Asphalt Material Characterization, Accelerated Testing, and Highway Management
Asphalt Material Characterization, Accelerated Testing, and Highway Management
Asphalt Material Characterization, Accelerated Testing, and Highway Management
190
HOSTED BY
Changsha University of Science and Technology, China
CO-SPONSORED BY
ASCE Geo-Institute, USA
Asphalt Institute, USA
Central South University, China
Chinese Society of Pavement Engineering, Taiwan
Chongqing Jiaotong University, China
Deep Foundation Institute, USA
Federal Highway Administration, USA
Hunan University, China
International Society for Asphalt Pavements, USA
Jiangsu Transportation Research Institute, China
Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Korea
Korean Society of Road Engineers, Korea
Texas Department of Transportation, USA
Texas Transportation Institute, USA
Transportation Research Board (TRB), USA
EDITED BY
Lubinda F. Walubita, Ph.D.
Louw du Plessis, Ph.D.
Shin-Che Huang, Ph.D.
Geoffrey S. Simate
Zhaohui Liu, Ph.D.
TE270.A765 2009
625.8'5--dc22 2009022740
www.pubs.asce.org
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Preface
Acknowledgments
vii
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Contents
ix
Evaluation of the Effect of Tire Loads with Different Contact Stress Patterns
on Asphalt Rutting .................................................................................................................98
W. J. vdM. Steyn
Test Study on Abrasion of Skid-Resistant Textures on Concrete Pavements .................107
Yu Chen and Qisen Zhang
Indexes
Author Index.........................................................................................................................203
Subject Index ........................................................................................................................205
x
Effects of Magnesium Hydroxide on Asphalt Pyrolytic Characteristics and Kinetic
Analysis
INTRODUCTION
With the rapid development of highway construction in China, more and more road
tunnels are being built. Compared with concrete pavements, asphalt pavement has some
advantages. The asphalt pavement is getting applied increasingly in large scale road
tunnels. However, due to asphalt pyrolysis and combustion under tunnel fires, massive
poisons and smoke are released that result in serious secondary disasters. All these bring
great difficulties for personnel escape and fire rescue. So, studies on flame-retarded
asphalt pavements in tunnels is increasingly becoming an issue of great concern (1).
Because of the asphalt flammability, the usage of flame retardants in asphalt
pavement has potentials to decrease fire accidents in tunnels (2). Currently, the method
is to add various flame retardants into asphalt, such as organic bromides, antimony
trioxide, zinc borate, and so on. However, this leads to the formation of poisons and
smoke during tunnel fires (3). In addition, different flame retardants have generally
different flame-retardation mechanisms (4). The above flame-retarded asphalt research
mainly focused on asphalt flammability (5). However, the actual asphalt
flame-retardation mechanism is seldom regarded.
1
2 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Raw materials
SBS modified asphalt is produced by Shell Corporation. The flame retardant, namely
MH, is made by Guangzhou Yaxin Chemical Limited Company in China. The flame
retardant has some physical properties such as white powder, average particle size of
2.2 to 3.0ȝm, density of around 2.36g/cm3, non-toxic, competitive price, crystal water
content of 31.0%, and flame retardancy characteristics.
Sample preparation
SBS modified asphalt is put in a stainless steel cup to heat on an electric furnace. When
the asphalt is heated up to (170 ± 5) oC, flame retardant powder is added into the hot
asphalt in weight percent amounts of 15%, 20% and 25%, respectively. First, stir for 15
minutes at that temperature, then the turbine stirrer (as shown in FIG. 2) is used to stir at
the high speed of 5000(rpm) for 30 minutes, and then to stir at a low speed of 500(rpm)
for 15 minutes to expel air bubbles from the asphalt. Finally, flame-retarded asphalt is
placed in clean vessels. During the asphalt cooling process, hand stirring is done
to prevent segregation.
Experimental instrumentations
The experiment was on a ThermoGravimetry-Differential Thermal Analyzer (TG-DTA)
made by SETARAM Company of France. The instrumentation has some technology
parameters such as a thermo-balance precision of 0.1ȝg, sample weight range of 0 to
around 200mg, experimental temperature range of room temperature to around 1600 oC,
heating rate of 0.01 to 99.99 oC /min and experimental temperature precision of ± 2 oC.
Temperature control and data acquisition are accomplished automatically by computer
on line.
Thermogravimetry experiments
The TG experiments are on the TGA-92 type thermal analyzer system. The samples are
heated from room temperature to around 700°C at 5°C/min under a nitrogen atmosphere.
Non-isothermal kinetic experiments are carried out using approximately 10mg of
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 3
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FIG.1 shows the thermal weight loss of asphalt begins at about 280 oC, and over
90% of all the weight loss occurs in the temperature rang of 300oC ~ 500oC. Due to a lot
of asphalt molecular chain breaking during the asphalt pyrolysis process, numerous
different of complicated components are released including carbon monoxide(CO),
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), saturated hydrocarbons, unsaturated hydrocarbon,
aromatic mixture, etc. All these are reflected obviously by the concave unimodal DTG
curves in FIG.1. When asphalt samples are heated up to 430 oC ~ 480 oC, the weight loss
reaches the maximum. After the temperature is over 500 oC, the weight loss of samples
is lesser, and the remainder of the constituent composition is mainly un-decomposed
solid coke and ash.
4 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
dα A
= e( − E / RT ) dT (2)
f (α ) β
α 1
Defining g (α ) = ∫
0 f (α )
d α , then equation (2) converts to:
A T
g (α ) =
β ∫
T0
e ( − E / RT ) dT (3)
⎡ g (α ) ⎤ ⎡ AR 2 RT ⎤ E
ln ⎢ 2 ⎥ = ln ⎢ (1 − ) − (4)
⎣ T ⎦ ⎣ β E E ⎥⎦ RT
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 5
Common integral functions g (Į) used to study the kinetic analysis are shown in Table.1
(8). As is known, when a kinetic model is applied to describe the pyrolysis reaction of
material, it must be verified by various methods. Kinetic analysis is one of methods to
verify the rationality of built models. The linear association degree of ln[g(Į)/T2] versus
1/T is an evaluation of built models.
From equation (4), owing to 2RT/E<<1, 2RT/E can be neglected. This makes
ln[AR(1-2RT/E)/(ȕE)] approximately equal to ln(AR/ȕE). So, when the selected
mechanism function g(Į) is appropriate, ln[g(Į) /T2] versus 1/T curve should
approximately be a line of least square fit. Moreover, the g(Į) with maximum
correlation coefficient R2 is the mechanism function of the pyrolysis reaction. Then, the
slope of the regressive line is -E/R, and the intercept includes a frequency factor
A. Therefore, kinetics parameters(E and A) can be calculated based on the slope and
intercept of the regression line. Fitting results of correlation coefficient of the asphalt
pyrolysis mechanism functions under different MH doses are shown in Table.2.
By optimal identification of the mechanism function (as shown in Table 2), the
asphalt pyrolysis reaction follows a D1 model in fluid N2, namely, one dimensionnal
diffusion mechanism model. It shows that modified asphalt pyrolysis belongs to a
diffusion process control mechanism and represent a deceleration shape Į-t curve,
which follows the parabolic rule (6). Accordingly, the reaction mechanism function of
modified asphalt is as follow: g(Į)=Į2, and reaction rate function is as follow: f
(Į)=Į-1/2.
However, pyrolysis reaction of flame-retarded modified asphalt follows a D4 model,
namely, a three dimensional diffusion mechanism model. It shows that flame-retarded
modified asphalt pyrolysis belongs also to a diffusion process control mechanism, but
represents a spherical symmetry and a deceleration shape Į-t curve that follows the
Ginstling-Broushtein equation(6). In addition, the reaction mechanism function of
flame-retarded modified asphalt is as follow: g(Į)=(1-2Į/3)-(1-Į)2/3, and the reaction
rate function is as follow: f (Į)=3/2·[(1-Į)-1/3-1]-1.
From Table.3, when flame retardant (MH) is mixed into asphalt, frequency factor
(A) and activation energy (E) increase as an obvious function of the MH amount added.
This implies that flame-retarded asphalt needs more energy for activating the thermal
decomposition reaction and consequently, inhibits asphalt pyrolysis. This leads to a
decrease in the reaction activity. So, compared with modified asphalt, flame-retarded
modified asphalt is more difficult to decompose. That is to say, thermal stability and
flame-retarded effect are better under high temperature environments. Thus, the kinetic
parameters in Table.4 can evaluate quantitatively the flame retardation effect of MH.
The main reason is that MH releases crystal water and absorbs heat during MH
decomposing. This minimizes the temperature rise in the asphalt matrix and decreases
the reaction rate, consequently retarding asphalt pyrolysis. On the other hand, the char
yield ratio increases due to active magnesia, and the charring layer hinders further
pyrolysis of the asphalt.
CONCLUSIONS
(1) Due to massive asphalt molecular chain breaking, asphalt decomposition process is
a single stage pyrolysis in N2. The DTG curves present an obvious unimodal
character. Temperature rise of asphalt matrix is inhibited by the endothermic
decomposition and crystal water release of MH. This improves thermal stability and
delay the release of flammable volatiles under high temperatures.
(2) The pyrolysis reaction of modified asphalt follows a one dimensional diffusion
mechanism model (D1). The model belongs to a diffusion process control
mechanism that follows a parabolic rule, with its reaction mechanism function given
as g(Į)=Į2. However, pyrolysis reaction of flame-retarded modified asphalt follows
a three dimensional diffusion mechanism model (D4). The model also belongs to a
diffusion process control mechanism, but follows Ginstling-Broushtein equation and
its reaction mechanism function is given as g(Į)=(1-2Į/3)-(1-Į)2/3.
(3) MH has an obvious influence on the kinetic parameters of asphalt pyrolysis.
Analytical results indicate that flame retardant (MH) inhibits asphalt pyrolysis, and
decreases both the reaction activity and rate. All these factors cause the thermal
stability of flame- retarded asphalt to be stably better under high temperatures.
8 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
(1) Gao P Z, Liu S L, Chow W K, et al. (2004). Large eddy simulations for studying
tunnel smoke ventilation [J].Tunnel and Underground Technology, 19 (6):577-586;
(2) Shao peng Wu, Liantong Mo, Peiliang Cong, et al. (2008) Flammability and
rheological behavior of mixed flame retardant modified asphalt binders [J].Fuel,
87:120-124;
(3) Hu Shuguang, Zhang Houji Wang Jiaolan. (2006). Research on Alkaline Filler
Flame-Retarded Asphalt Pavement [J]. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology
(Mater. Sci. Ed.), 21(3):146-148;
(4) Demir H, Arkis E, Balkose D, Ulku S. (2005). Synergistic effect of natural zeolites
on flame retardant additives[J]. Polym Degrad Stab, 89(3):478–83;
(5) Lonnermark A, Ingason H. (2005). Gas temperatures in heavy goods vehicle fires in
tunnels [J]. Fire Safe, 40(6):506–527;
(6) Hu Rongzu, Shi Qizhen. (2001). Thermal Analysis Kinetics [M]. Beijing: Science
Press, 127-131;
(7) X.X. Han, X.M. Jiang, Z. G. Cui. (2006). Thermal Analysis Studies on Combustion
Mechanism of Oil Shale [J]. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 84:
3631–3636.
(8) N.A. Liu, W.C. Fan. (2002). Kinetic modeling of thermal decomposition of natural
calluses materials in air atmosphere[J].Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis,
63:303-325.
Research on Rheological Performance of SBS Modified Asphalt at Low
Temperature
ABSTRACT: In this paper, phase angle( δ ) and viscous modulus( G′′ ) were used to
study the low temperature rheological performance(LTRP) of nine kinds of Styrene-
butadiene-styrene (SBS) modified asphalts, with three penetration grades of base
asphalts (90, 110, and 130) and three contents of weight (3%, 4.5% and 6%) of linear
SBS modifiers. The LTRP of modified asphalts were tested using the Gemini 150
dynamic shear Rheometer produced by Bohlin Company at the temperatures ranging
from -10 °C to 10 °C at intervals of 5 °C. Then, the influence of the modifier contents
on the LTRP of SBS modified asphalt was analyzed. The result indicated that the
modifier contents have a great influence, which is apparently confined by base
asphalt’s penetration grade. The higher the grade is, the greater the influence. Lastly,
the influence of the base asphalt’s grade on the LTRP of SBS modified asphalt was
investigated. The analysis showed that it plays an important role in the LTRP. What’s
more, the impact degree is dependent on the modifier’s contents. The more the content
is, the greater the impact degree is.
INTRODUCTION
9
10 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
In recent years, there are several ways to evaluate the LTRP of asphalt. In the
Superpave specification and others’ researches, different techniques were used to
characterize the LTRP of modified asphalts (1-8). However, the effect of polymer
modification on the LTRP of modified asphalts has been more undecided or
controversial (4, 5-8), and remained so even after the introduction of the original
Superpave low temperature parameters, creep stiffness, S, and the m-value from the
bending beam Rheometer (BBR) and direct tension test (DTT) failure stress values
and the critical cracking temperature (Tcritical) from the DTT. In this paper, two
rheological basic parameters (į and viscous modulus) were chosen to assess the LTRP
of nine kinds of SBS modified asphalts.
In this research, storage-stable SBS polymer modified asphalts were obtained from
Beijing Asphalt Research and Development Center, KOCH Material. The penetration
grades of base asphalts with the same oil source were receptively, 90, 110, and 130.
Three contents (3%, 4.5% and 6%) of the SBS linear modifiers were used for each
base asphalt with different penetration grades. The details of 9 types of SBS modified
asphalts prepared by high-speed shear machine at 180 °C are shown in Table 1,
including the names of SBS modified asphalts, modifier’s contents, and base asphalt’s
grade, penetration, ductility, and softening point. As shown in Table 1, for the same
base asphalt’s grade, the ductility increases with SBS content: however, the softening
point decreases with SBS content.
The samples were tested using the Gemini 150 dynamic shear Rheometer, which
can test the performance at low temperatures up to -20 °C with the same resolution,
with parallel plate geometry (25 mm in diameter) produced by Bohlin Company.
About 1.0g sample was put onto the lower plate. After the sample was heated to flow,
the upper parallel plate was lowered to contact tightly with the sample and the sample
trimmed. The final gap was adjusted to 1.0 mm. The temperatures ranged form -10
to 10 °C at intervals of 5 °C and the frequency was 0.1Hz.
Several rheological parameters can be received from the experiment. In this paper,
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 11
δ and G′′ were used to appraise the LTRP of modified asphalts for the reason that
they can reflect the LTRP of SBS modified asphalts. The better the LTRP is, the
higher δ and G′′ are. Therefore, the influence of modifier’s contents and base
asphalt’s grade on the LTRP will be researched.
Polymer modifier’s contents not only relate to the cost of asphalt mixtures, but
also involve in whether SBS modifiers form net-structures or not. As a result, linear
SBS polymer was chosen to analyze the effect of SBS polymer modifier’s contents.
Figure 1 is a summary of the graphs of δ and G′′ versus temperature for a set of
binders of three modifier contents (3%, 4.5%, and 6%) and the same base asphalt
grade (90). As shown in Figure 1, δ increases with temperature and modifier’s
contents. However, there is a peak value for curves of G′′ with temperature. The peak
temperature, which can be defined as glass transition temperature, indicates the LTRP.
The lower the peak temperature is, the better the LTRP is. It can be seen from Figure1
that the higher the contents are, the lower the peak temperature is. That means the
LTRP will be better with higher modifier’s contents.
60.0 6.20
A1
50.0
A2 6.00
40.0 A3
į(degree)
5.80
logGą
30.0
5.60
20.0 A1
5.40 A2
10.0 A3
0.0 5.20
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Temperature(ć) Temperature(ć)
FIG. 1. Graphs of δ and G′′ versus temperature for asphalts A1, A2 and A3.
Figures 2 and 3 show the graphs of δ and G′′ versus temperature for three
modifier contents (3%, 4.5% and 6%) and two base asphalt grades (110 and 130).
Graphs of δ and G′′ versus temperature have the same trends as Figure 1, but the
distance of graphs between three contents becomes larger. In addition, the distance
increases with base asphalt grade. What’s more, there is a more clear decrease in the
peak temperatures for base asphalt grade of 110 and 130.
As discussed above, the contents of SBS modifiers have a great influence on the
LTRP of SBS modified asphalts, and that increasing the contents will be an effective
way to improve the LTRP. At the same time, it is very interesting to find that the
influence of modifier’s contents is confined by the base asphalt’s grade, and that the
influence degree of contents increases with the grades increasing.
12 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
60.0 6.20
B1
50.0 B2 6.00
40.0 B3
į(degree)
5.80
logGą
30.0
5.60
20.0 B1
5.40 B2
10.0 B3
0.0 5.20
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Temperature(ć) Temperature(ć)
FIG. 2. Graphs of δ and G′′ versus temperature for asphalts B1, B2 and B3.
60.0 6.20
C1
50.0 C2 6.00
C3
40.0
į(degree)
5.80
logGą
30.0
5.60
20.0 C1
5.40 C2
10.0 C3
0.0 5.20
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Temperature(ć) Temperature(ć)
FIG. 3. Graphs of δ and G′′ versus temperature for asphalts C1, C2 and C3.
logGą
30.0 5.80
A1
20.0 5.60 B1
10.0 5.40 C1
0.0 5.20
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Temperature(ć) Temperature(ć)
FIG. 4. Graphs of δ and G′′ versus temperature for asphalts A1, B1 and C1.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 13
Figures 5 and 6 show the graphs of δ and G′′ versus temperature for a set of
binders of different base asphalt grades (90, 110, and 130) and the same contents (i.e.,
4.5% and 6%). Graphs of δ and G′′ versus temperature have the similar trends as
Figure 4, but the distance between the three graphs of grade becomes larger.
Furthermore, the distance increases with modifier’s contents.
As analyzed above, the base asphalt’s grade has a significant impact on the LTRP
of SBS modified asphalt, and that choosing high penetration grades will be a better
way to improve the LTRP. Moreover, it is obviously that the influence of the base
asphalt’s grade is confined by modifier’s contents, and that the degree of influence of
the contents increases as the grades increases.
60.0 6.40
A2
50.0 6.20
B2
40.0 C2 6.00
į(degree)
0.0 5.20
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Temperature(ć) Temperature(ć)
FIG. 5. Graphs of δ and G′′ versus temperature for asphalts A2, B2 and C2.
60.0 6.40
A3
50.0 6.20
B3
40.0 C3 6.00
logGą
į(degree)
30.0 5.80
20.0 5.60 A3
B3
10.0 5.40 C3
0.0 5.20
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Temperature(ć) Temperature(ć)
FIG. 6. Graphs of δ and G′′ versus temperature for asphalts A3, B3 and C3.
To sum up, the LTRP of SBS modified asphalts is effected by both the base
asphalt’s grade and the SBS modifier’s contents. The base asphalt binders supply the
foundation for SBS polymer modifiers and the modifiers impacts the degree of
influence. The base asphalt binders with higher penetration grades will get better
results of modification; on the contrary, those with lower penetration grades will get
worse results of modification. Therefore, the modifier will have greater impact on the
LTRP only if the base asphalt’s grade is higher. In contrast, modifiers won’t have any
obvious impact with lower grades of the base asphalt binders even if the modifier’s
contents are considerably high. In other words, the higher base asphalt’s penetration
grades will be a better choice when aiming at improving the LTRP of the SBS
modified asphalts.
14 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
Based on the testing and analysis presented, the following conclusions may be
made:
1. SBS modifier’s contents have a great influence on the LTRP, and that increasing
the contents will be an effective way to improve the LTRP. Moreover, the influence of
modifier’s contents is confined by base asphalt’s grades, and that the influence degree
of contents increases with the grades increasing.
2. The base asphalt’s grades have a significant impact on the LTRP, and that
choosing high penetration grades will be a better way to improve the LTRP.
Additionally, the influence of base asphalt’s grades is confined by SBS modifier’s
contents, and that the influence degree of contents increases as the grades increasing.
3ˊBase asphalt binders supply the foundation for SBS polymer modifiers, and the
modifiers provide the influence degree. Therefore, modifier will have greater impact
on the LTRP only if base asphalt’s grade is higher. In a word, higher base asphalt’s
penetration grades will be better choice when aiming at improving the LTRP of SBS
modified asphalts.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was supported by the Development Program for Outstanding Young
Teachers of the Harbin Institute of Technology (HITQNJS.2008.047) and the
Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education (200802131011).
REFERENCES
(1) AI. (1994). Superpave Performance Graded Asphalt Binder Specification and
Testing. Superpave Series No. 1 (SP-1), Asphalt Institute, Lexington/KY.
(2) Brule, B. and M. Maze. (1995). Application of SHRP Binder Tests to the
Characterization of Polymer Modified Bitumens. AAPT, Vol. 64: 367-392.
(3) Stock, A.F. and W. Arand.(1993). Low-temperature Cracking in Polymer
Modified Binders. AAPT, Vol. 62: 23-53.
(4) Fortier, R. and T.S. Vinson. (1998). Low-temperature Cracking and Aging
Performance of Modified Asphalt Concrete Specimens. Transportation Research
Record 1630, TRB, Washington, D.C.: 77-86.
(5) Hoare, T.R. and S. Hesp. (2000). Low-temperature Fracture Testing of Asphalt
Binders, Regular and Modified Systems. Transportation Research Record 1728,
TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.:36-42.
(6) Hesp, S., T. Terlouw and W.C. Vonk. (2000). Low-temperature Performance of
SBS-Modified Asphalt Mixes. AAPT, Vol. 69: 540-567.
(7) Button, J.W., and C.P. Hastings. (1998). How Well Can New Binder Tests Predict
Cracking? The Canadian Technical Asphalt Association Annual Meeting,
Vancouver: 48-72.
(8) Anderson, R.M., D.E. Walker and P.A. Turner. (1999). Low-Temperature
Evaluation of Kentucky Performance-Graded 70-22 Asphalt Binders.
Transportation Research Record 1661, TRB, Washington, D.C.: 69-74.
Laboratory Performance Evaluation on Polymer Modified Porous Asphalt
Concrete
1
PhD, College of Civil Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, P.R.China, 350108.
Email: [email protected]
2
Associate Professor, Civil and Structural Engineering Department, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong
Kong, P.R.China. Email: [email protected]
3
Associate Professor, College of Civil Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, P.R.China, 350108.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the details of the laboratory performance evaluation
of the three types of polymer modified binders and their respective porous asphalt
concrete. The same gradation was applied to all the mixtures and the base bitumen was
Shell 60/70. The binder test results indicate that the SBR and SBS modified binders
have the smaller temperature susceptibility and exhibit better performance in resisting
ageing, rutting, and fatigue than the conventional penetration 60/70 binder. When
evaluated in a series of laboratory tests designed to assess the fundamental mechanical
properties and durability performance of porous asphalt concrete, the results show that
the SBS modified porous asphalt concrete exhibit the most overall satisfactory
performance with respect to stiffness, dynamic creep deformation, rutting, and
moisture resistance damage among the three types of porous asphalt concretes studied.
Based on the lab results and the cost-effectiveness analysis, the SBS modified porous
asphalt concrete is recommended as the most favorable material to be used as a friction
course in Hong Kong.
KEY WORDS: Polymer modified binder, Porous asphalt concrete, Performance
evaluation, Friction course
INTRODUCTION
Porous asphalt concrete(PAC) is one of the safest pavement surfacing materials used as
a friction course by improving friction resistance, minimizing hydroplaning, reducing
splash and spray, improving night visibility and lowering pavement noise levels
(Golebiewski ,2003). Although it has been a long time that extensive study of PAC had
been conducted in the UK, the current use of PAC is not satisfactory because of the
less durability and the earlier replacement of the surfacing than the conventional
asphalt mixtures (Nicholls, 1997).
15
16 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
PAC has been used in the United States of America since at least 1944, but their use
across the country was limited for several reasons. These mixtures require a different
mix design method and special construction and maintenance considerations. However,
they will tend to fail suddenly at the end of their design life (Huber, 2000). PAC is
comparatively new in South America, particularly in Argentina where it started in 1997
with the first trial on Provincial Road No.2 in the Buenos Aires Province, east central
of Argentina (Bolzan, 2001).The overseas experiences show that the search for the
superior durable PAC has become a major goal for the asphalt industries all over the
world and every effort towards its enhancement is worthwhile.
In order to improve service performance and reduce the initial damages to PAC
pavements, the ultimate purpose of this study is to conduct performance tests on the
three types of binders and their respective PAC, to compare their mechanical
properties and durability performances, and then, to recommend the best suitable PAC
materials to be used widely in the vital highways in Hong Kong.
Viscosity Test
The test results of viscosity for the three studied binders are shown in the Table3.
Based on their comparatively higher viscosity values in magnitude at 135 °C, i.e. stiffer,
the results in Table 3 indicate that the two polymer modified binders have lower
temperature susceptibility than the 60/70 binder.
Table 3. Viscosity Testing Results.
Test Condition at 135ć
Binder Type
Un-aged (10-3Pa s) RTFO (10-3Pa s) PAV (10-3Pa s)
60/70 475 614.2 445
SBR 1053 1255 532.5
SBS 762 1427 231.7
18 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
G*/sin(į)(kPa)
40
15
30
10
20
5 10
0 0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Temperature(deg.c) Temperature(deg.c)
(a) (b)
FIG. 2. G*/sin(į) Versus Temperature at Unaged e and RTFO Aged State.
POROUS ASPHALT CONCRETE TESTING AND EVALUATION
Stiffness Characteristics
The indirect tensile stiffness modulus (ITSM) test can be conducted to evaluate the
load spreading ability of mixtures in pavement. After compaction and cooling, the
same three specimens (100mm×50mm) for each mixture were tested at 30°C with
Nottingham Asphalt Tester (NU-10). The test results of indirect tensile stiffness
modulus are shown in the Table 6.
