Chapter 4.

Turbulence

This chapter provides theoretical background about the turbulence models available in
ANSYS FLUENT. Information is presented in the following sections:

• Section 4.1: Introduction

• Section 4.2: Choosing a Turbulence Model

• Section 4.3: Spalart-Allmaras Model

• Section 4.4: Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models

• Section 4.5: Standard and SST k-ω Models

• Section 4.6: k-kl-ω Transition Model

• Section 4.7: Transition SST Model

• Section 4.8: The v 2 -f Model

• Section 4.9: Reynolds Stress Model (RSM)

• Section 4.10: Detached Eddy Simulation (DES)

• Section 4.11: Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model

• Section 4.12: Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows

For more information about using these turbulence models in ANSYS FLUENT, see Chap-
ter 12: Modeling Turbulence in the separate User’s Guide.

4.1 Introduction
Turbulent flows are characterized by fluctuating velocity fields. These fluctuations mix
transported quantities such as momentum, energy, and species concentration, and cause
the transported quantities to fluctuate as well. Since these fluctuations can be of small
scale and high frequency, they are too computationally expensive to simulate directly in
practical engineering calculations. Instead, the instantaneous (exact) governing equations
can be time-averaged, ensemble-averaged, or otherwise manipulated to remove the reso-
lution of small scales, resulting in a modified set of equations that are computationally
less expensive to solve. However, the modified equations contain additional unknown

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variables, and turbulence models are needed to determine these variables in terms of
known quantities.
ANSYS FLUENT provides the following choices of turbulence models:

• Spalart-Allmaras model

• k- models
– Standard k- model
– Renormalization-group (RNG) k- model
– Realizable k- model

• k-ω models
– Standard k-ω model
– Shear-stress transport (SST) k-ω model

• Transition k-kl-ω model

• Transition SST model

• v 2 -f model (add-on)

• Reynolds stress models (RSM)

– Linear pressure-strain RSM model
– Quadratic pressure-strain RSM model
– Low-Re stress-omega RSM model

• Detached eddy simulation (DES) model, which includes one of the following RANS
models.
– Spalart-Allmaras RANS model
– Realizable k- RANS model
– SST k-ω RANS model

• Large eddy simulation (LES) model, which includes one of the following sub-scale
models.
– Smagorinsky-Lilly subgrid-scale model
– WALE subgrid-scale model
– Dynamic Smagorinsky model
– Kinetic-energy transport subgrid-scale model

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4.2 Choosing a Turbulence Model

It is an unfortunate fact that no single turbulence model is universally accepted as be-
ing superior for all classes of problems. The choice of turbulence model will depend on
considerations such as the physics encompassed in the flow, the established practice for
a specific class of problem, the level of accuracy required, the available computational
resources, and the amount of time available for the simulation. To make the most ap-
propriate choice of model for your application, you need to understand the capabilities
and limitations of the various options.
The purpose of this section is to give an overview of issues related to the turbulence
models provided in ANSYS FLUENT. The computational effort and cost in terms of
CPU time and memory of the individual models is discussed. While it is impossible to
state categorically which model is best for a specific application, general guidelines are
presented to help you choose the appropriate turbulence model for the flow you want to
model.
Information is presented in the following sections:

• Section 4.2.1: Reynolds-Averaged Approach vs. LES

• Section 4.2.2: Reynolds (Ensemble) Averaging

• Section 4.2.3: Boussinesq Approach vs. Reynolds Stress Transport Models

4.2.1 Reynolds-Averaged Approach vs. LES

Time-dependent solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations for high Reynolds-number tur-
bulent flows in complex geometries which set out to resolve all the way down to the
smallest scales of the motions are unlikely to be attainable for some time to come. Two
alternative methods can be employed to render the Navier-Stokes equations tractable
so that the small-scale turbulent fluctuations do not have to be directly simulated:
Reynolds-averaging (or ensemble-averaging) and filtering. Both methods introduce ad-
ditional terms in the governing equations that need to be modeled in order to achieve a
“closure” for the unknowns.
The Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations govern the transport of the av-
eraged flow quantities, with the whole range of the scales of turbulence being modeled.
The RANS-based modeling approach therefore greatly reduces the required computa-
tional effort and resources, and is widely adopted for practical engineering applications.
An entire hierarchy of closure models are available in ANSYS FLUENT including Spalart-
Allmaras, k- and its variants, k-ω and its variants, and the RSM. The RANS equations
are often used to compute time-dependent flows, whose unsteadiness may be externally
imposed (e.g., time-dependent boundary conditions or sources) or self-sustained (e.g.,
vortex-shedding, flow instabilities).

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LES provides an alternative approach in which large eddies are explicitly computed (re-
solved) in a time-dependent simulation using the “filtered” Navier-Stokes equations. The
rationale behind LES is that by modeling less of turbulence (and resolving more), the
error introduced by turbulence modeling can be reduced. It is also believed to be easier
to find a “universal” model for the small scales, since they tend to be more isotropic and
less affected by the macroscopic features like boundary conditions, than the large eddies.
Filtering is essentially a mathematical manipulation of the exact Navier-Stokes equations
to remove the eddies that are smaller than the size of the filter, which is usually taken as
the mesh size when spatial filtering is employed as in ANSYS FLUENT. Like Reynolds-
averaging, the filtering process creates additional unknown terms that must be modeled
to achieve closure. Statistics of the time-varying flow-fields such as time-averages and
r.m.s. values of the solution variables, which are generally of most engineering interest,
can be collected during the time-dependent simulation.
LES for high Reynolds number industrial flows requires a significant amount of compu-
tational resources. This is mainly because of the need to accurately resolve the energy-
containing turbulent eddies in both space and time domains, which becomes most acute
in near-wall regions where the scales to be resolved become much smaller. Wall functions
in combination with a coarse near wall mesh can be employed, often with some success, to
reduce the cost of LES for wall-bounded flows. However, one needs to carefully consider
the ramification of using wall functions for the flow in question. For the same reason (to
accurately resolve the eddies), LES also requires highly accurate spatial and temporal
discretizations.

4.2.2 Reynolds (Ensemble) Averaging

In Reynolds averaging, the solution variables in the instantaneous (exact) Navier-Stokes
equations are decomposed into the mean (ensemble-averaged or time-averaged) and fluc-
tuating components. For the velocity components:

ui = ūi + u0i (4.2-1)

where ūi and u0i are the mean and fluctuating velocity components (i = 1, 2, 3).
Likewise, for pressure and other scalar quantities:

φ = φ̄ + φ0 (4.2-2)

where φ denotes a scalar such as pressure, energy, or species concentration.

