEGETATION 3 – 30 90 - 99
Grass 20 – 30 90 - 95
Green Park 3 – 15
Padi Field 15 – 25
Grass Field 10 – 30
Dry Weeds 25 – 30
Forest 10 – 20
Clumps Forest 5 – 16 97 - 98
Swamp Forest 12 97 - 99
WATER 5 - 95 1500
Water 5 - 95 92 - 97
Snow 40 - 70 82 - 99 130 - 600
URBAN AREA 1 - 90
Aspal 1 - 15 95
Concrete 10 - 50 71 - 90
Brick 20 - 50 90 - 92 950
Stone 20 - 35 85 - 95
Pebble 8 - 18 92
Roof tile 10 - 35 90
Crab Grass Roof 15 - 20
Zinc Roof 10 - 16 12 - 28
White paint 50 - 90 85 - 95
Red Paint 20 - 35 90 - 98
Black Paint 2 - 15
AIR
Steady 5
Turbulence 400
71
The final result of the measurement was the environmental characteristics such as
environmental characteristics table that contain the value of albedo and Green Plot Ratio
(GnPR). As shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2. Examples of field measurement data and CAD measurement compared with the
measured area (100 m x 100 m)
Paving (%) 30,38
GnPR (Green Plot Area) 0.4+0.86+0.46 = 1.92
Building Height (m) 6
Building (%) 0.1
Wall (m2) 2696
SVF 0.43
4.3. Phase of Analysis
Phase analysis was done in two stages, the calculation of thermal comfort which
depicted in the field measurements, drawings made with AutoCAD scale. Furthermore,
the calculation values included in the environmental characteristics, i.e.: albedo, SVF,
and GnPR.
In the analysis of the thermal comfort of outdoor environment, there were two
models that used in the analysis 1) analyzed by Rayman and 2) analyzed by EnviMet
models. The two models are described in the literature review both of these models use
a Thermophysiologis index system, but the results of these two models are different,
Rayman generates the value of PMV and PET in the form of numbers while EnviMet
produce an image map in the form of the color scale of PMV.
Climate variables that have been measured in the field incorporated into the
Rayman model to calculate PMV and PET value. Rayman models produces numerical
thermal comfort in each measurement location. Furthermore, the figures were included
in the Exel software to be viewed graphically numbers, thermal comfort and its
influence on the value of environmental characteristics. All measuring and calculation
results compared one by one to find out the differences and the effect of any small
microclimate, and environmental characteristics for thermal comfort. This phase is done
using Intel quad-core computer.
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While the observation was conducted to determine the outline of human activity
and the clothes he wore. By default the value of the activity and the value of clothing
taken from Table 4.3 and Table 4.4. Leisure activity has a metabolic rate between 45 to
110 W/m2, the value of clothing worn in the recreation area is typical tropic clothing
outfit and light summer clothing with a value of up to 0.5 Clo 0.3 Clo.
AutoCAD images provide input on the model, climate and environmental
characteristics of the measurement in the main data in the simulation of EnviMet.
Table 4.3. The value of human activity (http://personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bsapplec/thermal.htm)

Metabolic
Basic activity Rate
(W/m2)
Lying 45
Sitting 58
Standing 65
Walking on an even path at 2km/h 110
Walking on a level even a path at 5km/h 200
Going upstairs (0.172m/step)80 stairs per
minute 440
Transporting a 10kg load on level at 4km/h 185
Correlation values expressed in the scale of thermal comfort PMV (Predicted

Mean Vote) while the Scudo in 2002 stated that the thermal comfort of the outdoor
environment more precise in describing the scale of PET (Physiological Effective
Temperature). Relationship assessment of thermal comfort can be seen in Table 4.4 as
follows:
Table 4.4. Coefficient values human clothing worn (Clo) for calculating thermal comfort
(http://personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bsapplec/thermal.htm)
Clothing combination Clo m2K/W
Naked 0 0
Short 0.1 0.018
Typical tropic clothing outfit 0.3 0.047
Light summer clothing 0.5 0.078
Working Cloths 0.8 0.124
Typical indoor winter clothing 1 0.155
Heavy traditional European Business 1.5 0.233
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The results obtained are PMV and PET thermal comfort maps. PMV and PET
value are compared to the scale of PMV and PET to obtain thermal comfort values exist
in an outdoor environment in the recreation area being measured. Thermal comfort
values stated in the table space outside the thermal comfort in accordance with the
measurement between the hours of 7am to 5pm at each measurement point. While the
thermal comfort maps of outdoor environment will be depicted in the model of EnviMet
simulations.
If the value of the thermal comfort of outdoor environment thermal comfort is
not met, then the next step is to create a simulation of changes in environmental
characteristics so that the optimum thermal comfort in outdoor environment can be
achieved. Changes in environmental characteristics such as changes in albedo, SVF and
GnPR most probable at each measurement point.
The last stage of this research is making a conclusion. Conclusions drawn after
the simulation phase change characteristics of the environment is done. The conclusions
drawn from all aspects of the research that can be seen from 0stages of research.
Suggestions contribute to the improvement of thermal comfort in the space
outside recreational area, especially in Jakarta. While the recommendation is research
that can be developed from this research.
4.3.1. . Rayman Model
Rayman models allow to calculate short-term radiation flux and wavelength that
affects the human body. This model estimates the flux of radiation and cloud effects in
the short wave radiation flux. Rayman, taking into account the complex urban structure
models and suitable for planning purposes in urban areas. The end result of this is
Rayman models calculate the average temperature, which is needed to balance the
human energy and the end result is the urban bioclimate using PMV index, PET or SET
(Standards Effective Temperature).
The model was developed based on Guideline VDI-Germany, 3789. The model
was developed to calculate the Environment Meteorology, interaction between the
atmosphere and the surface, calculation of short-wave radiation and long based VDI-
3787, biometeorological humans, evaluation of climate and air quality in urban planning
and regional.
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The model requires data on human energy balance, meteorological data (air
temperature, wind speed, humidity and flux of short and long wave radiation) and
thermo physiological data (the activity and clothing) are required for the calculation of
thermal index.
Rayman additional features of the model can be used to evaluate the climate of
an area or tourism facilities, can calculate the duration of sunlight with or without the
sky factor; estimating the average daily maximum or global total radiation, and
determine the shaded area (shaded area).
Rayman allows us to enter the picture structure of an urban (i.e. Building,
leaves, and trees), drawing freely Sky View Factor (SVF), also allows insert the picture
of fish eye to calculate factors an area that can be expected flux of radiation. Rayman’s
interface can be seen in Figure 4.5.
The result of this model is a daily average of radiation that is needed for further
calculations of Human-Biometeorological that the ultimate value of thermal comfort is
issued in PMV, PET and the SET, such as Figure 4.6..
Figure 4.5. Rayman Interface
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Figure 4.6. The result of Rayman simulation
4.3.2. . EnviMet Model
The Envi Met simulation begins to rise because of the early issues of the 21st
century that the global trend of urbanization cannot be dammed with about 60% of the
world population living in large urban areas (Bruse, 1998, Huttner, 2009).
The available space is limited not only leads to an increasingly dense urban
areas, but also the urban sprawl into areas that are usually not intended for human
settlements such as settlements in the desert or the occurrence of mega-cities in the
tropics.
Build houses and open surface cause changes in environmental conditions in
urban areas significantly, raising the question of how urban environments can be
designed to offer the best climatic conditions for its citizens.
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But not only extreme climate conditions in the region such as the desert can
cause outdoor environment that is hostile, local conditions were not pleasant also be
produced by the design of the urban poor as the effects of wind gusts caused by the
effects of jet in the corner of the building, the accumulation of air pollution or
discomfort thermal conditions outdoor.
Planers and architects who want to maintain or improve the quality of urban
areas should be aware that the urban microclimate is a very complex system that
consists of a nonlinear feedback loop of the many relationships between natural and
artificial elements are different. A simulation of how the design of cities or buildings
interact with the local climate is an essential tool to be able to describe the increase in
the desired condition.
EnviMet model is a simulation model of the microclimate in the 3-dimensional
shape (Bruse, 1998). EnviMet made to simulate vegetation, surface temperature and air
flow in the urban environment, urban climate, as the thermal design of the building with
the basic design, and environmental planning (Huttner, 2009). This model combines
computation fluid dynamic parameters such as the flow of wind or turbulence the
thermodynamic processes occurring in the soil surface, wall and roof structures or urban
areas. With a typical resolution between 0.5 m and 10 m, this model can simulate
geometric shapes and even complicated as a terrace, balcony or a complex. The
EnviMet end the result is a color scale that shows the value of PMV, which corresponds
to the value of thermal comfort.See Figure 4.7.
Color values which represent the value of PMV when linked with environmental
characteristics can describe positions that cause the space into hot or cold in a thermal
comfort scale. So that environmental characteristics can be assessed spatially using this
EnviMet.
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Figure 4.7. The Examples of EnviMet result

4.3.3. Sky View Factor Calculator Software
SVF Calculator is software to calculate the Sky View Factor . “SVF calculator is
written in MATLAB computing language and is executed using the Matlab Compiler
Runtime (MCR)” (Lindberg, 2010). The version 1.1. can calculate using two different
methods. First the method that developed by Holmer (2001), using pixel-based method.
Second produced by Johnson and Watson (1984), the method that developed using
annulus. “The calculation procedure for annulus method make use of 45 annuli with a 5
degree azimuth interval resulting in that 3240 pixels in the hemispheric image is used in
the calculation. The pixel method includes all pixels within the radius of the image. This
result, for example, in approximately 404000 pixels that is examined in a 720x720 pixel
image.” (Lindberg, 2010). For the process and results of the SVFCalculator can be seen
in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8. Process and the result of Sky View calculator
4.3.4. Statistical Model
In order to calculate and evaluate the urban structure affect the urban
microclimate and thermal comfort, common urban structure and environmental
characteristics, such as SVF (Sky View Factor), Building Height/Street Width, albedo,
and Green Plot Ratio (GnPR) was compared with microclimate variables using the
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statistical package, R. Pierson’s R coefficient (for normally distributed data) and
Sperasman’s rho coefficient (for skewed data) were used to analyze the correlation.
4.4. Methodology
4.4.1. . Research area
Indonesia is an archipelago country consist of about 17.000 islands, see Figure

4.9. Break-up by the equator, Indonesia is almost entirely in tropical climate. The
coastal plains average temperature is 28°C, the inland and mountain 26°C, and the
higher mountain regions 23°C. The east monsoon from June to September brings dry
weather while the west monsoon from December to March is moisture laden bringing
rain. The transitional period between these two is interposed by occasional rain showers,
but even in the midst of the west monsoon seasons, temperatures range still from 21°C
to 33°C except at higher altitudes, which are much cooler.
The seasons in Indonesia are divided into two distinct seasons, wet and dry. The
climate is fairly even all year round. Heaviest rainfalls are recorded in December to
January. Being in the tropical zone, Indonesia has an average humidity 80%, with a
minimum of 70% and maximum of 90%. The main variable of Indonesia's climate is not
temperature or air pressure, but rainfall. The equatorial air circulation and the meridian
air circulation form the characteristic of climate and weather in Indonesia. The
temperature of Java island, the main and populated island in Indonesia, throughout the
year between 22° C to 29° C with humidity average 75%.
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Figure 4.9. Location of research area
The wet season is from October to the end of April. North equator the heaviest
rainfall is between November and April and dry seasons between May to October. In
the south equator, the heaviest rainfall is between Decembers to February.
Winds are moderate and predictable, with monsoons, usually blowing in from
the south and east in June through September and from the northwest in December
through March. Prevailing wind patterns interact with local topographic conditions to
produce significant variations in rainfall throughout the archipelago. In general, western
and northern parts of Indonesia experience the most precipitation; from the north and
westward-moving monsoon clouds are heavy with moisture, by the time they reach
these more distant regions.
4.4.2. . Jakarta’s Climate Condition
Jakarta located at 6° 13' S 106° 50' E on the northwest coast of Java, at the
mouth of the Ciliwung River of Jakarta Bay, which is an inlet of the Java Sea. The city
is a lowland area, average height is 7 meters above sea level. Officially, the area of the
Jakarta is 662 km2 of land area and 6,977 km2 of the sea area. Rivers flow from the
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hilly southern parts of the city northwards towards the Java Sea. The most important
river is the Ciliwung River, which divides the city into the western and eastern
principalities.
Jakarta is a hot-humid tropical climate city that located in the western-part of
Indonesia in South Equator. Jakarta's wet season rainfall peak is in January with average
monthly rainfall 400 millimeters (16 in), and its dry season low point is in August with
a monthly average 70 millimeters (2.8 in). The average daily temperatures range is from
25° to 36°C, which the hottest month is October and the coldest month is January.
Jakarta area has an average wind speed 3ms-1 with south direction on May-October
(wet/rainy season) and from east on November-April (dry season) annually Figure 4.10
and Figure 4.11.
Figure 4.10. Seasonal pattern of temperature, air velocity, and relative humidity in Jakarta, 2013
(Source: Wunderground.com)
.
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Figure 4.11. Wind direction at Jakarta on rainy season (November-April) and dry season (May-
October), 2013
4.4.3. Location Study
The famous name of Jakarta is Daerah Khusus Ibukota-Special Capital City