Table 6. Testing Results of ITSM.
Mixture Type PA1 PA2 (SBR) PA3 (SBS)
Average Stiffness (MPa) 591.8 509.8 462.5
Binder Content (%) 4.5 5.7 5.7
Notes: PA1denotes conventional PAC
PA2 denotes conventional polymer (SBR) modified PAC
PA3 denotes pre-blended polymer (SBS) modified PAC
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 19
The test results indicate that the ITSM results of the three types of PAC are 591.8MPa
for PA1, 509.8MPa for PA2, and 462.5MPa for PA3. On comparative basis, the
stiffness modulus value of PA1 is about 16 percent higher than PA2 and about 28
percent higher than PA3. Stiffness modulus of a mix is considered to be related to its
rutting resistance. Low stiffness modulus of a material normally would result in larger
rutting. PA2 and PA3 are shown to have lower stiffness modulus values than PA1.
However, from the wheel tracking testing results, both PA2 and PA3 exhibited higher
resistance against rutting. It implies that the lower stiffness modulus of the two
mixtures does not affect their load bearing capacity. The drop of the stiffness modulus
of the PA2 and PA3, under this circumstance, is mainly caused by their higher binder
content compared with the conventional one.
Permanent Deformation Characteristics
Two test types including the dynamic creep and wheel tracking test, were conducted to
simulate the load associated permanent deformation of the three studied mixtures. The
testing temperature of the wheel tracking and dynamic creep test were 60ć and 30ć,
respectively. The average results of the wheel tracking test of the three different kinds
of PAC mixtures are presented in Table 7. The test results indicate that PA3 has the
best satisfactory performance with respect to rutting resistance due to its lower rutting
potential at the end of test compared to the other studied mixtures. The rutting
performance ranking is followed by PA2 and PA1.
Table 7. Wheel Tracking Results for Mixtures at 60ć.
Mixture Type Rutting Depth(mm) Rutting Rate(mm/h) Ranking
PA1 7.46 7.79 3
PA2 (SBR) 5.80 4.00 2
PA3 (SBS) 2.43 1.60 1
The average results of dynamic creep tests of the three different kinds of PAC
mixtures are presented in Fig.6. It can be seen that after 1800 load repetitions, the
values of axial permanent strains of the three PAC mixtures are 0.69% for PA1, 0.67%
for PA2, and 0.50% for PA3, respectively. PA3 exhibits the best resistance to
permanent deformation among the three types of PACs studied. A similar ranking in
resistance to permanent deformation as the wheel tracking test was obtained with the
dynamic creep test. Each of the two kinds of tests gives a similar qualitative evaluation
on the effect of the different binders on permanent deformation of the same PAC
mixtures.
20 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
0.80
0.60
0.00
5 305 605 905 1205 1505 1805
CONCLUSIONS
The results of the penetration and soften point test indicate two polymer modified
binder, SBS and SBR, exhibit less temperature susceptibility and better ageing
resistance during construction phase and after years in services than the conventional
60/70 binder. The two modified binders, SBS and SBR, have less temperature
susceptibility and exhibit better resistance to pavement deformation than the 60/70
binder. The testing results of Permanent Deformation Characteristics show that two
modified PAC (SBR and SBS) have less rutting depth and rutting rate than the
conventional one. The results of moisture damage indicate that the polymer (SBS)
modified PAC has the best ability of moisture damage resistance shown by the higher
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 21
values in ITSR before and after the water treatment. Based on the overall satisfactory
performance with respect to stiffness ability and good resistance to ageing, moisture
damage and permanent deformation, the polymer (SBS) modified PAC is
recommended as the safest paving material available to use for friction courses used in
Hong Kong.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writers would like to acknowledge the Road Research Group of the Hong Kong
road research laboratory and the R&D division of highways department of HKSAR.
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT: A porous asphalt mix was designed with high viscosity modified
bitumen and rubber bitumen at an aimed air void content of 20%. A Hamburg wheel
tracking device was employed to test rutting potentials in both 60 °C air bath and 40
°C water bath conditions. Triaxial compression tests and triaxial cyclic compression
tests were performed to determine the resistance to shear stress and permanent
deformation at 60 °C. The study results shows that despite the similar rheological
behavior between rubber bitumen and high viscosity modified bitumen, rubber
bitumen is far less applicable than high viscosity modified bitumen in the aspect of
high temperature performance and shear resistance. However, the rubber asphalt
mixture shows a longer creeping stage and a stiffer resilient modulus in cyclic
loading and lower level. Under the conditions defined herein, porous asphalt made
with rubber bitumen can only be used for lighter volume of traffic.
KEYWORDS: rubber bitumen, porous asphalt, high viscosity modified bitumen
INTRODUCTION
Porous asphalt is of great research interest in China in recent years. Some test roads
have been built on freeways, which mostly recommend high viscosity modified
bitumen as the binding material (Ni 2003). However, the cost of this material
supersedes what is saved when fewer aggregates are used (Chen 2006). Meanwhile,
amounts of rubber waste are increasing with the boom in the rubber industry. Reuse
of waste rubber in bitumen is still on a small scale; current applications include tack
coating and use as a stress absorbing interlayer, but rarely used for asphalt mix.
Large scale studies on rubber bitumen proved the advantage of crumb rubber used as
a modifier. Studies on viscoelastic characteristics of rubber bitumen with 9 wt.%
crumb rubber revealed enhanced resistance to permanent deformation and similar
properties as SBS-modified bitumen with 3 wt.% SBS at -10 °C and 7 wt.% SBS at
75 °C (Navarro 2002). These enhanced properties make rubber bitumen a possible
solution for porous asphalt mixes.
22
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 23
The main objective of work in this paper is to study the applicability of rubber
bitumen in porous asphalt on a laboratory scale. The properties of rubber bitumen
from 30-mesh size reclaimed rubber were compared with those of high viscosity
modified bitumen. The various performances of the mixtures designed with the two
bituminous binders are investigated. The porous asphalt mixture with high viscosity
modifier (hereinafter abbreviated as HVM) is taken as a comparison, since this has
already proved successful in test road practices (Yang 2008).
The results in Table 2 demonstrate that the softening point of both rubber
bitumen and HVM modified bitumen increases with the increase of modifier content.
G*/sin į of HVM modified bitumen also rises when more HVM is added, while that
of rubber bitumen reaches a maximum at 18%. Ductility of rubber bitumen is
relatively low, but that of HVM reaches maximum at 14%. The viscosity of HVM
modified bitumen also reaches maximum at 14%, and all three are in excess of
10,000 Pa.s. The viscosity of rubber bitumen at 60 °C is about 2,000 Pa.s. The
stiffness of rubber bitumen of different concentrations is almost the same, but that of
HVM modified bitumen is lowest at 14% HVM content, which means it has better
low temperature properties. With regard to the high temperature and low temperature
properties, the content of crumb rubber and HVM is selected to be 18% and 14% in
weight, respectively.
Volumetric Design
The main objective of porous asphalt design is to achieve an aimed air void of 20%
in this study, which meets the drainage needs in peak rainfall within an hour in most
parts of southern China. Mix aggregates are with the maximum nominal grain size of
13mm. Marshall and Cantabro tests after water bath conditioning and freeze-thaw
indirect tensile tests were performed to investigate the water susceptibility, which is
taken as the major factor for proportion selection. Two sets of optimal gradation of
the aggregates and asphalt content were selected. One is identical to the way that
porous asphalt is normally designed with HVM bitumen, namely AR-PAC gradation
(RIOH 2004).
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 25
The other optimal designs takes into account the American experiences in
open-graded friction courses with rubber bitumen (abbreviated as AR-O), which is
characterized with high asphalt content and open gradation (Caltrans 2003). The
envelope and the actual gradation of the tested formations are listed in Table 3.
However, in the experiment, gradations that were close to the center of the AR-O
envelope showed weak stability and scattered when moulding. From those within the
PAC gradation envelope, the best formation was selected for rubber bitumen. The
result is the AR-PAC with optimum asphalt content (OAC) of 6.1%, and for HVM
bitumen is the HVM-PAC with OAC of 5.0%.
1200
60 °C air bath
1000
y = 0.2834x + 97.432
800
R² = 0.992 40 °C water bath
600
400
y = 0.0835x + 147.36
200
R² = 0.9854
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
tracking number
Figure 1. Rut development for AR-PAC (OAC=6.1%)
500
y = 0.0259x + 132.56
400
R² = 0.9957
300
40°C water bath
200
y = 0.0076x + 153.95
100
R² = 0.9928
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
tracking number
Figure 2. Rut development for HVM-PAC (OAC=5.0%)
According to the British standard, the rut rate between 5,000 and 10,000 times is
taken as an index for evaluating the rutting potential. Those developing excessive
rutting before 10,000 times will be evaluated with a rate in any steady stage for more
than 2,000 times (BSI 2003).
The rut developing rate is obtained from a linear regression of certain stages of
the curves. It can be seen that, in both the 60 °C air bath and the 40 °C water bath
conditions, AR-PAC mixtures developed rut more than ten times faster than
HVM-PAC mixtures. In the 40 °C water bath, the rut depth was much smaller than in
the 60 °C air bath. AR-PAC developed excessive rutting after 4,000 times application
of the wheel load. By contrast, the overall rut depth of HVM-PAC was much smaller.
In summary, AR-PAC showed greater susceptibility for rutting.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 27
Load cell
ı3
Water inlet
Ambient pressures were set as 0 kPa, 138 kPa, and 276 kPa, that is uncombined
condition with loading pressures of 20 psi and 40 psi, respectively. The loading
platen descends at a rate of 1.27 mm/min until the specimen is destroyed. The
loading cell is driven by a pneumatic servo system with a loading capacity of 14 kN.
During the test, the temperature of the test chamber and specimen is maintained at 60
°C. The maximum compressive stress will be recorded. Based on the Mohr-Coulomb
theory, the shear strength indexes can be obtained by constructing the common
tangent of the Mohr-circles, as shown in Figure 4. The results of the AR-PAC,
HVM-PAC, and another SMA mixture made with SBS PmB are also listed in Table
4.
28 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
Despite similar gradations, the results reveal that the shear indexes of AR-PAC are all
about 30% smaller than those of HVM-PAC, only because of the different bitumen
binders. As a result, the AR-PAC has much less strength than HVM-PAC. Related
research shows that the cohesive for hot mix asphalt (HMA) is a round 35 - 240 kPa
(5 -35 psi), and the inner friction angle is about 35 - 48 ° (Witczak 2002). For porous
asphalt, it is relatively lower. This is due to the open-graded formation, which is
primarily due to the relatively lower content of fine aggregates and fillers, which
form a binding bituminous mortar. Compared to the PAC gradation, the SMA
formation only adjusts the filler content from 5% to 10% or so. With SBS PmB,
which is about the same grade as rubber bitumen, the SMA mixture shows much
higher strength. Taking into account the difference between AR-PAC and HVM-PAC,
the results shows that the two shear strength indices c and ij relate to both the
gradation of aggregates and binder properties.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 29
5 250
Accumulative strain %
4 200
0 0
0 400
800 1200 1600
Cyclic repetitions
Figure 5. Strain and strain rate under cyclic loading
The creep strain development can usually be divided to in three stages. The
strain rate firstly descends to a certain value. Then, in the second stage, the strain rate
remains at its lowest and is almost constant, while the accumulative strain increases
stably and slowly. Lastly, the creep strain increases quickly until the specimen is
damaged. The cyclic repetition, at which the rate is zero, is taken as the flow number.
American researchers pointed out that the flow number, the creep strain rate in the
second stage, and the accumulative strain at 1,000 repetitions are well correlated with
the rutting potential of the mixture on the road (Witczak 2002). The results are shown
in Table 5.
30 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
In Table 5, HVM-PAC has a much higher flow number and strain rate in the
stable creep stage than AR-PAC. This shows that the AR-PAC exhibits better
permanent deformation resistance. However, the flow numbers for both mixes are
relatively small and below 1,000. So, the accumulative strain at 1,000 repetitions
makes less sense. In the test, AR-PAC shows a bigger resilient modulus. This is not
contradictory with the relatively weaker performance from the wheel tracking test
and triaxial compression test, because the loading scale is relatively minor in this test.
Porous asphalt with rubber bitumen shows higher stiffness at a lower loading scale
here. The low flow number at such a light loading level shows that the open-graded
PAC mixture has limited strength in resisting cyclic loading.
CONCLUSIONS
Through design and laboratory testing of porous asphalt mixture with rubber bitumen
and high viscosity bitumen, the performance at the normally in-service high
temperature of 60 °C was investigated. Based on the findings, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. The ultra open-graded formation with fillers less than 4.0% in total aggregates
may be inappropriate for porous asphalt made with rubber bitumen.
2. Greater G*/sin į at the testing temperature from the DSR test doesn’t
necessarily mean better high temperature performance for rubber bitumen mixes.
Viscosity may be a decisive factor for these bitumen binders used in porous asphalt.
3. Wheel tracking and triaxial compression tests proved that porous asphalt mixes
made with rubber bitumen have a higher rutting potential and thus, are more suited
for use in lighter traffic loading conditions.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 31
REFERENCES
British Standards Institution, BSI (2003), "Bituminous mixtures – Test methods for
hot mix asphalt, Part 22: Wheel tracking." BS EN 12697-22.
Chen, W. Z., Wang, K. P. (2006). "Cost evaluation on porous asphalt pavement on
Yan-Tong Freeway." Journal of Highway and Transportation Research and
Development, Application Technology Edition, Vol. 2006(10): 31-34.
F. J. Navarro, P. Partal, F. Martínez-Boza, C. Valencia, C. Gallegos (2002).
"Rheological Characteristics of Ground Tire Rubber-Modified Bitumen."
Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol. 89, Issues 1-3: 53-61.
Ni, F. J., Xu H., and Leng, Z. (2003). "Influence of asphalt properties on porous
asphalt mixture performance." Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering,
Vol. 3 (4): 1-4.
Solaimanian, M., Bolzan, P. (1993). "Integrated Model of Climatic Effects on
Pavements." SHRP-A-637, Washington, D C: National Academic Press.
Superpave (2003), "Performance Graded Asphalt, Binder Specification and Testing."
Superpave Series No. 1 (SP-1), Third Edition, Asphalt Institute.
Research Institute of Highway Ministry of Communications China, RIOH (2004),
"Technical Specification for Construction of Highway Asphalt Pavements", China
Communications Express. 94-95.
Verhaeghe, B., CSIR Division for Roads and Transport Technology (1995). "SABITA
Manual 17 Porous asphalt mixes: design and use." SABITA.
Witczak, M. W., Kaloush, K., Pellinen, T., et al (2002). "Simple Performance Test for
Superpave Mix Design." NCHRP Report 465. Washington, D C: National
Academic Press.
Yang, J., Yin, C. E., Cao, D. W., Ge, S. M., Liu, Q. Q., Qian, G. C. (2008). "Practice
of Porous Asphalt Pavement on Yan-Tong Freeway in China." Proceedings of
International ISAP Symposium on Asphalt Pavements and Environment, ISAP,
Zürich, Switzerland, 330-339.
Zhu, H. R. (2007). "Evaluation on the shear properties of asphalt mixtures through
triaxial shear test." MSc Thesis, Southeast Univ., Nanjing, China.
Research on Permanent Deformation Property of Asphalt Mixture with
Varying Temperature
INTRODUCTION
Rutting of asphalt pavement is a serious concern experienced for a long time due
to the increased traffic and wheel loads in China. Thus, it is important to estimate the
permanent deformation (PD) response of a mixture before construction. Several test
methods are in practice to assess the PD (1). However, almost all the tests evaluate
the PD at constant high temperature such as 60ć or PG (performance grade) high
temperature, while the PD at moderate temperature is often neglected.
32
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 33
In fact, rutting occurs at both high temperature and moderate temperature. At the
same time, pavement temperature changes every hour, every day, and every year. For
a certain asphalt mixture, it is often not sure whether it is enough to evaluate high
temperature performance at one temperature or not. Consequently, the PD property
can be researched considering the distribution of pavement temperature at different
depths of the asphalt layers and taking pavement temperature variation into account.
So, the primary objective of this paper was to research the PD property of mixtures
with varying temperatures and with distribution of pavement temperature considered.
50.0
5mm
40.0 17mm
Frequency(%)
39mm
30.0 61mm
20.0
10.0
0.0
30 35 40 45 50 >50
Temperature(ć)
FIG. 1. Hourly Average Pavement Temperature Distribution for Different
Averaging Intervals in Shanghai.
4 Design gradation 2
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
20 30 40 50 60
Temperature(ć)
FIG. 2. PD at Five Temperatures for Two Mixtures Tested by APA.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 35
6000
Dynamic stability(numbers/mm)
HXL
5000 LHE
SLI
4000 CHA
3000
2000
1000
0
35 40 45 50 60
Temperature(ć)
FIG. 3. DS of Four Mixtures Tested by Wheel Tracking Device.
4.0
Permanent deformation(mm)
A load of 100 lb and a hose pressure of 100 psi were used for all tests (3). Graphs
of PD with temperature rising and cooling are shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively.
Figures 5(a), 5(b), 6(a), and 6(b) correspond to test modes 1 through 4, respectively.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 37
2.4 2.8
Permanent deformation(mm)
Permanent deformation(mm)
2.0 2.4
1.6 2.0
1.6
1.2
1.2
0.8
0.8
0.4 0.4
0.0 0.0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Numbers of loading repetitions Numbers of loading repetitions
(a) Test Mode 1. (b) Test Mode 2.
FIG. 5. Graphs of PD with Temperature Rising.
\
2.1 2.0
Permanent deformation(mm)
Permanent deformation(mm)
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.2 1.2
0.9 0.8
0.6
0.3 0.4
0.0 0.0
0 3000 6000 9000 12000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Numbers of loading receptions Numbers of loading repetitions
(a) Test Mode 3. (b) Test Mode 4.
FIG. 6. Graphs of PD with Temperature Cooling.
As shown in Figures 5 and 6, the curves don’t go into the secondary zone directly
after the first stage. On the contrary, the trends of PD curves at the second stage are
the same as those at the first stage. The curves can be divided into two zones for the
viscoelastic property of asphalt mixtures. However, the difference in the curves
between the first stage and the second stage is that the PD of both zones at the first
temperature is larger than that at the second temperature. At the same time, the PD
under temperature rising mode is higher than that under temperature cooling mode,
which indicates that the mode of varying temperature plays an important role in the
PD property of mixtures.
For further studying, Figure 5(b) is compared with Figure 6(a). In these two
figures, both the parameters at the first stage and numbers of loading cycles at the
second stage are the same, however, the temperature at the second stage in Figure
5(b) is higher than that in Figure 6(a), which leads to the PD at the second stage in
Figure 5(b) to be higher than that in Figure 6(a). Therefore, the temperature at the
second stage is the first important factor influencing the PD property with varying
temperature.
In addition, this research also finds that intermission time is another factor.
Deformation will recover gradually with intermission stop time. The longer the
intermission time is, the larger the recovery deformation is. Accordingly, the PD at
the second stage will be affected. Furthermore, stress history also affects the PD
property due to the asphalt mixture’s viscoelastic nature; i.e., loading time dependent.
The PD property will be different when the conditions are the same except the stress
history. In other words, temperature, numbers of loading, stress history, and
intermission time are PD influencing factors.
38 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the testing and analysis presented in this paper, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1) The frequency of high pavement temperature is less than 10%, while that of
moderate temperature is more than 90%; based on the measured pavement
temperature data in Shanghai.
2) Permanent deformation or other evaluation indexes at moderate temperature is
close to or compared with that at the high temperature regime.
3) The permanent deformation property at moderate temperatures is of the
equivalent importance as that at the high temperature regime.
4) Based on this paper, some of the major influencing factors on the permanent
deformation of asphalt mixtures can be concluded to be the temperature, the
number of loading cycles, stress history, and the intermission time. However,
further research on the fundamental relationship between these factors and
permanent deformation will be discussed in more details in later publications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
(1) Jorge B. Sousa, Joseph Craus, and Carl Monismith. (1991). Summary Report on
Permanent Deformation in Asphalt Concrete. SHRP-A-318. Strategic Highway
Research Program, National Research Council, Washington, D.C..
(2) Qin Jian. (2005). Research on prediction of temperature field in asphalt
pavements. Master’s thesis. Tongji University, Shanghai, China.
(3) Pavement Technology INC. (2003). Asphalt pavement analyzer user’s guide
[2003-03-28]. http://www.pavementtechnology.com/ manuals/APAManual.pdf.
(4) Highway Scientific Academe of Ministry of Communications. (2004). JTG
F40-2004 Technical specifications for construction of highway asphalt
pavements. Beijing: China Communications Press.
(5) Liu wei. (2005). Research on Causation and Prevention of Rutting in Asphalt
Pavements. Master’s thesis. South China University of Technology, Guangzhou,
China: 48-49.
Rutting in Asphalt Pavement under Heavy Load and High Temperature
1
Professor and PhD supervisor. School of Communication and Transportation Engineering, Changsha
University of Science and Technology, Chiling Road 45#, Changsha, Hunan, China, 410076.
E-mail: [email protected]
2
Lecturer, School of Engineering & Architecture, East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang, Jiangxi,
China, 330013. E-mail: [email protected]
3
Lecturer and PhD, School of Communication and Transportation Engineering, Changsha University
of Science and Technology, Chiling Road 45#, Changsha, Hunan, China, 410076.
E-mail: [email protected]
39
40 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
INTRODUCTION
Due to the joint function of heavy traffic loading and continuous peculiar high
temperature, serious rutting failure appeared after the south section of Jing-Zhu
Expressway was opened to traffic for two years. The total average rut depth (RD)
reached 10mm and the maximum RD was about 30mm. The RD distribution is
shown in Fig.1, 90% is larger than 5mm and 5% is more than 20mm. So, rutting is a
very serious problem in this expressway and a cause for concern.
3HUFHQWDJH˄˅
5' 5' 5' 5' 5'
5'˄PP˅
In order to visually reflect the rutting and deformation in each asphalt layer, the
cross section excavation or core boring in a few main lanes where there were deeper
ruts in the typical section of the expressway were carried out, and the thickness and
the deformation of each layer was measured. The section shape of a typical rutting is
shown in Fig. 2.
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From the typical rutting section in Fig. 2, it was known that: (1) there was no
subsidence or cracks on the top of the semi-rigid base. All the rutting deformation
came from the asphalt layers, and the deformation was different in the different
asphalt layers. (2) Analyzing the magnitude of deformation in each asphalt layer, it
was known that the largest deformation occurred in the middle course layer, about
60% of the total rutting, while 25% come from the surface layer, and the other 15%
come from the bottom course layer. These results were inadvertently consistent with
the results of elastic layer theory that the largest compression and shear stress
appeared in the middle course layer of the three-layered asphalt pavement system
(Qing-lin Sha 2001). In addition, with the samples from the rutting of the wheel
marks in a few sections and from the lane, they reflected mostly the same as the
findings mentioned above.
42 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
Based on the typical road design concepts, FEM (Finite Element Method)
common software, ANSYS, was used to analyze the road structure shown in Fig.3.,
where loads of 100kN, 120kN, 140kN, 160kN, 180kN, and 200kN, respectively,
were applied vertically and the load evenly distributed over the effected area.
To simplify the analysis, the tire ground contact area was turned from a circle (JTJ
D50-2006) into square, 189mmh189mm, while keeping the contact area invariant.
The distance between the wheels is 320mm. The horizontal load is produced as the
vehicle brakes or starts to accelerate. To simplify the calculation further, the
horizontal load was assumed proportional to the vertical load, and the proportional
coefficient, f, of 0.2 was utilized. The dynamic modulus, E*, of the asphalt mixture
was analytically calculated using the Asphalt Institute (AI) model, considering
temperature, loading frequency, asphalt, and the aggregate. The results are shown in
Fig.4 and Fig.5.
From Fig.4 and Fig.5, the following conclusions can be drawn: (1) the maximum
shear stress of the pavement structure increases linearly as the load increases. For
example, at 70 ć, the maximum shear stress of the middle course layer is 0.275MPa
under 100kN, while under 200kN it is 0.550MPa, increasing by about almost 2 times.
(2) The maximum shear stress of the pavement structure also increases with the
temperature increase. For example, under 100kN, the maximum shear stress of the
middle course layer is 0.220MPa at 40ć, while at 70ć it is 0.275MPa, increasing
more about 25%. (3) Considering the impact of the axle or temperature, the shear
stress of middle course layer is larger in magnitude than that of the bottom course
layer or surface. It means that the anti-shear capacity of the middle course layer is
very important to solving the rutting problem in this pavement structure.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 43
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Surface Ё䴶ሖlayer
Middle ϟ 䴶ሖ layer
Bottom
࠾ᑨ˄03D˅
Shear stress (MPa)
⏽ᑺ˄ć˅
Temperature (ć)
FIG..5. Maximum Shear Stress in the Pavement under BZZ-100.
The tests for 115 trials from 12 locations were carried out altogether. The
evaluation index is DS. The test results of the DS from the samples are listed in
Table 1.
Table 1. Result of Rutting Test.
For the convenience of ANOVA, there was a need to classify the data measured in
accordance with the required parameters, but there should not be too many levels.
Otherwise it was very difficult to find adequate samples to analyze, which would
affect the accuracy of the analysis. So, the classification of the relevant factors is
presented as follows:
Based on the above classification, the data was classified into different groups. If
the significance was pre-set at 5% and dependent variable was RD, then ANOVA
was carried out, and the results were shown in Table 2. We can see that the
significance of F in the analysis model is 0.003, that is, the model has a statistical
significance. So, the model can be used to determine the significance of various
factors on the RD. As the statistical significance level is 5%, Table 2 shows that the
DS of all the layers has a significant effect on the RD (Sig. of F0.05), especially that
of the middle course layer at 0.002. Based on the significance level between RD and
DS, the impact ranking is: (1) the middle course, (2) the bottom course, and (3) the
surface layer.
