Professional Studies

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES LECTURE NOTES MOYO DUMISANI 2014/44
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PROFESSIONAL STUDIES
MR E PHIRI
23-01-2014
WHAT SI PREOFESSIONAL STUDIES
 It is a subject in teacher education dedicated to preparing and sustaining the core skills
of actual teaching and learning
 It mainly teaches the teacher trainee to test his/her knowledge, experiences and
experiments with the reality of actual classroom through doing
 It is concerned with walking the talk that is facilitating understanding, practising and
making appropriate adjustments until effectiveness
PROFESSIONAL STUDIES VALIDITY
 It lies in combining the theory with practise and coming up with a working tool that
both educate and trains the student teacher to be able to solve classroom challenges
 It is a subject that endeavours to marry theory and practise, train teachers the teaching
professional’s principles and ethics and the classroom pedagogic to achieve effective
teaching and learning
TEACHING AS A PROFESSION
 It exercises a high degree of responsibility in the way it fulfils the objectives formed
by the community which it is part
 Carrying out work founded upon a systematic body of knowledge and research
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 Having members people who are governed by a code of conduct and professional
ethics
 Requiring a length period of initial training complimented by in-service growth and
development
 Profession is an occupation which performs an essential social function to
accomplish this function it require a body of knowledge grounded on theory
 This acquisition of this body knowledge and development of specific skills and a
length of period of higher reduction
 The period of education and training involves the process of socialisation in
professional values centre on the pre-eminence of essential profession to exercise
autonomy of practise
 A profession id therefore one who has
I. A specialised knowledge base (technical culture)
II. Commitment to meeting client needs (service ethics)
III. Strong collective identity (professional commitment)
IV. Collegial as opposed to bureaucratic control over practise and
professional practice (professional autonomy)
 Professionals should possess a specialised skill enabling them to offer a specialised
service
 Undergo intellectual and practical training in a well defined area of study
 Maintain detachment and integrity in exercising personal judgement on behalf of a
client
 Establish direct personal relations with the client based on confidentiality, faith and
trust
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 Collectively have the sense of responsibility for maintaining the competence and
integrity of the profession as a whole
 Tend to or required to avoid certain manners of attracting business or delivering
service
 They are organised in bodies which with or without state intervention are concerned
to provide the machinery of testing competence and regulating standards of
competence and conduct
 Have unions that govern to some extent the operations of their members
TEACHER ETHICS AND PRINCIPLES
 Ethics are a moral code (right or wrong) a guidance of what is ought and wrong, what
we ought to do and what we ought not to do as far as the group members are
concerned
 The purpose of the code of ethics are to provide the basis for distinguishing
scrupulous from unscrupulous professional conduct
 Help orient the newly initiated practitioner into his professional obligations, right and
privileges
 Serve as a basis of professional etiquette that is for regulating the conduct between
practitioners as well as provide the profession with a basis for executing the
incompetent or unscrupulous or defending the practitioner who is unjustly attacked
 Also as a guide to lay persons for understanding the professional conduct and of the
practitioner
1st PRINCIPLE
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 Guide children and youth in pursuit of knowledge and skills, to prepare them in the
ways of democracy and help them become happy useful and self supporting citizens
in fulfilling this obligation the teacher skill
 Deal justly and impartially with students and encourage them to formulate and work
for higher goal in the development of their physical, moral, spiritual
 Deal justly and impartially regardless of their physical, mental, emotional, political,
economical, social, racial and religious affiliation
 Recognise the difference among students and encourage them to formulate and work
for higher goals in the development of their physical, moral, creative and spiritual
endowments
 Respect the right of every student to have confidential about himself withheld except
if released by law
 Accept no enumeration for tutoring except in accordance with employment conditions
2nd PRINCIPLE
 The members of teaching, profession share with parents the task of shaping each
student’s purposes and acts towards socially acceptable ends
 The effectiveness of many methods of teaching are dependently on the co-operative
relationship with the home the teacher shall respect the basic right and of the parent or
guardian and responsibility of their children
 Seek to establish a friendly relationship with the home
 Provide parents with information that will serve the best interests of their children and
be discreet with the information got from parents
 Keep parents informed about their children’s performance
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MR T NCUBE
13-05-2014
TEACHING METHODS
DISCUSSION METHOD OR SEMINAR
 It where by the teacher is not doing the talking as in the lecture method, the pupils do
most of the talking but in guided manner
 It is a method that which promote the exchange of ideas and opinions. (Gwarinda
1993:55)
WAYS OF MAINTAINING GOOD QAULITY DISCUSSION
 To maintain the good quality discussion the following points should be observed:
a. Stick to the topic
b. Respect the view point of others
c. Listen carefully when others are speaking