Substituting expressions of this form for the flow variables into the instantaneous conti-
nuity and momentum equations and taking a time (or ensemble) average (and dropping
the overbar on the mean velocity, ū) yields the ensemble-averaged momentum equations.
They can be written in Cartesian tensor form as:

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∂ρ ∂
+ (ρui ) = 0 (4.2-3)
∂t ∂xi

" !#
∂ ∂ ∂p ∂ ∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂ul ∂
(ρui )+ (ρui uj ) = − + µ + − δij + (−ρu0i u0j ) (4.2-4)
∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xl ∂xj

Equations 4.2-3 and 4.2-4 are called Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations.
They have the same general form as the instantaneous Navier-Stokes equations, with
the velocities and other solution variables now representing ensemble-averaged (or time-
averaged) values. Additional terms now appear that represent the effects of turbulence.
These Reynolds stresses, −ρu0i u0j , must be modeled in order to close Equation 4.2-4.
For variable-density flows, Equations 4.2-3 and 4.2-4 can be interpreted as Favre-averaged
Navier-Stokes equations [130], with the velocities representing mass-averaged values. As
such, Equations 4.2-3 and 4.2-4 can be applied to density-varying flows.

4.2.3 Boussinesq Approach vs. Reynolds Stress Transport Models

The Reynolds-averaged approach to turbulence modeling requires that the Reynolds
stresses in Equation 4.2-4 are appropriately modeled. A common method employs the
Boussinesq hypothesis [130] to relate the Reynolds stresses to the mean velocity gradients:
! !
∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂uk
− ρu0i u0j = µt + − ρk + µt δij (4.2-5)
∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xk

The Boussinesq hypothesis is used in the Spalart-Allmaras model, the k- models, and
the k-ω models. The advantage of this approach is the relatively low computational
cost associated with the computation of the turbulent viscosity, µt . In the case of the
Spalart-Allmaras model, only one additional transport equation (representing turbulent
viscosity) is solved. In the case of the k- and k-ω models, two additional transport
equations (for the turbulence kinetic energy, k, and either the turbulence dissipation
rate, , or the specific dissipation rate, ω) are solved, and µt is computed as a function of
k and  or k and ω. The disadvantage of the Boussinesq hypothesis as presented is that
it assumes µt is an isotropic scalar quantity, which is not strictly true.
The alternative approach, embodied in the RSM, is to solve transport equations for each
of the terms in the Reynolds stress tensor. An additional scale-determining equation
(normally for ) is also required. This means that five additional transport equations are
required in 2D flows and seven additional transport equations must be solved in 3D.

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In many cases, models based on the Boussinesq hypothesis perform very well, and the
additional computational expense of the Reynolds stress model is not justified. However,
the RSM is clearly superior in situations where the anisotropy of turbulence has a dom-
inant effect on the mean flow. Such cases include highly swirling flows and stress-driven
secondary flows.

4.3 Spalart-Allmaras Model

This section describes the theory behind the Spalart-Allmaras model. Information is
presented in the following sections:

• Section 4.3.1: Overview

• Section 4.3.2: Transport Equation for the Spalart-Allmaras Model

• Section 4.3.3: Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity

• Section 4.3.4: Modeling the Turbulent Production

• Section 4.3.5: Modeling the Turbulent Destruction

• Section 4.3.6: Model Constants

• Section 4.3.7: Wall Boundary Conditions

• Section 4.3.8: Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling

For details about using the model in ANSYS FLUENT, see Chapter 12: Modeling Turbulence
and Section 12.5: Setting Up the Spalart-Allmaras Model in the separate User’s Guide.

4.3.1 Overview
The Spalart-Allmaras model is a relatively simple one-equation model that solves a mod-
eled transport equation for the kinematic eddy (turbulent) viscosity. This embodies a
relatively new class of one-equation models in which it is not necessary to calculate a
length scale related to the local shear layer thickness. The Spalart-Allmaras model was
designed specifically for aerospace applications involving wall-bounded flows and has been
shown to give good results for boundary layers subjected to adverse pressure gradients.
It is also gaining popularity in the turbomachinery applications.

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In its original form, the Spalart-Allmaras model is effectively a low-Reynolds-number

model, requiring the viscosity-affected region of the boundary layer to be properly re-
solved. In ANSYS FLUENT, however, the Spalart-Allmaras model has been implemented
to use wall functions when the mesh resolution is not sufficiently fine. This might make
it the best choice for relatively crude simulations on coarse meshes where accurate tur-
bulent flow computations are not critical. Furthermore, the near-wall gradients of the
transported variable in the model are much smaller than the gradients of the transported
variables in the k- or k-ω models. This might make the model less sensitive to numer-
ical errors when non-layered meshes are used near walls. See Section 6.1.3: Numerical
Diffusion in the separate User’s Guide for a further discussion of the numerical errors.
On a cautionary note, however, the Spalart-Allmaras model is still relatively new, and
no claim is made regarding its suitability to all types of complex engineering flows. For
instance, it cannot be relied on to predict the decay of homogeneous, isotropic turbu-
lence. Furthermore, one-equation models are often criticized for their inability to rapidly
accommodate changes in length scale, such as might be necessary when the flow changes
abruptly from a wall-bounded to a free shear flow.
In turbulence models that employ the Boussinesq approach, the central issue is how the
eddy viscosity is computed. The model proposed by Spalart and Allmaras [331] solves
a transport equation for a quantity that is a modified form of the turbulent kinematic
viscosity.

4.3.2 Transport Equation for the Spalart-Allmaras Model

The transported variable in the Spalart-Allmaras model, νe, is identical to the turbulent
kinematic viscosity except in the near-wall (viscosity-affected) region. The transport
equation for νe is

 ( ) !2 
∂ ∂ 1  ∂ ∂ νe ∂ νe  − Yν + S (4.3-1)
(ρνe) + (ρνeui ) = Gν + (µ + ρνe) + Cb2 ρ ν
∂t ∂xi σeν ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj e

where Gν is the production of turbulent viscosity, and Yν is the destruction of turbulent

viscosity that occurs in the near-wall region due to wall blocking and viscous damping.
σeν and Cb2 are the constants and ν is the molecular kinematic viscosity. Seν is a user-
defined source term. Note that since the turbulence kinetic energy, k, is not calculated
in the Spalart-Allmaras model, while the last term in Equation 4.2-5 is ignored when
estimating the Reynolds stresses.

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4.3.3 Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity

The turbulent viscosity, µt , is computed from

µt = ρνefv1 (4.3-2)

where the viscous damping function, fv1 , is given by

χ3
fv1 = 3
(4.3-3)
χ3 + Cv1

and

νe
χ≡ (4.3-4)
ν

4.3.4 Modeling the Turbulent Production

The production term, Gν , is modeled as

Gν = Cb1 ρSeνe (4.3-5)

where

νe
Se ≡ S + fv2 (4.3-6)
κ2 d2
and

χ
fv2 = 1 − (4.3-7)
1 + χfv1

Cb1 and κ are constants, d is the distance from the wall, and S is a scalar measure of the
deformation tensor. By default in ANSYS FLUENT, as in the original model proposed by
Spalart and Allmaras, S is based on the magnitude of the vorticity:

q
S≡ 2Ωij Ωij (4.3-8)

where Ωij is the mean rate-of-rotation tensor and is defined by

!
1 ∂ui ∂uj
Ωij = − (4.3-9)
2 ∂xj ∂xi

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The justification for the default expression for S is that, in the wall-bounded flows that
were of most interest when the model was formulated, the turbulence production found
only where vorticity is generated near walls. However, it has since been acknowledged that
one should also take into account the effect of mean strain on the turbulence production,
and a modification to the model has been proposed [65] and incorporated into ANSYS
FLUENT.
This modification combines the measures of both vorticity and the strain tensors in the
definition of S:

