PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS

Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No.04

understood to mean the

TOPIC OUTLINE horizontal distance, regardless
of the relative elevation of
the two points. Frequently, the
A. Measurement of Distance lay of the land between the two
B. Distance by Pacing points is not uniform, or the
C. Distance by Taping elevation of the two points is
D. Distance by Tachymetry very different. Special
equipment and techniques may be
1. Stadia Method
needed to obtain an accurate
2. Subtense Bar Method determination of the distance.
E. Distance by graphical and Various methods of determining
mathematical methods distance are available along
F. Distance by mechanical with special and different
types of equipment. The degree
devices
of precision required is
G. Distance by another factor which is
photogrammetry required to be considered
1. Summation of Errors before a measurement of
2. Product of Errors distance is undertaken so that
the correct type of equipment
and method of measurement may
be done.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

SURVEY 1: FUNDAMENTALS
1. To be able to learn what is OF SURVEYING
measurement of distance.
Measurement of Distance
2. To be able to learn the
concept of distance by pacing The accurate determination of
the distance between two points
3. To be able to learn what is on any surface is one of the
distance by tachymetry using basic operations of plane
stadia method and subtense bar surveying. Such linear
method. measurements are understood to
mean the horizontal distance.
4. To be able to learn the
distance by graphical and There are several methods
mathematical methods of determining distance. The
choice depends on the purpose
5. To be able to learn the for which the measurements is
distance by mechanical devices intended, the required
precision, the cost, and other
6. To be able to learn the conditions. In surveying, the
distance of photogrammetry. commonly employed methods of
linear measurement include
pacing, taping, tachymetric,
OVERVIEW and electronic distance
measurement. In some instances,
a surveyor may find occasion to
employ a combination of methods
In surveying, the distance to advantage.
between two points is

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No.04

Distance by Pacing Distance by Tachymetry.

Pacing consist of counting the Tachymetry (or tacheometry) is

number of steps or paces in a another procedure of obtaining
required distance. horizontal distances. It is
based on the optical geometry
A pace is defined as the of the instruments employed and
length of a step-in walking. It is an indirect method of
may be measured from heel to measurement. A transit or a
heel or from toe to toe. In theodolite is used to determine
surveying pacing means moving subtended intervals and angles
with measured steps; and if the on a graduated rod or scale
steps are counted, distances from which distances are
can be determined if the length computed by trigonometry.
of a step is known. Counting Tachymetric measurements are
strides instead of paces is performed either by the stadia
sometimes preferred by method or subtense bar method.
surveyors.
1. Stadia Method. This method
provides a rapid means of
determining horizontal
distances. It was
introduced in 1771 by
James Watt of Scotland was
at that time referred to a
micrometer for measuring
distances. The precision
of stadia method depends
upon the following
Distance by Taping factors: the refinement
with which the instrument
The use of graduated tape is was manufactured, the
probably the most common method skill of the observer, the
of measuring of laying out length of measurement, and
horizontal distances. Taping the effects of refraction
consist of stretching and parallax.
calibrated tape between two The process of taking
points are reading the distance stadia measurement consist
indicated on the tape. It is a in observing through the
form of a direct measurement telescope the apparent
which is widely used in the locations of the two
construction of buildings, stadia hairs on a
dams, bridges, canals, and many vertically held rod. From
other engineering as well as the observed interval read
non-engineering activities. on the rod, the distance
from the telescope to the
Calibrated ropes, cords, rod is found by
and lines were used by proportional relationships
surveyors for many centuries. in similar triangles. The
The use of the steel tape came equation D=Ks+C is
about during the beginning of employed.
the twentieth century. 2. Subtense Bar Method. The
subtense bar is a
convenient and practical
device used for quick and
accurate measurement of

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No.04

horizontal distances. The correction is required. This is

bar which is precisely 2 because the subtended angle is
meters long, consists of a measured in a horizontal plane
rounded steel tube through and therefore independent of
which runs a thin invar the slope of the line of sight.
rod. At each end of the
frame the target marks are Distance by Graphical and
housed. The procedure for Mathematical Methods
determining the distance
between two points By graphical or mathematical
consists of setting up the methods, unknown distances may
subtense bar at the be determined through their
distant station, measuring relationship with known
the horizontal angle distances geometrically. These
subtended by the distance methods are widely employed in
between the two targets. A plane table surveys, and in
theodolite, set up at the triangulation work. Determining
other end of the line to distances by scaling from maps
be measured, is used in or aerial photographs could
measuring the subtending also provide sufficiently
angle. accurate results.
The determination of
lengths of the sides of a
horizontal control system such
as in triangulation and
trilateration involves
geometric and trigonometric
relationships. Since long
distances are involved and most
are over inaccessible terrain,
this method becomes quite
practical to employ.
Figure shows a plan view of a
typical subtense measurement. Distance by Mechanical Device
Since the bar is set up
perpendicular to the line of There are a few mechanical
sight, the horizontal distance devices which could also be
is determined from the employed for the measurement of
relationship. distances. These devices,
however, are only applicable
∝ 𝑠/2 𝑠/2
tan ( 2 ) = and D = = ∝ for low precision surveys or
𝐷 tan( )
2 where quick measurements are
since S = 2.00m
desired. The more commonly used
∝ ∝ among these devices include the
D = I/tan ( 2 ) = cot( 2 ) odometer, measuring wheel, and
the optical rangefinder.
Where
D = is the horizontal 1. Odometer. The odometer is
distance a simple device that can
∝ = is the angle subtended be attached to a wheel for
by the targets. purposes of roughly
measuring surface
The subtense bar method has an distances.
added advantage in that the 2. Measuring Wheel. A
horizontal distance is obtained measuring wheel is very
directly and no slope similar in operation to an