d. Use facts to support statement
e. Ask question when you do not understand
f. Let as many people as possible to take part in the discussion
g. Do not allow individuals to dominate the discussion
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 Gatawa 1990:78
WAYS OF HANDLING DISCUSSION METHOD
 A useful way of employing this method is to:
a. Divide the pupils into groups
b. Give the pupils the topic for discussion a day or two before the lesson is
executed
c. Give each group specific areas of research in preparation for the discussion
d. Have each group write down its major points on papers which can be
collected, assessed and filed at the end of the lesson
TYPES OF DISCUSSION METHODS
1. Small group discussion
 In this form the class is divided into small groups of about 5 members
 Each small group has a leader and secretary who writes down the points
 To develop an air of intimacy group members sit in a circle
 Individuals should not be allowed to monopolise the discussion
 It stimulates free exchange of ideas removes inhibition and encourages unity
of purpose among the pupils
2. Panel discussion
 The average of panel is 5 with an moderator to introduce the topic
 Each panel member gives a short statements of facts and opinions
 The audience is given an opportunity to ask question of panel members before
the moderator gives an summary of the main points made
3. Debates discussion
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 It focuses on the pause and cons of the issue
 There are two teams each of which argues for one side of the issue
 The points are presented alternatively by the teams
 The winning team is decided by two or three judges who must agree on the
team that has presented the strongest argument
 The teams are assessed by delivery, accuracy, precision of argument and
impact on the audience
 A debate is likely to be good and lively when there is a current topic that leads
to opposing points of view
 It helps students clarify their own thinking and develop skills of presenting
arguments in support of their thinking
 It helps pupils to appreciate different view points
MERITS OF THE DISCUSSION METHOD
 It is useful in the social sciences and literature where values and judgement rather
than ‘dry facts’ are predominant
 It helps to make pupils critical thinkers who develop values in a manner which makes
them internalise the values as ‘their own’
 The teacher acts as a guide without imposing his own views and this creates amicable
atmosphere between the teacher and the pupils
 Criticism and self-criticism are just developed in a sound pedagogical situation
 It turns to promote the socialist spirit of learning or working together since the ideas
of different people are aired and examined together conclusion being reached on the
basis of mutual agreement, or the result of better argument leading to the whole
group being convinced of their truth on a particular issue

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 It leads to critical awareness, teaching pupils to look at ideas and opinions in a
questioning style where one has to support one’s point view in a logical series
 There is less emphasis on right or wrong answer so that everybody enjoys a feeling of
satisfaction from their contributions
 It helps pupils to exhibit the capacity to formulate ideas, to exchange views, to
practice, to participate freely and willingly to take effective action and valid and
informed decision to solve problems. (Mkandla. V. A 2004:139)
GROUP WORK METHOD
 Jacinta and Regina (1983), define grouping as a flexible kind of classroom
arrangement for adjusting the curriculum to the children’s needs and abilities rather
than teaching the whole class as a unity with everyone learning at the same time. The
most common ones are the ability, mixed ability, interest, paired and social group
THE GROUP METHOD IN GENERAL
a. It involves dividing the class into small groups of 6 or so, pupils with a group
leader
b. Pupils should take turns of being group leaders
c. The groups ma y be permanent for all subjects or only for a certain subject
d. They can also be set up for a particular subject
TWO TYPES OF GROUP METHODS
1. Ability Grouping
2. Mixed Ability Grouping
Ability grouping
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 It is screening pupils according to their results or ability
 Ability groups is where by pupils are divided into groups according to their ability,
either general or according to performance in specific subjects
Merits of ability grouping
 Good performers learn in their (fast pace) whereas the under performers learn also in
their (slow pace)
 The teacher reaches each group accordingly giving different tasks to the different
groups
 Ability groups have the advantages of
i. Teaching to suit the pace of the people
ii. Allowing the teacher to give more attention to the slow learners
Demerits of ability grouping
 It can encourage elitism, put pupils into classes-were by the fats learners become a
special group which might be favoured by the teacher receiving more social rewards
and privileges
 There is likelihood for the teacher to ignore or write off the lower group as good for
nothing
 Factionalism might be encouraged in class as wrong feelings of superiority and
inferiority among the people arise thus destroying the collective spirit so essential in
socialist transformation
 It encourages competition which may be unhealthy in developing socialist beings
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 It limits the teacher’s room to employ the technique of children helping each other in
a mutual beneficial manner which is another important socialist principle. (Gwarinda
1993:67)
MR T NCUBE
14-05-2014
DISCUSSION METHOD (continued)
Mixed ability grouping
 Gwarinda (1993:67) he postulate that mixed ability grouping is based on the theory
that all pupils are able of something of value to both society and themselves hence
pupils are grouped in a such a way that each pupil can contribute to the learning
process in a meaningful and useful manner.