Correlation Analysis
The correlation analysis is another statistical method to study the intimate degree
46 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
According to the characteristics of the data and the results discussed above, it was
found that Eq. (1) was better fitted to the data when the multiple nonlinear regression
models were applied.
RD = k1 + k 2 ln( DS surface ) + k3 ln( DS middle ) + k 4 ln( DSbottom ) (1)
Where k1, k2, k3, and k4 are regression coefficients, showed in Table 4; DSsurface,
DSmiddle and DSbottom are the DS of surface, middle course and bottom course,
respectively.
Table 4. Regression Coefficients.
Regression Testing Value Sig. of Related
k1 k2 k3 k4
coefficients F F coefficient R
Results 94.42 -2.34 -2.02 -7.13 10.92 0.003 0.897
From Table 4, the value of the related coefficient is 0.897, which means that the
equation fits well with the data. Moreover, the significance of F at 0.003 is smaller
than the level of significance of 0.05. Therefore, the regression model can be used to
evaluate the influence of the DS on RD of the various asphalt mixtures in all the
pavement layers.
In the “Technical Specifications for Construction of Highway Asphalt Pavement”
(JTG F40-2004), the rutting test is required for an asphalt mixture with a nominal
particle size equal to or less than 19mm only if it is used on expressway and first
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 47
class highways. While for nominal particle size greater than 19mm (generally used
for the bottom course layers), there are no specification indices or rutting test
requirement demands.
However, from the investigation and statistical analysis in this study, we can see
that the effect of the bottom course layer on rutting also can not be ignored. Under
heavy loading and high temperatures, the DS of the middle course and surface layers,
using modified asphalt, is 3,000 times /mm, and the tolerance limit of RD is 15mm.
The DS of the bottom course layer, computed from Eq. (1), is 515 times/mm.
Considering the impact of the test conditions and if the guarantee coefficient can be
taken as 1.5, then the DS of the bottom course layer will be 770 times/mm. So, it is
fairly reasonable to take 800 times/mm as the DS governing criterion of the bottom
course asphalt mixtures under normal traffic loading conditions. Under special
conditions such as steep long longitudinal, big super elevation, and heavy loads, the
DS of the bottom course asphalt mixture should be increased to 1000 times/mm.
CONCLUSIONS
Through the field rutting investigation, mechanical analysis, and indoor testing,
the major conclusions that can be drawn from this study are: (1) the survey on typical
sections shows that most of rutting is generated by asphalt middle course layer. (2)
The maximum shear stress of the pavement structure not only increases linearly with
as the load increases but also increases with temperature. Considering the impact of
the axle or temperature, the shear stress of the middle course layer is bigger in
magnitude than that of the bottom course or surface layer. This means that the
anti-shear capacity of the middle course layer is very important to solving rutting
problems. (3) With the method of ANOVA and the correlation analyses, it is found
that the DS of middle course layer has the greatest effect on RD, which is consistent
with the field surveys and the mechanical results. So, the middle course layer
(4-10cm below the surface) should be designed, selected, and constructed carefully.
Consequently, modified asphalt is suggested to be used in the middle course layer. (4)
The relationship between the RD (rut depth) and the DS (dynamic stability) of each
asphalt pavement layer was established using the nonlinear regression method. The
governing criterion for the DS of the bottom course asphalt mixture was studied and
recommendations made based on regression analysis.
REFERENCE
Guangdong.
SHA Qinglin. (2001). Premature Damage Phenomena and Preventive Techniques in
Expressway Asphalt Pavement. Beijing: People's Transportation Press.
Witczak, M. W., Von Quintas, H., and Schwartz, C. W. (1997). “Superpave support
and performance models management: Evaluation of the SHRP
performancemodels system.” Proc., Eighth Int. Conf. on Asphalt Pavements, Vol.
III, 175–195.
YAO Zukang. (2003). “A Review on Design Criteria of Asphalt Pavements”
Highway, 43-49.
JTJ D50. (2006). Design Specifications of Highway Asphalt Pavement. Beijing:
People's Transportation Press.
JTG F40-2004 ˈ Construction Specifications of Highway Asphalt Pavement[S].
Beijing: People's Transportation Press.
Development of Asphalt Emulsion Cold In-Place Recycling Specifications
1
PhD. Candidate, School of Transportation, Southeast of University, No.2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu
province, P.R. China, 210096; [email protected]
2
PhD, P.E., Prof, School of Transportation, Southeast of University, No.2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing,
Jiangsu province, P.R. China, 210096; [email protected]
3
Technical Engineer, Shanghai application center, MeadWestvaco Corporation, 5FL,Nami Building, No.18
Lane1305, Huang Jing Road , P.R. China, 200231; [email protected]
4
Emulsion Field Support Manager, Shell (China) Limited, No.43 Liangmaqiao Road, Chao Yang
District, Beijing, P.R. China, 100016; [email protected]
ABSTRACT: In the past few years, asphalt emulsion Cold In-Place Recycling (CIR)
has been used successfully with asphalt emulsions in asphalt concrete pavement
rehabilitation in China. However, there are currently no existing performance
specifications using the Superave Gyratory Compactor (SGC) in China for the
development and verification of asphaltic CIR mix designs. The objective of this study
was to develop performance based specifications through laboratory testing and field
verification of three CIR projects. Laboratory testing was completed at different
emulsion contents through the Marshall Stability and indirect tensile strength tests. In
addition, the indirect tensile test, using a freeze/thaw cycle, and a rutting test were
performed at the predicted optimal emulsion content. The test results were compared
with field data recorded before and after the pavement rehabilitation process and
incorporated into a set of performance specifications. The results confirmed that
asphaltic CIR is an effective treatment for asphalt pavement preservation and
maintenance.
INTRODUCTION
Results of recent research studies and field projects have shown that asphalt
emulsion Cold In-Place Recycling (CIR) is a cost-effective solution to the challenges
of asphalt pavement maintenance and rehabilitation (Alkins et al., 2008). There are
several benefits of using CIR, including re-establishing crowns, maintaining
49
50 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
EXPERIMENT
Three roads within the Jiangsu province highway network, S229, S239, and S336,
were selected for this study. Before the CIR treatment, these sections were evaluated
using the falling weight deflectometer (FWD) test and visual investigation. Current
traffic volumes on these three roads are between 8,000 and 16,000 AADT. The
inspection indicated that the roads had good structural bearing capacity, but distresses
of the pavements included rutting, moisture damage, cracking, and flushing. For
highway S229, the subgrade and semi-rigid base both have good modulus values as
shown in Table 3. Although the pavements had severe distresses, the strong structural
bearing capacity made these roads ideal candidates for CIR rehabilitation.
TEST PROGRAM
A cationic slow setting asphalt emulsion was formulated with combined emulsifiers
and chemical additives. A residue of greater than 63% was used in order to guarantee a
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 51
thick asphalt emulsion film coating on the RAP and new aggregate.
Mixing water has multiple functions in these emulsion related processes. Chief
among these functions is to improve coating of the RAP and virgin aggregate, to
lubricate mixture during compaction, and to facilitate and accelerate the cement
hydration reaction.
Gradation Design
Table 1 lists the aggregate gradations of the blended gradations. Due to cement used
as an additive, 2% cement by weight was not in included the gradation.
The experimental items used to analyze the performance properties of the SGC
compacted specimens were based on domestic Chinese recycling technical
specification (Huang, et al., 2008). Laboratory testing was completed at four emulsion
contents through the Marshall Stability and indirect tensile strength tests. In addition,
the indirect tensile test, using a freeze/thaw cycle, and rutting test was performed at
the predicted optimal emulsion content. For both Marshall and indirect tensile testing,
six replicate samples were prepared and separated into two groups for conditioning
(wetting) and non-conditioning, respectively. The rutting test had three replicate
samples.
Unconditioned Conditioned
Air
Emulsion IDT IDT RS DWTSR
Projects Voids MS MS
(%) strength strength (%) (%)
(%) (kN) (kN)
(Mpa)) (Mpa)
3.0 13.1 13.44 0.37 11.91 0.51 88.6 137.8
3.5 12.3 11.78 0.54 10.07 0.55 85.5 101.9
S229
4.0 12.1 12.94 0.56 9.93 0.78 76.7 139.3
4.5 12.0 10.71 0.61 10.42 0.63 97.3 103.3
3.0 14.7 6.98 0.53 6.31 0.57 90.4 107.5
S239 3.5 14.4 6.67 0.60 5.95 0.67 89.2 111.7
4.0 13.5 7.21 0.63 6.10 0.51 84.6 81.0
3.0 11.0 6.61 0.61 7.53 0.59 113.9 96.7
S336 4.0 9.7 5.79 0.75 5.75 0.62 99.3 82.7
5.0 8.8 5.56 0.70 6.40 0.66 115.1 94.3
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 53
14 0.7
IDT (MPa)
13 0.6
MS (kN)
12 0.5
11 0.4
10 0.3
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Emulsion Content (%) Emulsion Content (%)
FIG. 1. MS and IDT Strength Trend (Unconditioned).
The freeze-thaw IDT testing (one cycle) and rutting test were conducted on the
mixes formulated with optimal emulsion contents and mixing water. For freeze-thaw
indirect tensile tests, one group of three replicate specimens were vacuum saturated to
55-75%, placed in sealed plastic bags for 16 hours at -18°C, and then (after removal
from the plastic bag) placed in a water bath at 60°C for 24 hours. Two groups were
soaked in 25°C water bath for at least 2 hours before testing at 25°C. The results show
that tensile strength ratio is all more than 70%. Rutting test was performed using a 0.7
MPa rubber wheel load at a test temperature of 60±1°C for three replicate specimens,
using rutting specimens having the dimensions of 300 mm × 300 mm × 60 mm. The
results indicate that dynamic stability is all not less than 2500 times/mm for three
projects.
Post-Project Monitoring
For each project, a 3 to 5 cm surface course (based on traffic volume) was applied
on the CIR binder course. FWD inspection of three recycled roads showed good
structural bearing capacity after more than one year of traffic opening with no
cracking. Rutting was also minimal with about 3 mm on the three projects. For S229,
the cracking numbers, rutting depth, and modulus of pre- and post- recycling are listed
54 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
in Table 3. The surface course for the recycled road includes 10cm CIR course and
4cm SMA.
Discussion
When the emulsion content is within a reasonable range, MS and IDT strength
showed that recycled mix has good strength performance: MS is greater than 6kN and
IDT strength is more than 0.5MPa. The values of the retained stability, tensile strength
ratio and dry-wet tensile strength ratio indicated that the recycled mix exhibited good
moisture stability. Rutting test showed that recycled mix has good high temperature
stability which was vital for the Jiangsu provincial highway network, because rutting
is the major distress in summer. Post-project monitoring indicated that the CIR had
good cracking resistance, moreover, rut depth and higher modulus showed that CIR
road had a higher structural bearing capacity than the previous asphalt pavements.
Overall, the results of performance evaluations and field investigations indicated that
cement asphalt emulsion recycling mixtures has good performance.
PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS
Table 5 gives a summary of the performance specifications for CIR that was used as
a binder course using the SGC in Jiangsu province. Future performance specifications
will include the raveling test and low temperature cracking test (Thomas et al., 2003).
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the Jiangsu Provincial Transportation Science and
Technology Project. We would like to thank Li Xiaoming, Dr. Ma Xiang, Xu Biao, Li
Jian, and Dr. Everett Crews who assisted in the lab testing and field construction.
Thanks are also extended to Dr. Andrew Franz Braham for his revisions, edits, and
comments on the paper.
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT: With increasing traffic volumes and higher wheel loads, the structures
of Cement Concrete Pavement (PCC) with lean concrete base (LCB) have been used
widely in China. However, reflection cracking is one of the primary distresses in
PCC on LCB. Although bond breaker mediums have been utilized with success to
reduce and minimize undesirable cracks reflecting from lean concrete bases, the
mechanisms of delaying or/and reducing reflection cracking propagation have yet to
be fundamentally understood. In this paper, with the basic parameters obtained from
Qing-Lian highway, three-dimensional FEM considering contacts between layers
was utilized to analyze the pavement systems with different bond breaker media. It
was found that pavement performance is less favorable under wheel loading when
there is a good bond breaking. However, the pavement performance is more
favorable under thermal loading when there is a good bond breaking. A good bond
breaking is essential for PCC on LCB as the undesirable cracks are the results of the
thermal loading. Based on this study, it was found that wax can be used effectively to
reduce the tensile stresses at the interface between PCC slab and LCB such that the
erratic cracks due to the temperature variations can be minimized.
56
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 57
INTRODUCTION
The accuracy of the mechanical behavior modeling depends greatly on the method
of handling the interlayer system. The traditional models such as friction model,
sandwich model, or equivalent rigidity method using combination factor, were not
able to fully simulate the actual stress states (Tan et al. 2004). To overcome those
shortfalls, this study uses interlayer contact model combining both the friction and
the spring effects. Spring model describes plane deformation of the weak interface,
using normal stiffness and tangential stiffness to describe the relationships between
the top of the spring and the bottom of the mechanics. It simulates both compression
and shear stresses. Tangential stiffness and normal stiffness are interrelated with the
modulus of the top and the bottom material and thickness. On other hand, friction
model described the interface force state, the state of the friction between concrete
surface slab and LCB. It normally changes with time, from a rough surface with a
gradual transition to a smoother surface. To consider the attenuation phenomenon of
interface friction effects, different friction coefficients depending on the
circumstances, were utilized in the interlayer analyses. Three-dimensional model of
contact elements provided by the ANSYS finite element package was employed in
this study to simulate the interlayer effects.
58 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
Figure 1 illustrates the 3-D finite element model with 8 nodes isoparametric
element utilized in this study. It demonstrates the free slabs with three-layer system.
The following boundary conditions were used: (1) complete restraint for the bottom
of the soil (2) the surface layer is free with no any restraint (3) the displacements at
the side level direction are zero.
y
x
o
The accuracy of the model prediction depends on the simulation of the interlayer
contact condition. It is very critical to determine appropriate parameters such as
normal stiffness, tangent stiffness, cohesion and friction coefficient. In this study,
cohesion and friction coefficient values of bond breaker media were determined
directly from the field shear and pull-out tests (Figure 2), and the values are shown in
Table 1. Three different bond breaker media were utilized on the Qin-Lian highway:
(1) slurry seal, (2) wax, and (3) control section with no bond breaker media. Other
pertinent pavement material parameters are presented in Table 2.
Loading Conditions
Based on the Chinese Asphalt Pavement Design Criterion (JTG D50-2006), the
standard axle load was used in the analysis. To simplify the analyses, the wheel tire
contact area was modeled as a square, which is 189mm×189mm. The distance
between the wheel tires is 320mm. In addition, the wheel loads were assumed to be
uniformly distributed by taking the vertical and horizontal loads into account in the
calculation. The value of the vertical load was 0.7MPa. The horizontal load was
assumed to be proportional to the vertical load with the relationship given in
Equation 1. As given in Equation 1, the proportional coefficient (f ) has a constant of
0.5.
q=f×p=0.5p (1)
Base on the material parameters presented in Tables 1 and 2, the results from 3D
FEM analyses for legal load are presented in Table 3. As aforementioned, the
material parameters presented in Tables 1 and 2 were obtained from the in-situ tests
on Qin-Lian highway. To consider the overloading condition, the vertical load was
raised up to 50% of the legal load. The vertical load for the 50% overloading is 1.05
MPa. The comparisons of the surface deflections, tensile stresses, and shear stresses
between the standard legal load and 50% overload are presented in Figure 3.
60 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
Table 3. The calculation result of Qin-Lian road under standard vertical load.
maximum tensile stress Maximum shear
surface
Index The bottom stress between
deflection The bottom of
Types of slab slab and base
˄0.01mm˅ base˄MPa˅
˄MPa˅ (MPa˅
Control 20.3 0.1646 0.3679 0.1144
Wax 20.9 0.2752 0.3759 0.1109
Slurry seal 20.3 0.1704 0.3676 0.1143
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(4) Tensile and shear stresses were significantly higher (e.g., 20%) than those
under the standard legal loads as they were compared to the 50% overload. As it is
believed, overloading would no doubt cause substantial damages to the highway
pavements.
The bonding conditions between PCC slab and LCB are very complex, as they are
impacted by, among others, the use of material and construction techniques. In
addition, temperature plays a critical role on the performance of the PCC pavements.
Unfortunately, the existing PCC design specifications did not address the bonding
conditions between PCC slab and base under the impacts of temperature loading.
Thus, it is necessary to conduct thermal stress analyses for different bond breaker
mediums. With the aid of 3D FEM, it is expected that computational results would
further improve pavement design theory in China.
Temperature Gradients
Location Temperature(ć)
Pavement surface 55.33
The bottom of slab 39
The bottom of base 36
The bottom of subbase 35
The bottom of subgrade 30
Table 5 presents stress analysis results for the three different bond breaker
mediums: (1) slurry seal, (2) wax, and (3) control section with no bond breaker
medium.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 63
CONCLUSION
To improve the PCC performance, LCB has been utilized worldwide to reduce
PCC pavement joint deflections and stresses. However, there is a high potential for
bonding of the PCC slab to a stabilized or LCB that would induce uncontrolled
cracking because of the high friction and/or bonding between the base and the PCC
slab as the friction or bond restrains the concrete's volume change (shrinkage or
contraction), inducing higher stresses that result in cracking. Bond breaker mediums
have been utilized with success to reduce and minimize undesirable cracks reflecting
from lean concrete bases. In this paper, with the basic parameters obtained from
Qing-Lian highway, three-dimensional FEM considering contacts between the layers
was utilized to analyze the pavement systems with three different bond breaker
mediums. The observations and conclusions are given as follows:
(1) Tensile and shear stresses were significantly higher (e.g. 20%) than those
under standard legal loads as they were compared to the 50% overload. It is believed
that the overloading would cause substantial damages to the highway pavements.
(2) Wax is the best bond breaker medium as it has the least friction at the interface
between PCC slab and LCB. Consequently, it yielded the least maximum tensile
stress at the bottom of slab under thermal loading.
64 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
(3) It was interesting to find that the tensile stresses at the bottom of base were
approximately the same, regardless of the type of the bond breaker mediums.
(4) Based on this study, it was found that wax can be used effectively to reduce the
tensile stress at the interface between PCC slab and LCB such that cracking due to
temperature variations can be minimized.
REFERENCES
Scott M Tarr, Paul A Okamoto O, Mathew J, Sheehan, and Robert G Packard. (1999).
“Bond interaction between concrete pavement and lean concrete base”
Transportation Research Record 1668: 9~7.
Hu Chang-bin and Zeng Hui-zhen. (2007). “A Study on Monitor Measurement of
Temperature Field of Cement Concrete Pavements Structure in Fujian Province”
Journal of Highway, Vol. 8:69-76.
JTG D40-2002ˈCement Concrete Pavement Design Specification.
Tan Zhi-ming, Yao Zu-kang, and Liu Bo-ying. (2004). “Analysis of Thermal Stresses
in Cement Concrete Pavements” Journal of Highway, Vol. 11:63-67.
Zhao Jun, Tan Zhi-ming, and Liu Bo-ying. (2007). “Effect and Correction on Slab
Interior Deflection of Cement Concrete Pavement Due to Temperature Gradient”.
Journal of Tongji University (Natural Science), Vol. 35(5):617-620.
Zhao Wei-cheng, Xu Zhi-hong, Huang Wen. (2003). “Influence of load stress and
deflection on interfacial interaction between Portland concrete pavement and lean
concrete base” China Journal of Highway and Transport, Vol. 16(4):9-15.
Zhang Hong-bo, Zhou Zhi-gang, Chen Xiang, Zhang Qing-ping. (2005). “Research
on the Interfacial Characteristics between PCC Surface layer and Poor Cement
Concrete Base Course”. Journal of Changsha Communications University, Vol.
4:17-20.
Evaluation of the Compaction Characteristics of Unbound Material using the
Superpave Gyratory Compactor
Nicholas Lambert1, Kyle Denny2, Beena Sukumaran 3, A.M. ASCE and Yusuf
Mehta4, A.M. ASCE
1
Graduate Assistant, Civil Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ-08028, USA; PH: (856)
256-5324; FAX: (856)256-5242; e-mail: [email protected]
2
Undergraduate Assistant, Civil Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ-08028, USA; PH:
(856) 256-5324; FAX: (856)256-5242; e-mail: [email protected]
3
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ-08028, USA; PH: (856)
256-5324; FAX: (856)256-5242; e-mail: [email protected]
4
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ-08028, USA; PH: (856)
256-5327; FAX: (856)256-5242; e-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT: During previous full scale tests at the National Airport Pavement
Facility (NAPTF) at Atlantic City, - USA, significant consolidation of the subbase
layer occurred during aircraft trafficking accompanied by shear flow failure in the
underlying low strength subgrade material. In order to understand the compaction and
shear flow characteristics of the subbase layer during construction and trafficking, the
material was compacted in the Superpave Gyratory Compactor (SGC) at various
stress levels and at different moisture contents. Since the SGC is primarily used for
compaction of asphalt concrete, the compaction characteristics in the Superpave
Gyratory Test were calibrated to field compaction of the subbase material during
construction at similar moisture contents. The field data collected included the change
in density of the subbase layer during compaction with number of passes of the roller.
The calibration was done by comparing the shape of the curve. The calibration
provided the benchmark values for laboratory evaluation of unbound material in
SGC, such as stress level and the gyratory angle of testing. The shape of the
compaction curve and the density at various gyrations levels provided an insight into
the understanding of the compaction characteristics of the subbase material under
roller compaction. This paper provides the airport pavement designers the efficacy of
using the SGC as a means of evaluating the performance of unbound material during
compaction.
65
66 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
INTRODUCTION
With the introduction of larger planes, such as the Airbus A380, which weigh
approximately 0.6 million kg (1.3 million pounds), the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) is testing airport pavements under heavy aircraft loading at the
National Airport Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF). As a result of the heavy aircraft
loading, the FAA has found that the subbase layer compacted past the maximum
Modified Proctor Density (ASTM D1557) during the simulated trafficking (Hayhoe
and Garg, 2007) with very little crushing of the material (Santino and White, 2006).
The subbase layer, which the FAA has labeled as P-154, is a non-cohesive granular
material with properties as indicated in Table 1. To improve the understanding of
compaction characteristics of unbound materials such as the P-154, it was decided to
utilize the Superpave Gyratory Compactor (SGC) because of the larger energy
capabilities it possesses. The gyratory compactor is currently used in the Superpave
mix design method, (AASHTO M323), which only applies to asphalt concretes and
not unbound materials. The gyratory compactor applies a constant pressure as well as
a shear force which simulates traffic more closely.
The evaluation of the relationship between laboratory compaction methods and field
compaction is important because each construction cycle and analysis of trafficking is
expensive and time consuming. The FAA spends millions of dollars for each
construction cycle, therefore the material properties must be established in the
laboratory prior to construction. This approach has limitations because the material in
the field does not compact similar to material in a laboratory test because in the field
the unbound aggregate has more freedom for particle rearrangement whereas in the
laboratory, the Proctor and SGC mold are confined apparatus.
The gyratory compactor has many variables including pressure, angle, number of
gyrations, and gyration rate. When trying to match the compaction curve from the
field, any of these variables can be changed. In most of the tests that were conducted,
the maximum pressure of 1000 kPa (145 psi) was used with an angle of 1.25 degrees
and up to 500 gyrations. The gyratory compactor outputs the height versus the
number of gyrations for every gyration conducted in the test. By knowing the cross
sectional area of the compaction mold, the volume of the soil can be calculated from
the sample height shown in Fig. 3.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 67
The field compaction methods used in this study will be based upon the methods
chosen by the FAA National Airport Pavement Testing Facility (NAPTF). The SGC
testing was not performed at or above the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
because the FAA cannot compact in the field at high levels of moisture. The primary
compactor used for the subbase material is a Pneumatic tire roller which was
configured to weigh 20,956 kg (46,200 lb) giving it a ground contact pressure per
wheel ranging from 345 kPa (50 psi) to 965 kPa (140 psi) depending on the tire
pressure. A vibratory drum roller was also used on the subbase during construction
which uses a 2,134 mm (84-in.) wide, single-drum vibratory compactor with an
operating weight of 11,990 kg (26,433 lb.) and centrifugal weight of 26,127 kg
(57,600 lb.) Each roller makes a predetermined number of passes or until the
maximum achievable density is reached. As with the gyratory compactor, the
material would eventually reach a point where additional passes would no longer
increase the density.
The density was measured in the field using a nuclear density gauge which
produces fast and accurate results for soil density and moisture measurements. The
measurement of soil density has been a problem for years mostly because of
uncertainty in the density at different positions in the soil. A single probe gauge uses
one probe lowered into a hole using a push rod with a receiver that remains at the
surface. The nuclear density gauge can work at depths ranging between 51 to 305 mm
(2 to 12 in.) below the surface at 25.4 mm (1 in.) increments. Nuclear gages can
measure a density range of 1,121 to 2,723 kg/m3 (70 to 170 lb/ft3) and within 4 kg/m3
(0.25 lb/ft3) for a 1 minute interval (Ayers et al. 1985).