Region of Indonesia. Jakarta had become the capital city since 1945 when Indonesia
proclaimed as an independent state. Since then apart as the state capital, Jakarta is also a
center of economic growth in Indonesia. Jakarta has grown faster than Kuala Lumpur,
Beijing and Bangkok leaped from ranking 171 to 17 in 2007 among the 200 largest
cities in the world. Jakarta Megapolitan City’s area is 662 square kilometers with almost
10.000.000 population in 2011. See in Figure 4.9.
4.4.4. . Thermal Comfort Measurement
A Sunny day without rain is an essential day to make field measurement in

urban open space. Temperature (Ta), relative humidity (Rh %), and wind velocity (v,
m/s) are measured based on the climate condition in Jakarta. The coldest month of the
rainy season and hottest month of the dry season were the best periods to carry out the
physical measurement. February and October are the best conditions. The weather in
February and October in Jakarta are very stable, without rain and clouds, lower thermal
oscillation and small variation of the relative humidity day by day.
The measurements were made on 3 February and 10 October 2013, in a clear
sky, during 24 hours, from 1 am to 12 pm. The 8 points were chosen in the area include
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shaded, sunny and half-shade areas, to promote different possibilities of thermal
conditions, see Fig.4. The eight points of measurement can be seen in Figure 3. The
tools were used in the field measurement, i.e., Thermo Recorder RT 13 to measure
temperature and relative humidity, LM 8000 to measure wind velocity, and EM 528A to
measure Surface temperature. All sensors installed in 1.5 m above the ground and under
factory calibrated. All data results were made into hourly means.
GIS data were used to obtain the urban structure data of Mega Kuningan
Superblocks. The sky view factor (SVF) was made from Nikon DSLR and fisheye lens
that captured from each measurement point. The RayMan 1.2 software is used to
calculate SVF from the DSLR image (Matzarakis, Rutz, and Mayer 2007).
4.4.5. The most widely used thermal indices at present time
Mayer and Hoppe (1987) stated PET (Physiological Equivalent Temperature) was
used to calculate the thermal comfort index. PET is widely known using °C in its
unit. Therefore, PET has the advantage compared to other thermal comfort index
(Hoppe 1999; Matzarakis, Mayer and Iziomon 1999). Base on the human energy
balance of the human body PET is a very good match to the human
biometeorological evaluation of the thermal component in any different climates.
Therefore, it is suitable to thermal physiologically and reproducible.
The thermal comfort model prompts eight-point scale, from very cold to very hot,
combining individual parameters (metabolism and clothing resistance) and
environmental parameters (air temperature, air humidity, air temperature and radiant
temperature). This research used the PET index stated by Lin and Matzarakis (2008),
which suitable for tropical region like Indonesia, see Table 1.
PET index was suitable used for those theme parks where the level of comfort can
be obtained from the features of the urban environment that already present in those
theme parks. Matzarakis et al. (1999) stated PET has been well-defined as a thermal
index that serves the thermal component in different climates.
Rayman model, developed by Matzarakis, Rutz, and Mayer (2007), was used as
tools to calculate PET. This model enables estimate the mean radiant temperature,
one of the most difficult parameters to calculate.
Gulyas et al. (2006); and Lin et al. (2006) reported that Rayman can predict the
thermal environment. It has been used to calculate in several of outdoor thermal
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comfort with complex shading patterns. Lin et al., (2010) reported, PET can be
estimated using Ta (temperature), RH (Relative Humidity), v (wind velocity), Tmrt
(Mean Radian Temperature), human clothing and activity in the model. Moreover,
several parameters can be added to calculate following analyses, i.e. the Tmrt (the
most important factor during hot condition when calculating PET) can be also
estimated by global radiation (Gr), cloud cover (Cd), fisheye photographs, albedo,
the Bowen ratio of ground surface and the Link turbidity to include the shading
effect while calculating short- and long-wave radiation fluxes. Besides variables
above, the sky view factor (SVF) is another factor that affected the value of PET
(Hwang et al. 2011).
Table 4.5. PET Index Source: Lin and Matzarakis (2008)
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Gomez et al. (2013) reported the value of clothing and activity were assumed to
be constant to set up the index. This model did not mean that the model has a
limitation, if they vary equally outdoors and in the standard of the indoor situation,
the PET does not significantly affected.
The following condition of this research had to be taken into account: the
locations of the research; human-biometeorology; the factors of specific condition in
the theme parks that affecting and distorting some meteorological component; the
characteristic of each index regarding to their model and component.
The methodology of this research was to precisely measure the meteorology’s
variables, which became input data for the Rayman model, once the suitable
locations had been chosen for this research and the different situation described for
each of the objectives. This research objective is: Establish the comfort level of
theme parks in different location and situation.
4.4.6. . Step-by-step walking comfort simulation
These step-by-step explain how to simulate walking comfort based on Matt

deVau (2011, pp. 27), as follows:
1. Identify the study area and the time of year to collect the information of
weather data.
2. Determined the four climate-based biometeorology inputs: use average field
measurement to determine air temperature, relative humidity, and wind
velocity on a typical day for three times of day – 7 am, 1 pm, and 5 pm. Used
Rayman software to determine the mean radiant temperature (Tmrt) value for
three sample urban environments, shaded area, light shaded and unshaded
area.
3. Used the established values in literature to determine the two behavioral
biometeorology inputs, i.e.: clothing value (clo) for typical tropical business
clothing for male, and metabolic rate for individual walking at speed 1.34
m.s-1, or 80.4 meters per minute.
4. Identify the case study and determined the body surface area of the model, in
this case, the model is Indonesian male.
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5. Used de Dear’s Human Heat Balance calculator to calculate skin temperature
(Tsk) and evaporative heat loss through regulatory sweating (qsw) minute-by-
minute for every combination of urban environment and time of day.
6. Used the partitional calorimetry spreadsheet (Atkins and Thompson, 2000) to
calculate the maximal evaporative capacity of the environment (qemax) for
every combination of urban environment and time of day. The partial water
vapor pressure of ambient air (Pa) is calculated using the Visual basic
interface in EnvironTab of the spreadsheet. The saturated water vapor
pressure of skin surface (Ps) is determined from skin temperature (Tsk) values
calculated by de Dear’s calculator. All other calculation are made using
equation 2-11.
7. Calculation skin wittedness (w) of the model in every environment, and the
combination of time using equation 1 and qsw and climax values determine
from above methods. The values are calculated for each minute of the 30
minute period, and then every minute result values are compared with 0.3
wettedness values, which is the required value of comfort condition by
(Gagge, et al. 1969); and 0.5 as the thermal comfort limitation by (Havenith,
Holmer, and Parsons 2002).
Conclusions
The theoretical framework has to be structured in order to hold or support a

theory of a research study. The framework of research is made not only to explain,
forecast, and understand the phenomena, but also to challenge and extend existing
knowledge within the restrictions of critical bouncing assumptions. The theoretical
framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem
under study exists.
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Chapter 5
THERMAL COMFORT IN THREE THEME PARKS IN JAKARTA
Summary
This research presents the results of a study about thermal comfort measurement
and evaluation in the theme parks. Physiological equivalent temperature (PET) is
employed as a thermal index in this research. This research studied how climate impacts
thermal comfort in the three biggest theme parks in Jakarta: Taman Mini Indonesia
Indah (TMII), Kebun Binatang Ragunan (KBR), and Taman Impian Jaya Ancol (TIJA).
Part of the large ongoing Urban Microclimate Space Research, this research that aims to
investigate the influence of the microclimate on how urban public spaces are
appreciated and used shown in a tropical humid climate thermal comfort is difficult to
achieve with respect to open spaces. The results highlighted the need to expand the
concept of comfort in the different concept of theme parks. This analysis shows that the
location and the concept of theme park directly influence the formation of microclimate
affected thermal comfort inside.
5.1. Jakarta’s Bioclimatic Characterization
Jakarta located at 6° 13' S 106° 50' E, Figure 5.1., on the northwest coast of Java, at
the mouth of the Ciliwung River of Jakarta Bay, which is an inlet of the Java Sea. The
city is a lowland area averaging 7 meters above sea level. Officially, the area of the
Jakarta Special District (Daerah Khusus Ibukota/DKI) is 662 km2 of land area and
6,977 km2 of the sea area. Rivers flow from the hilly southern parts of the city
northwards towards the Java Sea. The most important river is the Ciliwung River, which
divides the city into the western and eastern principalities.
Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia climatologically located between 060 06 '49 "S, 106
° 37'59.08" E and 6 ° 18'2.38 "S, 107 ° 0'0.19" BT. As shown in Figure 5.2. Average the
sun shines in Jakarta 12 hours in the sense that the long day and night in Jakarta is
almost the same. See the solar chart of Jakarta on Figure 5.1.
The Köppen climate classification stated: Jakarta, located in the western-part of
Indonesia in South-Equator, is a hot and humid equatorial/tropical climate (Af) city.
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According to the meteorological data in 2012-2014, Jakarta's wet season rainfall
peak is January with monthly average rainfall 400 millimeters (16 in), and reaches
low-point in 70 millimeters (2.8 in) in its dry season in August. In whole years,
Jakarta has an average wind speed is 3 m/s from 270° (west) with humidity (Rh)
range 75-90, and average daily
Figure 5.1. Solar Chart of Jakarta
Figure 5.2. Seasonal pattern of daily radiation in Jakarta, 2013 (Source: Meteonorm,
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2014)
Figure 5.3. Seasonal pattern of temperature, air velocity, and relative humidity in Jakarta, 2013
(Source: Meteonorm, 2014)
temperatures range from 25° to 36°C. Thus Jakarta become hotter and the hottest
month in Jakarta is September-October and the coldest month is in February-March,
Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3.
5.2. Case Study
A theme park is a type of protected area designated by some authorities. Theme

Parks in Jakarta are administered by several different agencies. There are three big
theme parks in Jakarta, see Figure 5.4, i.e.: a) Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (TMII);
TMII is a recreation park that presents Indonesia Cultures divided into buildings, which
every building represents Indonesia Cultures from East to West part of Indonesia; b)
Ragunan Park (Kebun Binatang Ragunan/KBR) is a zoo, second largest zoo in
Indonesia after Surabaya’s zoo; c) Taman Impian Jaya Ancol (TIJA) administered by a
private company is a modern theme park located at north beach of Jakarta.
The theme park is designed as a part of the city, which provided for recreational use.
The design of a theme park may determine who is willing to use it. The most important
elements of a theme park are attractions as they provide the main reason or motivation
for tourists to visit. The aim of purpose-built attractions are to attract visitors and
increase visitor numbers, but not all of the attraction in the theme park can be accessed
because of the largeness of the theme park and the climatic condition.
5.2.1. Taman Impian Jaya Ancol (TIJA)
Taman Impian Jaya Ancol (TIJA), known as Ancol Dreamland, is an integral part
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of the Ancol Bay City, a resort destination located along Jakarta's waterfront
(6°07'29.35"S, 106°50'35.45"E). Ancol Dreamland opened in 1966, and it is
currently the largest integrated tourism area in South East Asia. TIJA with 552 Ha is
boasting an international championship golf course, beach theme park, hotels and
other recreational facilities. The concept of TIJA theme parks is modern theme parks
with modern amusement facilities.
Measurement points in TIJA selected on the following points: see in Figure 5.5
5.2.2. Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (TMII)
Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (TMII) is an area of approximately 250 square

kilometers, located in East Jakarta, Indonesia (6°18'6.8"S, 106°53'47.2"E). TMII is a
culture-based recreational theme park. It is a representation of Indonesian culture
captured in separate pavilions, with the collections of Indonesian architecture,
clothing, dances and traditions. All are portrayed clearly all aspects of daily life in
26 provinces of Indonesia (1997). In the middle of the park, there is a lake with a
miniature of the Indonesian archipelago and cable cars above. A part of the park
there is a museum, Keong Mas Imax cinema, with theatre named My Homeland
Theatre (Theater Tanah Airku) and other recreational facilities which make TMII
one of the most popular for local tourist destinations in Jakarta. Culture, diversity in
unity, is the theme brought to the visitors by TMII.
Measurement points in TMII selected on the following points, see in Figure 5.6
5.2.3. Ragunan Zoo (Kebun Binatang Ragunan/KBR)
Ragunan Park is a zoo located in the Ragunan area, South Jakarta, (6°18'42.45"S,
106°49'00.40"E). The zoo area of 140 hectares was established in 1864, also known
Ragunan Zoological Park, Ragunan Zoo consist of Zoo and Park area. There are
many attractions in KBR e.g.; the Schmutzer Primate Centre is a special enclosed
house with various primates, including gorillas, chimpanzees and orangutans. The
13-hectares (32-acres) part of the KBR area are in the children's playground area
include a Children's Zoo, playground and animal rides, along with the Sunday events
of elephant ride, pony cart and boat rides on Ragunan Lake, and the orangutans
watching deck on their daily tour of the zoo grounds in a pony cart. Restaurant
facilities and picnic shelters are available for visitors' convenience as well as stands
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for purchasing souvenirs of the zoo.
Measurement points in TIJA selected on the following points, see Figure 5.7.
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Figure 5.4. Map of TIJA, TMII and KBR, and the points of measurement
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A B C D E F
Main Entramce of
Art Market Galanggang Samudra Entrance of Sea World Dufan’s Parking area Main Entrance of TIJ
DUFAN
Figure 5.5. Environmental characteristics of TIJA at the measurement point
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A B C D E F
Main Parking Park North Sumatra Pavilion The Entrance of Snow The Entrance of Pancasila Fire Sculpture Keong Mas Park
Bay Water Park Gelanggang Remaja
Figure 5.6. Environmental characteristics of TMII at the measurement point.
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A B C D E F
Elephant and Giraffe The Entrance Picnic The entrance of Prima

Main Entrance of KBR East Entrance Flamingo area
area Park area
Figure 5.7. Environmental characteristics of KBR at the measurement point

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Figure 5.8. Value of sky view factor calculated by Sky View Factor Calculator by Lindberg and Holmer (2006).
5.2.4. Field Measurement
Data was collected on two consecutive years (2013-2014). The measurements