 He goes on to say that the pupils who is weak at agriculture maybe be outstanding in
poetry and vice-versa
 He contributes in what he excels and learns from others who excel in their work
area/subject
MERITS OF MIXED ABILITY GROUPING
a) It allows the strong students in an activity t help the weaker ones in a
cooperative manner
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b) It tends to eliminate the spirit of competition which is a capitalist social value
c) It tends to promote socialists emulation whereby the collective effort is held to
be more acceptable than individual glory
d) Therefore a progressive teacher should use mixed ability groups
ADVANTAGES OF GROUPWORK IN GENERAL
a) It enjoys the advantages of self determination, creativity, freedom and responsibility
within the group which include learning to search, organise, originate and
communicate ideas, information and experiencing
b) It promotes free participation and reduces strain, Cushing the slow learners, sustain
motivation and is opened to a variety of answers.(Mkandla 2004:27)
c) It is active it gives students a chance to use the methods, principles and the vocabulary
that they are being taught
d) Shy students who will not contribute to the full class can be usually be cohered into
contributing to a group
e) What is more there is a built in self checking and peer tutoring aspect to most group
work where errors in understanding are ironed out usually in a very supportive
atmosphere
f) Students can often do together what they did not achieve alone with each member of
the group providing part of the ‘jigsaw’ of understanding
g) It involves learners in task centred talking
h) It requires that learners process the new material and make personal sense of it
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i) Good group work hands the responsibility of learning over to the students
j) Students get a chance to practise a high order mental skills such as creativity,
evaluation, synthesis and analysis
k) They also practice ‘common skills’ such as the ability to communicate and work with
each other
l) In addition group work gives students a universally welcomed opportunity to get to
know each other
m) It can also arouse group loyalty especially if there is an element of completion and
this can produce strong motivation
n) The teacher is given an opportunity to make use of the views and experiences of
students
o) Students in group are more likely than individual students to think of all major
advantages or disadvantages of the accounting system for example and more likely to
get them right
p) Group members have confidence in group suggestions and so offer them for
discussion more readily
q) If the teacher have asked for the individuals contributions to be presented in class he
would have been given fewer suggestions and these would have been less way
thought out
r) The use of groups improves rapport between students giving all your classes a more
supportive atmosphere and trusting
s) Social activity is so universally enjoyed that group work promotes a positive attitude
to your teaching and to your subject
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t) Well managed group work greatly increases attention to task and develops subject
specific as well as vital communication and social skills.(Petty 2009 5 th Edition pg
219)
u) Hollugec (1998) – in their interaction with peers children and adolescent directly learn
attitudes, values, skills and information that is unobtainable from adults
v) Interaction with peers provide support, opportunities and moderns for personal
behaviours
w) Students educational aspirations are influenced more by peers than by any other social
influence
DEMERITS OF GROUP WORK
a) Johnson and Johnson (1988)- groups can go off on wrong direction and they can be
high jacked by a determent individual
b) Some group members may become passengers letting others take the lead
c) Whole group or whole class may become ‘riders’ if the teacher does not ensure that
they take responsibility of their work e.g. by effective monitoring and demanding
feedback
d) Mkandla (2004) – group work has an disadvantage of truancy, noise and disorder,
indiscipline, domination by one or two members, requires more time and delays are
frequent and the slow progress encourages restlessness among group members, while
right answers might be rejected by the group members
e) Large group up to 10 members are sometimes used because the pupils are already
sited in groups of 10 with one secretary as such the majority of the members will
remain uninterested participant or distant observers
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f) Pupils are usually pludged into group unnecessarily e.g. in class work pupils are asked
to list types of ball games
g) Most group work is noticeable either by high level of silence (especially in rural
schools) or by lack of exchange of ideas with the student teacher who normally
assumes observer status
15-05-2014
MR L MUTEMA
MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
MEASUREMENT
 Mwamwenda (1984:322) he defines measurement as, ‘the assigning of marks or credit
point to a person’s performance on a given task’.
 According to Downie (1987:3) measurement refers to, ‘the assigning of exact and
quantitative numbers to an object such as 2 kilograms, 4m.’
 It is a systematic procedure for scoring pupil’s against a given standard or an
achievement relative to the pupils learning objectives
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 It can also be viewed as the quantification of data or attaching of numerical value to
pupils work based on a criteria
 It is a process of obtaining a numeral value to performance or obtaining the degree to
which a pupil possesses a particular characteristic or trait
 It is quantitative in its approach
FRAME WORK OF EVALUATION
 Downie (1987: 3) defines evaluation as, ‘the placing of a value on something on the
basis of standard that have been set up.’
 Ogunniyi (1984:6) says, ‘evaluation is the appraisal of value or the estimation of work
of a process or program in order to reach meaningful decisions.’
 It is a process of assigning qualitative and quantitative judgements on given data or
characteristics
 It is a device used to determine the value or the worthiness of the process or program
under the prevailing circumstances
 Qualitative as part of evaluation – it seeks to record observations and quantitative –
being the use of numerical scores to value/judge the program or project or
performance
TEST
 Nunnally (1992:6) defines a test as, ‘a standardised situation that provides an
individual with a score.’
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 Steward (1987:123) says, ‘a test can be defined as an instrument for obtaining
quantitative information by means of where the students control of the subject matter
can be evaluated .’
 It is s series of task used to obtain a systematic observation presumed to be
representative of education, psychological traits or attributes
 It is an instrument that teachers use to measure the level of understanding amongst the
pupils/test takers
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
i. Measurement refers to quantitative descriptions which are test scores whereas
evaluation is qualitative and made up of value judgement of pupils performance
ii. Measurement is basically concerned with quantitative designs of performance
while evaluation is qualitative in nature
iii. Evaluation as a process also encompasses measurement
iv. Measurement stops at assigning numbers or scores to pupils work while
evaluation goes beyond this extent and assigns value to the scores
v. Evaluation shows how well or how badly a learner is performing
vi. As part of evaluation process a teacher may also assign grades to the scores e.g.
80-100% is A/Excellent, 70-79% B/Good etc.
vii. Evaluation is judgemental in nature
viii. Measurement tells us what pupils can do and what they cannot do as determined
by the scores obtained by the pupils
ix. Evaluation = quantitative descriptions of pupils performance (measurement) +
value judgement
x. Evaluation provides answers which lead to improvement of programs

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RATIONAL FOR MEASUREMENT AND EVALUTION
1. It enables teachers and administrators to determine the level in which pupils are
growing towards the goals desired by the community
2. Results of measurement and evaluation can be used in monitoring leaner’s progress
and predict learners potential
3. Evaluation of lesson plan enables the teacher to identify the strengths and weaknesses
in relation to the whole process of instructional activities
4. Measurement and evaluation enables teacher to identify the strength and weaknesses
of the learners and take remedial action
5. It provides data to show us where we are going and changes that are necessary to help
us get there
6. They provide the information needed to assist pupils acquire the critical skills and
knowledge expected by society
7. They provide useful information needed for decision making process e.g. recruitment
of stuff, placement and grouping of pupils, streaming, remedial and extension work
and staff employment etc.