The SGC was used to test the P-154 at many different moisture contents in order to
make comparisons to the field compaction at similar values. The SGC results are
consistent with the Modified Proctor results which indicate that as you reduce the
moisture content below a particular level, the maximum Modified Proctor density is
unattainable. This is evident as you go below three percent moisture and are unable to
reach the maximum Modified Proctor density. The results from the Superpave
gyratory compactor were split into separate fields from percent modified proctor in
order to evaluate the compaction characteristics at different levels. The average
number of gyrations to compact the aggregate from one level to another is shown in
Table 2 for different moisture contents and pressure applied from the Superpave
gyratory compactor. In Table 2, 85% Modified Proctor density was considered the
baseline or loose compaction from the field compaction results and allows for a
starting point.
68 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
It is evident that the pressure applied by the gyratory compactor and moisture content
both affect the compaction rate because the tests performed below three percent
moisture were unable to exceed 100% maximum Modified Proctor density after more
than 200 gyrations.
Additional testing with the Superpave gyratory compactor was done with different
samples sizes to simulate lift height. This testing was done in order to give the FAA a
recommendation on achieving the highest density without over saturating the
material. In Fig. 1, the Superpave gyratory results are shown as a function of moisture
content to help illustrate the effect of moisture content and lift height on the P-154
material. The results from the Superpave gyratory compactor indicated that at smaller
lift heights 100% maximum Modified Proctor density was attainable above 4%
moisture. The recommended lift height was approximately 4 inches, which was used
for the final two lifts of the P-154.
1 45
50 0 g yrat io ns & 50 00 g
1 40
30 0 g yrat io ns & 50 00 g
f)
c
(p M o di fie d Pr o cto r
y
it
s1 35
n 20 0 g yrat io ns & 30 00 g
e
D
y
r 30 0 g yrat io ns & 30 00 g
D
.
x1 30
a 20 0 g yrat io ns & 30 00 g
M (a d di tio nal test)
30 0 g yrat io ns & 30 00 g
(a d di tio nal test)
1 25
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
M o ist u re C o n te n t (% )
FIG. 1. Evaluation of SGC results Below OMC3 with Simulated Lift Height
(1 pcf = 16.02 kg/m ).
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 69
During construction cycle five (CC5) at the NAPTF, the field compaction was
closely monitored and resulted in density measurements below the maximum
Modified Proctor density value. This lower Modified Proctor value could be due to
the low amount of moisture being added prior to compaction to prevent over
saturating of the weak subgrade as stated previously. The field construction
compaction was monitored for all five lifts of the P-154 as the layers were
compacted. The results from lift one, two, four, and five are shown in Fig. 2.
Different rollers were used for compaction for the various lifts. Lift three was not
included in Fig. 2 because it was from a different screening which resulted in a higher
maximum Modified Proctor density. The first data point for all the lifts are the
baseline results which were considered loose compaction from placing the material.
This value varied for all the lifts but did not seem to effect the overall compaction.
The first lift of the P-154 consisted of only six passes with the roller to prevent
penetrating the clay subgrade layer with the P-154 and resulted in the lowest density
recorded. After a specific number of passes with the roller, the change in height and
density were measured at six separate locations at the NAPTF. The placement and
testing of each point was not the exact same point because the nuclear density gauge
uses a probe and can potentially disturb the surrounding soil. Therefore, it is more
accurate to look at the average for a series of points to find any trend in compaction.
Lift four was done on two separate days with a different nuclear density gauge based
on equipment availability, which resulted in a gap in the data. For the analysis of the
P-154, lift four day two was not used in finding the compaction characteristics but
shown in the figure for completeness due to the discontinuity in the data obtained by
using different gauges and performing the compaction over two days. The
compaction of the P-154 in Fig. 2 approaches 95% Modified Proctor density in lifts
two and four and exceeds 95% in lift five. Lift five resulted in a lower average
density reading after two additional passes with the rubber tire roller.
70 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
100
95
90
% Modified
Proctor
70
0 5 10 15 20
No. of Passes
FIG. 2. Field Construction Compaction Results for P-154 during CC5 with the
Following Moisture Contents: Lift 1 – 2.9%, Lift 2 – 2.6%, Lift 4 – 2.5% and
3.4%, Lift 5 – 3.0%
After analysis of the field construction compaction and the Superpave gyratory
compactor testing there was a close relationship with the compaction characteristics.
This can be seen very well in Fig. 3. In this figure, the number of passes of the roller
and number of gyrations in the SGC are plotted on the x-axis and the dry density
appears on the y-axis. Because the scale of the figure can misrepresent the actual
data, the field compaction and gyratory compaction can be evaluated using the
number of gyrations and passes to achieve a specific density. Another factor that must
go into this evaluation is the energy input with the different rollers used during
construction. This can be accounted for by increasing or decreasing the pressure
applied with the Superpave gyratory compactor. Further testing must be completed in
order to verify the number of passes versus the number of gyrations for the P-154 for
consistency.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 71
No. of Passes
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
135
130
125
Dry Density
120
(pcf)
115
110
Gyratory Compactor 03.17.08 Test#5
105 Lift # 3
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
No. of Gyration
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the study comparing the SGC results with field compaction results, it can
be seen that the SGC is capable of replicating field compaction results even with
different field compaction equipment being used. It is also capable of achieving much
higher densities than the Modified Proctor test, where a standard energy input is used.
Further studies are currently underway to determine if the SGC can be used to
replicate field trafficking under heavily loaded aircraft wheel loads.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS/DISCLAIMER
The work described in this paper was supported by the FAA Airport Technology
Research and Development Branch. The contents of the paper reflect the views of the
authors who are responsible for the facts and accuracy of the data presented within.
The contents do not necessarily reflect the official views and policies of the FAA.
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT: It has been recognized that full-scale Accelerated Loading Test (ALT) is
the most important and direct way to obtain structural behavior of pavements subjected
to traffic loading, as it avoids many assumption compared to that in the laboratory. As
one part of ”the Eleventh- Five-Year National Grand Technology Infrastructure
Program”, a full-scale Accelerated Loading Facility (ALF) with full-controlled
environment conditions has been designed in China. At first, a brief introduction of
ALTs all over the world was given followed by a description of track line types of two
proposed schemes. Then, a comparison between stress state of the circular track and that
of the oval one was analyzed through a three dimensional finite element simulation to
identify a proper track line type. Finally, the testing pavement dimensions, i.e. planar
sizes and depth, were determined based on the variation rules of stress components. The
proposed design parameters according to finite element simulation will be helpful to the
ultimate design of testing track.
INTRODUCTION
Accelerated Loading Test (ALT) is one of the most important means to acquire
structural behavior of pavements. It is crucial to the structural design, performance
prediction, and maintenance decision of pavements. It is urgently needed in China due
to some engineering problems which have arisen in the recent years, such as premature
failure of asphalt pavements. As a result, promoted by the National Development and
Reform Commission, an establishment item aimed at service safety evaluation for
important engineering materials, was launched in March 2007 and includes
establishment of the ALF especially for testing under special regional environmental
conditions. The proper size of the test segment, i.e., preliminary design of testing
pavement geometry, is analyzed by finite element (FE) simulation here. The first job is
to determine an appropriate scheme by comparing two proposed testing line-types, i.e.,
72
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 73
the circular track and the oval one. Then, the proper dimensions for the testing pavement
section, the depth and width, are obtained through the analysis of decay rules of
pavement response. A preliminary design of pavement segment is performed
considering a series of influential factors in the final part. The work presented here gives
a base and reference for the establishment of similar facilities.
There are more than forty ALFs being used in more than twenty countries in the world
today. Generally, these ALFs can be classified into four types based on their
geometries: large full-scale real track, linear testing track, circular testing track, and
oval testing track.
Fig. 1. Typical ALFs. a) Large-scale real track, American MnROAD (top left);
b)Circular testing track, French LCPC(top center); c)Oval testing track, Spanish
CEDEX (top right); d)Linear testing track, American FHWA ALF.
Fig.1a shows a typical large-scale real track, taking MnROAD(Minnesota test road) as
an example. It has the best correlation with the actual traffic and pavement conditions,
and can provide the most convincing testing data about pavement performance. It is
time-consuming and its cost for construction and operation is rather higher; this makes
it difficulty for world-wide application. Fig.1b shows a typical circular testing track;
giving the French LCPC (Laboratoire Central des Ponts and Chaussees) near Nantes as
an example. The circular track applies loading through the wheel rotating the
underpinning at the center, which can reach higher vehicle speeds and thus able to
simulate high-speed traffic action. Because the transverse shear force is difficult to
eliminate completely, this often results in a different stress distribution within pavement
structure. Fig.1c shows a typical oval testing track, which is the Spanish CEDEX
(Center for Public Works Studies and Experimentations). This kind of a test road
contains some advantages of the linear and circular tracks. It can eliminate transverse
shear forces in the linear segment compared with the circular track and can reach
relatively higher vehicle speeds compared with the linear track. Fig.1d shows a typical
linear testing track, American FHWA ALF for instance. For this kind of ALF, the area
74 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
occupied is small, and its construction and operation cost is comparatively lower.
However, its speed is usually restricted by the length, which may not reflect the effect of
high-speed traffic.
In the preliminary design, there are two schemes proposed: circular track subjected to
half-axle vehicular loading by a simulator, and an oval track subjected to the whole-axle
loading by a real truck, as shown in Fig. 2, which are both to be built under the ground in
order to easily control temperature.
Test sections
Fig. 2. Two proposed schemes. a) Circular track with Simulator (left); b) Oval
track with truck (right) (not to scale).
As the tire scrub and transverse shear force are difficult to eliminate unconditionally in
the circular track, there is no proof showing that the response is comparable between
these two cases, especially for the given boundary and loading conditions. As a result,
the static responses of the circular and linear track subjected to its corresponding
loading are analyzed here by FE simulation.
A typical rectangular loading, with an area of 0.28m long and 0.2m wide with a contact
pressure of 700kPa, was used to represent the half-axle vehicular loading in the circular
track model. Two of them were used in the straight track model (a typical 1.4m is
chosen for the distance of two tires). Typical elastic properties and layer thickness of
pavements in China were used, shown in Table 1. The bottom of both models was
completely restrained in the FE model. Horizontal movement perpendicular to the
perimeters was also restrained whereas the remaining two directions were free.
Elastic modulus
1400 1400 1400 1600 600 50
(MPa)
Fig. 3 shows the surface deflections of the two cases. It can be seen that the
unsymmetrical boundary between the inboard and outboard sides has an observable
influence on the deflection distribution in the circular track. It indicates that the
pavement response is more susceptible to the boundary conditions compared with that
in the straight track, which will result in more difficulties in in-situ pavement response
monitoring. Further more, it can also be seen that there is an interaction between the two
tire loadings in the straight track case, namely the superimposing effect of vehicular
loading, which results in a different response distribution and peak value compared to
that in circular track case. These phenomena can also be- observed when comparing the
vertical strain, transverse strain, and longitudinal strain between them. This also
indicates that the incapability of applying the whole axle vehicular loading in circular
track makes the simulation of the full-scale pavement response restricted.
Table 1 shows the comparison of maximum response value between the two cases, in
which the relative percentage is defined as the percentage ratio of response in a circular
track to that in straight track. As can be seen from Table 2, the surface deflection and
the transverse strain for the circular track are lower than that of straight track by75.4 and
65.6% of the latter, respectively; while the vertical and longitudinal strain are 24.0 and
9.4% higher than the latter, respectively.
Relative
Item Circular Straight
percentage
Maximum surface deflection (m) 0.0002362 0.0003134 75.4
Maximum vertical strain İzz (ȝİ) 478.3 385.7 124.0
Maximum transverse strain İyy (ȝİ) 113.8 166.0 65.6
Maximum longitudinal strain İxx (ȝİ) 150.8 137.8 109.4
Since the testing pavement structure will be built in a U-shaped concrete box under the
ground to provide a full-controlled environmental condition, the rigid boundaries will
76 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
be used (concrete wall) on both sides, and a thin concrete slab with low strength will be
incorporated in the soil subgrade. An evaluation of the effects of rigid boundaries on the
response of the testing pavement was made using FE simulation. The same vehicular
loading as proposed in the previous text was used to conduct the analysis. Although the
structure and loading are both symmetric, no symmetry was considered in the three
dimensional FE model to simulate the whole-axle tire loading action.
The surface deflection, transverse stress at the bottom of hot-mix asphalt (HMA) layer,
and vertical strain on the top of subgrade are chosen as critical response parameters for
the size- analysis, as shown in Fig. 4. The width of the model analyzed is 10.0 m, while
the length and depth are 8.0 m and 4.0 m, respectively, after a series of mesh sensitivity
analyses. The relative deflection is defined as surface deflection divided by the
maximum deflection under loading expressed as a percentage. Fig. 5 illustrates the
decay of the selected response with the distance to the loading center. It can be seen that
at a distance of 2.0 m, the deflection is about 15.0% of the maximum deflection, the
strain is about 10.0% of its maximum, and the transverse stress is about 5.0% of its
maximum.
120 Displacement
Pecent of Maximum
60
40
20
0
-20 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Distance to the loading center(m)
Fig. 4. Decay rules of critical responses with the distance to the loading center.
Table 3 shows the decay of critical responses (the same responses defined as in Fig. 5)
with the variation of the subgrade thickness. The results indicate that the transverse
stress of the HMA layer converges quickly with the thickness, while the surface
deflection converges very slowly. The difference in strain on top of subgrade between
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 77
Width: The width of the testing track will be affected by the following factors: Wheel
spacing A , Wandering W , tire width T , and boundary effect length B , thus the final
segment width L can be expressed by:
L = 2( B + W + T ) + A (1)
The boundary effect length is used to prevent the rigid wall from influencing the
parameters to be measured. This distance can be determined by the decay of critical
response parameters with distance. W is the transverse wandering width, which reflects
realistic traffic operations. Taking the previous vehicular loading as an example, the
final minimum width should be more than (2.0×2+0.4×2+0.2×2+1.2=6.4m), in which
0.4m is used for wandering space (Kokkins, 1992; Owusu, 1992).
Length: A typical test section consists of transition, boundary effect length, and loading
vehicle, shown in Fig. 5.
1/2 1/2
Boundary Loading vehicle Boundary
Transition Transition
The transition segment is used to be a transition between different testing sections and
smooth the vehicle in case the adjacent testing section fails. Loading vehicle segment
represents the length of truck used in the experiment. Boundary segment is
incorporated to consider the influence of longitudinal boundary on the quality of the test
data, which can be gotten by analyzing the decay of critical responses along the
traveling direction. Fig. 6 presents the results of FE simulation, whose parameters are
the same as previous part.
100 Displacement
Longitudinal stress
Percent of Maximum
80
Vertical strain
60
40
20
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
-20 Distance to the loading center(m)
From the results, it can be determined that at a distance of 2.0 m, the deflection reduces
by about 18.0% of the maximum surface deflection, and the strain decreases by nearly
2.0% of the maximum vertical strain. Taking the proposed vehicular loading as an
example, the final minimum length should be more than 2.0×2+3.5+3.5 (=11.0m), in
which 3.5m is used for transition part, the same as the length of the testing vehicle.
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Kokkins, S.J. (1992). "FAA Unified Pavement Analysis 3-D Finite Element Method,"
Proceedings of Unified Airport Pavement Design and Analysis Concepts Workshop,
Report No. FAA-RD-92/17, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington DC.
Owusu-Antwi, E. (1992). "Development of a Unified Airport Pavement Analysis and
Design System," Proceedings of Unified Airport Pavement Design and Analysis
Concepts Workshop, Report No. FAA-RD-92/17, Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington DC.
Backcalculation of Anisotropic Pavement Properties using Time History of
Embedded Gauge Readings
Eyal Levenberg
Purdue University, North Central Superpave Center, West Lafayette, Indiana 47906;
[email protected]
INTRODUCTION
The resilient response to load of asphalt pavement systems is typically modeled
using isotropic material properties (e.g., Yoder and Witczak, 1975; NCHRP 1-37A
2004). However, compaction operations produce preferred aggregate orientation (Oda
et al., 1985; Saadeh et al., 2002) and lock-in of horizontal stresses within the different
layers (Uzan, 1985; Duncan et al., 1991), resulting in inherent material anisotropy.
Under traffic loads further symmetry changes may take place due to the (recoverable)
tendency of the materials to dilate in shear (Uzan, 1992). The symmetry of the
resilient properties may also be influenced by permanent (irrecoverable) deformations.
The study of such anisotropy in the laboratory (e.g., Adu-Osei et al., 2001; Tutumluer
et al., 2003) is problematic because of the uncertainty associated with recreating the
conditions prevailing within the pavement system. In the present work resilient
anisotropic material behavior is investigated by means of inverse analysis. Use was
made of an instrumented asphalt pavement loaded in the INDOT/Purdue accelerated
pavement testing (APT) facility; the time history of all embedded gauge readings,
collected during a single APT pass, was used for the back-calculation.
79
80 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
square with 6.1 m (20 ft) long sides. The loading system is capable of producing a
downward force of up to 9,080 kg (20,000 lb) applied to the pavement surface through
a half-axle dual-wheel assembly that is traveling at a constant speed of 8 km/h (5
mph). In the present study the temperature in the testing area was set and maintained
throughout the experiment at 15.5ºC (60ºF). The wheel assembly was loaded to 6,810
kg (15,000 lb) with tires inflated to 0.70 MPa (100 psi). Passes were applied without
wander in unidirectional mode. Note that due to internal tire reinforcement, circular
imprints resulted on the pavement surface, each 203 mm (8 in.) in diameter.
The pavement structure was relatively thin, comprised of 127 mm (5 in.) of hot mix
asphalt (HMA) overlaying 152.4 mm (6 in.) of crushed granite aggregate base course;
placed on top of an A-4(0) soil serving as subgrade. The HMA course was made of
dense-graded Superpave mixtures constructed in three lifts. The aggregate base course
was compacted in a single lift and the subgrade soil was compacted in several lifts,
each up to 152 mm (6 in.) thick. During construction the pavement was instrumented
with four pressure gauges and eight strain gauges. The instrumentation layout plan is
shown in Fig. 1. The Y-axis in the figure denotes the travel path of the center of the
APT carriage (loading from left to right); this line itself was not directly loaded as it
passed between the dual wheels. Pressure gauges #1178 and #1185 measured vertical
stresses on top of the base course; these were installed at a depth of 127 mm (5 in.)
from the surface. Pressure gauges #1179 and #1184 measured vertical stresses on top
of the subgrade; these were installed at a depth of 279.4 mm (11 in.) from the surface.
All eight strain gauges were attached to the bottom of the HMA course, i.e., at a depth
of 127 mm (5 in.) from the surface. Gauges G-2, G-4, G-5 and G-7 measured
horizontal strains in the loading direction (i.e., strain in Y) while gauges G-1, G-3, G-6
and G-8 measured horizontal strains in the transverse direction (i.e., strain in X). More
experimental details are contained in the following sources: Llenín & Pellinen (2004),
Llenín et al. (2006), and Levenberg (2008).
layer from the top represented the aggregate base course, with a thickness of 152.4
mm (6 in.). The subgrade was modeled as a single layer (third from the top) having a
total thickness of 1.55 m (61 in.). The fourth and final layer, with semi-infinite
thickness, represented the concrete floor of the test pit. The dual-wheel loading was
represented by two circular areas, spaced 343 mm (13.5 in.) apart (center to center),
transferring uniform vertical stresses of 1.03 MPa (150 psi) in magnitude to the
pavement surface. The moving APT carriage was simulated using the quasi-static
approach, by applying the loading at different locations along the Y-axis in Fig. 1
(with the tire imprints on each side of this line). Computation of stresses and strains in
the transversely isotropic layered half-space was done using a new program named
ELLEA2 (Levenberg, 2008), for which the theoretical derivation was based upon the
works of Lekhnitskii (1963), Singh (1986), and Huang (2004). The underlying
equations were programmed into an Excel workbook without the use of VBA code -
resulting in fast real-time calculations.
In terms of a Cartesian coordinate system ( x , y , z ), with x − y as the plane of
material isotropy, the constitutive law of a transversely-isotropic material is:
Given that each layer of interest (i.e., HMA, base, and subgrade) is characterized by
five independent elastic constants (Eq. 1), there are 15 unknowns to be back-
calculated in the most general case (note that the concrete properties were prefixed). In
order to simplify matters and reduce the number of free parameters to a more realistic
level, it was decided to focus only on the vertical and horizontal moduli, namely E z
and E x . Subsequently, assumptions were made regarding the remaining elastic
constants. The shear modulus G xz in each layer was related to the other elastic
properties of the same layer according to the expression (e.g., Wolf, 1935; Barden,
1963):
Ex ⋅ Ez
Gxz = (2)
Ez + Ex ⋅ (1 + 2 ⋅ν zx )
where it can be seen that when E z = E x = E and ν xy = ν zx = ν the isotropic shear
modulus is attained. Also, the two distinct Poisson’s ratios ν zx and ν xy were assumed
identical and their values were predetermined (for each layer separately). Different
assumptions are known to exist, most noteworthy of which (although not applied
herein) were proposed by Graham and Houlsby (1983).
REFERENCES
Adu-Osei, A., Little, D. N., and Lytton, R. L. (2001). “Cross-anisotropic
characterization of unbound granular materials.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1757, 82-91.
Barden, L. (1963). “Stresses and displacements in a cross-anisotropic soils.”
Géotechnique, 13 (3), 198-210.
Duncan, J. M., Williams, G. W., Sehn, A. L., and Seed, R. B. (1991). “Estimation of
earth pressures due to compaction.” J. Geotech. Eng., 117(12), 1833-1847.
Graham, J., and Houlsby, G. T. (1983). “Anisotropic elasticity of a natural clay.”
Géotechnique, 33(2), 165-180.
Huang, Y. H. (2004). Pavement analysis and design, 2nd Ed., Prentice Hall, New
Jersey.
Lekhnitskii, S. G. (1963). Theory of elasticity of an anisotropic elastic body, Holden-
Day, San Francisco.
Levenberg, E. (2008). “Validation of NCAT structural test track experiment using
INDOT APT facility: final report.” Joint Transp. Res. Prog., SPR-2813 project.
North Central Superpave Center, Purdue University.
Levenberg, E. McDaniel, R. S., and Pellinen, T. K. (2008). “Backcalculation of layer
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 85
moduli using time history of embedded gauge readings.” 3rd Inter. Conf. Accel.
Pave. Test., Madrid, Spain.
Llenín, J. A. and Pellinen, T. K. (2004), “Validation of NCAT structural test track
experiment using INDOT APT facility: interim draft final report.” Joint Transp.
Res. Prog., SPR 2813 Project, Purdue University.
Llenín, J. A., Pellinen, T. K., and Abraham, D. M. (2006). “Construction management
of a small-scale accelerated pavement testing facility.” J. Perform. Const. Facil.,
20(3), 229-236.
NCHRP 1-37A (2004). “Guide for mechanistic-empirical design of new and
rehabilitated pavement structures.” National Cooperative Highway Research
Program, Project 1-37A Final Report (PDF version).
Oda, M., Nemat-Nasser, S. and Konish, J. (1985). “Stress-induced anisotropy in
granular masses.” Soils Found., 25(3), 85-97.
Poulus, H. G., and Davis, E. H. (1974). “Elastic solutions for soil and rock
mechanics.” Center for Geotech. Res., University of Sydney (1991 reprint).
Saadeh, S., Tashman, L. Masad, E. and Mogawer, W. (2002). “Spatial and directional
distribution of aggregates in asphalt mixes.” J. Test. and Eval., 30(6).
Singh, S. J. (1986). “Static deformation of a transversely isotropic multilayered half-
space by surface loads.” Phys. Earth and Planetary Inter., 42, 263-273.
Tutumluer, E., Little, D. N. and Kim, S. (2003). “Validated model for predicting field
performance of aggregate base courses.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1837, 41-49.
Uzan, J., (1985). “Characterization of granular material.” Transp. Res. Rec., 1022, 52-
59.
Uzan, J. (1992). “Resilient characterization of pavement materials.” Int. J. Num. Ana.
Meth. in Geomech., 16, 453-459.
Wolf, K. (1935). “Distribution of stress in a half-plane and a half-space of anisotropic
material.” ZAMM J. App. Math. Mech., 15(5), 249-254.
Yoder, E. J., and Witczak, M. W. (1975). Principles of pavement design, 2nd Ed.,
Wiley, New York.
Provisional Results from Accelerated Testing of Ultra Thin-Layer
Reinforced Concrete in South Africa
ABSTRACT
The CSIR Built-Environment, in conjunction with the University of Pretoria and the
Cement and Concrete Institute of South Africa, developed a low cost option for the
upgrading of unsurfaced (gravel) roads. The proposed solution is the placing of a thin
layer of normal concrete reinforced with 5.6mm diameter steel with a mesh grid size
of 200mm. This thin layer is placed on top of the existing unsurfaced road with
minimal preparation to the existing road surface using labour-intensive construction
methods.
Through full-scale trials this type of upgrading proved to be adequate for low-volume
traffic applications (e.g. residential streets) as well as for higher-volume applications
(e.g. bus routes). During the trials test sections were subjected to a total of over
700,000 ESALs over a period of 5 years without showing any deterioration.
In order to determine the structural capacity of this type of overlay full-scale Heavy
Vehicle Simulator tests were conducted. This paper summarizes the initial results from
the accelerated pavement testing (APT) tests and is aimed at building confidence in
the use of thin-layer CRCP, with cognizance being taken of the pavement structure,
support conditions, construction, climate and traffic.
INTRODUCTION
The upgrading of unsurfaced residential roads has become a priority for many
metropolitan areas in South Africa. Coupled with this is the need to construct roads
using labour-intensive construction techniques. One solution is the use of an ultra thin
reinforced concrete pavement (UTRCP). UTRCP has been shown to offer good
performance during a previous trial study (1,2) but a number of questions still remain
to be answered, particularly with regard to the limits of application of this technology.