were made on 21 March and 19 September, during 10 hours, between 7.00 AM to
17.00, regarding theme parks were opened.
The following equipment to measure, as follows: LM 8000, the surface
temperature measuring device, and EM 528A are used during field measurements.
All sensors installed in 1.5 m above the ground and under factory calibrated. All
Data results were made every 10 minutes.
The six point measurement was conducted in each park and divided into 3 groups
with respect to their different shaded area conditions based on Sky View Factor
(SVF) value, Figure 5.8. The first group is the dense greenery (DG, SVF=0-0.33),
the second group is Light greenery (LG, SVF=0.34-0.66), and the third group is
sparse dense greenery (SG, SVF=0.67-1.0), see figure 4.5.
In this research SVF, Figure 5.8, was measured using images taken with one set of
photographic equipment: a conventional camera (Nikon D80) with a fisheye
hemispheric lens (Tokina 10 mm f4). The image from the camera was transferred to
the Sky View Factor Calculator. Brown et al. (2001) stated that Sky View Factor
Calculator is able to calculate the Sky View Factor (SVF) value on hemispherical
photographs using a Graphical User interface (GUI).
Lindberg and Holmer (2006) reported in Manual Book of Sky View Factor
Calculator version 1.1, the method of calculation in Sky View Factor Calculator
based on two methods, first is the annulus method as presented in Johnson and
Watson (1984) and the second is pixel-based method developed by Holmer (2004)
and. Based on two methods the results of SVF value were similar in this
measurement.
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Figure 5.9. Average Ta, Tmrt and PET of Jakarta calculated by Rayman software based on weather data 2012-2014 show the results at the day of field
measurement (March 20-25th and September 20-25th).
5.3. Measurement Results
Figure 5.9 shows during the days of measurement in March and September,
Jakarta’s thermal comfort was affected by macroclimate condition which shown
uncomfortable. The data of Jakarta’s macroclimate were accepted from two big
weather stations from 2012-2014, Soekarno-Hatta International Airport weather
station and Halim Perdana Kusuma Airpot.
Average PET values in Jakarta were above 30 °C starts from 11 AM and reached
45 °C at 3 PM, although in the morning at 7am was still in a comfortable condition,
22 °C PET, these conditions change quickly became uncomfortable in the afternoon.
Every district in Jakarta is affected by Macroclimate condition of Jakarta.
Macroclimate on 19 September and 21 March, shows that the average temperature was
at 28 °C varied from .24 °C to 32 °C. The morning temperature started at 24 °C where
the temperature is the influence of the previous day with 95% humidity and wind speed
0 m/s.
5.3.1. Result of Taman Impian Jaya Ancol (TIJA)
From the measurement on March 21, shaded area with SVF 0.2 at TIJA A (Art
Market) and SVF 0.25 in TIJA B at the site entrance of Fantasy World was still very
satisfying in thermal comfort with the value of PET 24 °C, but this value continues rise
due to the circulation of the sun that penetrate into the area. Temperature value
continued rise from 0.2 to 0.5 °C. The peak temperature at this location occurred in 1pm
which was 28.7°C and declined steadily until 5pm. See Figure 5.10. Assessment Result
in TIJA on March and September of PET, Ta, Rh, and wind speed.
The value of humidity was starting with 90% in the morning because of the a bit
overcast in the day before. The wind influence on thermal comfort at this location
because the average speed is almost 4 m/s at the time of measurement, Figure 5.10.
Material Zone of the art market and the main entrance of DUFAN is made
mostly from soft material and a little asphalt of the driveway at the main entrance of
DUFAN. This was actually a slight disadvantage in the value of the albedo because this
material much has a heat reflective. Besides this location, there are many standing
buildings that gave diffuse radiation to this area.
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Overall the location is still in the thermal comfort zone that can be tolerated,
even though during the day the value of thermal comfort was at the pea0k
uncomfortable with the value 32.9 °C PET occurred at 11am and in DUFAN the PET
value was 35.6 °C, can be seen in Figure 5.10.
Peak hour discomfort between the art market and the main entrance DUFAN is
not the same because of differences in environmental characteristics. The main entrance
of DUFAN is asphalt slightly more dominant and made permanent building with
material wall concrete and brick building with a height of two floors, this will reduce
the wind speed and increase the reflection of radiation around the location, Figure 5.10.
On 19 September, the location of the art market becomes more uncomfortable,
this was happening because of the higher humidity values 90% from the morning and
the very low wind speeds 2.7 m/s on average. The peak uncomfortable value in Art
Market occurred at 13:00 at a temperature 35.2 °C PET. The rain on the previous day in
the Art Market thermal the thermal comfort condition is worsening, Figure 5.10.
The SVF in the main entrance of DUFAN is larger than the Art Market, The
direct sunlight that penetrates in the area has advantage reducing the humidity.
Additionally the cold air came into the area from the east that slightly open area. With
an average wind speed of 3 m/s and a humidity of 80%. The peak uncomfortable in this
location occurred at 12pm at 38 °C. The thermal comfort simulation on September 19th,
can be seen in Figure 5.10.
On-site measurements of TIJA C that located at the Sea Worlds entrance has
SVF value 0.44 and TIJA D that located at entrance of Gelanggang Samudara have SVF
value 0,47, can be seen in the second picture, Figure 5.10. The temperature at that
location is almost equal to the rate of the average wind speed 3.2 m/s and the humidity
is at 87%.
Environmental characteristics of these two locations are dominated by paving
and not so shaded by trees. The existing buildings surrounding is more likely to be open
not filled by a high wall. At the location of the entrance of Sea World large building
located on the west side.
With similar characteristics to the physical location of this site has the same
value of thermal comfort in the morning at 07am the value of thermal comfort has been
started with a warm, comfortable at position 24 °C PET and kept going to the peak at
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about 11am to 13pmx and dropping back after that, but impairment thermal comfort was
not achieved the expected value of thermal comfort in a comfortable condition.
The second peak of discomfort at these locations is different a little bit at the
entrance Sea Worlds discomfort peak occurs at 11am at 36.6 °C PET. Meanwhile, at the
entrance of Arena Samudra discomfort peak occurred in 1pm at 36.7 °C. See Figure
5.10.
In September slightly different conditions on the measurement of March. At Sea
Worlds locations more convenient conditions other than the SVF values lower than
Arena Samudra many trees and buildings scattered around the influence of location will
influence this value.
Peak discomfort at this location slightly shifted in September, at the location of
discomfort Sea World peak occurred at 2pm hours at 35 °C and the ocean location rink
at 12pm hours at 38.9 °C. The peak of discomfort occurs due to the shift of the wind
speed has changed both direction and speed. With conditions slightly open on the
southwest side of The Sea Worlds favorable wind can enter in September which tends
from the west. Unlike the Arena Samudra location in southwest more positions covered
by buildings and trees that significantly inhibit the rate of the incoming wind speed
within the premises. See the chart of PET in Figure 5.10
With an average wind speed of 3 m/s at the location of Sea World with an
average humidity of 78% make Sea Worlds is at 7am remained at comfortable limits.
While the ocean location rink in the morning at 7am with a wind speed of 2.1 m/s and
high humidity tends to 85% and the temperature has reached 25 °C make this location
the morning already started with a warm comfortable position, see Figure 5.10.
Suggests that thermal comfort tendency to rise in line with increasing time, also in
tandem with the rise in temperature, and the declining value of moisture. A more open
area with little paving impact more comfortable, Sea Worlds with little buildings that
surround it can reduce the value temperature on the location of the measurement, the
measurement location can be seen in Figure 4.9.
Both are almost the same characteristics of the environment, only met by paving
and asphalt as ground cover without many around the buildings, with conditions very
open without any trees and buildings blocking. For the measurement location in TIJA E
and F, so it tends to get a rate that is relatively high wind speeds, an average of 1.3 m/s
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for DUFAN parking area and 2.1 m/s from the location in Round About with the
evaporation speed humidity for two locations tends to be low at an average of 84%, see
Figure 5.10 .
Thorough analysis, Ancol area illustrates that the trend in September thermal
comfort in TIJA ride along with the hot temperatures and low wind speed in the region.
TIJA shaded area in the region provides comfort a little better than the area that is not
shaded. At 7am (7 am) all measurement points are still in comfortable circumstances
and will likely begin to heat at 9am and the peak of heat occurs between the hours of
11am to 13:00.
Average winds in not shaded areas are larger than in a shaded area so not shaded
areas have excess thermal comfort in the morning, but will be faster rise than in the
shaded area as quickly receive direct solar heat.
Change the direction and wind speed have an impact on each measurement
location, locations that covered by many trees and in the surrounding buildings will be
less receive higher temperatures, so it still tends thermal comfort rise to heat, even
though it is slower compared to open area.
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105
Figure 5.10. Assessment Result in TIJA on March and September of PET, Ta, Rh, and wind speed
5.3.2. Thermal Comfort in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah
Measurements on the field in March and in September in TMII produce some

analysis as follows, see Figure 5.11.:
In the month of March in the location of measurement in TMII A (Main Parking
Park), SVF 0.21 and B (North Sumatra Pavilion), SVF 0.37, with each illustrates that
this location exists at the level of thermal comfort in the morning at 7am with warm
cozy conditions.
At the main parking area which has a more dense tree with SVF 0.21 in the first
two hours the temperature measured at that location is stable without any significant
increase in the impact on the first two measurements of thermal comfort tend to rise
slowed down, see Figure 5.11. Although this parking area is fully covered by asphalt.
The closure of the trees tends to slow down the increasing of surface temperature.
Average temperatures in March at this location is 27 °C with 82% humidity and wind
speed of 4 m/s. While in September the average wind speed at 2.7 m/s with 75%
humidity and temperature at 27 °C, see Figure 5.11.
Thermal comfort in the main parking area is likely to be cozy in the morning at
7am. The shadowing give the benefit at this location due to thermal comfort headed by
slowing to peak at 12.00 in March and September. In March peak of thermal discomfort
occurs at 32.4°C PET and September tend to rise to 32.7°C PET. While the performance
of an average day rate of thermal comfort of this location is 28°C in March and 28.5 °C
in September. See Figure 5.11.
At the location TMII B in North Sumatra Pavilion area when compared to the
main parking area a little more heat. Environmental characteristics, that have many
buildings around the measurement and ground cover a wider range of parking area
temperatures bring a higher level and reduce the rate of the incoming wind speed in this
area.
Figure 5.11 shows that measurement results that the average wind speed in this
area is 2.6 m/s in March and 2.5 in September. Humidity is on average 66% in March
and September 71%, this location is hotter than the main parking of TMII with an
average of 28 °C on March and 26 °C on September.
The average of thermal comfort level is at 32 °C PET in March and 28 °C PET
in September. Mornings tend to be still comfortable, heat peaks occurred at 13:00 hours
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at 34°C in March and in 12.00 at 36.3°C PET in September. Can be seen in the graph in
Figure 5.11.
The measurement locations at A and B, with different levels of the shaded area,
had a different result. Although the value of SVF in the location of A which tend to be
smaller than B area, but the main parking area (A) to be more comfortable. The
environment characteristic is different. The building shadowing has not been a lot of
means to make conditions more comfortable than a location with a lot of tree cover.
The results of measurements at the Main Entrance Snow Bay Water Park (TMII
C) and the entrance to Arena teenagers (TMII D) shows similarities in March, this is
shown in the Figure 5.11. Seen from the measurement of microclimatic variables, both
these locations have the same temperature level with an average humidity and wind
speed are almost equal.
With environmental characteristics similar to the shade of a few trees and cover
most of the surface of the paving and asphalt, the thermal comfort value of the two
locations almost same. Location Snow Bar Water Park is dominated by paving and
building one-story, parking location is for four-wheeled vehicles that will enter the
water park. While the Entrance Arena of Teen dominated by paving and asphalt, but at
the back of the garden there are several parks with grass covering the surface. In the
eastern part there is existing building with a height of 4 floors of a game castle.
In March at Snow Bay Water Park average rate of temperature is 28°C with a
wind speed 0.4 m/s and humidity 73%. While the youth center at the entrance level the
average temperature was 27.5 °C and Rh 82% with a wind speed 0.4 m/s. So in March
of this second location average of microclimate that thermal comfort chart have the
same pattern.
Thermal comfort that can be seen in Figure 5.11, illustrates that thermal comfort
in September at both these locations tend to rise. At the location of the entrance of Snow
Bay Water Park is more likely to be hot, although not significant when compared with
youth center areas. Heat peaks at the entrance of Snow Bay Water Park occurred at
12pm, while the area of the peak summer youth center was at 3pm. The heat peak at
Snow Bay Water Park occurs at a temperature 40.2 °C PET and in the area of youth
centers at 37.9 °C PET.
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When you see the elements of microclimate that affects both locations can be
understood that the average temperature in both locations at 27 °C with low wind
speeds the rate at 0.6 °C and 1.5 °C in the youth center. Humidity in both places have an
average that is almost the same at 77%. While the wind direction does not remain tend
to vary with dominance comes from the southwest.
With characteristics very open environment, Figure 5.11. SVF 0.86 (TMII E),
Pancasila Monument area and 0.74 for Keong Mas Park, with a few trees that shaded in
both this area and the material tends to radiate heat makes thermal comfort in both
locations is far from comfortable even though in area Keong Mas park on the morning
at 7am still get a comfortable 19.3 °C PET, but the temperature rapid rise in in this area
causes the thermal comfort level moving very fast-moving heat from a comfortable
position of being comfortable warm (24.4 °C PET ) in just over an hour. Likewise, in
Monument of Fire heat very fast move from the comfortable conditions 21 °C to 26.2
°C PET in just over an hour. This illustrates that the elements of microclimate that
moves in this area experiencing rapid changes both temperature conditions, humidity
and wind speed rating. See Figure 5.11.
Temperatures in the area Pancasila Monument were changed from 23.2 °C to
24.9 °C while the humidity was changed from 91% to 85% at a rate of wind speed of
0.7 m/s to 0.6 m/s. This shows the indications of changes in temperature very quickly
that the area is experiencing a warming temperature, due to the materials that reflect the
heat quickly like granite, asphalt and no trees that resist sunlight coming in the
environment. So it is with Keong Mas parking garden. See chart of thermal comfort in
the Figure 5.11
The overall condition of TMII region can be described as follows, in fact shaded
area with small SVF in TMII have far more comfortable conditions than areas not
shaded at all.
The condition is not shaded or large SVF values tend to be more comfortable in
the morning due to the amount of wind that blew unhindered in the morning can be seen
from the table amount of wind in the annex, but tends to be faster uncomfortable over
time, due to direct sunlight penetrate in the area, In the area of discomfort TMII peak
occurs between the hours of 11am to 2pm in March and September where temperatures
PET reaches an average of 39 °C.
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In circumstances where the rate is far below the wind speed of 1 m/s thermal
comfort conditions can be very hot above 40 °C PET. This occurs in an area that is not
shaded like Ancol E (area Parking Keong Mas Park) and TMII F (Fire monument area)
so quite vary as a recreational area, this condition into consideration to be improved,
although that uncomfortable condition only happens in 1 hour from 1pm to 2pm.
109
110
Figure 5.11. Assessment Result in TMII on March and September of PET, Ta, Rh, and wind speed
5.3.3. Thermal Comfort in Ragunan Zoo
Measurements on the ground in March and in September at Ragunan Zoo (KBR)

produced some analysis as follows, see Figure 5.12.:
A KBR measuring point in the location of the main entrance (SVF 0.1) in the
morning, starting at 7am temperature of 25.9 °C with 97% humidity and wind speed of
2.1 m/s produces thermal comfort at 22.9 °C PET, see Figure 5.12. With environmental
characteristics that many large and shaded by vegetation and covering material
conditions grasslands and little paving, this area is ideal as the main entrance into the
zoo. See Figure 5.7.
Over time thermal comfort in this area increased to heat, although not extreme.
Judging from the Figure 5.12 flatness of this graph illustrates that this area tends to be
comfortable. Peak summer this area occurred at 11am at the time of measurement,
because of low wind speed of 0.4 m/s and an increase in air temperature of 30.5 °C,
while the air temperature peaks occur at 15:00 hours with wind speeds of 3.5 m/s.
KBR and around the park elephants and giraffes (B) with SVF 0.13 with state
environmental characteristics similar to the main entrance have the same result. Figure
5.12 shows the flatness of the thermal comfort chart significant thermal comfort
conditions in fully shaded areas in KBR is still in a comfortable condition in March. In
the morning the temperature in this area at 25.8 °C with a humidity of 90% and the rate
of wind speed of 1.5 m/s produces thermal comfort at 22.6 °C PET.
This comfortable condition happens for almost 4 hours until 11am hours
convenient conditions, turn out to be hot at 30.7 °C PET. Peak discomfort in this area
occurred in 13:00 with the degree of PET at 33 °C. This condition occurs as the summer
peak wind downs to 0.1 m/s and a temperature rising to 27.3 °C areas. This situation
illustrates that with a wind speed of 0.1 m/s are not able to block the incoming hot air in
this area, and cannot afford anyway wind speed it brings cool air into the area, noticed
that the moisture conditions at 13:00 still high 80%.
In September of thermal comfort conditions in both locations, seen from Figure
5.12 thermal comfort is generally not much different than in March. In September
where the air is drier causing a shift in thermal comfort in the morning. At 7am thermal
comfort state is in a position comfortably warm in both areas. At the main entrance,
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KBR A, at the beginning of the measurement of these conditions reaches 24°C PET and
Elephant and Giraffe Park (KBR B the position is a 24.7 °C PET.
Thermal comfort conditions in two locations in September is rising rapidly
because of discomfort shifting at 12pm PM at the main door entrance KBR and at 10:00
AM at the park elephants and giraffes. But continued to decline, but still in hot
conditions and are back in a comfortable position warming at 17.00 at the end of the
measurement.
In the graph of Figure 5.12 depicted a state of thermal comfort from two
locations KBR C, Park East door, and KBR D, Flamingo Park. In the Measurement on
March shows that both these locations on the morning begins with a comfortable
condition and move up to the peak of thermal discomfort occurred at 11am to 2pm.
The flatness of the graph shown in the KBR C park east door that has SVF 0.58,
with environmental characteristics more trees and a bit of the surrounding buildings, see
Figure 5.12. Compared with KBR D, parks pelicans north, with SVF 0.
Peak thermal discomfort at KBR C, park east door, occurred at 2pm hours at 39
°C PET while North Flamingo Park occurred at 11am at 35.2 °C PET. The average
temperature in KBR C is at 28.4 °C with a humidity of 75.7% and air speed of 1.7 m/s.
KBR D has an average temperature of 28 °C with a humidity of 75.8% and a wind
speed of 0.8 m/s. Conditions in March are almost 6 hours from 9:00 to 2:00 p.m. in hot
conditions.
In September the situation in these two locations are not much different, just
heat more rapidly achieved because in the morning, at 7am, the condition of thermal
comfort has reached comfortably warm i.e. at 25.6 °C PET position in KBR C and 24.7
°C PET in KBR D. Peak thermal discomfort more quickly achieved at 11am on KBR C
and 12.00 at KBR D.
A Long area in hot conditions in September has been started from 08.00 and
almost 7 hours to 16.00 hours we will feel the heat with the heat peak at 38.1 °C PET in
KBR C and 39.6 °C in KBR D. See Figure 5.12
The measurement results in the condition is not-shaded area in KBR, represented
by E, in the Picnic Area entrance and KBR F entrance area of Primates. In March, the
conditions in the morning the temperature in KBR 7am E at position 22.9 °C with
thermal comfort position are still in a comfortable position. While at the entrance of the
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primates, KBR F, thermal comfort has entered into a warm comfort at 24.1 °C of PET
with the temperature at 25.4 °C.
Environmental characteristics, see Figure 5.7, in KBR E and F dominated by
paving impact thermal comfort. Picnic Area is better because located in amongst the
buildings, while at the entrance of the primates there are two floors of the building on
the east side to the fence that surrounds the south.
Peak thermal comfort in hot conditions, in two locations in March this happened
in 1pm with 39.1 °C PET at KBR E and 40 °C at KBR F. The state of thermal comfort
on two locations is almost the same as having the characteristics of the environment that
is almost similar.
Similarly, in September, see Figure 5.12, state charts tend to be the same thermal
comfort. In this chart tends to be hotter than March that showed higher heat levels.
Interestingly, these two locations with SVF 0.78 for KBR E and SVF 0.82 which tend to
be open to incoming sunlight in the region, thermal comfort is not much different than
in March. Characteristic environment with many trees are still helping lower the
temperature of the environment, see Figure 5.7.
Thoroughly region Ragunan Zoo is an area with many large and old trees
located in the city center of Jakarta. Feels comfortable in shaded areas, especially in
March, where high winds can enter the area.
In the morning, the value of the average thermal comfort is the comfort zone.
Over time it will feel hot and peaked at 13:00 to 2pm hours. The graph shows the
flatness of the thermal comfort in a sense, the value of thermal comfort tends to rise
slowly toward the heat and after 13.30 hours decreased significantly, which means that
the value of thermal comfort dropped drastically from the heat became uncomfortably
warm at about 5pm.
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Figure 5.12. Assessment Result in KBR on March and September of PET, Ta, Rh, and wind speed
5.4. Urban Park Simulation of Thermal Comfort
In addition to measuring the microclimate variables, environmental characteristics