8. Their results provide feedback that is very essential for pupils motivation
9. Their results can also be used for administrative purposes such as motivation and
promotion of teachers e.g. teachers who produce good results can be awarded with
incentives or salary increment or promoted to Deputy Head or H.O.D
10. They enable teachers to identify short comings and gaps in learners mastery of
content and skills
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MR T NCUBE
20-05-2014
CHART MAKING AND MAKING OF TEACHING AND LEARNING MODELS AND
THE RATIONAL FOR SUCH
REFERENCES
1. Allan. J (1989) Personal Management Skills, London : Keagan Page
2. Brown J. W and Lewis R. B and Harcelroad F. F (1995) A-V Instruction Materials
and Methods, New York: McGraw-Hill Company
3. Dale E. 1962 Audio Visual Methods in Teaching, New York: Holt, H
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4. Farrant J. S 1980 Principles and Practise of Education, Esssex: Longman
5. Gwarinda T. C (1993) The Practice of Teaching, Harare: College Press
6. Kasambira K. P. (1993) Teaching Methods, Harare: College Press
WHAT ARE TEACHING AIDS/MATERIALS
 Gwarinda (1993) says that, ‘teaching aids are additional materials used when using a
particular method to make learning easier’
 He says these aids are very important as they help the teacher to transmit the intended
message to the learners and it makes teaching more effective
WHAT IS A CHART
 Dale 1962 says that, a chart is a visual symbol for summarising, performing,
comparing, constructing other helpful services in explaining subject matter
 He says in short a chart is a diagrammatical presentation of an object
 He says we may draw a chart to clarify the relationship among individuals within an
organisation, the ingredients in a product/process the sequence of event in a historical
period
PURPOSE OF A CHART
 A chart as visual material can help make ideas and concept clearer
 Charts as visual instructional media can also make learning interesting and vivid
 A Chinese proverb tells us that 1 picture is worth a thousand words that is good audio
visual materials have eye and ear appeal, they capture learner’s attention and make
learning more effective
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 They promote motivation and retention of ideas (Clark and Star 1986 quoted from
Kasambira 1993)
 Chart like most of visual materials are used to give variety in lesson presentation and
avoid boredom amongst students
 It can help raise learning from verbalism to true understanding
 Pictures on charts may be used as springboard for class discussion or further study
and research, usually an entire lesson can be built around a single chart
 According to Farrant (1980:297) chats and pictures help to illustrate and bring a sense
of reality to what is taught whereas charts contain the lesson material itself, thus
picture are of use of stimulating interest crating correct impressions and bringing
lessons to life, they are aids in the true in sense
 They are more useful as a means of presenting the materials that is to be learnt in
memorable form and as such often play essential apart/ as a concluding part in a
lesson
 Brown Lewis and Harcelroad 1995: argue that, ‘ the purpose of any chart is to
visualise some ideas or concepts which may be more difficult to understand if taught
only through words.
* Charts serve to highlight important point and to provide an outline of materials
covered in a presentation
*Good charts often use an intermixture of pictures, drawings, graphs, cartoons,
diagrams and verbal
*Such visual reduce the amount of verbal explanation necessary understanding
interrelationships of data and the specific information presented.’
 Farrant 1980:298, gives 11 functions of a chart as follows:
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1. To provide information on a topic in the form of visual description
2. To stimulate conversation in language teaching
3. To illustrate key stages in the performance of a skill
4. To organise the information in such a way that understanding is deepened
5. To summarise knowledge on a topic
6. To show the relationship between different aspects of a subject
process/concept
7. To encourage skills of analysis
8. To present alternative solutions to a problem so as to encourage judgement
9. To modify behaviour and attitudes
10. To arouse interest
11. To stimulate discussion and further study
 Farrant (1980:297) concludes by saying, ‘in the argument of visual aids it is important
that in many languages the word for ‘I see’ and ‘I understand’ are the same, this is
because we understand when we have seen/visualised. It can then be said that the
most effective teaching aids are those which contribute a visual impression
HOW HUMANS RETURN FACTS/JUSTIFICATION FOR THE USE OF VISUAL AIDS
 Allan (1986:164) he state that the human animal communicate through the 5 senses as
follow:
i. Site 75%
ii. Hearing 30%
iii. Touch, taste and smell 12%
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 He continues to say that individual will recall 10% of what they hear, 20% of what
they see, 65% of what they see and hear after 3 days thus to extend the retention to
use visual, audio effects to be used
21-05-2014
MR T NCUBE
CHART MAKING AND WHY VISUAL AUDIO METHODS SHOULD BE USED
 According to Allan 1
 IN SUPPORT OF Allan 1981, Kasimbira (1992:91)contents that, ‘well used visual
aids can be active teaching tools, they can motivate, interpret, supplement and
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reinforces one’s lessons, they should always be kept up to date and aimed at the
current lessons'
CHART MAKING
 Dale (:327) he argues that, ‘the surface on a chart is prepared can be selected from a
wide assortments of a paper, board, cloth and other materials available in the school
or stationery.’