S ≡ |Ωij | + Cprod min (0, |Sij | − |Ωij |) (4.3-10)

where

q q
Cprod = 2.0, |Ωij | ≡ 2Ωij Ωij , |Sij | ≡ 2Sij Sij

with the mean strain rate, Sij , defined as

!
1 ∂uj ∂ui
Sij = + (4.3-11)
2 ∂xi ∂xj

Including both the rotation and strain tensors reduces the production of eddy viscosity
and consequently reduces the eddy viscosity itself in regions where the measure of vortic-
ity exceeds that of strain rate. One such example can be found in vortical flows, i.e., flow
near the core of a vortex subjected to a pure rotation where turbulence is known to be
suppressed. Including both the rotation and strain tensors more correctly accounts for
the effects of rotation on turbulence. The default option (including the rotation tensor
only) tends to overpredict the production of eddy viscosity and hence overpredicts the
eddy viscosity itself in certain circumstances.
You can select the modified form for calculating production in the Viscous Model dialog
box.

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4.3.5 Modeling the Turbulent Destruction

The destruction term is modeled as

 2
νe
Yν = Cw1 ρfw (4.3-12)
d
where

#1/6
6
"
1 + Cw3
fw = g 6 6
(4.3-13)
g + Cw3
 
g = r + Cw2 r6 − r (4.3-14)

νe
r≡ e (4.3-15)
Sκ2 d2

Cw1 , Cw2 , and Cw3 are constants, and Se is given by Equation 4.3-6. Note that the
modification described above to include the effects of mean strain on S will also affect
the value of Se used to compute r.

4.3.6 Model Constants

The model constants Cb1 , Cb2 , σeν , Cv1 , Cw1 , Cw2 , Cw3 , and κ have the following default
values [331]:

2
Cb1 = 0.1355, Cb2 = 0.622, σeν = , Cv1 = 7.1
3

Cb1 (1 + Cb2 )
Cw1 = + , Cw2 = 0.3, Cw3 = 2.0, κ = 0.4187
κ2 σeν

4.3.7 Wall Boundary Conditions

At walls, the modified turbulent kinematic viscosity, νe, is set to zero.
When the mesh is fine enough to resolve the viscosity-dominated sublayer, the wall shear
stress is obtained from the laminar stress-strain relationship:

u ρuτ y
= (4.3-16)
uτ µ

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If the mesh is too coarse to resolve the viscous sublayer, then it is assumed that the
centroid of the wall-adjacent cell falls within the logarithmic region of the boundary
layer, and the law-of-the-wall is employed:
!
u 1 ρuτ y
= ln E (4.3-17)
uτ κ µ

where u is the velocity parallel to the wall, uτ is the shear velocity, y is the distance from
the wall, κ is the von Kármán constant (0.4187), and E = 9.793.

4.3.8 Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling

In ANSYS FLUENT, turbulent heat transport is modeled using the concept of the Reynolds’
analogy to turbulent momentum transfer. The “modeled” energy equation is as follows:
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ c p µt ∂T

(ρE) + [ui (ρE + p)] = k+ + ui (τij )eff + Sh (4.3-18)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj Prt ∂xj

where k, in this case, is the thermal conductivity, E is the total energy, and (τij )eff is the
deviatoric stress tensor, defined as
!
∂uj ∂ui 2 ∂uk
(τij )eff = µeff + − µeff δij
∂xi ∂xj 3 ∂xk

4.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models

This section describes the theory behind the Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- models.
Information is presented in the following sections:

• Section 4.4.1: Standard k- Model

• Section 4.4.2: RNG k- Model

• Section 4.4.3: Realizable k- Model

• Section 4.4.4: Modeling Turbulent Production in the k- Models

• Section 4.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbulence in the k- Models

• Section 4.4.6: Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models

• Section 4.4.7: Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling in the k- Models

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For details about using the models in ANSYS FLUENT, see Chapter 12: Modeling Turbulence
and Section 12.6: Setting Up the k- Model in the separate User’s Guide.
This section presents the standard, RNG, and realizable k- models. All three models
have similar forms, with transport equations for k and . The major differences in the
models are as follows:

• the method of calculating turbulent viscosity

• the turbulent Prandtl numbers governing the turbulent diffusion of k and 

• the generation and destruction terms in the  equation

The transport equations, the methods of calculating turbulent viscosity, and model con-
stants are presented separately for each model. The features that are essentially common
to all models follow, including turbulent generation due to shear buoyancy, accounting
for the effects of compressibility, and modeling heat and mass transfer.

4.4.1 Standard k- Model

Overview
The simplest “complete models” of turbulence are the two-equation models in which the
solution of two separate transport equations allows the turbulent velocity and length
scales to be independently determined. The standard k- model in ANSYS FLUENT falls
within this class of models and has become the workhorse of practical engineering flow
calculations in the time since it was proposed by Launder and Spalding [180]. Robust-
ness, economy, and reasonable accuracy for a wide range of turbulent flows explain its
popularity in industrial flow and heat transfer simulations. It is a semi-empirical model,
and the derivation of the model equations relies on phenomenological considerations and
empiricism.
As the strengths and weaknesses of the standard k- model have become known, im-
provements have been made to the model to improve its performance. Two of these
variants are available in ANSYS FLUENT: the RNG k- model [384] and the realizable
k- model [313].
The standard k- model [180] is a semi-empirical model based on model transport equa-
tions for the turbulence kinetic energy (k) and its dissipation rate (). The model trans-
port equation for k is derived from the exact equation, while the model transport equation
for  was obtained using physical reasoning and bears little resemblance to its mathe-
matically exact counterpart.
In the derivation of the k- model, the assumption is that the flow is fully turbulent, and
the effects of molecular viscosity are negligible. The standard k- model is therefore valid
only for fully turbulent flows.

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Transport Equations for the Standard k- Model

The turbulence kinetic energy, k, and its rate of dissipation, , are obtained from the
following transport equations:
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂k

(ρk) + (ρkui ) = µ+ + Gk + Gb − ρ − YM + Sk (4.4-1)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σk ∂xj

and

2
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂ 

(ρ) + (ρui ) = µ+ + C1 (Gk + C3 Gb ) − C2 ρ + S (4.4-2)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σ ∂xj k k

In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 4.4.4: Modeling Turbulent
Production in the k- Models. Gb is the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due
to buoyancy, calculated as described in Section 4.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbu-
lence in the k- Models. YM represents the contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in
compressible turbulence to the overall dissipation rate, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 4.4.6: Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models. C1 , C2 , and C3
are constants. σk and σ are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and , respectively. Sk
and S are user-defined source terms.

Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity

The turbulent (or eddy) viscosity, µt , is computed by combining k and  as follows:

k2
µt = ρCµ (4.4-3)

where Cµ is a constant.