86
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 87
The primary objective of this project is to assess the performance of 50-mm thick
CRCP placed on various support conditions through accelerated pavement testing
(APT), coupled with a laboratory-testing programme. The aim is to determine the
limits for safe application of the technology in South Africa. The outcomes of the
project will also be used to update the South African design method for rigid
pavements (cncPAVE) (3).
This study is aimed at building confidence in the use of UTRCP, taking cognizance of
the pavement structure, construction, climate and traffic, by providing practitioners
with reliable design information.
Expected Benefits
The use of UTRCP on roads offers multiple benefits by comparison with more
conventional approaches. The benefits include:
• UTRCP is labour-friendly and is highly suitable for labour-based construction;
• Only simple, inexpensive construction equipment is required;
• Existing subgrade and alignment can be used;
• It can be used as an overlay on existing roads;
• It requires less lighting energy at night by comparison with bituminous surfaces
because of the reflectivity of the surface; and
• Significant reduction in construction energy can be realised as the mix is hand-
placed at ambient temperatures.
The Ultra Thin Reinforced Concrete Pavement sections were constructed on a 130m
long test section using a mix of 13mm and 9mm quartzite aggregate to achieve a dense
aggregate packing. A high-strength cement (CEM I - 42.5N) was used and the mix
was reinforced with a steel mesh consisting of a 200 x 200mm grid size using 5.6mm
diameter steel wire. The total thickness of concrete was 50mm and the steel was
placed on the neutral axis, 25mm from the surface using plastic chairs. The mix was
hand placed using shutters to control the width and thickness of the concrete. A double
vibrating roller screed was used for compaction and the pavement was cured under
plastic for 7 days to minimize differential shrinkage. The sections were constructed on
the R80 Highway north-east of Pretoria, South Africa and Figure 1 shows some
aspects of the construction process.
88 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
The average 28-day cube crushing strength was 37.5 MPa (without the steel).
The UTRCP was placed on a prepared road bed consisting of various support types,
which included a granular base section, a cemented base section, and sections with a
50mm of emulsion-treated base. One section was constructed using bottom dump ash
(from a coal-fired power station) as a replacement for the quartzite aggregate. The aim
of this was to determine the structural bearing capacity of the UTRCP under various
support conditions with the aid of the HVS.
Prior to the start of APT loading (during the curing period), a set of measurements was
taken to measure the slab curl and warping movements as a result of daily temperature
fluctuations and differential shrinkage under the influence of the environment. Joint
Deflection Measuring Devices (JDMDs) were installed immediately after placement
of the concrete to record the vertical movements of the edges of the concrete slab.
Thermocouples (TCs), which measured both top and bottom temperatures were also
installed in the concrete at each JDMD location. The data captured during the first 23
days are graphically represented in Figure 3. This graph shows the maximum
movements as captured by instrument JDMD 10. The instruments were installed as
soon as the concrete had developed enough strength to carry the weight of the slugs of
the various LVDTs.
4 45
3.5 40
Slab Edge Movement (mm)
3 35
Temperature (°C)
2.5 30
2 25
1.5 20
1 15
0.5 10
0 5
-0.5 0
25-00-00
26-00-00
27-00-00
28-00-00
29-00-00
30-00-00
01-00-00
02-00-00
03-00-00
04-00-00
05-00-00
06-00-00
07-00-00
08-00-00
09-00-00
10-00-00
11-00-00
12-00-00
13-00-00
14-00-00
15-00-00
16-00-00
17-00-00
18-00-00
19-00-00
3.1
2.3
1.6
Unfortunately data collection was stopped after 23 days to accommodate the HVS
tests which followed directly afterwards.
In order to address the aims of this study a series of Heavy Vehicle Simulator tests
(HVS) were planned as shown in Figure 4. The rectangular boxes indicate possible
HVS testing areas
Plan View:
Section H Section F
Tied To adjacent lane
458A4 457A5
Pavement Structures:
50mm UTRCP ash aggregate
50mm ETB No ETB No ETB 50mm ETB
150mm imported aggregate base 150mm imported aggregate base
• To assess the effects of various input parameters (i.e. type of aggregate, support
conditions, longitudinal joints, traffic loading) on the structural integrity and
performance of the UTRCP layer;
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 91
• To determine the structural strength across joints and transverse cracks as these
are believed to be the weak areas in the UTRCP system; and
• To establish the success of patchwork and rehabilitation options in the event of
the early UTRCP layer failure.
In order to address the last mentioned point, certain HVS testing will be conducted
until complete failure has been observed. Those failed areas will then be patched
using the standard fixing techniques for continuously reinforced pavements. The same
areas will then be subjected to a second round of accelerated loading.
LATEST HVS RESULTS
To date only two tests have been conducted. These tests (457A5 and 458A4) are
according to the layout in Figure 4. A total of over 1.3 million standard axle loads
(80kN) were applied to each of the sections without any signs of structural failure.
Only two small transverse cracks had appeared after 5 days of trafficking but no signs
of pumping or any other form of deterioration could be detected, despite the fact that
over 540 mm rain fell on the test pavement during the test. The pavement has been
subjected to accelerated trafficking for 3 months and loading will continue until
structural failure. Figure 5 shows the peak deflection with repetitions.
1.4 40
1.2 35
Elastic Surface Deflection (mm)
30
1
Rainfall (mm)
25
0.8
20
0.6
15
0.4
10
0.2 5
0 0
0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 1200000
Repetitions
Deflection Rain (mm)
The variations in the data are due to daily temperature and rainfall effects. From the
graph it is evident that no significant degree of deterioration in terms of deflections
can yet be detected. After 1.2 million load applications the deflection values are very
similar to those recorded at the beginning of the test.
From this it is concluded that very little damage has been done to the pavement under
loading. This conclusion is supported by the results of visual inspections.
92 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
The purpose of modelling was to develop a model which could be used for the design
of a UTRCP and to update the design procedures in cncPAVE (3).
The UTRCP pavement that was modelled and tested consisted of a thin reinforced
concrete pavement on top of a layered system. Properties of the model include:
• Generation of a generic finite element model of a representative piece of road
provided with a reinforced concrete slab on top and various layers underneath;
Application of wheel loads as circular patches of constant pressure moving at a
given speed; and
Non-linear dynamic FE analyses using explicit time integration.
The results from the analyses included principal stress values at the top and bottom of
the concrete, as well as vertical deflections of the concrete. The results were presented
as contour fringe plots as well as in tabular form.
The mesh of the model was selected per layer to be finer at the top and coarser at the
bottom in order to reduce computational effort. The finest mesh was directly in the
wheel path. At both ends of the wheel path, for a distance of about 1m, the mesh was
coarser, allowing basically for the wheel speed to increase to a constant value in these
areas.
The boundary conditions were such that all displacements at the bottom (x, y and z
directions) were fixed. On the plane of symmetry at y=0, the displacement in the y
direction was constrained to zero. At the ends, as well as along the sides, non-
reflective boundaries were prescribed, meaning that pressure waves that propagated
radially outwards from the wheel positions were not reflected back into the modelled
part.
Two circular load patches, 200mm in diameter, simulated the dual-wheel loading of a
typical truck. A surface pressure of 700 kPa was applied to the top concrete surface
along a path that ran at a distance of 900mm from the plane of symmetry.
In the dynamic analysis the wheel load together with the gravity load of the concrete
was first applied in 0.1 seconds from 0 to 700 kPa at an axle position close to one end
of the model (145 mm). Thereafter it was accelerated for a distance of 855 mm along
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 93
the path up to its ultimate speed. Thereafter the wheel load moved at a constant speed
along the wheel path.
A transverse crack in the concrete was modelled at the center of the wheel path over
the full width of the model. The crack was through the total thickness of the concrete
and was modelled in such a way that compression forces, but not tension forces, could
develop on the two adjacent surfaces of the crack. Vertical shear could also be carried
in the crack, which meant that there was no vertical slip between the surfaces of the
crack. The reinforcement was modelled as a continuous sheet of steel in both the x and
y directions.
In order to create a void below the slab, the interlayer stiffness was reduced to
practically zero and, for the transition areas at both ends of the void area, reduced
stiffness were introduced by linear interpolation.
The explicit time integration of the dynamic process was quite time-consuming, and
parallel processing with multi processors and about 400 MB of memory was required.
An eight processor server with 3.66 GHz 64bit Xeon processors was used. The time
required for a run using four processors was typically was three to nine hours,
depending on the size of the smallest element in the model and the stiffness of the
material. The analysis was done stepwise in time, with extremely small time steps,
typically 2 to 3 microseconds. With the duration of the wheel passing process from
end to end being about 2 seconds, about 800 000 solution cycles were required.
A non-linear dynamic analysis was required since the wheel patches are moving
objects in the wheel path and sliding contact is defined between the wheels and the
concrete surface. At the simulated crack in the concrete non-linear contact was also
defined between the surfaces of the crack.
The results of the analyses were available after a run as time history displacements,
strains and stresses. These could be presented as time history plots or as fringe or
contour plots at selected time intervals. Deformed plots scaled to enlarge the actual
deformation were also generated.
In view of the time and cost of using sophisticated Finite Element Analysis (FEA), a
limited number of cases were evaluated. The data generated by the FEA was used to
re-calibrate the equations used in cncPAVE and cncPAVE was subsequently used as a
tool to illustrate the relative effect of different parameters on the performance of a
UTCRCP. Figure 6 shows the reliability of the predicted maximum tensile stress on
the surface of the pavement using cncPAVE compared to the values generated by
FEA. The correlation coefficient R2 for the data in Figure 6 is 0.91.
94 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
3.00
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
MODE OF FAILURE
Combinations of FEA results and cncPAVE equations can now be used to explain the
behaviour of UTCRCP as observed on the test sections under HVS testing and to
establish the consequences if parameters that may vary during the design, construction
and loading of a UTCRCP.
The modelling and the output of program cncPAVE can be used to establish the
possible mode of failure and to demonstrate the sensitivity of certain characteristics of
UTCRCP:
2. High stresses develop when a wheel load crosses from one side of the crack or
joint to the other side. According to FEA analyses the critical stresses are tensile
stresses at the bottom of the pavement about 450mm from the crack, those
between the wheel loads at the top of the pavement and the compression stress at
the top of the crack when the wheel is crossing the crack. A plot of these stresses is
shown in Figure 7 where the stress has been calculated for a 60mm slab with the
longitudinal steel bar reinforcement placed at different levels in the slab. It was
found that the tensile stress is at its greatest about 450mm away from the crack and
that a second crack will rapidly develop due to the high tensile stress at that point.
The crack itself may initially not be visible but the stiffness of the slab is reduced,
resulting in an increase in deflection and in a greater vertical stress at the top of the
supporting layer. At the same time high compression stresses develop at the top of
the slab in the crack, resulting in spalling and a risk of loss of shear resistance, as
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 95
well as in a risk of water entering the slab (see Figure 7). The crack between the
wheels will later extend from the surface into the pavement itself.
7
Top compr
5 Bott. Tens
2
Top tens
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Position steel from top (mm)
1.80
1.60
1.40
Tensile stress (MPa)
1.20 Void= 0. 5m
0.80 V oid=0.0m
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
C rack w id t h (m m )
The FEM analysis shows that the estimated pavement life for this type of structure is
approximately 2 million 80kN load applications.
1.80
1.60
1.40
Tensile stress (MPa)
1.20 Void= 0. 5m
0.80 V oid=0.0m
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
Crack w id t h (mm)
Figure 9: Maximum tensile stress at the surface as a function of crack width and
the size of the void between the slab and the supporting layer.
CONCLUSIONS
This aim of this study was to characterize the structural performance of a 50mm thick
Ultra Thin Reinforced Concrete Pavement under various types of realistic support
conditions with the aid of the Heavy vehicle Simulator.
Early indications are that this type of structure is prone to curling and warping.
Separation of over 3 mm between the bottom of the slab and the base along the
longitudinal edge of the test section was recorded. Special attention will be required to
mitigate the harmful effects of the loss of bond between the concrete and the support
structure.
Although APT testing has not been completed, the visual and structural evaluation of
the current state of the pavement ties in with the predictions from the dynamic Finite
Element Analysis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This HVS research is supported by the Gauteng Department of Public Transport,
Roads and Works (GDPTRW) and their contribution towards this study is
acknowledged.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 97
REFERENCES
1. Bergh, A.O., McKay, A. Semmelink, C.J. and Steyn, W.J.vdm. (2005).
“Roodekrans thin concrete experiment sections 4, 5 and 6: Continuously reinforced
thin concrete pavements.” Paper presented at the South African Transport Conference,
July 2005, Pretoria, South Africa.
3. Strauss P.J., Slavik, M. and Perrie, B.D., 2001. A mechanistically and Risk
Based Design Method for Concrete Pavements in South Africa, Proceedings of the 7th
International Conference on Concrete Pavements, September 2001, Orlando, Florida,
USA.
Evaluation of the Effect of Tire Loads with Different Contact Stress
Patterns on Asphalt Rutting
W.J.vdM. Steyn
University of Pretoria, Civil Engineering, Lynnwood road, Hatfield, 0002, South Africa
PH (+27) 12 420 2171, FAX (+27) 12 362 5218, EMAIL [email protected]
ABSTRACT: Road pavements are constructed to carry traffic which applies its load-
to the pavement through the contact area between the tire and the pavement surface.
Previously, the tire-pavement contact area and stresses were idealized, as appropriate
instruments for quantification of these contact stresses were not available. The Stress-
In-Motion (SIM) technology has made it possible to characterize these contact stresses
at low speeds. In a recent Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) test on various layers of
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA), the effects of non-uniform tire-pavement contact stresses
were directly measured through application of two distinct types of tire-pavement
contact stresses onto the HMA pavement. The rutting response of the pavement
specifically showed the direct effects of these non-uniform contact stresses. In this
paper the background to the tire-pavement contact stresses is discussed briefly,
followed by details regarding the specific rut responses of five HVS tests where the
pavement performance reflected the effects of the non-uniform tire loading conditions.
Analysis of this data is presented together with discussions on the potential effects of
this information on roads carrying real traffic and their rut development.
INTRODUCTION
Road pavements are constructed to carry traffic which applies its load- to the
pavement through the contact area between the tire and the pavement surface.
Investigations around the effects of different types of loading on the response of
pavements have been conducted for many years. Previously, the tire-pavement contact
area and stresses were idealized, as appropriate instruments for quantification of these
contact stresses were not available. The Stress-In-Motion (SIM) technology has made
it possible for the three dimensional characterization of these contact stresses at low
speeds (De Beer et al, 2006; 2008). However, the actual effects of different non-
uniform tire-pavement contact stress patterns have not often been observed
specifically in a controlled comparative study of pavement performance, although
many analyses have shown that the non-uniform contact stresses should affect the
response of the pavement structure, especially, near the surface.
In a recent Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) test on various layers of Hot Mix Asphalt
(HMA), the effects of non-uniform tire-pavement contact stresses were directly
measured through application of two distinct types of tire-pavement contact stresses
onto the asphalt pavement. The focus of this paper is to present and discuss the effects
98
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 99
BACKGROUND
The contact stresses developed between the tire of a vehicle and the surface of the
pavement are complicated and dependent on various factors. These include the vehicle
load, vehicle configuration, suspension type, tire material type, tire inflation pressure,
tire construction, tread pattern, speed and moving action (i.e. acceleration, free-rolling
or braking, cornering or straight). De Beer et al (2006, 2008) developed the Stress-In-
Motion (SIM) technology that can be used to measure the tire-pavement contact
stresses orthogonally while the tire rolls over the device. Various other devices can
also be used to measure these stresses, but mostly only in the vertical direction
(Morgan et al, 2008).
The tire-pavement contact stress typically show patterns similar to those shown in
Figures 1a and 1b. De Beer et al (2006) used the terminology of m-shaped and n-
shaped tire-pavement contact stresses, denoting tires that are typically overinflated (n-
shaped – Figure 1a) and overloaded / underinflated (m-shaped – Figure 1b). These
stress shapes have been observed under numerous truck tires (De Beer et al, 2008).
Although various tests (mostly Accelerated Pavement Testing (APT)) have been
conducted with different tire-pavement contact stresses (mainly due to changes in tire
loading) (Hugo and Epps, 2004), the specific comparative response of the pavement
surfacing to differing contact stresses has not yet been studied in depth.
a – n-shape b – m-shape
FIG.1 Typical n-shape (a) and m-shape (b) vertical maximum tire-pavement
contact stresses.
EXPERIMENTATION
The HVS tests were conducted on road P159/1 west of Pretoria. The tests were part of
the Gauteng Department of Public Roads, Transport and Works investigation into the
rut development of HMA mixes (Steyn and Verhaeghe, 2006). Construction of the
standard 40 mm thick HMA mix took place during October 2006. The original
supporting pavement structure was constructed more than 20 years ago and consisted
of 4 layers. The structural strength of the pavement was relatively high with an
average elastic surface deflection (FWD-measured) of between 134 and 149 micron
(Steyn and Fisher, 2008). A standard production HMA mix was used as an overlay for
the tests. Selected properties of the HMA mix are summarized in Table 1.
The HVS is an APT device that has been used extensively nationally and
internationally for the controlled evaluation of pavement behavior under real loads
(Du Plessis et al, 2006). The HVS is typically used to apply a controlled wheel load to
a test section while the behavior of the pavement is monitored using dedicated
instruments. The conditions under which the loads are applied are well controlled, and
through the use of an environmental chamber the temperature of the pavement can be
controlled (Steyn and Denneman, 2008). The test conditions used for the five tests
discussed in this paper are summarized in Table 2. All tests were conducted using a
dual set of radial 11R22.5 tires and a surface temperature of 60°C.
The main parameters monitored on these HVS sections were the surface rutting and
surface profiles. It was measured using a laser profilometer (250 mm intervals across
the 8 m test section). The data were summarized in terms of the average downward
surface rut measured on the section at specific load application intervals. A number of
test slots cut after the HVS tests confirmed that all the rut developed inside the HMA
layers. All further analyses focus on the calculated average downward rut developed
inside the HMA layer.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 101
DATA ANALYSIS
The data analysis is focused on establishing the effects of the non-uniform vertical
tire-pavement contact stresses on the rut profile development inside the HMA layers.
In Figure 2 the general rut development against the number of load applications for the
five sections are shown. The data focus on the average rut for the two wheel tracks of
the channelised sections, and the average rut for the wandering sections. Thedata
indicate the expected increasing trend of surface rut development with increasing
number of load applications.
The similar response observed under the uni- and bi-directional trafficking
(specifically those with similar load levels and both channelized - Sections 446A4 and
447A4) was confirmed by further HVS tests conducted on the same HMA not reported
in this paper. It is perceived that this phenomenon is related to the relatively thin
nature of the HMA (40 mm) and the relative fresh nature of the HMA when subjected
to HVS loading (between 12 and 16 months after construction).
Table 2. Nominal HVS test methodology for five HVS tests discussed in this
paper.
Test Loading Conditions Channelised/ Uni- / bi- Total
Number (Dual tyres) wandering directional Repetitions
In Figure 3 the cross sections of the three channelized test sections towards the end of
each of the HVS tests are shown. The- data show the effect of the vertical tire-
pavement contact stress pattern on the rut development in the HMA surfacing.
Although the rut development for Sections 446A4 and 448A4 (N- and M-shape loads)
shows similar rut rates towards the secondary stage of the test (constant rut increase)
the difference in rut profile remained until the end of the specific tests, indicating that
the effects of the contact stress patterns still influence the cross-sectional profile of the
rut development. This is specifically evident on the edges of the rut cross profiles
where the higher edge stresses (448A4) caused higher localized rut.
In Figure 4 the cross section profile of the two wandering test sections are shown. In
these cases the tires wandered over the width of the section, distributing the location of
102 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
the peak vertical contact stresses over the section. The different effects of the two
contact stress conditions (n-shape and m-shape) are again visible in the surface rut
development.
10
8
CS downward rut [mm]
0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000
Load applications
Section 446A4 Section 447A4 Section 448A4 Section 449A4 Section 450A4
8
m-shape load
6
n-shape load
Permanent Deformation (mm)
-2
-4
-6
-8
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
Cross Sectional Distance (mm)
FIG. 3 Measured cross section rut profiles for three channelized test sections.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 103
DISCUSSION
The data analyzed in this paper supported the hypothesis that the maximum vertical
tire-pavement contact stresses directly influence the surface rut profile of a HMA
surfacing. Figures 3 and 4 indicate that the rut profile under the various contact stress
patterns differs. This leads to the observation that a similar effect would be visible on
real pavements. With real traffic the tire loads are less channelized and therefore the
ultimate effect may be less than that shown in this study. However, field observations
performed during these tests has shown that trucks tend to follow a channelized
pattern when traveling on straight sections of road, specifically when a level of surface
rutting has started to develop. Further, the data indicate that the phenomenon is not
only visible for channelized trafficking, but also for wandering traffic, although to a
lesser degree.
In Figure 5 the ratio between the average downward rut and the maximum vertical
contact stress for the various tests are shown (centre and edge of tire). The data
indicate that all the ratios are within a band of between 3.3 and 5.3 mm/MPa. It does
not appear as if the direction of trafficking affected these ratios (this is probably
related to the relatively thin HMA being tested). The differences in the ratios are
attributed to changes in the thickness of the thin asphalt layer over the width of the test
section (a coefficient of variation of 9 per cent was measured on the test sections) as
well as a possible difference in density of the thin asphalt layer over the width of the
test section. Further evaluation of this is required, although it is logical that similar
stresses on a weaker layer would cause higher rut development.
The question may be posed as to the distribution of specific contact stress patterns in a
real traffic stream, as the contact stresses in the case of the specific tests discussed in
this paper were all of a similar shape. Surveys conducted on highways in South Africa
have indicated that the majority of steering axle tires in a typical traffic stream in
South Africa show n-shaped contact stresses (De Beer, 2008). Previous studies by
Steyn and Visser (2002) indicated that the road profile can give rise to different
contact stress patterns along the length of the road, while spatial repeatability would
tend to concentrate specific contact stress patterns in specific areas – thereby
amplifying the effect in those specific areas.
104 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
3.00
2.00
Permanent deformation [mm]
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
-0.50
m-shape loading
-1.00
-1.50
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300
Cross section
449A4 450A4
FIG 4. Observed cross section rut profiles for two wandering test sections (n-
shaped contact stress (b) (uni-directional), m-shaped contact stress (b) (uni-
directional)).
6.0
Rut / contact stress ratio [mm/MPa]
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
446A4 centre 446A4 edge 447A4 centre 447A4 edge 448A4 centre 448A4 edge
Test number and location
RATIO [mm/MPa]
FIG 5. Summary of ratio between surface rut and maximum vertical contact
stress.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 105
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the information provided in this paper the following conclusions are drawn:
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
The funding from the GDPTRW for the research described in this paper is
appreciated, as well as the permission of the acting Director for CSIR Built
Environment to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
Steyn, W.J.vdM & Visser, A.T. (2002). Effects of moving dynamic tyre loads on tyre-
pavement contact stresses. Paper presented at the 6th Conference on Bearing
Capacity of Roads, Railways and Airfields (BCRA), Lisbon, Portugal. ISBN 90-
5809-394-4
Steyn, WJvdM., Verhaeghe BMJA. (2006). HMA Research Plan: Assessment of the
permanent deformation characteristics of a standard HMA Mix: project proposal
number: PP/2005/17, 8, CSIR, Pretoria, February 2006.
Steyn, W.J.vdM. and Fisher, C. (2008). Technical Memorandum: Phase 1 of HVS
testing: Road P159/1 – 441A4, 442A4, 443A4, 444A4, 445A4, 445A4A, 446A4,
447A4, 448A4, 449A4 and 450A4. CSIR BE, Contract report
CSIR/BE/IE/ER/2007/0033/B.
Steyn, W.J.vdM. and Denneman, E. (2008). Simulation of temperature conditions on
APT of HMA mixes. Paper accepted for the 3rd International conference on
Accelerated Pavement testing, Madrid, Spain, 1 to 3 October 2008.
Test Study on Abrasion of Skid-resistant Textures on Concrete Pavements
107
108 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
TEST METHOD
electromotor, a gearshift, an eccentric gear group with concave groove and a crank.
The system will exert pressure on the wear wheel axle and keep it rolling freely in
the vertical plane to the concrete surface. If there is enough friction between the
wheel and the concrete surface, the wheel rolls; if there isn’t, it transforms to slide.
To save test time, a hard emery wheel, with a width 200 mm and a vertical pressure
of 0.3f0.02MPa, was adopted to replace conventional rubber wheel.
Mass loss percentage, Δm , macro-texture depth, TD , as well as pendulum-like
friction coefficient, FB , on concrete surface were all measured. For the reason that
the 200×260mm wheel track region on concrete surface was not in line with the
requirements of handwork sand-paving method stipulated by On-the-spot Test
Methods for Highway Road Bases and Pavements (JTJ059-95) in China, modified
TD was calculated from the sand area paved and amount of sand actually used. Two
parameters defined as: mass loss percentage within wheel track region, Δmi , and
abrasion speed index, κ i , reflecting the abrasion degree and its corresponding speed
are shown in equations 1 and 2, respectively.
m0 − mi 300 × 300 m − mi
Δmi = × × 100% = 1.73 × 0 × 100% (1)
m0 200 × 260 m0
Δmi − Δmi −1
κi = ×1000 (2)
n
where, m0 original mass of concrete specimen; mi the ith measured mass of
concrete specimen; 1.73 size conversion coefficient; n abrasion frequency between
two neighboring measures.