 Gloss surfaces sometimes produce blur/clear pictures
 Papers with too soft texture may cause ink to run
 A reliable stationer can help the teacher to choose the materials that are practicable as
well as economically
HOW TO MAKE A CHART
 Once you have chosen your right sheet of paper or board plan the overall arrangement
of your chart
 Sketch lightly in pencil all the elements to be included and then check your work
against the following questions:
a. Is the chart easy to read?
b. Is it simple or its complicated?
c. Are the elements crowded?
d. Will the colour clarify or complicate the total effect?
e. Revise your 1st arrangement in the light of these questions often by choosing
simple words, shorter sentences and other simplifications
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 After the final plan is reached proceed with the work and then check again
 If you wish you may add colour for emphasise or for other minor improvements
 When you make a chart you symbolise by arranging materials visually in a clarifying
manner that is a good chart must be easy for students to see and it must be simple
 A chart should not include too many details
POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN MAKING A CHART
 Seven factors must be considered when making chart:
I. What materials are to be presented
II. Is it a type which can be shown well in a chart form, if so which type?
III. Digest the material and be sure you are familiar with its major points and their
implications
IV. In most cases only the major points can be shown on charts
V. If the chart is for use as an overview early in a unit or concept it may show
several different points very briefly
VI. If the chart is a summary the information on it should be quite specific
VII. If more than one chart is to be made to cover the topic to the visualised select
the good sequence and prepare the necessary separate charts (Brown LEWIS
and HeartlyHOOD 1995)
HOW TO USE A CHART
 Kasmbira (1993:92) advises the teacher to consider the following points before he
uses it :
I. Does it fit the purpose
II. Is it relevant and important to the lesson
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III. Is it accurate
IV. Can its point be easily understood
V. Is the size, colour, quality such that it is easily visible
VI. Simplicity, clarity, dramatic impact of a chart are its key stones
VII. When making a chart avoid long and crowded writing
VIII. Right or print legible large enough to be seen by all pupils but be consistently
IX. Keep the lines of writing reasonable straight
X. Write information on the chart before the lesson begins
XI. Jamison (1978) in Kasambira (1993:88) advices the teacher that, ‘to be sure
that the aid (chart) is effective and appropriate, it is the important to try it out
before using in the class
HOW TO ACCESS THE QAULITY OF A VISUAL AID
 Farrant (1980:298) advices teachers to observe the A,B,C tests of a good visual aid by
asking themselves the following question:
SECTION A
I. Is it accurate and up to date in every detail?
II. Is it appropriate for the age, ability, interest of those to whom it will be used and
also for the intended purpose?
III. Is it artistic and well produced pleasing to the learners
SECTION B
I. Is it brief containing essentials without irrelevances?
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II. Is it bold in presentation so that every user can see it clearly and is left with
memorable impression?
III. Is it bright using colour to the best effect
SECTION C
I. Is it careful in its plan and production giving it a deserved question of good
quality
II. Is it clean and well cared for with any damage already repaired
III. Is it clear so that every user can quickly grasp what it has to say
MODELS
 Dale 1996:28) defines a model as a recognisable imitation of the real thing usually
similar to the original in everything except size
 Farrant (1980:300) explains that, ‘models are often made to look just like the real
thing, these are called scale models
 He continues to sat sometimes a model is designed to demonstrate a process or a
concept, such models are called diagrammatic
 When models are constructed so that they actual work, they are called working
models
PURPOSE OF MODELS
 They can simplify the real thing they represent and make it easier for the child to
understand
 The study and work involved in the models can be a very worthwhile experience
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 Model making in school should not be looked upon as a waste of time because what
the learners from it is of value
POINTS TO REMEBER WHEN MAKING A MODEL
 According to Kasambira he says, in providing a model for classroom use the teacher
should consider the following questions
I. Does if fit the purpose
II. Is it relevant in providing lesson
III. Is it accurate
IV. Can its points be easily understood
V. Is the size. Quality, colour such that it is visible
MODEL CONSTRUCTION
 Most models which are used in the classroom should be constructed by the learners
themselves during learning time so that learners learn more about their construction
and use
 Models should be made by pupils in their groups not as individuals so that they assist
each other in interpreting the construction of guidelines and that will help them learn
and understand the model in detail
 When pupils are making models in their groups teachers should make sure that all the
required materials are provided
 All made models should be displayed in the classroom, discussed, looked out, marks
awarded
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 All models should be displayed in the classroom so that the learners have chance to
see, touch and discuss them in detail, in groups, pairs and in class with the assistance
of the teacher
 Teachers should guide against the too dangerous faults that might hinder pupils from
benefiting from model constriction
a. That pupils may spend so much time creating the model that they neglect the
things they learn
b. That inaccurate models may give pupils wrong concepts/impressions
c. Teacher should be on guard against incorrect proportions historically in
accuracies and other details that may mislead pupils
STUDENT TASK
I. Why is it always advisable to use visual aids in lesson delivery?
II. What are the characteristics of a good chart?
III. Kasambira 1993 contends that, ‘charts can help raise learning from verbalism to true
understanding.’ To what extent to you with this contention?
IV. Brown e and Heartlyroad (1995) argue that there are several points a teacher should
consider when making a relevant and good charts. Which are those points?
V. Lessons taught without any learning/teaching aids are dull and objectives are hardly
achieved. Discuss?
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MESUREMENT AND EVALUATION (continued)
Purposes of testing
 Diagnostic purpose
*search for learning hindrances or barriers
*seeks to find out the problems test takers have in the content covered
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*focuses on the most common sources of error
*it is investigative in its nature
 Placement purpose
*it seeks to find out if certain pre-requisite skills or attributes are present within learners
*it also measures the extent to which the learners have already achieved planned
instructions
*predicts one’s learning abilities in future and to determine one’s success in future
 Selection purposes
* it seeks to pout learners into ability groups
*it separate learners based on their performance
*used as form of classification or forming
*used for carrier purposes and the selection based on the subject passed
*used for guidance and counselling purpose
 Research purposes
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*a test informs educators on the effectiveness of teaching methods e.g. the
action/qualitative research
*accountability
*test results tend to be used to compare fees and results
 Certification purpose
*Test are used to give final examination
*motivation purpose through certification
TYPES OF TESTS
 There are 2 broad classes of tests namely:
a. Essay / subjective
b. objective
Class 1 – Objective test
 Gwarinda 1993:171 says an objective test, ‘a test which only one answer is correct
and no other answers can be considered an alternative as far as the assessment is
concerned.’