Model Constants
The model constants C1 , C2 , Cµ , σk , and σ have the following default values [180]:

C1 = 1.44, C2 = 1.92, Cµ = 0.09, σk = 1.0, σ = 1.3

These default values have been determined from experiments with air and water for funda-
mental turbulent shear flows including homogeneous shear flows and decaying isotropic
grid turbulence. They have been found to work fairly well for a wide range of wall-
bounded and free shear flows.

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Although the default values of the model constants are the standard ones most widely
accepted, you can change them (if needed) in the Viscous Model dialog box.

4.4.2 RNG k- Model

Overview
The RNG k- model was derived using a rigorous statistical technique (called renormal-
ization group theory). It is similar in form to the standard k- model, but includes the
following refinements:

• The RNG model has an additional term in its  equation that significantly improves
the accuracy for rapidly strained flows.

• The effect of swirl on turbulence is included in the RNG model, enhancing accuracy
for swirling flows.

• The RNG theory provides an analytical formula for turbulent Prandtl numbers,
while the standard k- model uses user-specified, constant values.

• While the standard k- model is a high-Reynolds-number model, the RNG theory
provides an analytically-derived differential formula for effective viscosity that ac-
counts for low-Reynolds-number effects. Effective use of this feature does, however,
depend on an appropriate treatment of the near-wall region.

These features make the RNG k- model more accurate and reliable for a wider class of
flows than the standard k- model.
The RNG-based k- turbulence model is derived from the instantaneous Navier-Stokes
equations, using a mathematical technique called “renormalization group” (RNG) meth-
ods. The analytical derivation results in a model with constants different from those in
the standard k- model, and additional terms and functions in the transport equations
for k and . A more comprehensive description of RNG theory and its application to
turbulence can be found in [259].

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Transport Equations for the RNG k- Model

The RNG k- model has a similar form to the standard k- model:
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂k
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = αk µeff + Gk + Gb − ρ − YM + Sk (4.4-4)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

and

2
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 
(ρ) + (ρui ) = α µeff + C1 (Gk + C3 Gb ) − C2 ρ − R + S (4.4-5)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj k k

In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 4.4.4: Modeling Turbulent
Production in the k- Models. Gb is the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due
to buoyancy, calculated as described in Section 4.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbu-
lence in the k- Models. YM represents the contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in
compressible turbulence to the overall dissipation rate, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 4.4.6: Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models. The quantities αk
and α are the inverse effective Prandtl numbers for k and , respectively. Sk and S are
user-defined source terms.

Modeling the Effective Viscosity

The scale elimination procedure in RNG theory results in a differential equation for
turbulent viscosity:

ρ2 k
!
ν̂
d √ = 1.72 √ dν̂ (4.4-6)
µ ν̂ 3 − 1 + Cν

where

ν̂ = µeff /µ
Cν ≈ 100

Equation 4.4-6 is integrated to obtain an accurate description of how the effective tur-
bulent transport varies with the effective Reynolds number (or eddy scale), allowing the
model to better handle low-Reynolds-number and near-wall flows.

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In the high-Reynolds-number limit, Equation 4.4-6 gives

k2
µt = ρCµ (4.4-7)

with Cµ = 0.0845, derived using RNG theory. It is interesting to note that this value
of Cµ is very close to the empirically-determined value of 0.09 used in the standard k-
model.
In ANSYS FLUENT, by default, the effective viscosity is computed using the high-
Reynolds-number form in Equation 4.4-7. However, there is an option available that
allows you to use the differential relation given in Equation 4.4-6 when you need to
include low-Reynolds-number effects.

RNG Swirl Modification

Turbulence, in general, is affected by rotation or swirl in the mean flow. The RNG model
in ANSYS FLUENT provides an option to account for the effects of swirl or rotation by
modifying the turbulent viscosity appropriately. The modification takes the following
functional form:
!
k
µt = µt0 f αs , Ω, (4.4-8)


where µt0 is the value of turbulent viscosity calculated without the swirl modification
using either Equation 4.4-6 or Equation 4.4-7. Ω is a characteristic swirl number eval-
uated within ANSYS FLUENT, and αs is a swirl constant that assumes different values
depending on whether the flow is swirl-dominated or only mildly swirling. This swirl
modification always takes effect for axisymmetric, swirling flows and three-dimensional
flows when the RNG model is selected. For mildly swirling flows (the default in ANSYS
FLUENT), αs is set to 0.07. For strongly swirling flows, however, a higher value of αs
can be used.

Calculating the Inverse Effective Prandtl Numbers

The inverse effective Prandtl numbers, αk and α , are computed using the following
formula derived analytically by the RNG theory:

0.6321  0.3679
 α − 1.3929  α + 2.3929 µmol

 
    = (4.4-9)

α0 − 1.3929 
α0 + 2.3929
 
µeff

where α0 = 1.0. In the high-Reynolds-number limit (µmol /µeff  1), αk = α ≈ 1.393.

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The R Term in the  Equation

The main difference between the RNG and standard k- models lies in the additional
term in the  equation given by

Cµ ρη 3 (1 − η/η0 ) 2
R = (4.4-10)
1 + βη 3 k

where η ≡ Sk/, η0 = 4.38, β = 0.012.

The effects of this term in the RNG  equation can be seen more clearly by rearranging
Equation 4.4-5. Using Equation 4.4-10, the third and fourth terms on the right-hand
side of Equation 4.4-5 can be merged, and the resulting  equation can be rewritten as

2
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂  ∗ 
(ρ) + (ρui ) = α µeff + C1 (Gk + C3 Gb ) − C2 ρ (4.4-11)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj k k
∗
where C2 is given by

∗ Cµ η 3 (1 − η/η0 )
C2 ≡ C2 + (4.4-12)
1 + βη 3
∗
In regions where η < η0 , the R term makes a positive contribution, and C2 becomes
larger than C2 . In the logarithmic layer, for instance, it can be shown that η ≈ 3.0,
∗
giving C2 ≈ 2.0, which is close in magnitude to the value of C2 in the standard k-
model (1.92). As a result, for weakly to moderately strained flows, the RNG model tends
to give results largely comparable to the standard k- model.
In regions of large strain rate (η > η0 ), however, the R term makes a negative contribu-
∗
tion, making the value of C2 less than C2 . In comparison with the standard k- model,
the smaller destruction of  augments , reducing k and, eventually, the effective viscosity.
As a result, in rapidly strained flows, the RNG model yields a lower turbulent viscosity
than the standard k- model.
Thus, the RNG model is more responsive to the effects of rapid strain and streamline
curvature than the standard k- model, which explains the superior performance of the
RNG model for certain classes of flows.

Model Constants
The model constants C1 and C2 in Equation 4.4-5 have values derived analytically by
the RNG theory. These values, used by default in ANSYS FLUENT, are

C1 = 1.42, C2 = 1.68

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4.4.3 Realizable k- Model

Overview
The realizable k- model [313] is a relatively recent development and differs from the
standard k- model in two important ways:

• The realizable k- model contains a new formulation for the turbulent viscosity.

