CHAPTER 2: Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry
CHAPTER 2: Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry
CHAPTER 2: Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry
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Learning outcomes:
(a) define and use the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular and formula masses, based on the
C-12 scale.
(b) define and use the term mole in terms of the Avogadro constant.
(c) analyse mass spectra in terms of isotopic abundances [knowledge of the working of the mass
spectrometer is not required].
(d) calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the relative abundances of its isotopes,
or its mass spectrum.
(e) define and use the terms empirical and molecular formulae.
(f) calculate empirical and molecular formulae, using combustion data or composition by mass.
(g) write and/or construct balanced equations.
(h) perform calculations, including use of the mole concept, involving:
(i) reacting masses (from formulae and equations).
(ii) volumes of gases (e.g. in the burning of hydrocarbons).
(iii) volumes and concentrations of solutions.
When performing calculations, candidates’ answers should reflect the number of significant
figures given or asked for in the question. When rounding up or down, candidates should ensure
that significant figures are neither lost unnecessarily nor used beyond what is justified.
(i) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such as those in (h).
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4) C-12 was assigned a mass of exactly 12 a.m.u.. This is known as C-12 scale.
5) For example, an atom which is 3.5 times heavier than a C-12 atom would have
a relative mass of (3.5 x 12) = 42 a.m.u.. That means, this atom is 42 times
heavier than the mass of (1/12 x the mass of C-12 atom).
1) Relative atomic mass, Ar is the weighted average relative masses of all its isotopes
measured on a scale in which a carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 units.
Example:
Ratio of Cl-35 to Cl-37 is 3:1. If you have 4 typical atoms of chlorine, total mass
is (35 x 3) + (37 x 1) = 142. So, the average mass of the isotopes is 142/4 = 35.5.
This implies that 35.5 is the relative atomic mass of chlorine while 35 is the
relative mass of Cl-35 and 37 is the relative mass of Cl-37.
1) Relative molecular mass, Mr is the weighted average of the masses of the molecules
measured on a scale in which a carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 units.
3) It is found by adding up all the relative atomic masses of all the atoms present in
the molecule.
4) Examples:
i. Mr (H2O) = 2(1) + 16 = 18
ii. Mr (CHCl3) = 12 + 1 + 3(35.5) = 119.5
1) Relative formula mass, Mr is the weighted average of the masses of the formula
units measured on a scale in which a carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12
units.
3) Examples:
i. Mr (NaCl) = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
ii. Mr (CuSO4 • H2O) = 64 + 32+ 4(16) +5[2(1) + 16] = 249.5
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1) Five steps:
i. Vaporisation
- atoms are vaporised to form gaseous atom.
ii. Ionisation
- gaseous atoms are bombarded with high energy electrons to form positive
ions.
iii. Acceleration
- the ions are accelerated so that they have the same kinetic energy.
iv. Deflection
- ions are deflected by a magnetic field. The amount of deflection depends on:
1) the mass of the ion
2) the amount of positive charge on it
- the larger the mass, the smaller the deflection.
- the higher the charge, the larger the deflection.
- the two factors combine into mass/charge ratio (m/e or m/z).
- the smaller the value of m/e, the larger the deflection
v. Detection
- the beam of ions are detected electrically.
- the data are fed into the computer and the mass spectrum is produced.
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Side note
Relative abundance
c
b
m/e
m₁ m₂ m₃
Example:
= 10.8
3) Examples:
i. 1 mol of He contains 6.02 x 10²³ He atoms.
ii. 1 mol of CO2 contains 6.02 x 10²³ CO2 molecules but 3 x (6.02 x10²³)
atoms.
iii. 1 mol of NaCl contains 6.02 x 10²³ NaCl units, Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.
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Mass / g
No. of mole / mol = -1
Molar mass / g mol
2) Avogadro's law states that for equal volumes of all gases, under the same
conditions, contain the same number of moles.
3) Hence, equal number of moles of any gas, under the same conditions, would
occupy the same volume. It does not depend on the nature of gas.
5) At standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p), which is 0 ℃ and 1 atm, one mole
of any gas occupies 22.4 dm³.
ii. In incomplete combustion, the possible products are carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, carbon soot and water.
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2) The substance presents in small quantity is called the solute while the substance
present is larger quantity is called the solvent.
Mass of solute / g
Concentration / g dm⁻³
Volume of solution / dm³
Concentration / g dm⁻³
Molarity / mol dm⁻³
Concentration / g dm⁻³
Molar mass of solute / g mol -1
Molarity / mol dm⁻³
Molar mass of solute / g mol -1
Empirical formula
1) Empirical formula is a chemical formula that shows the simplest ratio of the atoms
that combine to form a molecule.
3) Some facts:
i. The formula for an ionic compound is always its empirical formula.
ii. The empirical formula and molecular formula for simple inorganic molecules
are often the same.
iii. Organic molecules have different empirical and molecular formula.
Molecular formula
1) Molecular formula is a chemical formula that shows the actual number of atoms
that combine to form the compound.
1) Mass is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. Therefore the
total mass of the reactants is equal to the total of the products in a closed
system.
2) For example, the total mass of iodine in the reactants is equal to the total mass
of iodine in the products.
3) This can be used to solve problems in calculating the empirical formula.
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2) In compounds, it refers to the ratio in which the atoms are combined together.
For example, water, H2O has a stoichiometry of 2 hydrogen to 1 oxygen.
Ionic equations
FAQ 1: When to split compounds into FAQ 2: How to identify spectator ions?
ions?
1) The ions present on both sides of
1) Only split aqueous ionic compounds. For the equation are spectator ions.
example, NaCl(aq) and HCl(aq)
2) Do not split solid ionic compounds and
covalent compounds, as well as metals.
For example, NaCl(s), H2O(l), Mg(s)
and HCl(g)