 Restricts the learner’s response to a number of symbols, words, phrases or simple
sentences
 It seeks to cover what the essay test fails to cover
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 It is very highly reliable (reliability is its strongest quality)
Class 2 – Subjective test
 It is sometimes referred to as essay/constructive tests
 The learners construct their response using their creativity
 It allows free and extended written response to a question by the learner
 It is highly subjective which is its major weakness
Types of objective tests
1. Supply item tests/open ended/structured
 Require student to provide missing information using a word or a phrase
 It aims at determining the students ability to recall/recognise concepts within a
given frame work
 Should be devoid of verge instructions and lengthy statements
Advantages of structured tests
I. Cover a wide range area of the syllabus
II. It is easy to administer, mark and score
III. Highly objective
IV. Very highly reliable in scoring
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Selection item test
 They give the learners 2 options e.g. yes or no, true or false
 Before the student attends the questions, the probability of getting the answer is
already 50%
Advantages
I. Easy to construct, mark and have a very high level of reliability and objectivity
II. Content validity is guaranteed
III. You can cover a wide range of content
IV. Very rare to get way ward answers
Matching item tests
 Consists of a series of statement s in one column to be associated with another series
in a second column
 Pupils are required to pair items which are related as per the demand of the concept
 A choice is to be made from amongst a set of alternatives
 The items might consists of several terms in a column and a list of definition in
another column
 The two lists can be equal in numbers (simple) and be unequal (complex)
Advantages
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I. Cover a wide range of content
II. It is easy to administer, mark and score
IV. Very highly reliable in scoring
V. Easy to construct
Multiple choice
 Made up of 3 components namely:
1. Stem
2. Key
3. Destructors
 Stem can be in the form of question or incomplete statement
 Has a number of alternatives given, one of which is the key the other alternatives are
wrong known as destructors
Advantages
I. Syllabus coverage is high
II. Easy to administer, mark and score
IV. Highly reliable in scoring
V. Easy to construct, mark and have a high level of reliability and objectivity
VI. Content validity is guaranteed
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MRS SHOKO
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27-05-2014
TEACHING METHODS (continued)
LECTURE METHOD
Definition
 Gwarinda (1993:53) the lecture method is known as, ‘the informative or expositional
method because it seeks to inform the learner or expose facts to him.’
 It involves the teacher delivering facts to the pupils by talking, the pupils are regarded
as receptacles teams into which these facts are poured and so they are condemned to
passivity by merely listening to the teacher
 The facts are expected to be reproduced by the pupils in a test and an examination
Appropriate uses of lecture method
1. The skill can be used t0o introduce a lesson, activity, unit or a concept
2. The teacher can use the skill to motivate pupils by joking
3. The teacher can use the skill to explain some difficult points in the materials being
studied
4. Te skills can be used to bridge the gaps between topics and units
5. It can also be used to establish a general point of view or to point out a different point
of view
6. It can be used to summarise a presentation, activity or a unit of work
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How to use lecture method fruitful
I. The teacher must make the pupils as comfortable as possible so that their attention is
not distracted by physical discomfort
II. It is important to limit the amount of facts that are intended for absorption by the
pupils
III. Illustrating materials mist be used to help the learners to have a clearer grasp of what
is to be explained
IV. Side tracking must be avoided as this makes the pupils concentration stray from the
main point
V. It is very easy when using the lecture method to talk at the pupils rather than talking
to or with them so that the teacher can talk above their heads instead of effectively
communicating the information to them
VI. In a situation where by the attention of the class is failing, it is wise for a teacher to
say something simulative e.g. a joke or employ bodily gestures that seem to aid the
point you are discussing or consolidate the chief points of the lesson
VII. The teacher can use the story telling as a lighter method of lecturing and where
appropriate to capture the attention and interest of the pupils especially form ones and
twos
VIII. The teacher should keep watching out for a flagging audience that is the teacher must
be alert so as to notice the lack o pupils interest and then try by all means to keep
pupils interested in learning
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Word of advice to the teacher
 The golden rule is simply to avoid the lecture method as far as possible
 It is a very difficult method which appears deceptively simple and infect is it the rare
teacher that can use it successfully to make pupils really learn
How the lecture method should be implemented
 According to Kasambira (1993:43) most lecture can vastly improve and simplified
by :
I. Organising the content into few major concepts (3or5)
II. Ordering the concept in a logical or natural sequence
III. Limiting the lecture to 10-15 minutes
IV. Providing tasks that require all students to use concepts
V. Summarising major concepts
Weakness of the lecture method
 According to Kasmbira (1993:42), lectures are boring, do not involve the learners are
poorly organised focus on the lowest level of cognition and do not recognise
individual differences
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 Lecture also produce excess anxiety among students more than is produced by other
methods of teaching
 Many teachers chose the lecture method as an opportunity to show off their
knowledge so as to satisfy their egos, these teachers tend to be overly formal and
authoritative and their lectures are overly structured
 Many teachers often stress technical points instead of interpreting or relating
information
 At times teachers may not be receptive to students comments that question their
knowledge
 The lecture method is generally not an effective method for stimulating interest,
promoting creativity or helping students develop responsibility or imagination
 The lecture is not a good approach for helping students to develop skills in
synthesising, internalising or expressing themselves
 The lecture is only effective for immediate cognitive gain and significantly less
effective for retention over a period of three weeks or longer
 According to Gwarinda (1993:54) the weakness of lecture method are:
 It tense the teacher to overload pupils with facts