measurement has to be performed. This measurement is done in two ways: direct
measurement in the field and through the measurement scale images in this case wearing a
CAD drawing.
Environmental characteristics were measured to assess the albedo, building
orientation, the orientation of the open space and the Green Plot Ratio (GnPR) and Sky
View Factor (SVF). Figure 5.5, Figure 5.6, and Figure 5.7 shows how the environmental
characteristics assessed in an outdoor environment. Determination of the measured area is
the area that coverage of 100m x 100m (Okay, 2006).
5.4.1. Validation of Simuation
This simulation in the theme parks use the initial condition as seen in Table 5.1.
Boundary of the simulation is 100x100m as the border of microclimate that affect the area
of measurement. Using the same grids to calculate the area of microclimate parameters. The
parameters of microclimate that are used in this simulation were the average condition that
taken from the field measurement.
The validation of simulation are the comparison between the average condition of
thermal comfort (PET) from the field measurement and the result of simulation, the
validation result can be seen in Figure 5.13. The R square is 0.6, shows there is strong
correlation between the field measurement and the simulation.
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Table 5.1. Initial Condition of Theme Parks Simulation
Boundary Model 100m x 100m [SOLARADJUST]
Factor of shortwave
Grids 100x100 adjustment (0.5 to 1.5) 1
Start Simulation at Time
(HH:MM:SS): 6:00:00
Total Simulation Time in [BUILDING] Building
Hours: 24 properties
Save Model State each ? min 30 Inside Temperature [K] 293
Wind Speed in 10 m ab. Heat Transmission Walls
Ground [m/s] 3 [W/m²K] 1.94
Wind Direction Heat Transmission Roofs
(0:N..90:E..180:S..270:W..) 180 [W/m²K] 6
Roughness Length z0 at
Reference Point 3 Albedo Walls 0.65
Initial Temperature
Atmosphere [K] 296 Albedo Roofs 0.75
Specific Humidity in 2500 m
[g Water/kg air] 16.5
[SOILDATA] Settings for
Relative Humidity in 2m [%] 80 Soil
Initial Temperature Upper
Layer (0-20 cm) [K] 301
[PMV] Settings for PMV- Initial Temperature Middle
Calculation Layer (20-50 cm) [K] 301
Initial Temperature Deep
Walking Speed (m/s) 0.9 Layer (below 50 cm)[K] 301
Energy-Exchange (Col. 2 Relative Humidity Upper
M/A) 116 Layer (0-20 cm) 60
Relative Humidity Middle
Mech. Factor 0 Layer (20-50 cm) 70
Heattransfer resistance Relative Humidity Deep
cloths 1 Layer (below 50 cm) 70
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Figure 5.13. R square of average thermal comfort (PET) between field measurement and result of
simulation
5.4.2. Simulation and analysis at Taman Impian Jaya Ancol Theme Park (TIJA)
In accordance with field measurements following is a description of the location for

TIJA A (Art Market) and TIJA B (Fantasy World entrance). These two locations are
included in the shaded group that filled with SVF 0.20 and 0.25.
In the area of art market, SVF is low because of the large trees that scattered in the
location. 3.65 GnPR value has still lower than the scale of 10, but many scattered buildings
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surrounded on the first floor with the total wall 2539. 75m2 and the area covered by paving
30.7% total area. See Figure 5.14.
.
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A B C D E F
Main Entramce of
Art Market Galanggang Samudra Entrance of Sea World Dufan’s Parking area Main Entrance of TIJA
DUFAN
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Paved area 30.7 Paved area 63.01 Paved area 50.04 Paved area 12.87 Paved area 72.27 Paved area 65.16
GnPR 3.65 GnPR 2.25 GnPR 3.12 GnPR 2.37 GnPR 0.50 GnPR 1.09
SVF 0.20 SVF 0.25 SVF 0.44 SVF 0.47 SVF 0.82 SVF 0.82
Figure 5.14. Paved area, GnPR, and SVF comparison of Environmental Characteristics at TIJA
A B C D E F
North Sumatra Pavillion The Entrance of Snow Bay The Entrance of

Main Parking Park Pancasila Fire Sculpture Keong Mas Park
Pavilion Water Park Gelanggang Remaja
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GnPR 3..60 GnPR 1.87 GnPR 0.89 GnPR 2.15 GnPR 0.99 GnPR 1.28
Figure 5.15. Paved area, GnPR, and SVF comparison Environmental Characteristics of TMII
A B C D E F
The entrance of Primate

Main Entrance of KBR Elephant and Giraffe area East Entrance Flamingo area The Entrance Picnic Park
area
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GnPR 4.18 GnPR 6.08 GnPR 4.17 GnPR 4.05 GnPR 2.88 GnPR 2.78
Figure 5.16. Environmental Characteristics of KBR

Figure 5.17 shows that the paved area is potentially being an uncomfortable area
while the area under the tree is the area with the most comfortable thermal comfort, with
the wind potential move from the northwest wind disadvantaged by their rate of
building both in the art market as well as at the entrance of DUFAN. More complete
simulation can be seen Figure 5.27.
In the simulation, it is clear that the potential wind speed and wind direction
impact to create a comfortable thermal comfort. In the simulation means the color pink
with PMV above 1.28 means there is heat stress, while dark blue is the PMV with a
value below 0.5 mean comfortable. The pink color dominates the art market in the
middle of the area where there are the most paving areas.
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
Figure 5.17. EnviMet simulation of Art Market (TIJA A) and Entrance

of Dufan (TIJA B)
While in the Dufan entrance area with many paving had potential discomfort.
The simulation Figure 5.17 shows the land is covered with the grass, but it still has the
red color in which PMV value between 1.11 to 1.9 means that was in hot condition. In
the art market where the wind speed come from the northwest have an impact on the
building, where the wind speed is hindered by the two-storey building and a single
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storey. With this building barriers, wind speed can not enter into the area that affect this
area increasingly uncomfortable because it cannot release the heat. The area under the
trees to be convenient, but because the wind speed is too small,l comfort can not be
taken to bring the area to be more comfortable.
PMV Value
below 0.6
0.62 to 0.
0.70 to 0.
0.78 to 0.
0.87 to 0.
0.95 to 1.
1.03 to 1.
1.11 to 1.
1.19 to 1.
above 1.2
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
PMV Value
below 0.6
0.62 to 0.
0.70 to 0.
0.78 to 0.
0.87 to 0.
0.95 to 1.
1.03 to 1.
1.11 to 1.
1.19 to 1.
above 1.2
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
Figure 5.18. EnviMet Simulation of Entrance of Sea Worlds (TIJA C) and

Entrance Gelanggang Samudra (TIJA D)
Characteristics the entrance of Sea Worlds has been paved area with 50.04% of
the total area measured, with 3.12 GnPR no buildings around it and with SVF 0.44.
Disclosure of these areas has an impact on the variation of thermal comfort, see
simulations PMV in the Figure 5.18. Paving triggers discomfort in this area. Almost the
entire area with paving has PMV above 1 where the thermal comfort was in the hot
position. Orange color found on the grass in the northeast part of this area, where its
value of PMV 1.03 to 1.11. Under vegetation area becomes more comfortable.
In contrast with the entrance of the Sea Worlds, the entrance of Arena Samudra
surrounded by buildings. Wind resistance is very big in this area. With environmental
characteristics with paving 12.87%, 2.37 GnPR, wall area 1886.7 m2, and SVF 0.47 has
a variety of thermal comfort. Buildings that surrounded in this area affects the radiation
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penetration so the area is more cooling because of shadowing. In the simulation the
higher buildings provide shade in the area to cool the area. At the same time they
contribute hinder the wind. When the building is placed in the right position can
provide better comfort.
The locations without shading such as a parking place, a Fantasy World, and
Main Entrance thermal comfort tend uniformly hot, at 5.3 PMV. The PMV simulation
area is colored in yellow where PMV between 1.03 to 1.11 which means it is still in the
hot region. In the area without shading and open space on the other hand has advantage
can bring the wind speed into the area to release the heat. But that should be considered
how fast the wind speed can release the heat to change the temperatures in the area.
At the main parking of a Fantasy World the paving dominated nearly 73%,
GnPR 0.50, and 0.82 SVF. 1st floor of the building as a security building that stood in
this area, coupled with the building manager at the north of this region.
In the main Round About, asphalt and paving dominance reached 65.16%, 1.09
GnPR themselves with SVF 0.96. From the simulation image obtained figure 6.6 that
asphalt can absorb more heat in comparison with other surface as the cover face of the
land in this case granite or cement.
In the Figure 5.19 the simulation shows that the difference in shaded areas with
no shaded area is 0.5 PMV scale, which means that if we move from under the tree that
feels comfortable on a scale of 0.1 PMV and moved to the area with paving that has a
scale of 1 scale PMV we will feel excessive heat, thermally feel discomfort, due to
differences in the degree of comfort that is too large.
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PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
Figure 5.19. EnviMet Simulation of DUFAN park (TIJA E) and Main

Entrance of TIJA (TIJA F)
5.4.3. Simulation and analysis at Taman Mini Indonesia Indah
The main parking field located at the north entrance of TMII in full shaded
location. This location has the following characteristics SVF 0.1, GnPR 3.6, only 2% of
buildings surrounding the area with a height of one floor have an area of 32 m2 the total
building’s wall.
Existing buildings are not much affecting the general condition of the region,
which is spatially still within the limits of comfort. Asphalt paving material dominated
the land cover affect the comfort of their own, which in part under a trees comfort PMV
scale was hot with an average of 0.95 to 1.11with the red color can be seen in Figure
5.20.
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PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
Figure 5.20. EnviMet Simulation of the Main Parking Park TMII (TMII
A) and North Sumatra Pavillion Pavillion (TMII B)
While in North Sumatra Pavillion, although SVF Pavilion 0.37 but because it is
dominated by buildings 21.8% and 42.46% paving the thermal comfort conditions
showed more than 1 PMV. Figure 5.21 simulated that wind has disadvantage by the
buildings and affected the reflected solar radiation trapped amongst the buildings, so the
thermal environment around the building can not be released.
The entrance to the location of the Snow Bay Water Park, a half-open condition
with SVF 0.50, GnPR 0.99, 56.45 paving and building of only 1.8% remained in a
condition fit with the dominant scale of more than 1 PMV. Some parts under the tree
fell on a scale of 0.5 PMV. Predominant wind coming from the northwest hampered by
one storey building located on the western part of the area measured, so made the wind
speed, lower in the area. The wind much stuck between buildings.
Some parts of the region such as swimming pools watery contribute to lower the
ambient temperature even if the radius of the decline is not so high, about 1 m.
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PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
Figure 5.21. EnviMet Simulation of Entrance Snow Bay Water Park (TMII
C) and Gelannggang Remaja (TMII D)
While in the arena entrance teen winds from the northwest have a significant
impact on lowering the temperature of the thermal comfort of the western part of the
region, the color yellow in figure 6.8. PMV simulations, suggests that thermal comfort
in the paved area can descend on a scale of less than 1 PMV. But does not occur in the
eastern part of this region because of the resistance rate of wind speed by the trees in
western side impacts are paving the west side become uncomfortable at all on a scale of
1 PMV.
Under the trees still feels comfortable and only a few feel warm comfortable
conditions. SVF location with large shadowing not at all like Keong Mas Park and
Pancasila Fire Monument got the hot thermal comfort on a scale above 1 PMV that
occurs almost throughout the region. The absence of trees that shaded cause the sun
beam directly get into the area and speed up the process of heating material land cover.
See Figure 5.22.
The rate of wind speed in those areas quite high, but not fast enough pace dispels
the heat propagation into the region. The absence of sufficient moisture to cause
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regional cooling of this region is not fast enough to be comfortable. The average
humidity was at 65% see more in the attachment.
The existence of grass cover on the park area of the Keong Mas Parking area is
not strong enough to chase away the heat of the region.
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
Figure 5.22. EnviMet Simulation of the Keong Mas Park (TMII E) and
Pancasila Fire Monument (TMII F)
Overall thermal comfort TMII spatially in this region tend to be uncomfortable

or in the hot position with a scale of 1 PMV. Thermally convenience only occurs in
shaded areas. In areas with a large paving area becomes hot quickly and affect the
region as a whole.
The rate of wind speed necessary to dispel the heat in the area, but the wind
speed and direction changing is not strong enough and quick to dispel the hot
temperatures that fall into the area in the form of solar radiation.
5.4.4. Region Spatial Analysis Ragunan Zoo (KBR)
At Ragunan Zoo thermal comfort patterns look not so varied. The Main
Entrance doors as fully shaded areas, SVF 0.1, with 4.18 GnPR and buildings in the
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area occupy an area of 9. 21% with 61.8% paving area, including the area which is very
convenient. In the spatial simulation, see Figure 5.23. Blue color dominates the area
while the maximum PMV scale paving only be at 1.19 PMV.
Thus extents of GnPR influence in the region to relieve the temperature reaches
thermal comfort. Domination of wind from the north can enter in the area because the
north of the region was slightly open. Can be seen in Figure 5.23 where the wind
contour covers the whole area. Wind speed of 0.77m/s to 0.9m/sec dominate the area
throughout the region.
SVF little help relieve the region by reducing the temperature of the incoming
sunlight in the region.
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
Figure 5.23. EnviMet Simulation of the Main Entrance (KBR A) and cage
elephant-giraffe (KBR B)
While in the Elephant and Giraffe Cage area thermal comfort level is hot in
some parts there are more than 1 PMV. GnPR area here is not so influential in relieving
thermal comfort in the paving and open parts of the area. The dominance of the region
covered by trees still has cracks to sunlight that heats some parts of the region.
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The wind speed of 0.72m/sec is not strong enough to chase away the ambient
temperature that propagate rapidly as the circulation of the sun. The pace of wind from
the southwest that dominates is also not strong enough to bring moisture to dissipate
heat under a tree on the parts open to the region. Figure 5.24.
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
Figure 5.24. EnviMet Simulation of The Entrance of Picnic Park(KBR C)