12.0 10.0
Mass loss percentage (%)
10.0 8.0
6.0 4.0
4.0 2.0
mass loss percentage (%)
2.0 0.0
abrasion speed index
0.0 -2.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Test occasion (once every 200 cycles)
70 1.0
0.9
Macro-texture depth
60
Pendulum-like friction
0.8
coefficient (BPN)
50 0.7
40 0.6
(mm)
0.5
30 0.4
20 0.3
pendulum-like friction coefficient 0.2
10
macro-texture depth 0.1
0 0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Test occasion (once every 200 cycles)
Fig.3. Attenuation of skid-resistant textures on groove concrete slab
FB and TD are shown in Fig.3. In the early stages, when a heavy wheel directly
contacts with groove skid-resistant textures, both FB and TD straightly wane down
for the reason of weak convex hardened mortar, corresponding to the first phase with
quite high abrasion speed index shown in Fig.2. After sustaining about 1000 cycles
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 111
of abrasion, the attenuation of skid-resistant textures tends to stabilize, and the final
values of FB and TD are dominated by both microscopic textures of hardened
cement stone and tiny veins of aggregates.
Macro-texture depth
70 1.2
pendulum-like friction
coefficient (BPN)
60 coefficient 1.0
macro-texture depth
50
(mm)
0.8
40
0.6
30
20 0.4
10 0.2
0 0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Test occasion (once every 200 cycles)
Fig.4. Attenuation of skid-resistant textures on exposed aggregate concrete slab
Fig.4 shows the optimal function curves of FB and TD on exposed aggregate
concrete slab, both of which satisfy the nonlinear exponent function y = Ae Bx + C ,
accounting for rapid attenuation in early stages, gradually retarding later, and at last
the tendency of stabilization. ( A + C ) stands for the initial FB or TD , indicating the
original skid resistance of exposed aggregate texture; while C means the final stable
value after attenuating. A , attenuation range, is on behalf of the gap of skid resistance
between the surface and basis of exposed aggregate concrete. Higher absolute
B means more rapid attenuation of skid-resistant textures.
concrete, their abrasion processes are unanimous in essence. There are 2 main
features during the abrasion of porous concrete slabs:
i. low Δmi and κ i in correspondence with the same abrasion cycles, and
ii. steady abrasion process with no intense change of abrasion speed index.
10.0 4.0
mass loss percentage 3.5
8.0 abrasion speed index
percentage (%)
Abrasion speed
3.0
Mass loss
6.0 2.5
index
2.0
4.0 1.5
1.0
2.0
0.5
0.0 0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Test occasion (once every 600 cycles)
a. No.1
7.0 2.0
6.0
percentage (%)
4.0
index
1.0
3.0
mass loss
2.0 0.5
percentage
1.0 abrasion speed
index
0.0 0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Test occasion (once every 600 cycles)
b. No.2
80 78 1.2
Macro-texture
1.1 1.0
depth (mm)
77
friction
67
70 1.0
0.9 68
64 58
60 0.8
0.8
pendulum-like 0.7
50 friction coefficient 0.6
macro-texture depth
40 0.4
1 2 3 4 5 6
Test occasion (once every 600 cycles)
a. No.1
90 1.4
1.3
coefficient(BPN)
1.1
Pendulum-like
80 1.2 1.2
Macro-texture
75 69 depth (mm)
74 66
friction
70 72 63 1.0
0.9
60 0.8 0.8
pendulum-like friction 0.7
50 coefficient 0.6
macro-texture depth
40 0.4
1 2 3 4 5 6
Test occasion (once every 600 cycles)
b. No.2
sustain abrasion, and it exhibits the similar law with that of porous concrete at the
same stage. With the exposed aggregates entirely worn and the internal structure
exposed, the abrasion curve comes together with that of groove concrete at the later
stage.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on tests using the accelerated analog abrasion instrument developed by the
authors, the abrasion and attenuation of skid-resistant textures on different concrete
pavement slabs were investigated in detail. It can be concluded that as far as the
abrasion resistance and theoretical service life of skid-resistant textures are
concerned, porous concrete pavement is the most durable.
It is worth noting that the above-mentioned analysis is qualitative, not
quantitative. This is becausefor every factor of consistent materials such as cement
brand and added amount, coarse aggregate type and gradation, concrete admixture as
well as its dose, may affect test data even on the same test grounds. However, as a
preliminary test research, it is of much significance for future research. It may lay the
foundation for predicting the theoretical service duration of skid-resistant textures on
these three types of concrete pavements.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 115
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Yu, C., Xueyi, W. (2007). “Fractal Features and Surface Texture Parameters of
Porous Cement Concrete Pavement.” Journal of Changsha University of Science
& Technology (Natural Science Edition), 3, 13-17.
Horszczaruk, E. (2004). “The Model of Abrasive Wear of Concrete in Hydraulic
Structures.” Wear, 256, 787-796.
Sen, H., Zhiling, L., Dongsheng Z.(2004)a. “Performance of Exposed-aggregate
Cement Concrete Pavement.” Journal of Chang'an University (Natural Science
Edition), 4, 6-9.
Sen, H., Zhiling, L.,Dongsheng, Z.(2004)b. “Key Technology of Exposed-aggregate
Cement Concrete Pavement.” China Journal of Highway and Transport, 4, 20-23.
Fujiwara, H., Tomita, R.,Okamota, T. (2001). “Properties of High-strength Porous
Concrete. Recent Advances in Concrete Technology.” Singapore: Fifth
CAN-MET/ACI international conference on recent advances in concrete
technology, 173-187.
Xibin, H., Yinzhong, Y.,Shixia, W. (2000). “Analysis of Abrasion of Wall Material by
High Velocity Sediment Laden and Aerated Flow.” Journal of Hohai University, 3,
27-31.
Hongzhu, K., Zhigao, L., Ben-Ming, L. (2007). “A Study on Evaluation Standard of
Skid-Resistance Performance for Expressway Tunnel Pavement.” Highway, 9,
90-93.
Panagouli, O.K., Kokkalis, A.G. (1998). “Skid Resistance and Fractal Structure of
Pavement surface.” Chaos.Solitons & Fractal, 9(3), 493-505.
Park, S. B., Seo, D. S., Lee, J. (2005). “Studies on the sound absorption
characteristics of porous concrete based on the content of recycled aggregate and
target void ratio.” Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 1846-1854.
Xueliang, Y., Liang, Y.,Qun, Y.(2003). “Field Survey and Analysis About Skid
Resistance of Tunnel Pavements.” Highway, 12, 136-140.
Zong, Y., Zhongyin, G., Yun, H. (2002). “Study on Accelerated Test Method for Skid
Resistance of Asphalt Mixture Wear Layer.” East China Highway, 2, 50-54.
Theory and Application of Total Project Management
Highway Engineering School, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha 410076,
Hunan, China.
INTRODUCTION
Total quality management was firstly used to control product quality, then, its
application was extended to service fields. Juran brought up the concepts of little Q
and big Q [1]. Quality refers to the characteristics of the products that meet the
customer's needs as defined elsewhere. In the little Q, the customer only includes
outside people who purchases goods, and the product only includes goods. In big Q,
the customer includes inside and outside people, and the product include goods and
service. Therefore, total quality management is adapted to manage goods quality as
well as service quality.
PMI analyze quality control problem in the processes of projects management[2]
who believe that quality includes the quality of the project management and the
quality of the project product, and the quality of project management is the foundation
116
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 117
and guarantee for the quality of the project product, and present the theories of project
life cycle management, integration management and plan-do-check-act
cycle(PDCA)management, and validate that total quality control can not only improve
the quality of the project product, but also the quality of the project management.
Westney put forward the idea of total cost management [3, 4]. Then, many specialists
study on it, and put forward total cost management system. Integrated with the
theories and technologies used in the process of cost management, total cost
management is the method and procedures used to manage the project life cycle cost.
In which, “total cost” covers the cost of all sorts of devoted resource, and “total
management" includes the management of project life cycle, all sidedness, all
resources and overall processes. By using PDCA cycle management to manage the
total life cycle cost and asset in total cost management, enterprises asset are be
optimized and their profitability are promoted[5]. Fang brings up the idea and means of
total contract management[6]. Those above theories are the theoretical foundation of
total project management.
Total quality management is effective methods for improving product and service
quality [1].According to the theory of total quality management, to improve project
management quality effectively and achieve the project goal, total quality management
must be used to manage the project management activities. It is total project
management with total management, the whole team management, overall processes
management, all areas management, all factors management and PDCA cycle
management. In the process of the total management, managers should the same
importance to quality management, schedule management, cost management and
others management. In the process of the whole team management, the success project
management requires the participation of all the members of the team. In the process
of the overall processes management, managers should pay attention to project life
cycle management, including plan phase, construction phase , operation phase, and so
on, by strengthening the project planning, decreasing the project life cost, increasing
the project benefit. In the process of all areas management, the customer requirements
are meted., and all the partners are organized and managed effectively by using the
project contracts. In the process of all factors management, all the factors which have
impact on the project quality must be considered. In addition, in the process of the
project management, according to the theory that the quality is oriented from planning,
managers should strengthen the planning and improving the quality of project
management by using the PDCA cycle.
From the following analysis, project time management is total time management
with the following characteristics, such as whole team management, overall processes
management, all areas management, all factors management and PDCA cycle
management.
stage, as well as design stage and the other stages. Time management is project life
cycle management. It should be utilized to guide every project phases, including
project initial phase, project design phase, project construction phase and project final
phase. All factors management in the processes of project time management, there are
many factors which have effects on time management and are named “4M1E”.
Man - Man is a complicated factor which influences the project progress constantly.
From the above first characteristic, we can know that all the individuals of the project
team have influence on the project progress. The quality of time management and the
project progresses not only depend on the management level of the contractors and the
technical level of the constructors, but also depend on their working enthusiasm and
cooperation spirit (team work). In order to manage the process of undertaking project
management more effectively, it is necessary to consider all members’ ideas, promote
cooperation, and coordinate all members’ efforts.
Material - The supplying material and the quality of the material have influence on the
project progress. In the process of undertaking project management, whether materials
are supplied in time or not and whether the qualities of materials meet the needs of the
project can lead to rework and affect the project schedule.
Machine - Whether into the arena on time, working condition, the performance and
quantity of equipment and machine have a direct effect on the project schedule.
Improvement
A P
C D
Maintain
Improvement
A P
C D
Maintain
AP
A C DP
A
C D
P
C D
improved. The speed and quality of collecting information can be improved by using
GIS, GPS, photograph measure, remote sensing technique and data excavating
technique. Therefore, project information management is a kind of all factors
management.
whole project proceeding. In the earlier period, risk is paid more attention to,
including identifying risk, analyzing risk and dealing with risk.
Moreover, the possibility of risk occurrence exists in every management process.
There is the quality trouble and product safe risk in the quality management process.
Lots of factors incur to delay the progress in time management. In process of cost
management, various reasons cause project cost increasing etc. Therefore, risk
management should be strengthened in every phase.
The all factors characteristic of risk management means 4M1E can initiate risk in
the implement processes. Man may have the work accident. Material may have a
certain blemish. Machine appear breakdown probably. Inappropriate technique or
management methods affect quality seriously. Environment may cause the natural
disaster etc. Therefore, the project risk management is a management activity with all
factors characteristic.
engineering management system. At the beginning stage, the system need analysis was
insufficient because of be short of the total project management guidance, and only the
system 'present needs were investigated, which have affected development progress
and system quality. Thanks to the instruction of total project management, the project
development quality has an obvious improvement, its function gets better, and its
application promotes the highway engineering progress along with improving
management quality.
CONCLUSIONS
All above adopt deduction and induction together to approve that project
management is a kind of total project management, and introduce its application. From
the above analysis and study, total quality management should include product quality
and service quality, which is adopted to manage both of them well. While carrying out
total quality management to product quality, those theories need to be used to manage
time, cost, contract, information and risk etc., including total time management, total
cost management, total contract management, total information management and total
risk management. In addition, the quality, time and cost need to be managed as a
system to improve the quality of project. Moreover, the theories of total project
management are the important basis for the computer-aid management system, using
the system in the project process can promote the development and application of total
project management.
126 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
REFERENCES
1. Juan, J. M. Juran on Quality by Design The New Steps for Planning Quality Into
Goods and Services {M}. Juran Institute Inc. 1992: pp. 33-38.
2. PMI. A Guide to The Project Management Body of Knowledge (3rd Edition) {M}.
Project Management Institute, Inc. 2004, pp. 8-20.
3. Westney, R.E. Project Management Trends For The 90’s {J}. Cost Engineering
1991(10), pp. 533-539.
4. Westney, R.E. Total Cost Management. AACE – Vision of Growth [J]. Cost
Engineering, 1992(10), pp. 541-548.
5. Qin Anban. Engineering Project Total Cost Management [M]. Tianjing, Nankai
University Press. 2000, pp. 56-145 (in Chinese)
6. Fang Ying. Theory System of Total Contract Management [J]. China Economist.
2003 (2), pp. 154-155 (in Chinese).
7. Yuan Jianbo. Highway Economics [M]. Beijing, China Communications Press.
2002, pp. 91-92 (in Chinese)
8. Qin Wanhua. Project Management [M]. Beijing Science Press. 2001, pp. 269-293.
(in Chinese).
9. Kathy Schwalbe. IT Project Management [M]. Beijing, China Machine Press.
2003, pp. 348-364 (in Chinese).
10. Yuan Jianbo and Liu Weijun, Total Time Management and Highway Engineering
Time Management System – 1st International Conference on Construction
Engineering and Management, Seoul, Korea. 2005.
11. Yuan Jibo, Liu Weijun, Zhang Jianren. Network Planning Technique for Highway
Engineering Considering Influence of Random Factors [J]. China Journal of
Highway and Transport. 2006, 19(1), pp. 104-107. (in Chinese)
Decision-Making Model of Highway Route Plan Based on Entropy and Entropy
Weight Theory
INTRODUCTION
In order to protect the natural environment, scenery and landscape resources, historic
sites and so on along highway route, coordinate highway with its surroundings, we
have made a lot of investigation about highway context and analyzed the existing
127
128 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
route design decision making indexes of China, then put forward a new index system
to evaluate highway route design based on context sensitive design concept. The
indexes are shown in Table 1 and their criteria values are obtained by questionnaire
investigation and are graded by experts. For the eight qualitative indexes as
constructions aesthetic treatment, culture heritage integrality, effect of exploitation and
using culture heritage, impaction on history and culture, impaction on community,
development of tour trade, scenic resource preservation, sight status of the highway
route in its area, it uses ten point system to get index value. When selecting and
analyzing the indexes, we put highway project into its context, and regard it as one
part of its context. Traditionally, we mainly consider highway construction from
technology and cost and ignore other factors easily. So this can not only consider
highway existing criterions and cost but also protect physical environment, aesthetic,
scenic, historic, and cultural resources and the physical characteristics of the area that
highway will travel along.
Entropy concept comes from thermodynamics originally which describes the no-
reversible phenomenon of movement process. It was introduced for the first time into
information area by C.E.Shannon. But now it is applied widely in many areas as
engineering technology, society, economy, and so on.
The process of the entropy weight decision making model has eight steps as below:
Step 1: There have n schemes and m evaluation indexes in the decision making
system. If the eigenvector of the m evaluation indexes values of number j scheme are
showed as the vector X j = ( x1 j , x2 j
,⋅ ⋅ ⋅ , x )
T
mj
, then the eigenvectors of the m evaluation
indexes values of n schemes can show as the matrix X which is
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 129
the entropy value is smaller. This shows that the index is useful for decision makers. It
is necessary for us to select k to ensure 0 ≤ H i ≤ 1 when the value of H i is more then
1.
Step 3: for the entropy weight of index, the entropy weight
wi of number i index
in the ( m, n ) decision making problem can be defined as:
1 − Hi
ωi = m (3)
m − ∑ Hi
i =1
w
Where, the value range of i is from zero to 1, and the sum of i equals to 1.
w
According to the entropy theory, when the difference of the same index for different
schemes is larger and the entropy weight value is smaller, it illustrates that the index
carries useful information for decision makers and should be considered as an
important factor for each scheme in that problem. If the index entropy is larger while
the entropy weight is smaller, then the index is more unimportant. In order to evaluate
more accurately and reliably for the evaluation objective, the indexes can be adjusted,
added or reduced according to the values of entropy weight.
Step 4: Construct the weighted normalized matrix C
The weight value of m index firstly can be obtained by expert method, then we
combine it with formula (3), the synthesis weight
λi about index i can be deduced
from the equation (4):
χω
λi = m i i
(4)
∑ χiωi i =1
130 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
After having introduced entropy and entropy weight, we add a synthesis entropy
weight for each index, so the matrix C with synthesis entropy weight is as follows:
⎛ λ1 r11 λ1r12 λ1r1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟
λr λ2 r22 λ2 r2 n ⎟
C = ⎜ 2 21
⎜ ⎟ (5)
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ λm rm 1 λm rm 2 λm rmn ⎠
Then gathering each index of each scheme and forming one synthesis index, the
optimal scheme can be obtained by comparing the synthesis index value (ZHANG
2005).
Step 5: Definite ideal point and negative ideal point. Negative ideal point means
that it is a muster of all the worst points of each index. The muster is a zero matrix. It
is maybe negative value if the indexes have not been normalized. The optimal ideal
point of multi-objective is a muster matrix of the maximum point value of each index.
By calculating the distance of each scheme from the ideal point and negative ideal
point and the fidelity that describes in step 7, the scheme that is best close to the
positive ideal point can be selected.
The ideal point: P = ( P , P ,⋅ ⋅ ⋅ , P )
* * * *
T
1 2 m
In which
{
P1* = max cij j = 1,2 ,⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ,n;i = 1,2 ,⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ,m
j
}
The negative ideal point: P0 = ( 0 ,0 ,⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ,0 ) T
Step 6: Distance calculation. The distance of the evaluation object point to the ideal
point is calculated by using Euclidean distance.
m
(6)
d *j = c j − p* = ∑( c
i =1
ij − p*i )
∑( c ij pi ) (7)
Tj = 1 − i =1
m
∑( p
i =1
*
i )2
The fidelity indicates the ratio value that the distance of the evaluation object point
to the ideal point divided by the distance of ideal point to negative point. If the ratio is
smaller, the scheme is better.
Step 8: Scheme selection optimization priority
Prioritize and select each scheme according to the fidelity Tj value after it is
*
calculated. If the value is small, the scheme is optimal. If Tj is equal, the value of d j
d *j
must be calculated and prioritized. The distance value of is small, its scheme is
optimal from the synthesis index.
APPLICATION EXAMPLE
Table 3 the entropy H i , entropy weight ωi and synthesis weight λi of each index
Table 4 The distance, fidelity to ideal point and priority for plans
plans A1 A2 A3
distance d *j
priority
fidelity Tj
priority
Table 4 shows that the priority of distance is consistent with the fidelity. So the route
plan A1 is optimal.
CONCLUSIONS
1) Comparing with other methods, the weight of index by using the entropy weight
method is related to objective data not subjective factors when select optimal route
scheme. This makes the calculated result is more objective and realistic.
2) When making decision route scheme, it always consider the weight of each index
separately and ignore the relationship of each other. The paper considers the
relationship by introducing entropy weight and expert weight and calculates the
synthesis weight, presents decision making model based on entropy weight theory to
select optimal scheme. This can not only overcome the common methods shortage but
also ensure that the selected route is more benefit to its context.
3) The index system for route design selection in this paper needs to be farther
improved and perfected in engineering projects for the future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors appreciate the support of the West Transportation Construction Science
and Technology of China (2003 318 798 05) and Hunan Provincial Natural Science
Foundation of China (07JJ3111).
REFERENCES
Tian Xiaoge 1
Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha, Hunan, P.R.China, P.O.Box 410076;
PH(+86-731-2309375); FAX(+86-731-5219375); Email: [email protected]
INTRODUCTION
133
134 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
Figure inquiring characters means that choosing one geography body from maps to
inquire correlated attribute information. Characters inquiring figure, that is to say, some
attribute conditions defined by consumers, particular geography bodies are thrown out
on the map.
Decision-making
Searches Inquiry
Making statistic
Map Display
Maintain
Assistant
Data’s
Map
Spatial Database, Attribute Database, System Model
Base
Linearity and multilayer are the distributing character for Freeway geography
information. Linearity indicates that information is distributed linear along the
geography routes, and is in connection with mileage. And this is a notable difference
from other geography information system (such as mine and land management
systems). Multilayer indicates that manifold information is distributed along the same
route; segment is represented by different mileage in every information layer. For
example, one road has many kinds of information, such as technical grade, pavement
type, traffic volume and environment along the route, but the length and position of
different kinds of information segment are different. Therefore, segmentation must be
well settled to fulfill inquiring and analyzing of various properties using GIS in freeway
database. Segment types of linearity objects are mostly have three methods: fastness
segment method, alterable segment method and dynamic segment method. According
to analyze excellent and shortcoming of these three segment methods, Dynamic
segmental method is chosen in this paper.
Dynamic segmental method adopt topology data structure, based on topology graph,
route is built. Facilities data are regard as event happened on the route and are stored in
the corresponding event tables, and the relation to route is established according to
consumer identification code. GIS software carries out real-time inquiring to event and
divides and displays the route based on user’s requirement. Route system is adept by
dynamic segmental method; route is a logic combination which is built on topology
graph, but not a real “Entity”. Segment of route for different attribute is also a logic
concept. GIS software stores them in the corresponding event table, and creates the
corresponding segments when it is needed.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 137
This has much flexibility because it does not really segment figure. Dynamic
segment method can express all of facilities’ attribute information on the same route,
and attribute information can be saved in the traditional relation database, and
maintained by relation database to decrease the redundancy data. At the same time,
spatial data and attribute data can be maintained separately, which is convenient to
management.
To build the route system and event attribute table of the road is the main works to
realize the dynamic segment in freeway management system. The implementing step of
dynamic segment mainly includes:
(1) Establishing Route System. Starting point of the road is determined according to
the road tendency, the distance (or mileage stake) of each node to starting point is the
measurement of the node.
(2) According to the spatial relations of route to build the attribute table of freeway
sections corresponding to spatial database. Road coding, starting mileage and terminal
mileage are added into the attribute table. Thus attribute tables of freeway sections is
founded based on different properties
(3) After building the attribute database and spatial database based on dynamic
segmental method, road can be segmented according to one or more different selected
properties.
CONCLUSIONS
The advanced GIS technology was applied into a freeway management system. The
paper introduced the main contents of the system and studied the realizing method of
route segment technology in the progress of system developing. This FMS realized the
integration management of spatial data and attribute data, offered explicit and efficient
proofs for assistant decision-making by combining the characteristic and predominance
of GIS with original PMS function.
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
1
School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Central South University, 22 Shaoshan South Rd.,
Changsha 410075, China
2
Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 3500
Transportation Research Plaza (0536), Blacksburg 24061, VA, U.S.
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: +1-540-231-1058; Fax:+1-540-231-1555;
E-mail:[email protected]
138
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 139
Definition
Collier and Fischer (1996) proposed one kind of 4D model, and applied this
model in the construction of the San Mateo County Health Center. 4D model,
140 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
4D Simulation Model
A bridge is composed of several components, such as beams, piers, abutments,
foundations and so on. In practical, each component of bridge, as a part of bridge
construction process, is associated with 3 dimension data, construction progress and
raw material consumption. According to principle of Object Oriented Programming,
the researches define each component as an abstract object which is an unbreakable
mixture of attributes and behaviors. The object, as shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1, is
composed of 3 sub-objects, which named dimension, progress and raw materials
respectively. In each sub-object, there are some attributes and behaviors (Table 1).
Therefore, the object and its attributes and behaviors compose a 4D simulation model
shown as Fig. 1 and Table 1. The 4D simulation model, having a high reusability, can
simulate each component of bridge when it been input relative data of the component.
Dimension Sub-object
This sub-object is the simplest one in the 4D simulation. It responses to input and
output the component dimension data and type. In order to draw a 3D component
model, the system provides a serials interface to input and inquire all dimension data
(Fig. 2). Also, there is a standard component database which is continence for user to
select normal components of bridge.
Progress Sub-object
As a foundation of simulation of bridge construction process, the sub-object of
progress is key technology of the 4D simulation model. Before the progress control
and simulation, a detail schedule should be identified by the 4D simulation model. The
critical path method (CPM) is an efficient way to schedule and analyze the
implementation and performance of projects in general. Popescu and Charoenngam
(1995) stated that CPM is widely recognized as the most effective method for keeping
large and complex construction projects on schedule, under budget, and up to
professional standards. The construction schedule was built into the 4D simulation
model based on CPM techniques in this study. The attributes in the progress
sub-object recorded the names and durations of work sequences. The system can
present bar chart and CPM network chart based on construction schedule.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 141
In this study, given a certain time that after the bridge construction start time, the
simulation system makes the judgment which components of bridge had been finished
and which components of bridge are being constructed at that time according to the
construction schedule. Then, the system calculates a percentage that the components
of bridge have completed, presents the all or part of components that have been
finished in 3D view (Fig. 3). Project participants can simulate the construction
progress at any time to find any conflicts and logical errors which may be exist in the
construction schedule.
CONCLUSIONS
The study developed the Bridge Construction 4D Simulation System that will
assist construction managers to reduce conflicts and logical errors in construction
schedule, promote construction progress, avoid the resources waste, enhance the
efficiency of construction management. Some important results shows as following:
(1) Integrated the bridge 3D model, construction progress and the raw materials
requirement planning, 4D simulation model was created for the bridge construction
progress and the resource management.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 145
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT: Expressways in China are busy and unable to meet needs of traffic and
transportation capacity, which hinders the economic development in many areas.
These busy roads need to be widened, namely the four-lane roads need to be widened
to be eight-lane roads. But a suitable design plan for the widening of expressways is of
vital importance. This paper puts forward some construction organization design
principles and methods of the widening projects and focuses on three designing plans
for how to construct sub-bases, pavements and bridges, which are valuable and useful
for other similar widening projects.