 It is difficult to maintain the pupils interest and attention by using this method
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 The only activity that pupils that can be involved in is not taking (as against of not
making) during which process pupils act like recording machines without digesting
the learning material
 Teacher merely read out or detect their readymade notes to the pupils
 Teachers who chose to use this method usually employ monotonous voice which is
tire some to the pupils
 Very little of what has been merely listened to can be retained by the pupils
 Lecture method generally appeals to the teacher because it appears to save time and
labour (preparing learning aids for pupils activity where large classes are involved)
Strengths of lecture method
 It is the superior technique for demonstrating models and clarifying matters confusing
to students
 A short lecture effectively introduces and summarises the major concepts presented in
a lesson
 It is significantly superior in its ability to set the atmosphere or focus for student’s
activities
 It is an extremely an effective way to introduce schemes of work or to build a frame
of reference
 It afford the teacher an opportunity to collect related information and to assemble it
into a meaningful and intellectually manageable frame work
Personal notes
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1. Gatawa B S N 1990 The Politics of the school Curriculum
2. Gwarinda T C 1993 The Practise of Teaching
3. Kasmbira 1993 Lesson Planning and class manangment
4. Mkandla V A 1996 Professional Studies Getting the job done
GROUP PROJECT METHOD
 A project is a plan of group of people to take part in a scheme or an activity together
 Kasambira (1993) student participation in cooperative group projects has a powerful
effect on the group atmosphere in a classroom
 When student are given an opportunity to meet their basic needs for action
socialisation and security by participation in activities involving cooperative effort,
the standards the group develops emphasise the cooperation of the students s
 Such activities provide means of changing the group structure by breaking down
cliques and preventing the isolation of individual
 Activities which are suitable for groups projects have 3 characteristics:
I. The required cooperative effort of 2 or more students
II. They are socially motivating
III. They are meaningful
 The teachers role in group project is to help students with their planning, preparation
and presentation of group projects
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MRS SHOKO
28-05-2014
GROUP PROJECT METHOD (continued)
Teacher’s role
 The teacher should make sure that the activities used as group projects are
sufficiently interesting that just doing them is reward enough
 He should not have to rewards such as grades or points to encourage students to
participate
 An activity will be usually be motivating if it provides students with an opportunity
too e acting to socialise and to feel confident
Weaknesses
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 While it provides a very rewarding experience for both students and teachers there is
no doubt that it may be time consuming
 It may be expensive in some cases
 Unless the teacher has some good management skills, this method may cause a lot of
disciplinary problems
Strengths
 In spite of its drawbacks the group work method has a lot of potential for the
classroom. Among its strength is the fact that it provides opportunities group moral,
cooperation among students, for students to share ideas and to see and product of their
efforts
CASE STUDY
 Best and Whan (1996) case study is a way of organising social data for the purpose of
viewing social reality
 It requires a collection of very extensive data in order to produce an in depth
understanding of the entity being studied
 The researcher attempts to examine an individual or unity in depth gathered data
about the present status, past experiences and environmental forces that contribute to
the behaviour of individual or social unity and ho these factors relate to one another
e.g., all types of individuals – alcoholic, drug addicts, members of profession,
members of social classes
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 It examine a social unity as a whole
 The unit may be a person, family, a social group/constitution or a community
 It probes deeply and analysis interactions between factors that explain present factors
or that influence change or growth
 It is a longitudinal approach showing development over a period of time
 Data may be gathered in by a variety of methods which include:
i. Observation by the researcher or his informants of physical characteristics,
social qualities or behaviours
ii. Interviews with subjects relatives, friends, teachers, counsellors and others
iii. Questionnaires, opinionnaires
iv. Recorded from newspapers, school quotes, clinic, government agencies
Clinical case study
 Teachers conduct clinical case studies, to determine why a given child is having
difficult e.g. with reading, failing to concentrate
 This approach is aimed at understanding a particular type of individual such as a child
with a specific learning disability
 Such case studies usually employ clinical interviews and observations but may also
involve testing and other forms of data collection
 The usual goals are the better understand the individual and the disability and identify
possible treatments
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Example of a case study which can be done by a teacher
Guide lines to Successful Teaching Buterwork (1990)
1. Physical development
 General health of the child
 Height and weight
 Obvious physical handicapped
 Childhood illness or accidents
2. Security
 To what extent do you think the pupils feel at home or at school
 Is the child safe and secure in the school
 General mental health of child
3. Social development
 Relationship with friends
 Relationship with the opposite sex
 Relationship with teachers
4. Judicial development
 General behaviour codes
 Self discipline
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 How often is the pupils punished at home or at schhol
5. Intellectual development
 Ability to think and reason
 Study methods
 Scholastic achievements
6. Religious development
 Attendance of church services
 His/her evaluation of his/her religiousness
7. Ethical moral development
 His/her action
 Ethical moral school records
8. Cultural development
 Cultural activities he/she practises in the school or home
9. Aesthetic
 Neatness of her dress, books or personal appearance
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10. Economic development
 Socio-economic status of the pupil (rich or poor)
 He/she quick to borrow money from other students
Advantages
 Attempts to understand an individual or a unit in depth
 Often provides an opportunity for a researcher to develop insight into basic aspects of
human behaviour
 Helps the researcher to formulate a fruitful or a set of hypothesis
Limitations
 They are as subjective as data collected by other research method
 Although the method attempts to examine the individual in depth it inevitably lacks