and Flamingo area(KBR D)
In the Figure 5.24, at the east entrance of the park and North Pelican Park, where
both these locations have half the level of shaded, SVF values of 0.58 and 0.62 in the
area of thermal comfort in open places. Hordes of trees in one hand bring good thermal
comfort underneath, but cannot bring comfort to the whole region on the microclimate
of the area (100m x 100m) this can be seen in the simulation PMV to Park East door.
While the trees are spread out better impact on the region, in the Pelikan Park
North, PMV scale conditions over 1 less than the Park East door. Hordes of big trees
also inhibit the rate of speed of the wind while the spreads tree in a better neighborhood
in distributing wind speed and wind direction. With the distribution of wind speed and
direction are good overall region can achieve thermal comfort expected.
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PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
PMV Value
below 0.62
0.62 to 0.70
0.70 to 0.78
0.78 to 0.87
0.87 to 0.95
0.95 to 1.03
1.03 to 1.11
1.11 to 1.19
1.19 to 1.28
above 1.28
Min: 0.54
Max: 1.36
Figure 5.25. EnviMet Simulation of The Entrance of Picnic Park (KBR E)

and The entrance of the primate area (KBR F)
At the entrance to the picnic area and the entrance Primate Center different
patterns of thermal comfort even though these two locations have a shaded level with
almost the same SVF 0.78 and 0.82. In the entrance area of Primate Center hot thermal
comfort only felt in the paving area right at the entrance, while in the open area, around
the roundabout, scale of PMV has the lowest thermal comfort. See Figure 5.25.
At the entrance of the thermal comfort picnic area perceived to be above 1 PMV
value with paving dominance in the middle of the area and the area surrounding GnPR
not be able to lower the temperatures are entered directly in the center of the region.
Likewise the rate of wind pressure from the west hampered by the presence of a large
building on the southwest side, so that the wind cannot penetrate into the region to be
able to lower the temperature of the region.
Wind plays a role in lowering the rate of heat in this area, which is dominated by
the wind speed from the southwest bring speed at 0.84 m/sec. See Figure 5.25.
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5.5. Overall Analysis of the Theme Parks Simulation.
Overall thermal comfort simulation, Ta, Tmrt, Rh and wind speed of TIJA,
KBR, and TMII can be seen in Figure 5.27, Figure 5.28, and Figure 5.29. Disclosure of
the region on one hand brings advantages can include the rate of wind speed in the
region. Changes in wind direction also play a major role in lowering the temperature of
the comfort in the region.
Tree on one side of a regional benefit in lowering the temperature of the region
on the other hand inhibits tree wind into the region. Regions with large SVF tend to be
able to enter the wind into the region, otherwise the area with small SVF inhibiting the
wind direction and wind speed the pace of entering into the area. Besides, the copse
only a small role in the scope of the swarm the tree alone, more spreading trees will give
a better impact on the regional scale in lowering temperatures are thermal comfort.
In lowering the temperature of an area of wind speed and direction will race over
time with the entry of sunlight into the surrounding area causing radiation. Closure of an
area would hamper the speed of rising temperatures in the region so that the pattern of
increase in thermal comfort will be slowed down, if it is followed by the entry of the
winds in the area with both the temperature of thermal comfort can be maintained in a
state of comfortable throughout the day.
The pattern of PET value between Jakarta and the theme parks are similar. The
macroclimate condition of Jakarta more over affected the microclimate condition in
the theme parks. The three big theme parks did not achieve the expected thermal
comfort during the measurement, average comfort condition only occurs 2 hours in
the morning at 7 AM to 9 AM, after 9 AM the areas grew up to be hotter, start from
29 °C and reached the peak uncomfortable condition at 2 PM, 45 °C.
As we had predicted in Figure 5.26, the PET values in September are higher than
in March. The reason of this is that in September the temperature increased, and the
rainfall season started in Jakarta, humidity increased respectively. PET values in the
three big parks illustrates that thermal comfort tends to increase along with the hot
temperatures, high humidity and low wind velocity in Jakarta. In March, the
condition is more comfortable and the condition just little bit more comfort than in
September.
From the Figure 5.26 shows PET inside the parks still lower than the PET condition
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in Jakarta, Figure 5.9 was taken from the Soekarna-Hatta Airport Weather Station and
Halim Perdana Kusuma Airport Weather Station during the 2 years from 2012-2014. In
whole years thermal comfort condition is not much different in Jakarta.
The field measurement indicated that the average air temperature between 7 AM
and 5 PM was above the required comfort level of air temperatures, whereas the
neutral air temperature needs to be maintained at 28.2°C to reach the thermal
comfort (Humphreys, M.A, Nicol, J.F. 2001).
Average Relative Humidity was about 90% at 7 AM, 65% at 2 PM and went up
to 80% in 5 PM. At 7 AM averages Rh almost same, Rh difference between SG and
DG are about 20% at 3 PM. The results emphasized the highest relative humidity in
DG area. The air velocity fluctuated from 1m/s to 6m/s. DG area air velocity can
reach 6m/s at 4 PM, in the DG average air velocity from 7 AM to 3 PM is stable
about 3m/s, in SG; air velocity at 7 AM is lowest 0.5m/s.
Conclusion
The results of the thermal comfort analysis of this research have proven that
comfort is mainly affected by exposure of solar radiation. The comparison of all
orientations shows that the best thermal comfort conditions occur in dense greenery.
The best conditions occur in KBR, which area with more greenery than TIJA and
TMII.
The PET values of Less Greenery (LG) are higher than Dense Greenery (DG).
The reason of this is that in LG there is greater capacity of heat accumulation, in the
surface and the ambient, because of the openness area. In this case LG areas have
little bit benefit of the wind velocity at least can refresh the area from the heat.
Otherwise DG areas are closer to the wind, thus the wind velocity is slower, but
giving rise to a lower radiation value.
The wide range of microclimatic conditions in TIJA, TMII and KBR strengthens
the point that a purely physiological approach is inadequate to characterize thermal
comfort conditions outdoors, whereas the issue of adaptation becomes increasingly
important.
Shaded areas in the region provide comfort slightly better than areas that are not
shaded. At 7 AM all measurement points were in comfortable circumstances. Trees
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provide shadowing can be considered not only as an element of design, but also
provide thermal comfort in the whole year.
Architects and landscape designers usually do not consider designing innovative
element and soft surface to reduce heat in hot areas, such as in Jakarta. They design hard
surface material which can lead to great reflectivity and higher heat load. The case can
be seen in area E and F in the theme parks, especially in the hot season, due to the
enormous amount of heat accumulated by the surface element. They have to be creative
design the materials which can create a specific condition in outdoor spaces.
By researching these case studies, it has been concluded that PET index mostly
stable, because it can clearly depict the variety of human-biometeorological
parameters in different image of hot-humid tropical country.
This result is very important for an architect, urban planner, and landscape
designer, who concerned to find better design, especially for theme parks and
generally for open space in the cities.
134
Figure 5.26. PET comparison values, average Tmrt, and Ta of measurement result of three big theme
parks (TIJA, TMII, KBR) at March 21st and September 19th from 7 AM to 5 PM
135
136
Figure 5.27. Overall of EnviMet Simulation of TIJA

137
Figure 5.28. Overall of EnviMet Simulation of KBR

138
Figure 5.29. Overall of EnviMet Simulation of KBR

139
Chapter 6
THERMAL COMFORT AND WALKING COMFORT
INVESTIGATION AND EVALUATION
IN THE CITY’S SUPERBLOCK OF JAKARTA
CASE STUDY OPEN SPACES IN MEGA KUNINGAN
Summary
This chapter investigated and evaluated outdoor thermal comfort and walking comfort
in the hot-humid city of Jakarta. This research was built through two approaches, showing the
result of field measurement and simulation of the walking comfort. The simulation was used
to calculate how far an individual might be able to walk before experiencing discomfort in an
outdoor setting. This research was carried out in Mega Kuningan-superblock in Jakarta.
From microclimatic measurement data and thermal comfort analysis the effect of natural and
build environment on ambient temperature and a daytime walking at pedestrian comfort
levels was evaluated using Rayman Software and skin wettedness methodology. The
Physiologically Equivalent Temperature (PET) was utilized to assess the thermal comfort
condition of selected area. Thermal comfort was difficult to achieve during the day. The heat
trapped amongst the buildings in the night time affect the temperature in the morning, thus
made Tmrt rise significantly during the daytime. Tmrt did not only affect the thermal comfort
in open space, but also affect the walking. The simulation showed that the walking distance
are affected by Tmrt. Shadowing are needed regarding thermal comfort and walking comfort
in the open space in a hot humid city like Jakarta.
This research focused in the Mega Kuningan superblock in Jakarta which discussed
about the thermal comfort condition of outdoor space and walking comfort in a context of
hot-humid climate city. This research conducted field measurement investigated the outdoor
thermal comfort and walking comfort simulation regarding to environmental condition and
human level.
6.1. Mega Kuningan Superblock in Jakarta
Located on 55 ha land, Mega Kuningan superblock is one of the famous superblock in

Jakarta. This superblock is at the south east of Jakarta city on the site of Golden Triangle of
the business district. Circular is the main form of the Mega Kuningan superblock, every block
of the building is facing the main circular road in the center of the site. The business function
140
is located in the center of the superblock as the main focus as it is also the main entrance of
the superblocks (Bruse, 2007). The main entrance accesses are from. Jl. Satrio and Jl. Rasuna
Said. See Figure 6.1.
Mega Kuningan superblock, one of the famous and oldest superblock in Jakarta, is
located in the southeast of Jakarta’s Golden Triangle district sited on 55 ha land Figure 6.1.
The Mega Kuningan superblock has a concept split the land into small groups of buildings to
make interlink easily among them. The groups of buildings integrate with circulation systems
for pedestrians and vehicles. The form of the Mega Kuningan superblock is circular, each
block at the center are facing the main circular road named Jalan Mega Kuningan. In the
center of the superblock is the blocks in the business area, where hotels, malls, apartments,
and hospitals are located (Pengelola Mega Kuningan, 2013). There are two main entrance to
enter the Mega Kuningan superblock; north entrance is from Prof. Dr. Satrio street, and the
south entrance from Jalan Rasuna Said. See Figure 6.1.
141
Figure 6.1. 3D and map of Mega Kuningan Superblock
142
Figure 6.2. Mega Kuningan Superblock and selected survey zones. Number represent zones.
143
144
Figure 6.3. Environmental Characteristic at point measurement.

Heat island is one of phenomenon of Urban Climate when the temperature is appeared
higher in the urban than its surround. The temperature in the urban increases gradually,
(Shudo at a, 1997). Shudo, H, 1997, proved that the temperature in urban higher 2oC than in
cropland and forest. It happens because of transformation surface covered from natural to be
artificial environment such as concrete and asphalt (Lee, H.Y., 1993).
Mega Kuningan superblock integrates of high-rise buildings located in the middle,
and two stories landed houses in its surrounding area. The highest building is the Ritz Carlton
Hotel, 180 m high, located in the middle of the superblock. Besides high rise buildings, there
is a park located in the middle of the superblock as well where people usually use to hang out
Figure 6.1.
The build environment such as apartment, residences, road, and industrial facilities in
the cities changed because of buildings and facilities development from the past to the
present, increasing change the albedo of the cities from the natural environment to be
concrete and asphalt, and generates new climate condition in the cities called Urban Climate
(Landsberg, 1981), see Figure 6.3.
This research proposes a computational approach to model the urban microclimate
and assess the thermal comfort of open space in existing superblocks in Jakarta that can
change how outdoor space use to make better space.
6.2. Thermal Comfort
6.2.1. Thermal Comfort
Three observation times were selected in this research at 7am, 13pm, and 5pm. These
times reflected typical times of morning and evening commutes, and time close to the midday
when the radiation is the highest, according to the field measurement shown in Figure 6.2.
The 8 points of measurement in the site were conducted on 3 February and 10
October, 2014, in the condition of clear sky, during 24 hours, from 0.00 to 23.00. The field
measurement conducted using the following equipment: Thermo Recorder RT 13 to measure
temperature, LM 8000 to measure temperature and wind speed; and EM 528A to measure
Surface temperature. All sensors installed at 1.5 m above the ground.
The points of measurement were chosen on the condition of the shaded area, half-
shade areas, and openness, to promote different possibilities of thermal conditions. The points
of measurement can be seen in Figure 6.2 and Figure 6.3.
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Regarding to the condition of the chosen area, Sky View Factor was used to calculate
the position of point measurement. Using Rayman software the shaded area, half-shaded area,
and openness area can be determined.
Figure 6.6 shows all points measured were uncomfortable either in the dry season in
October or rainy season in February. During the daytime, the PET values of measurement of
8 points are uncomfortable, started at 9 am PET values tend to be in a slight warm situation,
32 oC, and reach its peak value at 1 pm, 40 oC.
The Tmrt value has begun to rise since 9 am and reached its peak at 1 pm. Tmrt value
was rapidly rising due to the ambient temperature at night time still remain high, 24 oC. The
wind velocity were not strong enough to drive away the hot air around the areas at the night
time. Meanwhile the humidity was still high as well.
146
Figure 6.4. Graphic of Tmrt, Ta, RH and Wind speed measurement data obtained from 8 points on 2
February
Figure 6.5. Graphic of Tmrt, Ta, RH and Wind speed measurement obtained from 8 points on 10
October
147
Figure 6.6. PET result on February and October
Point7 shows the significant difference PET value in October and February, the
location of point 7 is located in the open space area where on the north side of the area is the
highway road and a row of high density commercial buildings, south and east side is open
space, west side is sparse density commercial buildings. In October the PET value of point 7
reached 42 oC at the peak point at 1 pm and 31 oC in February at the peak point at 12 am.
Wind speed in October tends to be low and come from the northeast side that carries the heat
from the highway road and a row of high-density commercial buildings (Figure 6.2).
Meanwhile, in February wind speed is high, 5 ms-1 average, carrying cold air tends to come
from West South where the buildings are rarer and has many parks (Figure 6.3).
According to the overall evaluation of the thermal condition of the selected areas
showed the PET value of open space and the spaces amongst buildings is not significantly
different, as shown at point 2, 3, 4, 7, and 8 and point 1, 5, and 6. Point1, 5, and 6 shows that
the temperature during the night time trapped between the buildings, but in the day time the
advantage of this point is the buildings can block the sun's radiation through that area,
accordingly the temperature at that point is not significantly rose in the daytime. But the wind
speed at that point is less than at open space. The solar radiation directly made open space
fast to be hot, the advantage of open space is the wind speed is higher than the space amongst
buildings.
The findings also illustrate that the use of natural and artificial shading lead to
reduction of PET values of area of protection from direct solar radiation. Shading is the
148
important characteristic that leads to a moderate reduction in Ta value while Tmrt value is
strongly reduced. Accordingly, the shaded area that's covered by buildings and vegetation
show tends to be slightly cooler than the others areas due to their lower exposures from the
direct solar radiation. Hence, the high shading level is needed in outdoor environments to
increase thermal comfort and extend the stability of the acceptable thermal condition during
the day.
Overall measurement and analysis of the thermal comfort condition showed that an
acceptable range of thermal comfort (<34 oC) only happened during the early morning (7-10
am) and late afternoon (4-5 pm). At the location with a high level shading area the duration of
thermal comfort can be accepted more than 5 hours in the morning (7-12 am). The research
also found that almost 6 hours a day, from 11 am – 4 pm is considered having the
uncomfortable condition due to the high amount of solar radiation.
PET mostly affected by the Tmrt rather than by Ta. It can be proved during the
measurement of ambient temperature (Ta) show very small differences between the selected
areas (with maximum value 4 OC) whereas the PET values show significantly different
between the selected location (with maximum values of about 15 oC). These results show the
same result with previous studies (Mayer et al., 2008; Ali-Toudert and Mayer, 2007) that
indicated air temperature alone is not significantly affect the thermal comfort in an outdoor
environment. The stronger affect the thermal comfort values are radiant temperature than air
temperature in an outdoor environment. It also should be noted that, air velocity can decrease
the PET values, although, solar radiation is more the important key factor calculating the
thermal comfort index (PET).
6.3. Walking comfort
6.3.1. Object Study of Walking Comfort
This research simulates an average of Indonesian people which met on site, i.e. male;
tall 170 cm; and weights 70 kg, Clo (Clothing value) is 0.49 (typical tropical business cloth,
trouser short-sleeved shirt) for all simulations, and activity (metabolic rate) is walking/light
activity (150w/m2) equals to 134 ms-1 according to de Dear’s calculator. Use the data
assumed by average Indonesian people and the variability of weather data, the distance of
walking comfort in the superblock’s open space can be calculated.
The surface area of the subject is calculated using the formula as follows (Atkins and
Thompson 2000):
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. .
0.00718 (12)
The result of surface area of the average Indonesian male is 1.81 m2.
The walking comfort was calculated in 3 different times; (1) in the morning at 7 am;
(2) in the highest value of Tmrt at 1 pm; (3) and in the evening at 5 pm. The simulation data
use the subject of Indonesia male 1.70 m height, 70 kg weight (surface area of the body 1.81
m2 according to formulae 2), wearing common clothing with Clo value is 0.5 and walking is
the activity in the simulation (the metabolic rate is 150 W/m2). The Tmrt, temperature,
relative humidity, and wind speed used the data which are combined with the data of
environment treatment, and time is shown in Table 6.1.
To provide an accurate assessment of climate effect on walking comfort, it was
important to select the hours when people typically travel during the day in which weather
condition were the most extreme. According to Hyodo et. al. (2005), Urban travel behavior
characteristic of 13 cities based on household interview survey data, 30% of all trips in
Jakarta begins around 7 am to go work, at 13 pm to go business outside and lunch, and at 5
pm to go back home.
Table 6.1. Climate data which are used in walking comfort simulation
Shaded Area Light Shaded Open Area