• A new transport equation for the dissipation rate, , has been derived from an exact
equation for the transport of the mean-square vorticity fluctuation.

The term “realizable” means that the model satisfies certain mathematical constraints
on the Reynolds stresses, consistent with the physics of turbulent flows. Neither the
standard k- model nor the RNG k- model is realizable.
An immediate benefit of the realizable k- model is that it more accurately predicts
the spreading rate of both planar and round jets. It is also likely to provide superior
performance for flows involving rotation, boundary layers under strong adverse pressure
gradients, separation, and recirculation.
To understand the mathematics behind the realizable k- model, consider combining
the Boussinesq relationship (Equation 4.2-5) and the eddy viscosity definition (Equa-
tion 4.4-3) to obtain the following expression for the normal Reynolds stress in an in-
compressible strained mean flow:

2 ∂U
u2 = k − 2 νt (4.4-13)
3 ∂x

Using Equation 4.4-3 for νt ≡ µt /ρ, one obtains the result that the normal stress, u2 ,
which by definition is a positive quantity, becomes negative, i.e., “non-realizable”, when
the strain is large enough to satisfy

k ∂U 1
> ≈ 3.7 (4.4-14)
 ∂x 3Cµ

Similarly, it can also be shown that the Schwarz inequality for shear stresses (uα uβ 2 ≤
u2α u2β ; no summation over α and β) can be violated when the mean strain rate is large.
The most straightforward way to ensure the realizability (positivity of normal stresses
and Schwarz inequality for shear stresses) is to make Cµ variable by sensitizing it to
the mean flow (mean deformation) and the turbulence (k, ). The notion of variable
Cµ is suggested by many modelers including Reynolds [291], and is well substantiated
by experimental evidence. For example, Cµ is found to be around 0.09 in the inertial
sublayer of equilibrium boundary layers, and 0.05 in a strong homogeneous shear flow.

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Both the realizable and RNG k- models have shown substantial improvements over the
standard k- model where the flow features include strong streamline curvature, vortices,
and rotation. Since the model is still relatively new, it is not clear in exactly which
instances the realizable k- model consistently outperforms the RNG model. However,
initial studies have shown that the realizable model provides the best performance of all
the k- model versions for several validations of separated flows and flows with complex
secondary flow features.
One of the weaknesses of the standard k- model or other traditional k- models lies with
the modeled equation for the dissipation rate (). The well-known round-jet anomaly
(named based on the finding that the spreading rate in planar jets is predicted reasonably
well, but prediction of the spreading rate for axisymmetric jets is unexpectedly poor) is
considered to be mainly due to the modeled dissipation equation.
The realizable k- model proposed by Shih et al. [313] was intended to address these
deficiencies of traditional k- models by adopting the following:

• A new eddy-viscosity formula involving a variable Cµ originally proposed by

Reynolds [291].

• A new model equation for dissipation () based on the dynamic equation of the
mean-square vorticity fluctuation.

One limitation of the realizable k- model is that it produces non-physical turbulent
viscosities in situations when the computational domain contains both rotating and sta-
tionary fluid zones (e.g., multiple reference frames, rotating sliding meshes). This is due
to the fact that the realizable k- model includes the effects of mean rotation in the
definition of the turbulent viscosity (see Equations 4.4-17–4.4-19). This extra rotation
effect has been tested on single rotating reference frame systems and showed superior
behavior over the standard k- model. However, due to the nature of this modification,
its application to multiple reference frame systems should be taken with some caution.
See Section 4.4.3: Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity for information about how to include
or exclude this term from the model.

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Transport Equations for the Realizable k- Model

The modeled transport equations for k and  in the realizable k- model are

" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂k

(ρk) + (ρkuj ) = µ+ + Gk + Gb − ρ − YM + Sk (4.4-15)
∂t ∂xj ∂xj σk ∂xj

and

2
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂ 

(ρ) + (ρuj ) = µ+ + ρ C1 S − ρ C2 √ + C1 C3 Gb + S
∂t ∂xj ∂xj σ ∂xj k + ν k
(4.4-16)
where
" #
η k q
C1 = max 0.43, , η=S , S= 2Sij Sij
η+5 

In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 4.4.4: Modeling Turbulent
Production in the k- Models. Gb is the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due
to buoyancy, calculated as described in Section 4.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbu-
lence in the k- Models. YM represents the contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in
compressible turbulence to the overall dissipation rate, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 4.4.6: Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models. C2 and C1 are
constants. σk and σ are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and , respectively. Sk and
S are user-defined source terms.
Note that the k equation (Equation 4.4-15) is the same as that in the standard k-
model (Equation 4.4-1) and the RNG k- model (Equation 4.4-4), except for the model
constants. However, the form of the  equation is quite different from those in the
standard and RNG-based k- models (Equations 4.4-2 and 4.4-5). One of the noteworthy
features is that the production term in the  equation (the second term on the right-hand
side of Equation 4.4-16) does not involve the production of k; i.e., it does not contain
the same Gk term as the other k- models. It is believed that the present form better
represents the spectral energy transfer. Another desirable feature is that the destruction
term (the next to last term on the right-hand side of Equation 4.4-16) does not have any
singularity; i.e., its denominator never vanishes, even if k vanishes or becomes smaller
than zero. This feature is contrasted with traditional k- models, which have a singularity
due to k in the denominator.

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This model has been extensively validated for a wide range of flows [167, 313], including
rotating homogeneous shear flows, free flows including jets and mixing layers, channel
and boundary layer flows, and separated flows. For all these cases, the performance of
the model has been found to be substantially better than that of the standard k- model.
Especially noteworthy is the fact that the realizable k- model resolves the round-jet
anomaly; i.e., it predicts the spreading rate for axisymmetric jets as well as that for
planar jets.

Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity

As in other k- models, the eddy viscosity is computed from

k2
µt = ρCµ (4.4-17)

The difference between the realizable k- model and the standard and RNG k- models
is that Cµ is no longer constant. It is computed from

1
Cµ = ∗ (4.4-18)
A0 + As kU

where
q
∗
U ≡ Sij Sij + Ω
e Ω e
ij ij (4.4-19)

and

Ω ij = Ωij − 2ijk ωk
e

Ωij = Ωij − ijk ωk

where Ωij is the mean rate-of-rotation tensor viewed in a rotating reference frame with
the angular velocity ωk . The model constants A0 and As are given by

√
A0 = 4.04, As = 6 cos φ

where

√
!
1 Sij Sjk Ski e q 1 ∂uj ∂ui
φ = cos−1 ( 6W ), W = , S = S ij S ij , S ij = +
3 Se3 2 ∂xi ∂xj

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It can be seen that Cµ is a function of the mean strain and rotation rates, the angular
velocity of the system rotation, and the turbulence fields (k and ). Cµ in Equation 4.4-17
can be shown to recover the standard value of 0.09 for an inertial sublayer in an equilib-
rium boundary layer.

i In ANSYS FLUENT, the term −2ijk ωk is, by default, not included in

the calculation of Ωe . This is an extra rotation term that is not com-
ij
patible with cases involving sliding meshes or multiple reference frames.
If you want to include this term in the model, you can enable it by using the
define/models/viscous/turbulence-expert/rke-cmu-rotation-term?
text command and entering yes at the prompt.