INTRODUCTION
1
Professor, School of Communications and Transportation Engineering(SCTE), Changsha University
of Science and Technology(CSUST), P.O. Box 410076, Changsha city, China, 45,Chiling road; PH (86)
013974802320; FAX(86)0731-5219375;e-mail: [email protected]
2
SCTE, CSUST, P. O. Box: ditto, PH (86) 013875882904; e-mail: [email protected]
3
SCTE, CSUST, P. O. Bo: ditto, PH (86) 013755025499; e-mail: [email protected]
146
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 147
Design Principles
Expressways are the traffic and transportation backbone, widening expressways is
closely related to the economic development. A suitable plan is of vital importance for
a smooth implementation of the new widening project, which usually consists of two
parts: the construction plan and the traffic organizations plan. The principles of the
former should be technically reliable, convenient, applicable, rapid and economical.
The principles of the latter should be: avoiding traffic accidents and not affecting
traffic operation.
.5 1:1
1:1 .5
The sub-base construction and the traffic organization are carried out in two steps:
1. As shown in Figure 1, clean and consolidate the basement of the bilateral
mosaic part, make steps on the original slope and install the temporary
drainage facilities, and the traffic of the four-lane road is open;
2. As shown in Figure 1, the construction for the foundation of the bilateral
mosaic part is that to make the steps one by one on the east and the west slopes
and fill earth timely, compact it layer by layer to the top surface of the new
road bed, at the same time bury the geo-grille and the horizontal drain pipes,
and the traffic of the four-lane road is open.
.5 .5 1 :1 1 :1
1 :1 1 :1 .5 .5
T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t
× 3. 5
.5 .5 1 :1 1 :1
1 :1 1 :1 .5 .5
T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t
× 3. 5 × 3. 5
.5 .5 1 :1 1 :1
1 :1 1 :1 .5 .5
T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t
(3)Complete the construction of traffic facilities; and the traffic is open again;
.5 .5 1 :1 1 :1
1 :1 1 :1 .5 .5
T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t
× 3. 5
.5 .5 1: 1 :1
1 .5
1 :1 1 :1 .5
T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t
× 3. 5 × 3. 5
.5 .5 1 :1 1 :1
1 :1 1 :1 .5 .5
T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t T h e o rig in a l e m b a n k m e n t
layer is not constructed until the middle layer is done); locate the slurry seal which
acts as the provisional water-proof layer on the surface,. These three steps form the
transitional road, four-lane road on the west side;
.5 .5 1 :1 1 :1
1 :1 1 :1 .5 .5
The original embankment The original embankment
× 3. 5
.5 .5 1 :1 1 :1
1 :1 1 :1 .5 .5
The original embankment The original embankment
× 3. 5 × 3. 5
.5 .5 1 :1 1 :1
1 :1 1 :1 .5 .5
The original embankment The original embankment
of old pavement; to construct the middle layer of the new roads, and then pave the
surface layer and the surface at the same time;
Plan2 and Plan3 involve more complex construction organizational work and more
processes. But only a small number of heavy vehicles are needed. Plan1 has simpler
construction organization, less processes, and continuous operations. But the two-lane
traffic can not meet the busy traffic .The heavy-duty vehicles should be appropriately
used to avoid congestion, and the unity management traffic is needed because of the
complexity of the management of transportation organizations. The construction of the
new widened roads of Plan1 and Plan2 is completed once, it is easier to control
construction quality. The construction of the west old road of Plan3 is not completed
once, it is harder to control the quality. Plans 1 and 3 have less waste of temporary
material, and lower costs. Plan2 has more waste of temporary material and higher
costs. Considering the advantages and disadvantages of the three plans, the plan “side
and section pavement construction” is recommended.
800(The extended part) 1200(The original bridge) 1200(The original bridge) 800(The extended part)
50 50
Mid-line
(2) Install upper hollow boards on the widened part on the both sides (excluding
the new inner-plate)ˈthe four-lane traffic is open;
(3) Due to the limited construction time and conditions, the two added roads can
be constructed at the same time, and can also be constructed in order, which is
outlined as follows: to set a temporary guardrail on the original east bridge, to limit the
two-lane traffic speed, to remove the guardrail and side rails of the original east bridge,
to cut the flange plate outside the original bridge. The traffic of west side is open, and
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 151
CONCLUSIONS
A suitable plan for the widening project can reduce the impact on the existing
traffic. Reducing this impact is very important. Appropriate construction organization
plans can ensure the safety of the construction and the traffic when the widening
project is going on. Through the analysis of the construction organization for the
expressway, implementation plan of each project can be determined. The conclusions
can be drawn as fallows:
(1) The construction organization for the widening project is different from that of
the new road. A suitable plan can improves the service level. Road maintenance and
traffic organization for treatment of traffic accidents should be taken into consideration
for the planning of construction organization;
(2) The construction of the sub-base has little impact on the traffic. Construction of
each project can be carried out by the temporary pavement. But we should especially
address the problems such as the difference of the sedimentation between the new and
the old sub-base, and the ground treatment of the widened sub-base;
(3) For the construction of the pavement, the plan “side and section pavement
construction” can be adopted, the appropriate diverging of the heavy vehicles will
reduce traffic pressure of the widened road, and the waste of temporary material in
construction will be reduced, the costs of construction will be lower. But the lanes
should be divided again prior to the construction to meet the traffic demand of the
direction imbalance;
(4) For the construction of bridges, the plan “connecting the upper structure
without connecting the lower one” can be applied. In other words, the upper part of the
new bridge and that of the original bridge should be connected to form an overall
bridge, which is beneficial for the force of the upper structure, and reducing the
additional internal forces produced by the differential settlement between the old and
152 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
the new bridge, and ensures that old and new bridges are structurally safe.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT: With the process of the investment system reform in China, the
construction management mode of government investment projects which centralizes
the functions of investment, construction, management and use has being translated to
the agent construction system management mode to separate the functions. As a new
mode, it can effectively supervise the action of government, hold back corruption and
stimulate market competition. At present, some provinces have carried out agent
construction system. But the modes are a little different in different areas because of
their different management means and facts. The paper analyzes the agent
construction system management mode and puts it in practice of Hainan province
government investment highway project after investigating and analyzing of the
Hainan existing management modes and local fact. The mode is being carried out step
by step on the emphases highway projects that be managed by transportation
department of Hainan province, such as the extended project of freeway that surrounds
Haikou city, the rebuilding freeway that surrounds Sanya city and so on. This helps to
separate the duty and power among government department that in charge, agent
construction units and agent contracts, makes the best use of resource and advantage
of different specialty. It also helps to supervise and manage the engineering quality
and the practitioner qualification and gains the higher benefit for government
investment.
INTRODUCTION
153
154 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
construction contract to well define their power and responsibility and standardize
their conducts. The project construction is implemented by law of tendering and
bidding, contract management and supervision, demonstrating fully the principle of
‘openness, fairness and justice’.
Along with the in-depth reform of investment in China, the government investment
projects management mode has gradually transformed from the gradual integration
management mode to the separation management functions.
In recent years, it is started to try out the project management mode of ‘Agent
Construction System’ on the government investment projects in the whole country,
and much has been accomplished. Practice proves that, ‘Agent Construction System’
achieves a specialization construction management, and accomplish a control of
investment, gain better investment returns and raise the management level, which is an
innovation in government investment projects management.
Highway investment project is a system engineering, because of its inherent laws,
system engineering needs to through with its suitable management mode, management
program, management method and management technology to achieve (JIA2006).The
agent construction system makes a breakthrough to the old management style, so the
current quaternity management mode which includes investment, construction,
management and using, is changed into an advanced mode of these "four sections
dividing and acting mutually each other".
appropriate management flow. This not only can rectify and regulate the market
economic order and fundamental strategy, ensure project quality, improve investment
benefit, but also can prevent the source of corruption, reduce costs and improve
efficiency.
During the "11th Five-Year Plan" period, the Hainan highway construction projects
invest over 110 billion yuan. Some important projects which are taken over directly by
the transportation department of Hainan Province will all be managed with the agent
construction management mode, including the extending construction of Haikou
district freeway project, the freeway through Sanya district, projects of repair and
support facilities rebuilding, the exit roads of old city exploitation zone, the exit road
of Oriental Chemical City, exits road of Changjiang Industrial zone, Wenchang Fuyao
Glass exit road of quartz sand and the sea-yu eastward link road of No.223 national
highway. Therefore, for a very long time in the future, the highway construction of
Hainan province will enter a new golden period. Under the huge investment
macroeconomic context, on the one hand, it needs to speed up engineering project
management system reformation, on the other hand, it needs to explore and research
highway agent construction system of China's highway construction continuously to
ensure the healthy development of highway.
unit bid and buying the materials and equipments period. Control and management the
project investment, quality and construction time to ensure the contract aim can be
achieved smoothly. Responsible for the management of the construction funds to
ensure construction funds can be used in its appropriate way and accept the relation
departments’ examination and supervision.
3) The duties of the organization which uses the project
(1) Put forward the project proposal document according to the actual needs and
development plan of the project.
(2) Put forward the necessary function at the stage of the project planning.
(3) Put forward some advice and suggestions during construction, supervising the
quality, the construction time and the rational use of funds, and as well as the behavior
of the representative.
(4) Participate the examination and take-over of the project after it has been finished,
take charge the completion project and its service and maintenance.
Project overview
This project is an important section of Qionghai-Linshui rebuild road project of east
Haiyu route in Hainan province, and the route starts from the south region of Jiaji
bridge in Qionghai city, comes by the town of Zhongyuan in Qionghai city, the
Longgun town, the Damao town, the Wangcheng town, the Changfeng town, the
Xinglong farm, the Nanlin farm, the Nanqiao town of Wangning city, and the
Guangpo town of Lingshui county, then ends in the intersection of Lingbao road in
the north of Lingshui Town, which total length is 110.583 kilometers. In accordance
with the standard of secondary classification road, the width of road-bed is 8.5~12m
and the lanes width is 7.5-12m, it is cement concrete pavement. There will construct 3
new-build large bridges, 1 medium-scaled bridge and 8 small bridges in the route.
This project is made up of 7 construction contract sections and 2 supervision
contract sections.
units and makes the construction projects be carried out in an orderly manner.
(2) As the project management company undergoes market competition, its staffs
hold a wealth of experience and excellent technology, this can further strengthen the
management power, make full use of resources, greatly improve work efficiency.
(3) The detailed management work about the project is managed by the specialized
and market-oriented project Management Companies when adopted agent construction
system. This can reduce management cost and enhance the management benefit.
Obviously, it enables to save the highway project management fees of Qionghai to
Lingshui section of Line Yudong.
(4) For both the management and implementation, the cost is reduced, and the
benefit is raised.
(5) Agent construction system achieves “investment, construction, management,
using” separation, forms the advantageous aspect for the departments each other to
control engineering investment strictly.
(6) The effect of engineering construction achieves the anticipated target, the project
quality is good. Project investment is controlled in the budget and the project is
completed on time.
CONCLUSIONS
The agent construction system is an important action and the new attempt about
engineering project management system in China. Agent construction system
management applied in Hainan province government investment highway projects can
effectively regulate the government acts, hold back the corruption, stimulate the
market competition and use the fund in reason. Simultaneously it offers the chance for
the agent construction company to show their management experience, to guarantee
the project quality, to control the engineering schedule and investment and to increase
the engineering construction benefit. For investing the road project management of the
Hainan province government, the agent construction system management mode
suiting the local characteristic still have some faultiness and limitation, it needs further
study and application combining with Hainan province engineering project to
improve.
REFERENCES
Hu Yu, Yan Jingfu. (2003). New Model of Project Management for Government
Investment - Entrust to a Company to Build and Manage System.JOURNAL OF
BEIJING INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE. Vol.
19 (3): 87-89.
JIA Hu (2006).The applica tion and research of con struction agen t system in
projectmanagement.JOURNAL OF CHONGQING JIAOTONG UNIVERSITY.
Vol. 25 Supplement. 122-124
DENG Zhong-mei. (2006). Construction-agent system project management pattern
study based on principle-agent theory.JOURNAL OF CHONGQING JIAOTONG
UNIVERSITY. Vol.25 (2):128-131.
Economical Risk Analysis Model and Intelligent Optimization Methods Study of
the Soil Slope based on the Reliability
School of Nuclear Resources and Safety Engineering, University of South China, Hengyang, China,
421001
ABSTRACT: The study of modeling and optimization methods of the highway soil
slope stability has been carried out based on the reliability theory in this paper,
because of the extensive uncertainties of the cost and safety factors in highway slope
design. First, considering the overall construction cost and risk cost, using the
cost-benefit analysis method, taking the minimum total expected cost as the objective
function, using the slope-type and slope-ratio as design variables and the reliability
index of the slope stability as the main constraint conditions, and then the
economical risk analysis model of the soil slope is established. Considering high
nonlinearity of the model, genetic algorithm is used to iteratively solve and the
optimum program in slope engineering design is developed based on the platform of
MATLAB. The program was used to design slope engineering in some highway and
the optimum slope-type and slope-ratios were obtained. The result shows that the
program has good stability, high computational speed, high precision and practical
value.
INTRODUCTION
When the stable analysis and engineering treatment of the slope are performed,
the physical and mechanical parameters and the load of the rock soil mass generally
present a probabilistic change. The slope probability analysis is often used to reflect
the factors’ influential effect on the slope stability. At present, there is no question of
the design specifications to form the basis of the reliability analysis, including how to
use the results of the reliability analysis, and how to evaluate the slope stability using
different treatment methods. The slope analysis tends to focus mainly on the
uncertainty of the soil mass and its’ quantification, so as to give the slope failure
probability or reliability indicators, but the economic risk assessment of the slope are
often not seriously addressed. The economic risk level and failure probability of the
slope are two different concepts. The failure probability is a pure technical indicator
and economic risk level has the meaning of economic loss. Risk can not be separated
from the economy, so it is a technical and economic comprehensive indicator after
the judgment and assumption. Therefore, the author determines the acceptable
reliability or failure probability based on the principle of minimum investment,
studies the economic risk analysis of the slope, and then judges the slope stability. As
a result, the optimal treatment of the project is obtained thereby overcoming the
situation of non-standard-based methods of analyzing the reliability of slope
engineering. The- method can also make the slope safety issues and economic issues
much better.
159
160 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
MODEL ESABLISHMENT
A design is determined by some variables. Design variables which are adjusted
accordingly include slope pattern, slope height, slope angle, and platform width.
These are the basic parameters in the process of slope optimization, which should be
independent parameters, and have an important impact on the settlement of the issue
or the merits of design options. The purpose of optimization is to find the optimal
combination of these parameters. The objective function is used to depict the
problems and targets to be achieved by mathematical methods, which measures the
virtues or defect degree of a design. It also acts as evaluation function or value
function, which is a function of design variables. Optimal design seeks to find the
maximum objective function, so that the engineering design can achieve the best
economic results within the scheduled function. The objective function depends on
various specific issues. Generally, the investments on slope engineering include the
initial cost, the loss, and maintenance cost due to the slope instability. To make
optimal investment project, the total cost of present value of slope must be minimum.
The loss caused by slope instability is difficult to estimate because of several losses
involved which include loss of tangible and intangible losses, loss of economic
indicators including direct and indirect losses, the loss of public utilities, personal life
and property losses, and the loss of prestige. The economic loss due to slope
instability is the most difficult to estimate. In view of this, the invisible loss
coefficient is identified based on the local economic indicators, expert advice and
specific project conditions.
Assume a steep slope has n steps (Fig.1), and every step has a height h , a slope
angle θ , a last slope angle α , step width L , and the total height of the slope is H . The
intangible loss coefficient is λ , the price of earth excavation is A yuan/m3, the slope
maintenance costs is B yuan/m2, the slope failure probability is Pf , the equation of
slope surface under natural conditions is f (x ) ˈthe total excavated volume of the
slope is V m3, and the total cost of the slope engineering is C yuan, then the
objective function of the slope can be determined as follows:
a a
C = ( ∫ f ( x)dx − V ) × A + Pf × ( ∫ f ( x)dx − V ) × A +
0 0
b a b
˄1˅
λ × Pf × (V + ∫ f ( x)dx − ∫ ydx) × A + τ × Pf × ∫ 1 + (tgα ) 2 dx × B
a 0 0
a
In the equation, (∫ f ( x)dx − V ) × A is the initial cost of the slope- from the product
0
a
of the earth excavation and the price; Pf × (∫ f ( x)dx − V ) × A is the additional cost of
0
instability, including initial construction cost, inspection and management cost, etc;
a a
λ × Pf × (V + ∫ f ( x)dx − ∫ ydx) × A is the cost of slope instability loss;
0 0
b
τ × Pf × ∫ 1 + (tgx) 2 dx × B is the maintenance cost due to the slope instability.
0
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 161
x)
f( 1
H
h
Į
LJ
0 a b x
FIG. 1. Graphics of the slope calculation.
The equation of the slope sliding surface representing the worst case scenario
can be written as follows:
y = ( x3 − ( x − x1 ) 2 + x2 )
2
˄2˅
x1, x2, x3 is the central abscissa, longitudinal coordinates, radius of the most
dangerous sliding surface.
The expression for V is then deduced as follows:
n2h2
V = ctgα ˄3˅
2
1
−
( x − ( x − x1 ) 2 ) 2 • (−2 x + 2 x1 )
2
tgα = y = 3
'
˄4˅
2
In this model, the slope stability and the value of the total cost are two important
indicators of the optimal design, and the purpose of optimizing is seeking the best
economic benefit under the stable slope. The model seeks the value of the slope
height and the slope angle which can make the total cost of the present value of the
slope minimal.
The failure probability Pf is selected as a measure indicator- of reliability and a
major design variable- when establishing the objective function. The reliability of the
slope engineering is not that the higher the better, because the higher reliability
incurred the more costs. Generally, the cost increases exponentially when the order
of magnitude of the reliability is improved from 99 percent to 99.9 percent. The
acceptable limit of the failure probability has not yet been standardized; engineering
experience is still the general approach that is commonly utilized. So to determine
the design reliability or the acceptable risk level is not an easy task under different
conditions. The design of slope reliability engineering is still at an initial stage and
there is lack of practical experience. This paper gives a general method of optimizing
the design of the slope. The study shows that usually higher failure probability is
acceptable. Based on the reference by Yu (1993), the acceptable limit of failure
probability for excavation slope design is Pf ≤ 0.1 . Therefore, the constraints which
162 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
⎪
⎪ 0 ≤ P f ≤ 0 .1
⎪ ˄9˅
⎨ h ≤ 15 m
⎪30 0 ≤ α ≤ 50 0
⎪
⎪ 45 0 ≤ θ ≤ 70 0
⎪
⎪1 .5 m ≤ L ≤ 2 m
⎪
⎩
EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION
INTRODUCTION OF THE PROJECT
A 360-metre-long slope was formed after the highway was excavated in the
right side. The drilling data of the slope indicates that the slope is made mainly by
high-level liquid clay, quartz sandstone strong weathered layer, sandstone strong
weathered layer and sandstone-weak weathered layer. The slope will only be initially
cut after the slope is excavated. Many times the slope had slide, one slide appeared
because of a holing through crack, the farthest level distance of the crack from the
road axis is about 46 m, and local collapse occur between the second-class and the
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 163
first-class step, the slip plane was developed along two group of joints.
Another slide appeared because of a holing through crack and slip wall surface,
the farthest level distance of the crack from the road axis is about 50 m. The sliding
face was in the quartz sandstone strong weathered layer and sandstone strong
weathered layer, the form of the sliding face was circular sliding surface.
From Table 1, it can be seen that when the slope is 45e, the total cost is
minimal and the slope is safe. Therefore, when the slope is 45e, it is safe and
164 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
economical. The slope line before and after handling is shown in Fig. 3.
132.88
129.67
.7 5
25
1.
1 :0
125.61 1:
1.5 1.5
.7 5
1 :0
1
1:
before handling slope shape line
115.61 after handling slope shape line
1
1:
.5
1 :0
105.61
CONCLUSIONS
(1) Using the genetic algorithm toolbox of MATLAB, location of the most
dangerous arc sliding surface was found to simple, rapid, and practical; the results
were accurate.
(2)The checking point method was applied to calculate the reliability of the soil
slope in the paper; this method was found to be more convenient than the others.
(3) For slope design, if the slope angle is smaller, the slope is safer, and failure
probability is less, but the earthwork will be more, thus the greater the cost of
construction, but the loss due to slope failure is smaller. By contrast, if the slope
angle is larger, the construction cost is reduced, but the failure probability will
increase with a subsequent larger price for failure. Thus it is necessarily that the best
slope angle is designed so that the total cost of the present value is minimal.
(4) The optimal model was proposed, which takes safety and reliability as the
main constraints and the total cost of present value as the minimum objective
function. This approach has the potential to carry out an optimal design of slope
stability.
REFERENCES
Srbulov, M M.( 1987,). “Limit equilibrium method with local factors of safety for
slope stability. Can.Geotech”J. 124(4):652-656
Li, K S., White W. (1987). “Rapid evaluation of the critical slip surface in slope
stability problems”J. Internationl Journal for Numerical and Methods in
Geomechanics, 11:449~473
Zuyu, C., Changming, S.(1987). “The Use of the Method of Optimization for
Minimizing Safety Factors in Slope Stability Analysis”J. Chinese Jounal of
Geotechnical Engineering. 10(4):1-13
Cuiping, L., Li, W.(2004). “The Method of Project Risk Analysis and Control”J.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 165
1
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Central University; [email protected]
2
Dept. of Logistics & Shipping Management, Kainan University; [email protected]
3
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Central University; [email protected]
4
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Central University; [email protected]
INTRODUCTION
166
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 167
and managerial issues. Furthermore, HDM-4 has more comprehensive models and
obviously has better methods for improved road maintenances budgets, as well as a
“maximum economic interest analysis model” that was developed based on the
experience of road investment in more than 100 countries. HDM-4 allows road
investors to conduct more comprehensive analysis during the different weathers and
conditions (World Bank, 2000).
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Table 3 shows that without considering user cost, maintenance cost is determined
by the pavement’s service year. A longer service year means less number of
improvements required, resulting in lower maintenance cost. Porous pavement of
type III modified asphalt mastic asphalt costs less and performs well in many aspects,
thus its maintenance cost during the analysis period was the lowest. However, its cost
was US $13,569/km, which is three times as much as that of the traditional
open-graded friction course, and this is because the construction cost for the latter is
lower. Looking at cost-effectiveness, however, the average life of friction course is
only 2.3 years, which is much worse than that of porous pavement. This finding
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 171
matches with that of a study on pavements by the U.S. Department of Energy (Ting
et al., 2001), which also indicates that the lifecycle cost of porous pavement is higher
than that of traditional asphalt concrete, but the former offers a longer service life
and less maintenance efforts. The sensitivity analysis of discounted rate shows that
the higher the discounted rate, the lower the lifecycle cost. The cost drops more if the
cost of the porous pavement is higher. At a discounted rate of 15%, from the
construction cost view point, there is no significantly difference between type III of
polymer modified asphalt 2.5cm and lignin fiber 2.5 cm.
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT: In this study, a total of 935 data was used to analyze the correlation
factors and positions of the common bridge damage through logistic regression.
There are three aspects of the factor of bridge damage which include essential bridge
character, external bridge condition, and internal bridge structure. Based on the
whole bridge condition index, in terms of different damage positions, we performed
the cross analysis which considered the different materials and bridge types. We
constructed the logistic regression models and found all the factors which influence
bridge damages in Taichung County, Taiwan.
INTRODUCTION
Effective utilization of the bridge structure and its durable service life are
closely linked with quality of designing, construction, and materials used. Bridges
may have some defects because of design, traffic, material, and structure. Various
factors of damaging effects on the bridge are closely related to the environmental
exposure of the bridge.
To find the damage of the bridge structure on time, one must first asses and
evaluate the bridge condition. The bridge structure is measured in order to guarantee
that the bridge is being used normally, and for maintaining, or mending the bridge
such that we can grasp the situation of the bridge structure and security state at any
time, and we can also assess the real bearing capacity in the existing bridge correctly.
This procedure is needed so as to lengthen the life cycle of the bridge. We probe into
the damaging situation of the structure in the life of the bridge if some level of bridge
damage has already occurred. Thus, we could provide proper maintenance decisions,
173
174 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
and set up the perfect management criterion of the bridge to lengthen its life-span.
Damaging reason
Two kinds of damaging factors are natural and human related. The natural
factors include earthquakes, typhoons, floods, corrosion due to the natural
environment, etc., and the human factors include design mistake, bad construction,
vehicle overloads, etc.
The above-mentioned factors can further be divided into three kinds: design
factors, construction factors, and external factorsΰLin, 2004; Miyamoto, et al.,
2001α.
Condition index
We divide the degradation situation of the bridge into degradation severity
(Degree), degradation range (Extent), the security of the bridge structure (Relevancy),
and the urgency of component maintenance (Urgency). We denote them as D.E.R.U.
They have some characteristics such as: 1) they can be simplified and measured, 2)
especially consider the impact on the importance of the bridge degradation, 3)
reduce and fill the materials, 4) put forward change, 5) maintenance urgency, propose
the law for maintenance and estimate the budgetary funds, and 6) determine the
optimum maintenance strategyΰLi et al., 2002; Zhan, 1999α.