Tmrt Ta RH v Tmrt Ta RH v Tmrt Ta RH v
°C °C % m/s °C °C % m/s °C °C % m/s
7 am 30.5 23.9 85 4.2 58.7 24.1 96 0.5 57.1 22.9 97 0.7
1 pm 57.7 30.7 63 1.7 62.9 27.9 81 0.2 61.8 30.6 85 1
5 pm 50.7 28.9 72 1 60.7 29 79 0.7 58.9 30.4 75 0.9
The result of walking comfort simulation shown in Table 6.1. Climate data which are
used in walking comfort simulation. The shortest distance of walking in this simulation is
found at 1 am, where the people walk in the Open Area with the mileage of people can walk
before they feel uncomfortable is 241.2 m (3 minutes).
In the morning time (7 am), people can walk more than 1 km in the shaded area
before they feel discomfort. Meanwhile, in the light shaded and open space, in the morning,
the distance people could walk is similar, about 320 m.
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Table 6.2. The result of Walkability simulation (w = skin wettedness )
7 am walking distance threshold values

Minutes where Approximate walking w value
w < 0.33 distance in "comfort" at 5 minutes
w < 0.33 (m)
Shaded Area 13 1045.2 0.252748357
Light Shaded 4 321.6 0.349315888
Open Area 4 321.6 0.351612304
1 pm walking distance threshold values
Shaded Area 6 482.4 0.285632914

Light Shaded 4 321.6 0.335885597
Open Area 3 241.2 0.39096984
5 pm walking distance threshold values
Shaded Area 5 402 0.285632914

Light Shaded 4 321.6 0.327659274
Open Area 4 321.6 0.322438126
At 5 pm people could walk no more than 405 m, they feel uncomfortable after 5
minute walking. In the term of climate in the hot-humid tropical country like Jakarta, all day
is almost similar, the significant differences are the temperature and the Tmrt see Table 6.2.
The average mileage of people could walk in the tropic is 350 m in the day time.
Shading area is the main factor make the walking more comfortable, all the shaded
areas in every hour simulation show the longest distance of walking. Meanwhile the light
shaded area and open space almost have the same result.
The calculation of the skin wettedness shows that the relative humidity and the wind
speed are the significant factor affect the walking distance. The relative humidity and wind
speed can affect the heat evaporation in the body (Eves, et al. 2008, Murakami, et al. 1999).
6.4. Thermal Comfort Simulation at Mega Kuningan Superblock in Jakarta
6.4.1. The initial condition of Simulation
We divided The initial condition of Simulation into 4: general condition; PMV

setting; Solar adjusting; temperature condition inside the building; and temperature of the
soil. General condition is the basic need of the simulation contain basic information on
location. The indoor temperature, that is kept constant during a model run, represent the
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temperature of the building. In addition, the albedo of the walls and the roofs are needed to
calculate the heat transmission through the walls and the roof. Solar adjustment is a new
feature of ENVI-met 3.1. That allows to adjust the shortwave solar radiation calculated based
on real situations, when the solar energy fluxes estimated by the internal methods of ENVI-
met are systematically too high or too low. Besides of calculating pure meteorological data,
ENVI-met also includes a simple biometeorological model to predict the thermal comfort
inside the model area. The PMV (predicted mean vote) model -known as biomet model- is
thermal comfort model based on Fangers (1972) model. It relates the energy balance of the
human body to the personal comfort feeling of persons exposed to the corresponding
climates. The soil data set the initial temperature and humidity profile for the soil and the
surfaces in the model (Michael Bruse, 2003). The initial condition of the simulation can be
seen in Table 6.3. The validation of simulation can be seen in the Figure 6.7. The R square
shows there is strong correlation between the thermal comfort (PET) from the fiels
measurement and the result of simulation.
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Table 6.3. The initial Condition of Simulation
Boundary Model 800m x 800m [SOLARADJUST]
Factor of shortwave
Grids 200x200 adjustment (0.5 to 1.5) 1
Start Simulation at Time
(HH:MM:SS): 6:00:00
Total Simulation Time in [BUILDING] Building
Hours: 24 properties
Save Model State each ? min 30 Inside Temperature [K] 293
Wind Speed in 10 m ab. Heat Transmission Walls
Ground [m/s] 3 [W/m²K] 1.94
Wind Direction Heat Transmission Roofs
(0:N..90:E..180:S..270:W..) 180 [W/m²K] 6
Roughness Length z0 at
Reference Point 3 Albedo Walls 0.65
Initial Temperature
Atmosphere [K] 296 Albedo Roofs 0.75
Specific Humidity in 2500 m
[g Water/kg air] 16.5
Relative Humidity in 2m [%] 80 [SOILDATA] Settings for Soil
Initial Temperature Upper
Layer (0-20 cm) [K] 301
[PMV] Settings for PMV- Initial Temperature Middle
Calculation Layer (20-50 cm) [K] 301
Initial Temperature Deep
Walking Speed (m/s) 0.9 Layer (below 50 cm)[K] 301
Energy-Exchange (Col. 2 Relative Humidity Upper
M/A) 116 Layer (0-20 cm) 60
Relative Humidity Middle
Mech. Factor 0 Layer (20-50 cm) 70
Relative Humidity Deep Layer
Heattransfer resistance cloths 1 (below 50 cm) 70
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Figure 6.7. The R square of thermal comfort (PET) between field measurement and the result of simulation
6.4.2. The result of Simulation
Figure 6.8 shows the 3d simulation result of Mega Kuningan Superblock of Jakarta
from EnviMet and how the map divided in XY axis, and Figure 6.9 shows the result of PMV
in X axis and Y axis in graphic. Some axis in X and Y were chosen to distinguish the result
among urban structure in the Super Block. The selected axis were based on the area which
represent of residential area, open space, and the environment around the high rise building.
Each axis is represented by 3 axis: X axis are represented by axis no. 40 represents a
residential area on the west side, axis no. 420 as area of Open space and high rise building,
and axis no 780 as a residential area at the west part; Y axis, by axis no.60 as a residential
area in the south part, no.480 open space area and high rise building in the middle part, and
no.720 residential and commercial area on the north part.
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Figure 6.10 shows the data of PMV at 7am, 9am, 11am, 1pm, 15.00, and 17.00
o’clock. Those hours chosen represent the condition of working hour in a day. Figure 6.16
shows residential area more comfortable than surrounding area of high rise building. In the
morning time (7am -11am), PMV of residents is 1.2 while around the High rise building is
1.8 on average. South area of the superblock is more uncomfortable than the north part area
of study. West area of study is more comfortable than east area of study. The thermal comfort
around high rise building does not change significantly, especially in the Centre park.
Thermal comfort in residential area changes significantly, especially in south and east part of
Figure 6.8. Simulation Model
the study area.
155
Figure 6.9. Simulation Result and XY axis division
156
Figure 6.10. PMV result of Simulation
Figure 6.11 shows the simulation result of wind speed and Tmrt. Wind speed in
residential area has variation while in the open space between high rise building more stable.
On general condition on October, the wind came from the south, 5 m/s, that affect the
condition of residential area in the south part, but when wind flow through the high rise
building the wind became average 1.5 m/s. From 7am – 17.00 o'clock the average wind speed
is 1.5 m/s.
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Figure 6.11. Wind Speed and Tmrt result of Simulation
Beside wind speed figure 6.17 shows Tmrt (0C). Average Tmrt is 48 0C, the highest
around a high rise building is 80 0C, Figure 6.11. Average Tmrt in open space is 42 0C lower
than in residential areas, 49 0C. The south part and the north part area get the same value of
Tmrt, 48 0C in average. At fifteen o'clock the Tmrt has the lowest value, 22 0C in average.
The highest Tmrt yields at 15.00 o'clock.
6.5. Conclusion
This research presented a negative result of satisfaction/uncomfortable in some of the

places in 3 biggest parks in Jakarta. A method that simulates the conditions previewed in the
project must be taken into consideration, or that permit its calculations, making it possible to
predict the conditions of thermal comfort of the future users.
The evaluation here presented was performed in only one day, with the objective of
testing the PMV and PET method, we can notice the importance of this research,
comprehending observations, and measurements, that when correlated may lead to the quality
analysis of the thermal comfort conditions of the urban space.
Vegetation can be shown to be a prime factor, especially in hot climates in providing
shade and reducing solar radiation.
High rise building affects thermal comfort, high rise building can make an uncomfortable
condition surrounding and stabilize thermal comfort in a whole day as well. In contrast,
thermal comfort in residential area changes quickly from morning to afternoon.
The addition of a building in an area in the region, if placed in the wrong place will
inhibit the rate of wind speed and wind direction, which will be included in the region.
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Besides building give more radiation in an area that does not degrade the thermal comfort but
give effect to raise the temperature of the environment.
The comfortable distance of walking in a hot-humid city like Jakarta is 350 m
average. It can be reached more than 350 m distance if the city can reduce the Tmrt value and
the humidity, therefor the shading area has to be considered by the urban planner and
architect. Buildings can be designed as the shading area, therefor the designer should pay
attention to the solar movement, and building orientation.
PET and skin wettedness can be used as tools to help urban designers and architects
before making design decisions. The simulation and the result from the field measurement are
important information related to the climate and outdoor urban environment design. In
conclusion, the final results present the thermal condition of open spaces together with
walking comfort can be integrated in design guidelines to enhance the quality of livable and
walkable outdoor spaces for human life in the tropical areas.
This research shows precious information in term of the thermal comfort in outdoor
spaces and walking comfort in the hot-humid city of Jakarta. In the tropical hot-humid
climate, outdoor spaces are used during the year, and they must provide proper levels of
thermal comfort.
The findings of the field measurement depicted that the average values of PET in the
selected points were uncomfortable (PET > 34 oC). However, the comfort condition occurred
in 8 am-10 am and 4 pm-5 pm. The open area with the shaded of the plantation is the location
can be tolerated as the location most comfortable because the high wind speed was not
hindered by the buildings and had the longer thermal acceptable period.
The uncomfortable condition occurred in 1 am when the PET value reached its peak
in 42 OC while, the location amongst the buildings with the high Tmrt occurred from the heat
trapped amongst the buildings in the night time and made the temperature rise quickly in the
morning (9 am-10 am).
159
160
Chapter 7
Summary
Research in concerning of the relationship of urban microclimate, thermal comfort

and walking comfort with an urban structure in developing countries, like Indonesia, shows a
high importance not only there is not many researchers involve but also an important part of
the region’s of the urban development base. Monthly mean air temperature, relative humidity,
precipitation, vapor pressure, wind velocity, and cloud cover for the period 2009–20014 data
collected from two meteorological stations Jakarta was selected. The principle of this study is
to conclude the most suitable urban structure to achieve human thermal comfort and walking
comfort in urban development in Jakarta.
At several cities, climate represents a natural resource on which the urban climate
department is predicated. Usually, geographical location, topography, landscape, vegetation,
and fauna are factors that influence decisions regarding areas to be planned. Weather and
climate are two additional factors (Abegg 1996). It is a fact that the weather / climate and
urban structure are interconnected in diverse ways. In order to contribute to the sustainability
of open space the knowledge about the urban thermal comfort and walking comfort should
be transferred into climatic guidelines for urban structure planning. The general framework of
this study responds to the need of analyzing thermal comfort and walking comfort in Hot-
Humid climate regions and its influence in urban structure design factor.
7.1. Data usability

This section evaluates the background of the urban microclimate conditions in the hot,
humid climate of Jakarta, based on the effects of urban structural modifications. Using the
concept from Algeciras and Matzarakis (2015) “the simulation effects were quantified in
terms of shading and variation of wind speed”. “Using climate data from meteorological
stations, the following setups were performed: without modifications from the original data
of meteorology station, wind speed reduction of -1.0 m/sec., wind speed increase of
+1.0m/sec., reduction of shade where Tmrt is equal to two, and finally combinations of
shading and variation of wind speed” (Algecira and Matzarakis, 2015). Thermal comfort zone
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from tropical regions (Matzarakis and Lin, 1998) are used as the criteria of assessment. See
Table 3.4.
This research climatic data were used with 1h resolution in the period from January 1,
2009 to January 1, 2014. Meteorological data of air temperature, relative humidity, and wind
speed were collected at an urban automatic meteorological station (see Figure 7.1.) at Halim
Perdana Kusuma Airport, Soekarno Hatta Airport, and Tanjung Priok Seaport in Jakarta, and
some data from the internet such as www.wunderground.com, www.weatherspark.com, and
www.weatheranalytics.com/wa.
CTIS (Climate, Tourism/Transfer-Information Scheme) from Matzarakis, 2014, is
used to represent the result of the diurnal data of PET value from original Climate stations
and simulation. The result is easy to understand and to visualize (Lin and Matzarakis, 2008;
Matzarakis, 2014). 10 day period of data are presented to give more precise information on
climate condition. Despite of present the data using CTIS, frequency data of PET value are
used to draw the 10 day period or monthly time scale using Excel software. “A software
module (CTIS program) that operated with data files containing frequencies of PET values
can represent customizable diagrams for all simulations performed” (Matzarakis 2014).
Figure 7.1. The three Weather Station location in Jakarta, Soekarno-Hatta Airport, Halim Perdana Kusuma
Airport, and Tanjung Priok Seaport.
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Figure 7.2. Simulation framework of urban structure comparison (modified from Algeciras and
Matzarakis, 2015)
Table 7.1. PET value Source: Lin and Matzarakis (2008)
PET Thermal Grade of Physiological