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No.04

odometer except that it is b) If the surveyor then took

a more portable and self- 771, 770, 768, 770, 772,
contained measuring and 769 paces in walking
device. It basically on unknown distance CD,
consists of a small wheel what is the length of the
which is attached to a rod line?
and handle and can be c) Assuming that the taped
pushed by an operator. length of line CD is
3. Optical Rangefinder. An 667.0m, determine the
optical rangefinder (fig.) relative precision of the
operates on the same measurement performed.
principle as a rangefinder
on a single-lens reflex Taped No. of
Trial Line Mean
camera. This device, which Distance Paces
is usually hand-held or 1 AB 50
mounted on a small tripod, 2 BA 53
can be used to determine 3 AB 51
distances approximately 45 52
4 BA 53
simply by focusing. 5 AB 52
6 BA 53

a) Determining Pace Factor.

L = 45m (length of Line
AB)
n = 6 (number of
trials taken on line AB)

Fig. Optical Rangefinder Sum = (50+53+51+53+52+53)

= 312 paces
M = sum/n = 312/6
Distance by Photogrammetry = 52 paces (mean no.
of paces)
The term photogrammetry refers PF = L/M = 45m/52 paces
to the measurement of images on = 0.865 m/pace
a photograph. The type of
photographs used are those b) Determining the unknown
taken from an aircraft with the distance.
axis of the camera pointed n = 6
vertically towards the terrain
photographed. Sum =
771+770+768+770+772+769
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM Sum = 4620 paces

Distance by Pacing. A 45-M M = Sum/n = 4620/6= 770

course, AB on level ground was paces (mean number of
paced by a surveyor for the paces on line CD)
purpose of determining his pace
factor. The number of paces for CD=M(PF)=770 paces (0.865
each trial taken are shown in m/pace)
the accompanying tabulation. CD = 666.1m (spaced length
of line CD)
Requirements.
c) Determine Relative
a) Determine his pace factor. Precision

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No.04

TD = 667.0(taped distance) Taped No. of

Trial Line Mean
PD = 666.1(paced distance) Distance Paces
RP = (TD-PD)/TD 1 AX 63
= (667.0- 2 XA 60
666.1)/667.0 3 AX 62
= 0.9/667.0 55 62
4 XA 62
= 1/741 SAY 1/700 5 AX 61
(relative precision of the
6 XA 64
measurement)

Distance by Stadia. A stadia Distance by Subtense Bar. The

rod held at a distant point B following subtended angles were
is sighted by an instrument set read on a 2-m long subtense bar
up at A. The upper and lower
using a theodolite: 0°54’13”,
stadia hair readings were
observed as 1.300m and 0.900m, 0°22’20”, 0°32’06”, and
respectively. If the stadia 0°19’46”. Compute the
interval factor (K) is 100, and horizontal distances from the
the instrument constant (C) is theodolite to each position of
zero, determine the length of
the bar.
line AB.

D = Ks +C Distance by Stadia. A stadia

D = 100(1.300-0.900) + 0.0 rod held at a distant point B
D = 40.0M (length of line AB) is sighted by an instrument set
up at A. The upper and lower
stadia hair readings were
LEARNING ACTIVITY observed as 1.100m and 0.800m,
respectively. If the stadia
interval factor (K) is 100, and
the instrument constant (C) is
Distance by Pacing. A 55-M zero, determine the length of
course, AX on level ground was line AB.
paced by a surveyor for the
purpose of determining his pace
factor. The number of paces for SUMMARY
each trial taken are shown in
the accompanying tabulation.

Requirements. Pacing. Pacing is a rapid means

a) Determine his pace factor. of approximately checking more
b) If the surveyor then took precise measurements of
680, 685, 683, 680, 685, distance. Pacing over rough
and 681 paces in walking country may be done with a
on unknown distance XY, precision of one in one
what is the length of the hundred. In average conditions,
line? a person with some experience
should have little difficulty
in pacing with a precision of
one in two hundred.

Tape. The common method of

determining distance is by
direct measurement with a tape.
The tape is called a "chain"

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No.04

and is usually 100 ft in

length. The term "chain" comes
from the form of the early
tapes which were composed of
100 links, each one foot long.
Brass tags were fastened at
each ten links and notches in
the tags indicated the number
of ten link segments between
the tag and the end of the
tape. Therefore, the early
tapes looked like a chain of
one hundred links. Chain is
also applied to the operation
of measuring lines with tapes.

REFERENCES:

Elementary Surveying
Alfeo La Putt

Prepared by:

ENGR. ELMAR T. ANTOLIN

Faculty, Civil Engineering
Department
College of Engineering and
Architecture