Every component condition of the bridge
According to D.E.R.U., we assess them with bridge component state indicator,
Icij, of which the calculation formula is as followsΰLin and Li, 2000:
20
∑ Ic
i =1
i * wi
CI = 20
……….………………………………….………………. ( 2)
∑ wi
i =1
∑ Ic
j =1
ij
IC i = ………….………………………………………….…. ( 3)
n
The higher the whole state indicator value, CI, of the bridge is, the better the
whole state of the bridge is. The lower the value is, the worse the whole state of the
bridge is. CI is a demarcation line value, representing the standard threshold setup by
the user based on rationality, historical materials, structure characteristic, project
practice and other specific purposes. Once comprehensive indicator values of some
of the bridge’s structures are lower than this point, we must measure, mend, and
maintain the bridges prior to total failure.
RESEARCH APPROACH
The key environmental factors that damage the bridge structure are generally
divided into earthquakes, erosion, and corrosion. Bridge materials are divided into
two parts: one part is the basic materials, which include the management of materials,
geometry of materials, structure of materials, and design of materials. The other part
is the measuring of materials, which include the management of materials, abutment
of materials, pier materials, and opening materials.
Our research on the bridge structure damage is divided into 2 stages. Firstly, we
analyzed the damaging factor. Secondly, we analyzed the damaging position.
Damaging factors are divided into three aspects as shown in Fig.1.
176 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
This research collected 1268 materials altogether, but the effective materials
utilized were only 935. We judge, according to the student's /-value test whether the
parameter of choosing damaging factors is significant or not. A t-value of 1.96 was
used as a threshold in this study. That is an absolute t-value greater than 1.96 means
that the factor has a significant damaging impact on the bridge damage and vice
versa if the absolute t-value is less than 1.96.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 177
Table 2. Damage the assessment of the best model of the severity in the bridge.
Variable' s win value
Significant variable (95%Confidence interval) t-value
coefficient ratio
From the farthest district of the sea distance 1.019 3.02 2.77
River function is relatively poor under the bridge 2.469 5.23 11.80
Plate bridge (Structure model) -1.927 -4.18 0.15
Gravity type abutment 1.835 5.56 6.27
Asphalt concrete pavement -0.935 -2.50 0.39
Coefficient of constant -2.389
Log Likelihood Ratio -146.941
CONCLUSIONS
From this study, we have found that the following 7 factors can significantly
reduce damage to an existing bridge based on the t-value tests: 1) I roof beam; 2) T
roof beam; 3) plate beam; 4) asphalt concrete pavement; 5) the bridge’s age less than
10 years; 6) half-gravity type abutment; 7) total lane more than 4.
Conversely, we also find that the following 12 factors could significantly
increase the existing bridge’s damages: 1) wall type pier; 2) gravity type abutment; 3)
pillar type pier; 4) bad river’s function; 5) damaged under-structure; 6) damaged
upper-structure; 7) district of the sea distance; 8) T roof beam; 9) aseismatic facilities;
10) damaged general function; 11) damaged interface; 12) the bridge’s age (more
than 15 years).
Conclusively, these results show that we should pay attention to the interacting
effect amongst the damaging influencing factors. Further research could focus on
temperature, humidity, traffic flow and using frequencies of the bridge.
REFERENCES
Li, Y.F., Xie ,S.X., Wang ,L.C., Chen, Q.Q., Zhan, Q.Z., Zheng, Y. X. and Chang, F.C.
(2002). “ Set up bridge measure system the methods and the research highway
and road bridges of criterion” Institute of Trans., Ministry of Trans. and
Communications.
Lin, S.Z. (2004). “The bridge is checked and maintained” Chinese tech., 21(1): 3-21.
180 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
Lin A.Y. and Li Y.F., (2000). "The bridge is measured and assesses and mends
strongly", Chuan Hwa Book Company, Ltd., Taiwan, Taipei.
Miyamoto, A., Kawamura, K. and Nakamura, H., (2001). "Development of a bridge
management system for existing bridges? " Advances in Engineering Software,
Vol.32, pp821-833, 2001.
Zhan, Q.Z. (1999). “A study on the different management levels of bridge Manage.
Systems.” Master thesis of Department of Civil Engineering, National Taipei
University of Technology.
Application of Air Foam Stabilized Soil for
Bridge-Embankment Transition Zone in Thailand
INTRODUCTION
Road and bridge construction on soft clay usually encounters problems of short
term instability and long term excessive settlement. Typically, bridge structures and
pavement are built on different types of foundations. A bridge is usually supported
on either shallow or deep foundation. In contrast, pavement is constructed on
compacted base material overlying the subgrade. Therefore, load generated on
different types of supports usually causes differential settlement especially at a
bridge approach, a joint connection between the bridge and the embankment. The
differential settlement at the bridge approach can reduce driving comfort and perhaps
it may cause injury and deadly accident if the vehicle loses control.
181
182 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
This paper focuses on the air foam stabilized embankment constructed at the tested
site on the bridge approach underlain by soft Bangkok clay. The discussion of
manufacturing and construction of the air foam stabilized embankment is also
presented in details
Bangkok clay contains a large amount of water, resulting in very low shear strength
and high compressibility. Normally, Bangkok clay is found in the central plain of
Thailand especially in Bangkok city and its vicinity. The stratum varies from 4-5 m
in thickness to more than 20 m in depth. The much thicker Bangkok clay layer is
usually found close to the shoreline and underneath roads locating on the riverside.
Figure 1 shows typical cross-section of marine clay deposited in the Choa Phraya
river basin.
Air foam stabilized soil is a light weight material having high compressive strength
and low permeability. The strength of the air foam stabilized soil depends upon the
amount of mixed Portland cement. The standard properties of air foam stabilized soil
are shown in Table 1 together with the properties of Bangkok clay taken from the site
without stabilization.
Table 1. Typical properties of airfoam soil and Bangkok clay from the site.
The process of manufacturing air foam stabilized soil can be described as follows:
Firstly, soft clay is mixed with water until it becomes slurry, then it is pumped into a
mixing chamber to mix with Portland cement. The next step is to mix the product
obtained from the first step with the prepared air foam. The air foam can be prepared
by mixing chemical foaming agents (Polyfoam-200A which is non-toxic organic
polymer) with water, and is fed through a nozzle under high pressure. The density of
the air foam stabilized soil depends on the amount of added air foam. For the purpose
of the embankment construction, the prepared material can be pumped to the
construction site. After the on-site air foam stabilized soil installation process is
completed, curing process starts. The shear strength of the air foam stabilized soil
increases with curing time.
The advantages of utilizing air foam stabilized soil to reduce the weight of
embankment are; (i) it is a light weight material, (ii) its flowing ability, which allows
it to be pumped through pipes, and (iii) no compaction is needed with this material.
In the past, an air foam stabilized soil of 7 m in height, and 22 m by 22 m in length
and width, respectively, was constructed at a pilot test site in Japan.
184 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
The mix design of the air foam stabilized soil was referenced and adapted from a
technology manual of the foam mixing stabilized method by the High Grade Soil
Research Consortium (2005). The unit weight of the air foam stabilized mix was set
at 1.0 t/m3. The flowing ability required was 180 mm. Also, the unconfined
compressive strength of the sample at 28 days was 6 ksc, about 1.5 times of the
required strength of 4 ksc, equivalent to CBR of 10%. According to the preliminary
setup value, the different content of Portland cement in the mixture was tested. The
amounts of Portland cement used in four different mixtures were 150, 175, 200 and
250 kg/m3, respectively.
The air foam stabilized soil consists of three components including soil slurry,
Portland cement, and air foam. Slurry can be prepared by adding water to about three
times the liquid limit in order to increase its flowability to approximately 450 mm.
The prepared slurry was kept in a sealed container for moisture loss protection.
Portland cement then mixed with the slurry so as to gain strength of the air foam
stabilized soil. During the same time, air foam was prepared using a foaming agent
mixed with water. The optimal mixture ratio between foaming agent and water was
1:19 and they were mixed thoroughly in air foam mixing device with careful control
of the water and air pressure in order to get homogeneous air foam mixture. The unit
weight of air foam was controlled at 0.05 g/cm3. The air foam stabilized soil
mixtures are shown in Figure 2.
The mixing process started with thoroughly mixing soil slurry and Portland cement
by hand mixer, and then mixed the prepared solution with air foam. Then, the
material was thoroughly mixed by hand until a homogeneous solution was achieved.
After that, the unit weight of the air foam mixed solution and flowing ability were
checked, and the air foam mixed solution was poured into a prepared mold and
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 185
covered with a plastic sheet to prevent moisture loss from the samples. The unit
weight and flowability of different mixtures are shown in Table 2.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
FIG. 2. Preparation of air foam stabilized soil mixture (a) soft clay, (b) soil
slurry, (c) flowing ability test, and (d) air foam.
Mix No. 1 2 3 4
Cement Content (kg/m3) 150 175 200 250
Moisture Content (%) 288 312 288 312
Density (t/ m3) 1.026 1.024 1.004 0.967
Flow Value 145 165 160 190
The unconfined compressive strength was tested on the prepared samples that
cured for 7 and 28 days. The sample was extruded from the mold and the size of the
tested sample was trimmed to 50 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height. Figure 3
shows the results of unconfined compressive strength of the samples of 7 and 28
days, respectively.
Following the design, the unconfined compressive strength of the air foam mixed
sample should achieve 6 ksc for 28 days of curing time. According to the results
plotted in Figure 3, the amount of Portland cement needed to achieve the strength of
6 ksc was 218 kg/m3. This proportion of cement mixing was used to mix the air foam
stabilized soil on the construction site.
186 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
8.0
UCS (kg/cm2)
6.0
4.0
7 Days
2.0
28 Days
0.0
100 150 200 218 250 300
Cement Content (kg/m3)
The application of air foam stabilized soil for settlement reduction was
implemented at a bridge approach of a bridge crossing over Khlong Donjun in
Samutsongkram province. The site was located on the inbound lane on highway no.
35 at the kilometer post from 72+712.5 to 72+775.0. The total amount of air foam
stabilized soil installed was approximated at 1,600 m3, of which 550 and 1,050 m3
was used for the first and second phases, respectively. The embankment was
constructed in 3 layers. The thickness of each layer was 0.5 meter in height.
Manufacturing air foam stabilized soil by using mixing plant follows the processes
below.
1. Preparation of slurry
This process uses in-situ clay, in which the sand, gravel, or organic materials are
screened. Then, the clay is mixed with water in the mixing chamber until
homogeneous slurry is achieved. The unit weight of the prepared slurry is then
checked to ensure it meets the requirements, and the prepared slurry was pumped
into a storage tank with stirring blade to prevent sedimentation.
The prepared slurry is weighted and then pumped into a mixer tank. At the same
time, Portland cement is weighted on the weighing device installed inside the
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 187
machine. The cement is then premixed with water before being pumped to the
mixing tank for mixing with the prepared slurry.
During preparation of slurry, foaming agent and water are mixed according to the
mix design. The foaming solution id then pumped into a foam generating device. At
the same time, compressed air is inserted into the foaming solution to generate the air
foam mixture.
The mixture of slurry and portand cement is pumped into the air foam mixing
nozzle. The prepared air foam is also pumped into the nozzle in order to mix the air
foam stabilized soil thoroughly.
Firstly, the formwork is installed on the construction site. Then, the air foam
stabilized soil is pumped to the construction location, and it is left to cure so as to
gain strength before casting the air foam stabilized soil for the next level.
The first phase of construction began with preparation of construction site and air
foam stabilized soil mixing plant, excavation, casting the prepared mixing solution,
curing, and sand fill and compaction. The typical drawings for construction are
shown in Figure 4.
72+712.5
Bearing Slab
ELEVATION
+ 1.60
+ 1.35
+ 1.45
+ 0.962
+ 0.586
+ 1.20
72+726.435 + 1.30
- 0.15 + 0.85
+ 0.35
+ 1.05
Sheet Pile
72+750.0
72+762.5
72+768.75
72+775.0
The amount of air foam stabilized soil used on site was measured by a flow meter
of the mixing plant. In the first phase of construction, the amount of mixing solution
used was 546.3 m3. Samples were taken for quality control of the unit weight and
flowability. Cylindrical samples were taken for unconfined compressive strength test
for both 7 and 28 curing days. During curing, water was sprayed over the surface to
protect moisture loss in the air foam stabilized soil. Compacted sand fill was then
placed on top of the harden air foam stabilized soil.
The second phase of construction of the air foam stabilized soil was made for
embankment on the original lanes. During the second phase, the effect of traffic and
stability of embankment constructed from the first phase were taken into
consideration because it had to temporarily open for the traveling public. In order to
deliver the air foam mixture to the construction site, a delivery pipe was installed
underneath the previously constructed embankment without having any effect to the
traveling public.
In addition, in the second phase of construction, previously installed sheet piles had
to be removed so that the previously and newly installed air foam mixed material
were fully contacted with the previously constructed embankment. The counter
weight berm was also placed at the toe of the previously installed air foam material
for embankment failure protection. During the construction, the volume of the air
foam mixed material installed was 1,154.75 m3. The air foam stabilized material used
each day was sampled and tested for unit weight, flowability and unconfined
compressive strength in order to control quality of the mix.
The unconfined compression test was used for quality control of the strength of the
air foam stabilized soil at 7 and 28 curing days. The size of the sample was 50 and
100 mm in diameter and height, respectively. At 28 curing days, the unconfined
compressive strength of the sample, collected from both construction phases, were all
greater than 4 ksc, and the unit weight ranged within 1.0 ±0.07 ton/m3 as shown in
Figure 5.
Geotechnical instrument was installed at the construction site for short and long
term performance of the constructed embankment. The types of geotechnical
instrumentation and installed locations are shown in Figure 6. After the construction,
all the geotechnical instrumentations were monitored so as to observe the
embankment behavior and performance. The data was obtained and recorded
periodically (every week during construction, and every month after construction);
and is shown in Figures 7-10 for inclinometers, settlement cells, and pressure cells,
respectively.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 189
1 .4
1 .3
1 .2
1 .1
Density (t/m 3)
0 .9
0 .8
UCS ≥ 4 ksc
0 .7 Phase 1
Phase 2
0 .6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Unconfined Compressive Strength (ksc)
5 5
10 10
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
15 15
20 20
B+ B+
Embankment A
+
A- Embankment A
+
A-
B- B-
25 25
19-Feb-08 23-Feb-08 26-Feb-08 19-Feb-08 23-Feb-08 26-Feb-08
a) a-axis b) b-axis
5 5
10 10
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
15 15
20 20
B+ B+
+ +
Embankment A A- Embankment A A-
B- B-
25 25
14-Dec-07 25-Jan-08 20-Feb-08 14-Dec-07 25-Jan-08 20-Feb-08
23-Feb-08 26-Feb-08 28-Mar-08 23-Feb-08 26-Feb-08 28-Mar-08
30-Apr-08 30-May-08 30-Jun-08 30-Apr-08 30-May-08 30-Jun-08
28-Jul-08 28-Jul-08
a) a-axis b) b-axis
In order to measure the settlement of the air foam mixed soil embankment, four
settlement cells were installed underneath the embankment. The settlement was
observed during construction and after opening to traffic as shown in Figure 9. After
the excavation, the data showed swelling behavior of the soft clay, which is its nature
under unloading conditions. The swelling was overcome by settlement after the air
foam mixed soil embankment construction was completed (at the end of February
2008). After the embankment was opened to traffic, the settlement of this section was
regularly monitored. A settlement of approximately 250 mm was observed at SC-2.
The vertical movement at this location occurred mostly after completion of the
construction of the highway structure at the end of March 2008.
A total pressure cell was placed underneath the embankment to observe changes
during and after the construction processes. The data captured is plotted as shown in
Figure 10. The highest pressure was observed after completion of the embankment
construction at the beginning of June 2008. Recently, a pressure of approximately 40
kPa was recorded, which was the vertical stress due to the loading of the highway
structure.
192 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
-150
-100
SC-1 SC-2 SC-3 SC-4
-50
0
Settlement (mm)
50
100
150
200
250
20/2/2008 23/2/2008 26/2/2008 28/3/2008
300
30/4/2008 30/5/2008 30/6/2008 28/7/2008
350
7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 -1.00 -2.00
Distance from Centre of the AMS (m )
45.00 3
40.00
2.5
35.00 Modified Asphalt Layer
Height of Embankment (m)
Asphalt Layer
Total Pressure (kPa)
30.00 2
SUMMARY
Application of air foam material for settlement reduction of a bridge approach was
used on highway number 35 section number 4 at the kilometer post from 72+712.5 to
72+775.0. The material used was in-situ soft clay. In order to attain the compressive
strength of 6 ksc, the amount of Portland cement used was 218 kg/m3. The two stages
of constructions were used in order to allow traffic to flow freely.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 193
Short and long term performances of the installed air foam soil embankment were
monitored through the installed geotechnical instrumentations. To date, the
monitored results show good performance of the constructed embankment, with very
minimal settlement recorded. In addition, the performance monitoring program is
still ongoing so as to observe the long term performance of the air foam stabilized
embankment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Public Work Research Institute (PWRI), the
Public Work Research Center (PWRC), and the High Grade Soil Consortium (HGS)
for their collaboration and support in terms of the provision of the air foam mixing
plant and technical experts. In addition, we are also grateful to the Bureau of Road
Construction III, Department of Highways, Thailand, for their cooperation and their
help in the construction of the tested AMS embankment. Lastly, special thanks go to
Thai Nishimatsu Construction for their great work in casting the air foam stabilized
soil on highway number 35 section number 4.
REFERENCES
Balasubramanium, A.S., Bergado, D.T., Chandra, S. and Ting, W.H. (1985). “State-
of-Art Report on Enginering Behavior of Soil in Southeast Asia:
Commemorative Volume of SEAGS”, the Netherlands AA Balkema Puplishing,
pp. 25-26
Cox, J.B. (1968). “A Review of the Engineering Characteristics of the Recent Marine
Clays in Southeast Asia”, Research Report No. 6, Asian Institute of Technology,
Bangkok.
High Grade Soil Research Consortium (2005). Technology Using Soil, High Grade
Soil-Foam Mixed Stabilized Soil Method (Technical Document).
Miki, H., Mori, M., and Chida, S. (2003). “Trial Embankment on soft ground using
lightweight-foam-mixed in-situ surface soil”. In Proc. XXIInd PIARC World
Road Congress, Durban
Simulation of NATM Tunneling Construction in Gravel Formation
– Lessons Learned from Pakuashan Highway Tunnel Project in Taiwan
ABSTRACT: Construction processes are complex operations that include the uses of
equipment, materials, crews and geological conditions. Simulation can be used to
study these processes in order to make competent decisions that will lower costs and
shorten the duration of the project before it has started. Tunneling is a highly repetitive
construction operation and simulation can be used to analyze the process. A model
used to simulate the NATM tunneling construction operations for Pakuashan highway
tunnel project is developed in this paper. This project is unique because of the soil
conditions. A discrete event simulation methodology, CYCLONE, is used to build the
operation model and simulate the tunneling processes. Statistical analysis indicates
that duration of most tunneling operations can be modeled by Beta probability
distribution. Results also show the model predicting the advancement rate of such
tunneling project in accurate.
INTRODUCTION
Simulation can be used in the planning and scheduling of highly repetitive processes
in construction projects. The tunneling process is a good example of construction
projects that are highly repetitive. In tunneling projects the most important activity is
the actual advancement rate of the tunnel. The total costs are directly related to the
advancement rate. Simulation can be used to assess the advancement rate and find the
problems of a project before it has started (AbouRizk et al. 1999; Nido et al. 1999).
Though a few articles have been written concerning simulation and tunneling but most
of these articles discuss the tunnel boring machine (TBM) method (Touran and Asai
1987; Sinfield and Einstein 1996; Touran 1997; Chung et al. 2006) used to build
tunnel in soft rock.
194
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 195
However, the Pakuashan highway tunnel located in central part of Taiwan is unique
in soil condition and therefore, the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) is the
chosen method of excavation at the Pakuashan Tunnel. It is worthy to have a model in
predicting the advancement rate when similar tunnel is built. As a result, this paper
aims at presenting a discrete event simulation model to be used to measure the
production rate before a similar project can be started.
The expressway tunnel is passing through the Pakuashan ridge, which is an anticline
with the axis of the fold oriented in the north-south direction. The maximum height of
the ridge or terrace is about 340m. The geological formations at the Pakuashan terrace
consist of a thin layer of laterite, which is Quaternary deposit, near the ground surface
and a thick layer of gravel formation underneath. The gravel formation belongs to the
Toukoshan Formation of Pliocene Epoch, and it is composed of gravel, interlayers of
soft sandstone, mudstone, and sand lenses. Thus, the gravel formation is very
heterogeneous and is a composite stratum, which possesses the properties between
soils and rocks.
The percentage of gravel content, the grain size distribution, the cementation of the
matrix, and the groundwater situation control and affect the mechanical behavior of
the gravel formation. The percentage of gravel content is as high as 86% and the rock
size is as large as 2m for these gravel formations. The shear strength of the formation
will be dominated by the fine content if the gravel content is less than 70%. In general,
the ground condition along the tunnel ranges in character from gravel and loose
running sands to heavily compacted deposits of more cohesive material.
Groundwater can be found at two different sources. One is the perched groundwater,
which is above the impermeable layer near the surface and the other one is the
confined groundwater, which is between the folded belts of clayey layers inside the
gravel formation. The progressing rate of the tunnel was slowed drastically in
September 1998 as groundwater ingress was encountered. The ingress had a dramatic
effect on the stability of the material. Therefore, gravity or vacuum wells were
installed for dewatering around the tunneling face. Also a forepoling scheme, a jet pile
umbrella, was adopted when tunneling in faces with loose materials and groundwater
seepage to prevent overbreaks and the flowing out of materials.
The conventional rock mass classifications, such as rock mass rating (RMR),
Q-system, and rock structure rating (RSR), do not work well for the tunnels in gravel
formation. Therefore, a different ground classification is adopted and used based on
the encountered formations and in situ conditions in Taiwan. When the first subsoil
exploration was conducted, there were five types of ground conditions encountered.
However, once the construction was started, only three types of ground classifications
were used: C2, D1, and D2. Table 1 shows cross sections of the three types of ground
classifications.
196 GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190
TUNNELING PROCESSES
The tunneling processes are similar in each ground. However, there is no forepoling
process in C2 and D1 grounds. Hence, only tunneling process for D2 ground is
described as follows in this paper.
1. The forepoling machine is placed in position and the holes are marked. The holes
are then drilled and cleaned and the steel rods are inserted.
2. In the forepoling process, there will be 28-49 holes drilled into the tunnel face. The
forepoling will advance 8-10 sections. Each forepoling section is 0.8-1.2m long.
3. Once the steel rods are placed, holes can be grouted and the tunnel face can be dug.
4. Shotcrete is always applied to the tunnel face (see Shotcrete Sealing on the flow
chart). However, depending on the geological condition, shotcrete is added to the
sidewall only 70% of the time. The application of shotcrete is 5cm thick.
5. After the shotcrete is applied, the wire mesh is placed.
6. The steel rib cage is assembled and placed. There are different kinds of steel rib
cages used depending on the soil type.
7. After the steel rib is placed, the second application of shotcrete is applied. The
second application of shotcrete is 10-15cm thick.
8. Wire mesh is placed for the second time.
9. A final application of shotcrete is applied in order to finish the surface of the face.
10. Repeat Steps 2-9 for 4-5 sections before bolting is started.
11. After Steps 2-9 have been repeated for 4-5 sections, a temporary heading invert is
needed. The next step is to dig the heading invert.
12. The bolts are placed and grouted.
13. Wire mesh is placed at the heading invert. Then an application of shotcrete,
which is 5cm thick, is applied. The wiremesh is placed a second time and the
second application of shotcrete is applied which is 10-15cm thick.
14. Replacement earthwork.
15. Restart a new section.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 190 197
Mudstone
Mudstone containing
layers of soft sandstone, Soft
C2 Sandstone,
siltstone, or gravel siltstone, or
gravel
Loosely
Loosely packed gravel Packed
Gravel
D2 with layers of silty sand,
sand, or clay in between. Silty sand,
sand
or clay
The collected data were first used as the resources for duration fitting in 95%
confidence level. Beta and triangular probability distributions are suitable in modeling
the duration required in completing those activities listed in Table 2. For example, the
duration of activity-mark hole, can be modeled by Beta probability density function
whose minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation values are 5, 19, 10.2, and
3.9 minutes, respectively. In addition, the duration of activity-insert steel rods, is
suitable to be presented by triangular probability density function whose minimum,
mode, and maximum values are 5, 8, and 15 minutes, respectively. On the other hand,
the activity's duration marked with constant value was acquired based on
superintendent's notes rather than field observations.
The simulation results (see Fig. 2) show the variation of advancement rate in C2,
Dl, and D2 grounds. The average advancement rates for these grounds are 14.34,
12.02, and 18.21 hours per meter, respectively. The least advancement rate is found in
D2 ground because forepoling and temporary heading invert were required when
tunnel was constructed. However, only temporary invert was needed and hence, a
better advancement is found in C2 ground. The best simulated advancement rate is
found in Dl ground and is in great fluctuation because there was 50% probability that
the temporary heading invert is needed when Dl ground is encountered. Figure 3
shows the comparison of advancement rates obtained by simulation and actual
observations. Simulation was run for 10 cycles. The simulated accumulative times for
10 cycles are compared to actual data. The estimated time required to complete 10
cycles of tunneling operations is around 1,630 hours and about 1,661 hours were
observed in finishing these cycles. The accuracy of the prediction is 98.8%
(1,630/1,661*100%).
SUMMARY
This paper presents a discrete event simulation model used to estimate the
advancement rate when NATM tunneling method is adopted in building tunnel
penetrating the gravel formation. The duration of most tunneling activities can be
modeled by Beta or triangular probability density functions in 95% confidence level
using historical data. The simulation illustrates the developed simulation model that is
reliable to be used to measure the production rate before a similar project can be
started.
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Author Index
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Subject Index
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