(Sub) Perception Stress
Tropical
Region
(°C)
Very Cold Extreme Cold Stress

14
Cold Strong Cold Stress
18
Cool Moderate Cold Stress
22
Slightly Cool Slight Cold Stress
26
Comfortable No Thermal Stress
30
Slightly Warm Slight Heat Stress
34
Warm Moderate Heat Stress
38
Hot Strong Heat Stress
42
Very Hot Extreme Heat Stress
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Table 7.2. Monthly frequency distribution of PET
Configuration Cold Stress Comfortable Heat Stress

PET < 22oC 22<PET<34oC PET> 34oC
PET (Original) 37.86% 36.51% 24.87%
v+1 35.31% 35.14% 29.32%
v-1 35.74% 28.02% 29.32%
Tmrt = Ta 40.93% 58.71% 0.35%
Tmrt = Ta (v + 1) 33.17% 66.38% 0.45%
Tmrt = Ta (v - 1) 44.26% 55.36% 0.35%
7.2. The Simulation of Urban Structure in Jakarta

For the quantification of the background urban climate conditions of Jakarta, PET
classes have been calculated from 2009 to 2014 of meteorology station. Figure 7.3 represent
of the PET value of Jakarta from original data from meteorological stations, 9.5% of hours
are in the slightly warm classes (PET >30 °C), 11% warm, and 14% hot-very hot. 12 % of
hours are considered as comfortable (26 °C < PET <30 °C). However, frequencies of feeling
cold-cool (PET <22 °C) are about 21.8 % happened in the night time Figure 7.4. Therefore,
Jakarta is in a warm and hot climate region during the morning to evening.
30.00%
25.00%
20.00%
Frequency (%)
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
10‐14 14.1‐18 18.1‐22 22.1‐26 26.1‐30 30.1‐34 34.1‐38 38.1‐42 42.1‐55
Very Cool Cold Cool Slightly Cool Comfortable Slightly Warm Warm Hot Very Hot
PET Value
Figure 7.3. PET classes based on Urban station in Jakarta 2009-2014
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Figure 7.4. Mean Monthly diurnal of PET based on original data from an urban climate station in Jakarta,
2009-2014
Figure 7.5. shows the distribution of PET value in mean monthly average based on the
original data and simulation from the climate station. The thermal stress can be depicted from
the diagram and the Table 7.2. The PET value of original show the acceptable level of
thermal comfort 22<PET<34oC occurs through the years with 36.51% of the time especially
from May to August. Coll level PET < 22oC occurs approximately from January to April. Heat
stress PET> 34oC occurs from mid August to November when in Indonesia gets the dry season. Table
7.2 shows the simple way of the frequency of cold Stress, Comfortable, and Heat Stress.
Table 7.2 shows the climate station shows the PET original value as cold 37.86% of the time,
neutral 36.51% of the time, and it was above 34oC for 24.87% of the study period. For the
urban structure when the shading area occurs (Tmrt=Ta) the comfortable become higher 22%
than the original one, and there was no heat stress occurred (0.35% of the time); however, the
heat stress increases 5% than the original when the wind speed decrease 1m/sec. There is
much more effective when there is the combination of shadowing and wind speed increase
almost 66.38% (more than 30% than original ones) of the time in the comfort level. It is said
that the heat stress can mitigate when there is shadowing or increasing the wind speed in the
level of urban structure. The frequency of cold can increase when there is more shadowing
165
PET < 22oC, 3% than increasing of wind speed. The increasing wind speed almost do not
have the effect the comfort level in the hot humid city, but decreasing the wind speed effect
decreasing 8% of comfortable.
Figure 7.5. Mean Monthly diurnal variation of simulated PET based on the data of urban climate station in
Jakarta, 2009-2014.
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Figure 7.6. The PET variation of mean monthly diurnal for simulations performed based on the data of the
urban climate station in Jakarta. Period: 2009–2014
Figure 7.6 shows the mean monthly diurnal variation of PET. Based on the data of
PET from the original data the performance of comfortable occurs in the morning (9 am) and
evening (4 pm). During the summer season September to November the uncomfortable
condition increase.
In the night time the cold occurs and the frequency of comfortable improved because
of the absence of solar radiation. In summer, during daytime hours, for shade conditions
(Tmrt = Ta), there were no records of PET above 34 °C. However, in the wet season, PET
167
becomes cooler than that of the urban station. This result clearly shows the influence of solar
radiation on thermal comfort in comparison with the diurnal variation of PET obtained from
the urban station. During summer days, the levels of thermal comfort improve because of the
increase in wind speed. If the wind speed increases, the thermal comfort conditions can be
more comfortable, but if the wind speed decreases, the daytime hours in summer will present
a PET above 34 °C. Furthermore, decreased in wind speed improved thermal comfort
conditions in dry season/summer time. The simulation results confirm that wind speed has an
influence on the mitigation of unpleasant thermal conditions; however, shade conditions have
more influence for this purpose.
7.3. The urban structure determines the behavior of urban microclimate

Based on simulation results, some aspects about thermal comfort of Jakarta should
be exposed (Table 7.3. Annual percentage of threshold based on PET (climate station 2009-
2014) and Figure 7.7. By comparing calculated results of the urban station at different
configurations, it is observed that above the 23 °C thresholds, if the wind speed increases,
PET frequency reduces, whereas if the wind speed decreases, the PET frequency increases. In
all shade situations, the PET frequency is reduced above all thresholds. Therefore, shade and
wind speed increase can improve thermal comfort situations in terms of PET above 30 °C.
Also, heat stress conditions can be mitigated by shade and wind speed increase in conditions
of PET above 35 and 45 °C, respectively. The combination that involves shade situations
with the increase in wind speed is the most important strategy with significant reduction of
heat stress. Therefore, during the summer period, increasing wind speed and providing
shaded areas are recommended. On the other hand, for shade situation, it is observed that if
the wind speed increases, the PET frequency increases, whereas if the wind speed decreases,
the PET frequency reduces below the 22°C thresholds.
Thermal comfort can be improved by wind speed decreases in conditions of PET
below 22 °C. Therefore, during dry season, heat stress can be mitigated shadowing and
increasing the wind speed. The simulations performed show that thermal comfort can be
affected by modifications of wind speed and solar radiation fluxes. Our findings confirm
those reported by a similar research Abreu et al. 2014 and Cuba Rodríguez Algeciras et al.
2015. Similar to our results, it was perceived that shading is the main factor affecting
quantitative heat stress, followed by wind speed modifications, so the shaded pedestrian is
one of the most important strategies to mitigate heat stress (Ali-Toudert and Mayer 2007;
Fröhlich andMatzarakis 2013;Ketterer and Matzarakis 2014).
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The urban form determines the behavior of urban microclimate and consequently the
presence of people in public spaces (Lin 2009; Lin et al. 2012); therefore, the description of
local climatic conditions of a region in relation to the proper distribution and sizing of urban
obstacles is needed to improve thermal comfort in outdoor spaces. A study of Mediterranean
climate in the Island of Tinos, Greece (Andreou 2013) shows that north-south orientation
streets with aspect ratios between 0.5 and 1.5 can reduce extreme thermal conditions. In
addition to orientation and aspect ratio, the application of climatology urban design should
consider other factors depending on the location such as ventilation, the density of the
buildings and the trees (Givoni 1994; Lin et al. 2010), the materials used in facades, and the
pavement type (Oke 1984) to improve pedestrian thermal comfort.
169
Table 7.3. Annual percentage of threshold based on PET (climate station 2009-2014)
Configuration Cold Condition Heat Condition
PET < 14oC PET < 18oC PET < 22oC PET> 34oC PET> 38oC PET> 42oC
% % % % % %
PET (Original) 0.76 20.96 37.86 24.87 10.41 9.94
v+1 0.23 16.27 35.74 29.32 10.04 9.69
v-1 0.23 16.27 35.31 29.32 10.04 9.69
Tmrt = Ta 0.01 13.65 40.93 0.35 0.35 0.00
Tmrt = Ta (v + 1) 0.02 18.93 44.26 0.35 0.00 0.00
Tmrt = Ta (v - 1) 0.00 8.28 33.17 0.45 0.00 0.00
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Figure 7.7. Detail of Annual Frequency of PET simulation based on data climate station 2009-2014
7.4. Correlation between urban structure parameters and climatic variables
7.4.1. Theme Park and climatic variables
Table 7.4 shows the characteristic of environment in theme park and climatic
variables.
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Table 7.4.Environmet Characterictic of Point measurements in Theme park and average Ta, Rh, v, Tmrt
and PET on March
Site Paved area
Measurement SVF GnPR (Albedo) Ta Rh Wind Tmrt PET
o o o
C % m/s C C
TIJA A 0.2 3.65 30.7 27.97 71.42 4.92 42.53 28.90
B 0.25 2.25 63.01 27.98 78.64 4.25 40.72 28.84
C 0.44 3.12 50.04 28.47 85.18 3.08 44.56 31.77
D 0.47 2.37 12.87 27.42 85.21 3.08 42.87 29.95
E 0.82 0.5 72.27 29.12 83.88 1.34 49.89 37.23
F 0.95 0.9 65.16 29.26 72.22 1.42 51.73 38.40
TMII A 0.16 3.6 82.17 27.20 82.54 4.07 40.03 27.84
B 0.1 1.87 42.46 28.61 66.17 2.69 41.44 31.94
C 0.51 0.89 56.45 27.32 77.40 0.64 46.24 36.29
D 0.42 2.15 53.17 28.02 66.70 1.61 44.20 33.24
E 0.89 0.99 56.19 28.20 72.07 2.75 49.31 34.74
F 0.92 1.28 70.06 28.06 69.74 1.60 50.04 35.28
KBR A 0.08 4.18 67.58 29.93 78.36 1.66 44.42 35.42
B 0.12 6.08 11.99 26.81 83.72 0.79 42.22 33.84
C 0.47 4.17 19.32 27.30 84.10 0.78 43.89 33.99
D 0.45 4.05 49.92 28.93 69.03 1.96 42.57 32.85
E 0.98 2.88 21.24 28.51 75.39 1.79 50.76 36.15
F 0.93 2.78 35.13 28.11 75.61 0.91 51.17 38.25
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Table 7.5. Environmet Characterictic of Point measurements in Theme park and average Ta, Rh, v, Tmrt
and PET on September
Site Paved area
Measurement SVF GnPR (Albedo) Ta Rh Wind Tmrt PET
oC % m/s oC oC
TIJA A 0.2 3.65 30.7 30.14 79.45 3.21 44.72 33.57
B 0.25 2.25 63.01 27.42 90.83 2.71 40.53 29.66
C 0.44 3.12 50.04 28.14 85.22 2.10 44.62 32.44
D 0.47 2.37 12.87 27.94 78.64 4.24 42.98 29.51
E 0.82 0.5 72.27 29.13 83.88 1.37 49.82 37.08
F 0.95 0.9 65.16 28.12 85.20 2.09 49.72 34.46
TMII A 0.16 3.6 82.17 29.21 75.37 2.72 41.92 31.78
B 0.1 1.87 42.46 26.98 71.36 2.42 40.27 30.47
C 0.51 0.89 56.45 28.81 73.07 0.50 47.90 39.29
D 0.42 2.15 53.17 27.57 82.59 0.46 45.08 36.31
E 0.89 0.99 56.19 29.73 67.55 0.66 52.58 41.61
F 0.92 1.28 70.06 28.02 67.10 0.95 51.43 38.18
KBR A 0.08 4.18 67.58 29.36 82.12 1.12 43.97 35.19
B 0.12 6.08 11.99 28.77 83.31 2.01 43.12 33.16
C 0.47 4.17 19.32 30.95 76.23 1.99 46.24 36.17
D 0.45 4.05 49.92 28.21 88.01 1.03 42.38 34.16
E 0.98 2.88 21.24 29.87 71.52 1.98 51.91 37.78
F 0.93 2.78 35.13 26.92 88.44 1.16 49.26 35.43
In order to check how far environment characteristic affects the urban structure such
as Sky View Factor, Green Plot Ratio, and paved area (Albedo) are compared with each
variables of climatic using the statistical package, R. For correlation analysis the Pierson’s r
coefficient (for normally distributed data) is used.
The correlation can be seen as follows, Table 7.6 and Table 7.7.:
Table 7.6. Correlation of Environment Characteristic and Climatic Variables on March
SVF GnPR Paved area (Albedo)

Ta 0.21 -0.27 0.42
Rh -0.15 0.30 -0.18
Wind -0.39 0.04 0.14
Tmrt 0.93 -0.54 0.12
PET 0.69 -0.34 0.06
A significant correlation value is should be more than 0.25. SVF has a significant
correlation with Tmrt, wind speed, and PET with the value are 0.93, 0.416, and 0.69. But
SVF has correlation with negative number with the wind speed. SVF will affect the Tmrt in
the parks, when the value of SVF increase then the Tmrt will follow increase. The more open
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the site will get more radiation come in. Different with negative values of correlation between
SVF and wind speed, it means when the value of SVF decreases the wind speed has more
speed. Also Green Plot Ratio has the strongest correlation with Tmrt with a negative value (-
0.532), it means Tmrt will increase when the GnPR decrease. The ratio of vegetation in the
microclimate can affect the sun radiation penetrate into the environment. Paved area (Albedo)
has a correlation with tie in the theme parks. Paved area (Albedo) can be material that reflects
the radiation into the environment so there is a strong correlation between the albedo and the
Ta.
Table 7.7. Correlation of Environment Characteristic and Climatic Variables on September
SVF GnPR Paved area (Albedo)

Ta 0.00 0.26 ‐0.16
Rh ‐0.19 0.28 0.01
Wind ‐0.35 0.24 ‐0.39
Tmrt 0.90 ‐0.50 0.09
PET 0.62 ‐0.36 0.17
There is a different correlation between environment characteristic and climatic

variable on March and September. We can see in Table 7.6 and Table 7.7 paved area has
correlation with Ta (temperature) on March but there is no correlation on September. That
can be explained the paved area (albedo) get significant direct sun radiation in March, while
on September the sun radiation did not penetrate much in the parks. When we consider the
position of the sun is different between March and September in Jakarta. Paved area (albedo)
has the strongest correlation with wind speed in negative value on September. It means more
bigger area of Paved area more the wind speed will be higher in the parks.
How much stronger the correlation between environmental characteristic and climatic
variable, can be seen in graphic scatter as follows, see Figure 7.8 and Figure 7.9. R square in
March shows bigger value than in September, it means SVF value in March tend has more
correlation than in September. It proves that in March PET value change more quick
according to the location.
The r squares of SVF and PET is below 0.5, it means the value of r square is small. It
proves that the value of thermal comfort (PET) not only be correlated with environment
parameters, but also correlated with other factors i.e. human activity and the clothing that
people using.
174
45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
PET oC
20.00 R² = 0.4763
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
SVF
Figure 7.8. Scatter plot of SVF and PET value in March
45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
PET oC
20.00 R² = 0.3823
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
SVF
Figure 7.9. Scatter plot of SVF and PET value in September
175
The biggest correlation of SVF happens with Tmrt, see Figure 7.10 and Figure 7.11.
60.00
50.00
40.00
Tmrt
30.00
R² = 0.8597
20.00
10.00
0.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
SVF
Figure 7.10. The Scatter plot of SVF and Tmrt in March
60.00
50.00
40.00
Tmrt
30.00
R² = 0.8051
20.00
10.00
0.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
SVF
Figure 7.11. The Scatter Plot of SVF and Tmrt in September
176
Correlation SVF and Tmrt prove that the location tends opened is much more get the
sun penetration and will be hotter than the location in the shaded area. Theme parks as tourist
destination parks should be considered about shadowing.
7.4.2. Correlation between Urban Structure Parameters and Climatic Variables in