Model Constants
The model constants C2 , σk , and σ have been established to ensure that the model
performs well for certain canonical flows. The model constants are

C1 = 1.44, C2 = 1.9, σk = 1.0, σ = 1.2

4.4.4 Modeling Turbulent Production in the k- Models

The term Gk , representing the production of turbulence kinetic energy, is modeled iden-
tically for the standard, RNG, and realizable k- models. From the exact equation for
the transport of k, this term may be defined as

∂uj
Gk = −ρu0i u0j (4.4-20)
∂xi

To evaluate Gk in a manner consistent with the Boussinesq hypothesis,

G k = µt S 2 (4.4-21)

where S is the modulus of the mean rate-of-strain tensor, defined as

q
S≡ 2Sij Sij (4.4-22)

i When using the high-Reynolds number k- versions, µeff is used in lieu of
µt in Equation 4.4-21.

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4.4.5 Effects of Buoyancy on Turbulence in the k- Models

When a non-zero gravity field and temperature gradient are present simultaneously, the
k- models in ANSYS FLUENT account for the generation of k due to buoyancy (Gb in
Equations 4.4-1, 4.4-4, and 4.4-15), and the corresponding contribution to the production
of  in Equations 4.4-2, 4.4-5, and 4.4-16.
The generation of turbulence due to buoyancy is given by

µt ∂T
Gb = βgi (4.4-23)
Prt ∂xi

where Prt is the turbulent Prandtl number for energy and gi is the component of the
gravitational vector in the ith direction. For the standard and realizable k- models,
the default value of Prt is 0.85. In the case of the RNG k- model, Prt = 1/α, where
α is given by Equation 4.4-9, but with α0 = 1/Pr = k/µcp . The coefficient of thermal
expansion, β, is defined as
!
1 ∂ρ
β=− (4.4-24)
ρ ∂T p

For ideal gases, Equation 4.4-23 reduces to

µt ∂ρ
Gb = −gi (4.4-25)
ρPrt ∂xi

It can be seen from the transport equations for k (Equations 4.4-1, 4.4-4, and 4.4-15)
that turbulence kinetic energy tends to be augmented (Gb > 0) in unstable stratification.
For stable stratification, buoyancy tends to suppress the turbulence (Gb < 0). In ANSYS
FLUENT, the effects of buoyancy on the generation of k are always included when you
have both a non-zero gravity field and a non-zero temperature (or density) gradient.
While the buoyancy effects on the generation of k are relatively well understood, the
effect on  is less clear. In ANSYS FLUENT, by default, the buoyancy effects on  are
neglected simply by setting Gb to zero in the transport equation for  (Equation 4.4-2,
4.4-5, or 4.4-16).
However, you can include the buoyancy effects on  in the Viscous Model dialog box.
In this case, the value of Gb given by Equation 4.4-25 is used in the transport equation
for  (Equation 4.4-2, 4.4-5, or 4.4-16).
The degree to which  is affected by the buoyancy is determined by the constant C3 . In
ANSYS FLUENT, C3 is not specified, but is instead calculated according to the following
relation [127]:

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v
 
C3 = tanh   (4.4-26)
u
where v is the component of the flow velocity parallel to the gravitational vector and
u is the component of the flow velocity perpendicular to the gravitational vector. In
this way, C3 will become 1 for buoyant shear layers for which the main flow direction is
aligned with the direction of gravity. For buoyant shear layers that are perpendicular to
the gravitational vector, C3 will become zero.

4.4.6 Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models

For high-Mach-number flows, compressibility affects turbulence through so-called “di-
latation dissipation”, which is normally neglected in the modeling of incompressible
flows [379]. Neglecting the dilatation dissipation fails to predict the observed decrease in
spreading rate with increasing Mach number for compressible mixing and other free shear
layers. To account for these effects in the k- models in ANSYS FLUENT, the dilatation
dissipation term, YM , is included in the k equation. This term is modeled according to
a proposal by Sarkar [300]:

YM = 2ρM2t (4.4-27)

where Mt is the turbulent Mach number, defined as

s
k
Mt = (4.4-28)
a2
√
where a (≡ γRT ) is the speed of sound.
This compressibility modification always takes effect when the compressible form of the
ideal gas law is used.

4.4.7 Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling in the k- Models
In ANSYS FLUENT, turbulent heat transport is modeled using the concept of Reynolds’
analogy to turbulent momentum transfer. The “modeled” energy equation is thus given
by the following:
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂T
(ρE) + [ui (ρE + p)] = keff + ui (τij )eff + Sh (4.4-29)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

where E is the total energy, keff is the effective thermal conductivity, and
(τij )eff is the deviatoric stress tensor, defined as

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!
∂uj ∂ui 2 ∂uk
(τij )eff = µeff + − µeff δij
∂xi ∂xj 3 ∂xk

The term involving (τij )eff represents the viscous heating, and is always computed in the
density-based solvers. It is not computed by default in the pressure-based solver, but it
can be enabled in the Viscous Model dialog box.
Additional terms may appear in the energy equation, depending on the physical models
you are using. See Section 5.2.1: Heat Transfer Theory for more details.
For the standard and realizable k- models, the effective thermal conductivity is given
by

c p µt
keff = k +
Prt

where k, in this case, is the thermal conductivity. The default value of the turbulent
Prandtl number is 0.85. You can change the value of the turbulent Prandtl number in
the Viscous Model dialog box.
For the RNG k- model, the effective thermal conductivity is

keff = αcp µeff

where α is calculated from Equation 4.4-9, but with α0 = 1/Pr = k/µcp .

The fact that α varies with µmol /µeff , as in Equation 4.4-9, is an advantage of the RNG k-
model. It is consistent with experimental evidence indicating that the turbulent Prandtl
number varies with the molecular Prandtl number and turbulence [159]. Equation 4.4-9
works well across a very broad range of molecular Prandtl numbers, from liquid metals
(Pr ≈ 10−2 ) to paraffin oils (Pr ≈ 103 ), which allows heat transfer to be calculated in
low-Reynolds-number regions. Equation 4.4-9 smoothly predicts the variation of effective
Prandtl number from the molecular value (α = 1/Pr) in the viscosity-dominated region
to the fully turbulent value (α = 1.393) in the fully turbulent regions of the flow.
Turbulent mass transfer is treated similarly. For the standard and realizable k- models,
the default turbulent Schmidt number is 0.7. This default value can be changed in the
Viscous Model dialog box. For the RNG model, the effective turbulent diffusivity for
mass transfer is calculated in a manner that is analogous to the method used for the heat
transport. The value of α0 in Equation 4.4-9 is α0 = 1/Sc, where Sc is the molecular
Schmidt number.