Superblock
Due to the variability and complexity in the urban form the theory from Bourdic et al.
Are proposed to be used to find the correlation between urban structure and climatic variable
in this study case. There are two variables are suggested, i.e. Surface to Volume ratio of
surrounding buildings (Volumetric Compactness = Building Surface (S)/Building Volume
(V)=S/V) (Sharmin, 2015). Other variables that should be calculated is Surface (including
plot-size of the area measured) to volume ratio = (S + Plot) /V and Green Plot Ratio by Ong,
2000 . The ratio of Height and width street was also calculated manually using the average
building height and average street width (H/W) in the point measured area. All of the data of
urban structure variables and climatic variable can be seen in Table 7.8.
All of the urban structure variables mentioned above will compare with SVF (Sky
view factor) and others climatic variables such as Ta, Rh, wind speed, and Tmrt. The
correlation analysis uses the Pierson’s coefficient for normally distributed data.
Table 7.8. Measurement result of Urban structure parameters and climatic variables in October
Point H/W
SV Surf2Vol SurfPlot2Vol GnP Win
Measure Rati Ta Rh Tmrt PET
F Ratio Ratio R d
d o
1 1.08 0.54 0.24 0.26 0.45 27.56 79.33 3.54 31.88 26.17
2 0.28 0.61 1.8 1.92 0.56 27.49 74.58 3.84 32.38 26.20
3 0.82 0.61 0.86 1.02 0.7 28.25 71.58 4.39 32.73 26.84
4 0.88 0.48 1.16 1.35 1.5 27.55 82.50 4.76 31.30 25.68
5 5.28 0.42 1.12 1.132 0.3 27.73 76.83 1.37 32.98 28.66
6 1.54 0.69 1.7 1.83 0.7 27.91 77.46 4.05 32.90 27.05
7 0.47 0.74 1.27 1.405 1.8 28.53 77.42 2.16 34.14 29.23
8 0.32 0.35 0.23 0.45 2.8 26.59 78.42 4.20 30.30 24.25
177
Table 7.9. Measurement result of Urban structure parameters and climatic variables in February
Point H/W
SV Surf2Vo SurfPlot2Vo GnP Tmr
Measure Rati Ta Rh Wind PET
F l Ratio l Ratio R t
d o
1.00 1.08 0.54 0.24 0.26 0.45 28.25 71.58 4.39 26.84 32.73
2.00 0.28 0.61 1.80 1.92 0.56 27.49 74.58 3.84 26.20 32.38
3.00 0.82 0.61 0.86 1.02 0.70 27.73 76.83 1.37 28.66 32.98
4.00 0.88 0.48 1.16 1.35 1.50 27.55 82.50 4.76 25.68 31.30
5.00 5.28 0.42 1.12 1.13 0.30 27.56 79.33 3.54 26.17 31.88
6.00 1.54 0.69 1.70 1.83 0.70 27.91 77.46 4.05 27.05 32.90
7.00 0.47 0.74 1.27 1.41 1.80 28.53 77.42 2.16 29.23 34.14
8.00 0.32 0.35 0.23 0.45 2.80 26.59 78.42 4.20 24.25 30.30
Table 7.10. Correlation between urban structure parameters and climatic variables in October
H/W Ratio SVF Surf2Vol Ratio SurfPlot2Vol Ratio GnPR

Ta 0.091 0.808 0.445 0.411 -0.425
Rh -0.003 -0.335 -0.215 -0.206 0.349
Wind -0.684 -0.051 -0.097 -0.013 0.237
Tmrt 0.258 0.778 0.561 0.505 -0.457
PET 0.496 0.547 0.434 0.365 -0.410
Table 7.11. Correlation between urban structure parameters and climatic variables in February
H/W Ratio SVF Surf2Vol Ratio SurfPlot2Vol Ratio GnPR

Ta 0.007 0.777 0.248 0.185 -0.455
Rh 0.242 -0.312 0.197 0.256 0.397
Wind 0.047 -0.483 -0.091 -0.097 0.085
Tmrt -0.096 0.832 0.272 0.246 -0.325
PET -0.089 0.915 0.392 0.346 -0.425
Table 7.10 shows the correlation between urban structure parameters and climatic
variables in October. In the urban context SVF has the strongest correlation with Tmrt (0.78).
Increasing SVF value makes the Tmrt value increase. Open space area will penetrate the sun
radiation into the area. Another important correlation that has to be mentioned is Surface to
Volume ratio has strong correlation with Tmrt as well. It means the building surface affects
the radiation surrounding. The H/W ratio in the urban affect the wind speed that can be seen
in the table above the correlation between H/W ratio and wind has negative value (-0.6).
Table 7.11. shows the correlation in February because of the sun position is different
there are different correlation between urban structure and climatic variables in February and
178
October. In October sun position is in the north of Jakarta so it changed the wind direction. In
this month wind correlation with H/W ratio has a correlation in positive value.
GnPr show the other side of the correlation, although small correlation GnPR affects
the Ta and Tmrt in the urban context. This correlation between GnPR in the urban is higher
than in the theme parks. It means the thermal comfort in the urban context is more affected by
the green area. Surface to volume ratio do not have correlation with the Tmrt or Ta but has a
direct correlation with PET.
There is a different way correlation between H/W ratio and wind speed, it should be a
different time of measurement. In October wind has strong correlation with H/W Ratio but in
March do not has correlation. In October the correlation between H/W and wind speed is in
negative value.
How strong the correlation between SVF and Tmrt and PET can be seen in the graphs
below.
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
PET
15.00
10.00
R² = 0.2991
5.00
0.00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
SVF
Figure 7.12. Correlation between SVF and PET in October
179
34.50
34.00
33.50
33.00
32.50
Tmrt
32.00
31.50
31.00 R² = 0.6058
30.50
30.00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
SVF
Figure 7.13. Correlation between SVF and Tmrt in October
34.50
34.00
33.50
33.00
32.50
PET
32.00
31.50
R² = 0.8373
31.00
30.50
30.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
SVF
Figure 7.14. Correlation between SVF and PET in February
180
34.50
34.00
33.50
33.00
32.50
PET
32.00
31.50
R² = 0.8373
31.00
30.50
30.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
SVF
Figure 7.15. Correlation between SVF and Tmrt in February
181
182
Chapter 8
Summary
Thermal comfort conditions of open space in Jakarta is very affected by the

microclimate depend on each location. Jakarta’s microclimate has shown uncomfortable
conditions. Overall measurements of open spaces in the Jakarta have shown an
uncomfortable, although in some places in the morning at 7am is still in a comfortable
condition in 0.5 PMV or 22 ° C PET, but at the same time the conditions change became
uncomfortable quickly or heat increase more than 1 PMV or above 34 ° C PET.
Heat peaks occurred between 12pm to 1pm vary depending on the location. The scale
of comfortable began at 7am everyday between 22-24 °C PET and become uncomfortable at
34-38 °C PET in the daytime. Open space of Theme Parks in Jakarta could never reach the
point of comfort.
High rise building affects thermal comfort, high rise building can make an
uncomfortable condition surrounding and trap the heat in a whole day as well. In contrast,
thermal comfort in residential area changes quickly from morning to afternoon. High-rise
building on the other hand has a disadvantage in thermal comfort in outdoor, but in other
hand, high rise building has the advantage shadowing the surroundings that make the
temperature lower. So building placement is important to be considered, to create the
shadowing outside building.
The open area with the shaded of the plantation is the location can be tolerated as the
location most comfortable because the high wind speed is not hindered by the buildings, and
had the longer thermal acceptable period. In the general thermal comfort difficult to be
achieved in the superblock
Urban ventilation should be created by building arrangement through formation and
planning. Urban planner and architects have to take into account the thermal comfort and
wind velocity and distribution in pedestrian level through building arrangement and planning.
In the level pedestrian wind experience decreasing the velocity, thus the thermal
comfort at that level difficult to be achieved. Park is the most area with best wind velocity.
The wind velocity near the building (high rise) experiences decreasing the velocity.
The comfortable distance of walking in a hot-humid city like Jakarta is 350 m average
based on walking comfort simulation. It can be reached more than 450 m distance if the city
183
can reduce the Tmrt value and the humidity, therefor the shading area has to be considered by
the urban planner and architect. Buildings can be designed as the shading area, therefor the
designer should pay attention to the solar movement, and building orientation.
8.1. Contribution to knowledge
Science either architecture or landscape design has been developed very advanced the
need for further development of science that combines architecture and landscape design that
really thermal comfort as its foundation. Further development of the science of architectural
design and landscaping is more concerned with the environmental balance to get a better
thermal environment, sustainable energy or better.
Materials science in the field of architecture is still very rare, especially material
science related to landscape design that can explain in more detail the value of a material
such as albedo value, especially material related to tropical conditions such as in Indonesia.
In the case of researchers be some very hard time determining the value of the albedo of a
material, because most of the material already has a value of albedo is not necessarily the
same as the value used in the country of Indonesia, so that needs to be further developed
research material.
Computer simulations related to thermal comfort are mainly used in landscape design
and the city has not been widely used. Whereas the results obtained are very useful in
determining and deciding a good design. With the development of computer tools, both speed
and the ability to save this simulation will be more easily used and developed as a tool in the
decision making both in the design of a landscape area and in urban design.
This dissertation tried to open new insights into how to design an open area that
considers to the simulation of thermal comfort in deciding the design.
Need to do research and development of software with the values of the tropics. In
some cases a simulation of this study should be an adjustment to the tropics, especially the
humid tropics, such as Indonesia, and takes a lot of time. If the existing software developed
for the tropics will be easier to simulate.
8.2. Future work
Follow up and Review

UHI phenomenon is a matter which has clear locality and close relation with wide-
range socioeconomic activities. So it is necessary to take numerous measures each part such
184
as the central government, local governments, business and residents. The review of research
will be carried out flexibly in accordance with necessity, taking account of the progress of
research on mechanism of UHI and development of technologies and countermeasures.
The combination of built environment and the natural environment made the urban
structure, which effect on how people everyday life and move in the city. The urban structure
development should consider developing the overall performance of the whole society and
living environment.Local actions towards a sustainable city has to be mapped as the key
strategy in urban development.
Traffic emissions can be reduced by good Urban structure design. Environmental
cost can be happened because of car oriented urban structure design which encourages the
use of cars and thus creates in terms of increased pollution, noise, vibrations which also affect
the natural environment.
In a sustainable city, coordination between land-use and transport planning can
encourage spatial settlement patterns that help access to basic necessities (e.g. food,
healthcare, education, leisure facilities) and reduces the need to travel.
Urban surface and structure planning, a part of master planning, terms the process by
which the use of land in urban is controlled in the public interest. Master planning carries the
issues on a more local level. The master plan is consequently an official document that sets
out the suggested land-use rights for a specific area and contains the building rights as
directed by the local planning authority. The master plan includes the basic design layout for
detailed planning, building lines and planning conditions. The specific details of a
development, such as urban layout, Floor Area Ratio, Building Coverage Ration, façade
design of buildings, energy supply systems, levels of insulation, the fenestration, materials of
buildings, and so on are key elements in detailed master planning process.
Master planning and design of an energy efficient in the urban area is a process of
trade-offs between planning and design choices and planning and design parameters. There
are priorities and conflicts that have to be considered in the process. Urban comfort and
compactness of the urban structure at the same time can be addressed with a view to impacts
on energy consumption and related emissions.
8.3. Conclusion and Recommendation
On a building level, the use of energy related to heating, cooling, ventilation, air-
conditioning and natural lighting related to site conditions, orientation and microclimate, and
185
use of electrical energy. The district level addresses the relations between different buildings
and their impacts on each other. Each individual building needs to have both energy
consumption and peak demand information.
The ultimate objective of responsibility this research and possible future similar
follow-ups is to bring strategies of urban surface modifications and urban structure
modification into possible regulatory consideration by urban temperature and energy control
and districts management.
Technology is the key factor whether as just an information tool or design and
planning tool as well. Application of technology is important in the process of urban
sustainable development.
186
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Effect of Urban Structure on Thermal Comfort

And Walking Comfort in Jakarta

*Lecturer, Department of Architecture, Institute of Technology, Bandung,

The University of Kitakyushu

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 187

Figure 1.1. Outline of Dissertation ................................................................................... 7

1.2. Problem Statement

1.3. Objective of Study

This study has some objectives, as follows:

1.4. Operational Definition Of Research

Thermal comfort is defined as a state of mind which expresses the satisfaction

1.5. Scope of Study

1.6. Dissertation Outline

This dissertation will be divided into several chapters:

FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY OF ASSESMENT IN

THERMAL COMFORT IN THERMAL COMFORT AND

STRATEGY ADDRESSING THE CLIMATE BARRIER IN URBAN

Figure 1.1. Outline of Dissertation

2.1. Role Of Theory In Urban Climate

2.2. Climate And Urban Study

Microclimate definition according to the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia is a

According to Valsson (2008), microclimate is the climate patterns in the

2.2.1. Macro, Meso, and Microclimate

2.2.3. Relative Humidity

2.2.4. Air Velocity

2.3. Classification And Definition System Of Urban Climate

2.3.1. An Urban Open Space Configuration

2.3.2. The Albedo of Urban Open Space

2.4. Characteristics of Outdoor Environment

2.4.1. Buildings Configuration

In a district scale topographic an effect on the area of micro-climatic conditions.

2.4.2. Land Use And Materials

Table 2.1. Reflectivity value of various types of material (Valsson, 2008).

Surface Details Albedo

2.4.3. Urban Structure

2.5. Thermal comfort

Table 2.2. The Influence of air speed on thermal sensation of human

40 0.20 2 Barely perceptible, but comfortable enough

Good speed for natural ventilation in hot and

Human thermal comfort is affected by six primary factors: Air temperature,

City significantly modifies meteorological of surrounding conditions. The city

3.1. Assessment of Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Environment

3.1.1. Human Energy Balanced

The human energy balanced is the energy exchange balance produced by

3.1.2. . Heat Transfer In The Human Body (Human Energy-budget)

Human activity increase energy, such as eating, generates energy that is

MET – EVP  CND  CNV  RAD = 0 -------------------------------------(7)

3.1.3. Assessment of Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Environment

The complexity of the evaluation of thermal comfort becomes a constraint on

3.1.4. . Physiological Effective Temperature (PET)

In many studies of thermal comfort outdoor environment thermal comfort index

PET Thermal Sensation Physiological stress level

Very cold Extreme cold stress

3.1.5. .Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)

PMV = [ 0,303.exp (-0,036.M) + 0,028] L......................................... (8)

Table 3.2. PMV Scale

PMV Thermal Sensation

PMV PET Thermal Comfort Thermal Comfort Physiological