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4.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models

This section describes the theory behind the Standard and SST k-ω model. Information
is presented in the following sections:

• Section 4.5.1: Standard k-ω Model

• Section 4.5.2: Shear-Stress Transport (SST) k-ω Model
• Section 4.5.3: Wall Boundary Conditions

For details about using the models in ANSYS FLUENT, see Chapter 12: Modeling Turbulence
and Section 12.7: Setting Up the k-ω Model in the separate User’s Guide.
This section presents the standard [379] and shear-stress transport (SST) [224] k-ω mod-
els. Both models have similar forms, with transport equations for k and ω. The major
ways in which the SST model [225] differs from the standard model are as follows:

• gradual change from the standard k-ω model in the inner region of the boundary
layer to a high-Reynolds-number version of the k- model in the outer part of the
boundary layer
• modified turbulent viscosity formulation to account for the transport effects of the
principal turbulent shear stress

The transport equations, methods of calculating turbulent viscosity, and methods of

calculating model constants and other terms are presented separately for each model.

4.5.1 Standard k-ω Model

Overview
The standard k-ω model in ANSYS FLUENT is based on the Wilcox k-ω model [379],
which incorporates modifications for low-Reynolds-number effects, compressibility, and
shear flow spreading. The Wilcox model predicts free shear flow spreading rates that are
in close agreement with measurements for far wakes, mixing layers, and plane, round,
and radial jets, and is thus applicable to wall-bounded flows and free shear flows. A
variation of the standard k-ω model called the SST k-ω model is also available in ANSYS
FLUENT, and is described in Section 4.5.2: Shear-Stress Transport (SST) k-ω Model.
The standard k-ω model is an empirical model based on model transport equations for
the turbulence kinetic energy (k) and the specific dissipation rate (ω), which can also be
thought of as the ratio of  to k [379].
As the k-ω model has been modified over the years, production terms have been added
to both the k and ω equations, which have improved the accuracy of the model for
predicting free shear flows.

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Transport Equations for the Standard k-ω Model

The turbulence kinetic energy, k, and the specific dissipation rate, ω, are obtained from
the following transport equations:
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂k
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = Γk + G k − Yk + S k (4.5-1)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

and
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ω
(ρω) + (ρωui ) = Γω + G ω − Yω + S ω (4.5-2)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to mean
velocity gradients. Gω represents the generation of ω. Γk and Γω represent the effective
diffusivity of k and ω, respectively. Yk and Yω represent the dissipation of k and ω due
to turbulence. All of the above terms are calculated as described below. Sk and Sω are
user-defined source terms.

Modeling the Effective Diffusivity

The effective diffusivities for the k-ω model are given by

µt
Γk = µ + (4.5-3)
σk
µt
Γω = µ+ (4.5-4)
σω

where σk and σω are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and ω, respectively. The
turbulent viscosity, µt , is computed by combining k and ω as follows:

ρk
µt = α ∗ (4.5-5)
ω

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Low-Reynolds-Number Correction

The coefficient α∗ damps the turbulent viscosity causing a low-Reynolds-number correc-

tion. It is given by

α0∗ + Ret /Rk

!
∗ ∗
α = α∞ (4.5-6)
1 + Ret /Rk

where

ρk
Ret = (4.5-7)
µω
Rk = 6 (4.5-8)
βi
α0∗ = (4.5-9)
3
βi = 0.072 (4.5-10)

Note that, in the high-Reynolds-number form of the k-ω model, α∗ = α∞

∗
= 1.

Modeling the Turbulence Production

Production of k

The term Gk represents the production of turbulence kinetic energy. From the exact
equation for the transport of k, this term may be defined as

∂uj
Gk = −ρu0i u0j (4.5-11)
∂xi

To evaluate Gk in a manner consistent with the Boussinesq hypothesis,

G k = µt S 2 (4.5-12)

where S is the modulus of the mean rate-of-strain tensor, defined in the same way as for
the k- model (see Equation 4.4-22).

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Production of ω

The production of ω is given by

ω
Gω = α Gk (4.5-13)
k
where Gk is given by Equation 4.5-11.
The coefficient α is given by
!
α∞ α0 + Ret /Rω
α= ∗ (4.5-14)
α 1 + Ret /Rω

where Rω = 2.95. α∗ and Ret are given by Equations 4.5-6 and 4.5-7, respectively.
Note that, in the high-Reynolds-number form of the k-ω model, α = α∞ = 1.

Modeling the Turbulence Dissipation

Dissipation of k

The dissipation of k is given by

Yk = ρ β ∗ fβ ∗ k ω (4.5-15)

where

 1 χk ≤ 0
fβ ∗ = 1+680χ2k (4.5-16)

1+400χ2k
χk > 0

where

1 ∂k ∂ω
χk ≡ (4.5-17)
ω 3 ∂xj ∂xj

and

β ∗ = βi∗ [1 + ζ ∗ F (Mt )] (4.5-18)

4/15 + (Ret /Rβ )4
!
∗ ∗
βi = β∞ (4.5-19)
1 + (Ret /Rβ )4
ζ ∗ = 1.5 (4.5-20)

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Rβ = 8 (4.5-21)
∗
β∞ = 0.09 (4.5-22)

where Ret is given by Equation 4.5-7.

Dissipation of ω

The dissipation of ω is given by

Yω = ρ β fβ ω 2 (4.5-23)

where

1 + 70χω
fβ = (4.5-24)
1 + 80χω
 
Ω Ω S 
 ij jk ki 
χω =  (4.5-25)
 (β ∗ ω)3 

∞
!
1 ∂ui ∂uj
Ωij = − (4.5-26)
2 ∂xj ∂xi

The strain rate tensor, Sij is defined in Equation 4.3-11. Also,

β∗
" #
β = βi 1 − i ζ ∗ F (Mt ) (4.5-27)
βi

βi∗ and F (Mt ) are defined by Equations 4.5-19 and 4.5-28, respectively.

Compressibility Correction

The compressibility function, F (Mt ), is given by

(
0 Mt ≤ Mt0
F (Mt ) = (4.5-28)
M2t − M2t0 Mt > Mt0

where

2k
M2t ≡ (4.5-29)
a2
Mt0 = 0.25 (4.5-30)
q
a = γRT (4.5-31)

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Note that, in the high-Reynolds-number form of the k-ω model, βi∗ = β∞

∗
. In the incom-
pressible form, β ∗ = βi∗ .

Model Constants
∗ 1 ∗
α∞ = 1, α∞ = 0.52, α0 = , β∞ = 0.09, βi = 0.072, Rβ = 8
9
Rk = 6, Rω = 2.95, ζ ∗ = 1.5, Mt0 = 0.25, σk = 2.0, σω = 2.0

4.5.2 Shear-Stress Transport (SST) k-ω Model

Overview
The shear-stress transport (SST) k-ω model was developed by Menter [224] to effectively
blend the robust and accurate formulation of the k-ω model in the near-wall region with
the free-stream independence of the k- model in the far field. To achieve this, the k-
model is converted into a k-ω formulation. The SST k-ω model is similar to the standard
k-ω model, but includes the following refinements:

• The standard k-ω model and the transformed k- model are both multiplied by a
blending function and both models are added together. The blending function is
designed to be one in the near-wall region, which activates the standard k-ω model,
and zero away from the surface, which activates the transformed k- model.

• The SST model incorporates a damped cross-diffusion derivative term in the ω

equation.

• The definition of the turbulent viscosity is modified to account for the transport of
the turbulent shear stress.

• The modeling constants are different.

These features make the SST k-ω model more accurate and reliable for a wider class
of flows (e.g., adverse pressure gradient flows, airfoils, transonic shock waves) than the
standard k-ω model. Other modifications include the addition of a cross-diffusion term
in the ω equation and a blending function to ensure that the model equations behave
appropriately in both the near-wall and far-field zones.

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Transport Equations for the SST k-ω Model

The SST k-ω model has a similar form to the standard k-ω model:
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂k e −Y +S
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = Γk +G k k k (4.5-32)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

and
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ω
(ρω) + (ρωui ) = Γω + G ω − Y ω + Dω + S ω (4.5-33)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj

In these equations, Ge represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to

k
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 4.5.1: Modeling the Turbu-
lence Production. Gω represents the generation of ω, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 4.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence Production. Γk and Γω represent the effective dif-
fusivity of k and ω, respectively, which are calculated as described below. Yk and Yω
represent the dissipation of k and ω due to turbulence, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 4.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence Dissipation. Dω represents the cross-diffusion term,
calculated as described below. Sk and Sω are user-defined source terms.

Modeling the Effective Diffusivity

The effective diffusivities for the SST k-ω model are given by

µt
Γk = µ + (4.5-34)
σk
µt
Γω = µ+ (4.5-35)
σω

where σk and σω are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and ω, respectively. The
turbulent viscosity, µt , is computed as follows:

ρk 1
µt = h i (4.5-36)
ω max 1∗ , SF2
α a1 ω

where S is the strain rate magnitude and

1
σk = (4.5-37)
F1 /σk,1 + (1 − F1 )/σk,2
1
σω = (4.5-38)
F1 /σω,1 + (1 − F1 )/σω,2

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α∗ is defined in Equation 4.5-6. The blending functions, F1 and F2 , are given by

 
F1 = tanh Φ41 (4.5-39)
" √ ! #
k 500µ 4ρk
Φ1 = min max , 2 , (4.5-40)
0.09ωy ρy ω σω,2 Dω+ y 2
" #
1 1 ∂k ∂ω −10
Dω+ = max 2ρ , 10 (4.5-41)
σω,2 ω ∂xj ∂xj

 
F2 = tanh Φ22 (4.5-42)
" √ #
k 500µ
Φ2 = max 2 , (4.5-43)
0.09ωy ρy 2 ω

where y is the distance to the next surface and Dω+ is the positive portion of the cross-
diffusion term (see Equation 4.5-52).

Modeling the Turbulence Production

Production of k

The term G
e represents the production of turbulence kinetic energy, and is defined as:
k

e = min(G , 10ρβ ∗ kω)

G (4.5-44)
k k

where Gk is defined in the same manner as in the standard k-ω model. See Sec-
tion 4.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence Production for details.

Production of ω

The term Gω represents the production of ω and is given by

α e
Gω = Gk (4.5-45)
νt

Note that this formulation differs from the standard k-ω model. The difference between
the two models also exists in the way the term α∞ is evaluated. In the standard k-ω
model, α∞ is defined as a constant (0.52). For the SST k-ω model, α∞ is given by

α∞ = F1 α∞,1 + (1 − F1 )α∞,2 (4.5-46)

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where

βi,1 κ2
α∞,1 = ∗
− q (4.5-47)
β∞ ∗
σw,1 β∞
βi,2 κ2
α∞,2 = ∗
− q (4.5-48)
β∞ ∗
σw,2 β∞

where κ is 0.41.

Modeling the Turbulence Dissipation

Dissipation of k

The term Yk represents the dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy, and is defined in a
similar manner as in the standard k-ω model (see Section 4.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence
Dissipation). The difference is in the way the term fβ ∗ is evaluated. In the standard k-ω
model, fβ ∗ is defined as a piecewise function. For the SST k-ω model, fβ ∗ is a constant
equal to 1. Thus,

Yk = ρβ ∗ kω (4.5-49)

Dissipation of ω

The term Yω represents the dissipation of ω, and is defined in a similar manner as in

the standard k-ω model (see Section 4.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence Dissipation). The
difference is in the way the terms βi and fβ are evaluated. In the standard k-ω model,
βi is defined as a constant (0.072) and fβ is defined in Equation 4.5-24. For the SST k-ω
model, fβ is a constant equal to 1. Thus,

Yk = ρβω 2 (4.5-50)

Instead of having a constant value, βi is given by

βi = F1 βi,1 + (1 − F1 )βi,2 (4.5-51)

and F1 is obtained from Equation 4.5-39.

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Cross-Diffusion Modification
The SST k-ω model is based on both the standard k-ω model and the standard k- model.
To blend these two models together, the standard k- model has been transformed into
equations based on k and ω, which leads to the introduction of a cross-diffusion term
(Dω in Equation 4.5-33). Dω is defined as

1 ∂k ∂ω
Dω = 2 (1 − F1 ) ρσω,2 (4.5-52)
ω ∂xj ∂xj

For details about the various k- models, see Section 4.4: Standard, RNG, and Realizable
k- Models.

Model Constants
σk,1 = 1.176, σω,1 = 2.0, σk,2 = 1.0, σω,2 = 1.168

a1 = 0.31, βi,1 = 0.075 βi,2 = 0.0828

∗ ∗
All additional model constants (α∞ , α∞ , α0 , β∞ , Rβ , Rk , Rω , ζ ∗ , and Mt0 ) have the same
values as for the standard k-ω model (see Section 4.5.1: Model Constants).

4.5.3 Wall Boundary Conditions

The wall boundary conditions for the k equation in the k-ω models are treated in the
same way as the k equation is treated when enhanced wall treatments are used with
the k- models. This means that all boundary conditions for wall-function meshes will
correspond to the wall function approach, while for the fine meshes, the appropriate
low-Reynolds-number boundary conditions will be applied.
In ANSYS FLUENT the value of ω at the wall is specified as

ρ (u∗ )2 +
ωw = ω (4.5-53)
µ

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The asymptotic value of ω + in the laminar sublayer is given by

!
+ 6
ω = min ωw+ , (4.5-54)
βi (y + )2

where

  2
50

 ks+
 ks+ < 25
ωw+ = (4.5-55)

100
ks+ ≥ 25


ks+

where

ρks u∗
!
ks+ = max 1.0, (4.5-56)
µ

and ks is the roughness height.

In the logarithmic (or turbulent) region, the value of ω + is

1 du+turb
ω+ = q +
(4.5-57)
∗
β∞ dy

which leads to the value of ω in the wall cell as

u∗
ω=q (4.5-58)
∗ κy
β∞

Note that in the case of a wall cell being placed in the buffer region, ANSYS FLUENT
will blend ω + between the logarithmic and laminar sublayer values.

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