breadth
 It is impossible to either confirm or refute through empirical study, the findings and
result of particular case study
 A worthwhile case study can rarely be completed by a single individual, it usually
requires a team of experts which would include psychologists, physicians, teachers,
parents, social workers and the researcher
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Community case study
 It is when you are studying a particular community’s customs, beliefs, values,
religious practises, culture
 It is the thorough observation and analysis of a group of people living together in a
particular geographic location in a cooperate way
 It deals with elements of community life as location, appearance, prevailing economic
activity, climate and natural resources, historical development, mode of life, social
structure, goals of life, values and patterns
 The individuals or power groups that exert the dominant influence and the impact of
the outside world e.g. religious group, occupation, health, recreation
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MR PHIRI
03-06-2014
TEACHING METHODS
DEMONSTRATION METHOD
 It involves showing by reason and proof, explaining or making clear buy use of
examples or experiments
 It is a way of explaining through live display using apparatus or models
 TELLING plus DOING plus SHOWING equal to DEMONSTARTION
 It is a method of teaching HOW? By SHOWING HOW
 It teaches by exhibition and explaining
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 It shows learners hoe to do a task using sequential instruction with the end goal of
having learners perform the task independently
 It is a visualised explanation of facts, concepts and procedures
 It is live teaching
 It is the phase where you show by doing the task or procedure and the student watches
and learns
 It is called live teaching, the act should be perfect at all costs hence the need to
practice before demonstration
PURPOSE OF DEMONSTARTION
 Teaching a skill, concept, a principle or a procedure in any field or disciploine
 delicate and dangerous experiments involving careful manipulation
 experiments involving difficult and complex operations
 use costly apparatus
 when u want to show the execution of a skill and showing the right way of doing the
task
TYPES OF DEMOSTATION
METHO DEMONSTRATION RESULT DEMONSTRATION

 These show how to do something.  These are intended to show by
They involve the materials used in the example the result of some practice
job being taught, show what is done by means of evidence that can be
and explain each step as it is taken. It seen, heard and felt. These can be
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can be for a short period of time seen In production procedures and
result demonstration take a lengthy
period
 it is concerned with the process  it is concerned with the end result or
outcome or output

PROCESS OF DEMONSTRATION
 It can be broken into 5 basic processes
I. Explanation
II. Demonstration
III. Student performance
IV. Instructor supervision
V. Evaluation
EVALUATION
 It is a phase where the theoretical frame work, justification and explanations are given
on procedure of the task or concepts
 The teacher is giving the background and why it is being done and gives the coaching
points
Student’s performance
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 This is the time when the learner is actually performing what he/she witnessed
without the assistance of the demonstrator
 The student performance should take the bulk of the time after the teacher has
demonstrated
 Let them make mistakes and correct themselves its part of learning
Instructor supervisor
 He/she supervises the demonstration by the student, correcting, advising, coaching,
pointing out the best way of doing it and offering a one to one, face to face correction
and commendation
Evaluation
 It is the last stage of the demonstration where you assess the weakness of the whole
process
 Was the theory understood?, was the demonstration above board?, what were the
student’s challenges and strengths are
 Do something the challenges and reinforce the positive
Advantages
 Concrete things are shown, so students do not enter into false imagination as it
happens in a lecture
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 Students gat confident in the application of scientific principles as they observe them
and not simply her about them
 It utilises several senses at once, the sense of seeing, hearing and of touch
(psychomotor skills)
 Stimulates the interest of the learner and makes the student get motivated
 It helps the student to reinforce the theory
 Learnt through practise
 Demonstration is the best when the apparatus is few and the students are many
 The method is aligned to the principle, learning is more in seeing that in hearing,
learning is more in doing than in seeing and hearing
Disadvantages
 The demonstrator may fail to execute the skill
 If not well [planned it tends to be teacher centred and students are sidelined
 There is general limitation of the student’s input its mainly the teacher’s voice
 Require a lot of preparation on the part of the teacher, as he/she has to do the DRY
RUN
 Some demonstration happen too fast, concurrently and students may focus on the
other unimportant features
 If not well planed it can be a teacher centred and teacher dominated and this will not
benefit the students at all
 Equipment may fail and demonstration is then affected and the whole lesson is ruined
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Guidelines for effective demonstration
I. Specify the objectives of the demonstration
II. Prepare a plan for your demo listing the various steps in a proper sequence
III. Decide what information should be presented to the students BEFORE, DURING and
AFTER the demonstration
IV. Choose appropriate equipment and tools for demonstration that your student will use
for their practical
V. Practise and rehearse the presentation and be satisfied it works
VI. Arrange the physical setting so that each students will be able to see clearly
VII. Arrange the equipment to be demonstrated in order, keep the equipment to be used on
the left and the used on the right
VIII. Use a pointer to highlight the details or the specific features in a experiment or in an
equipment
IX. Demonstrate step by step, match explanation with manipulation, avoid lengthy
explanations
X. Provide opportunities for students to participate and give them the MOST TIME
XI. Do not show a demonstration on how NOT to do a particular skill
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MR PHIRI
04-06-2014
HUMOUR IN THE CLASSROOM
PURPOSES OF HUMOUR
 It serves a variety of purposes and function beyond simply making people laugh
 It builds class cohesion, groups, unity and relaxation
 Learners respond to humour positively and in turn they respond positively to one
another
 It is used to criticise the person and soften it, it is bound to be received positively
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 There is a high correlation between humour and the concept of understanding
 Humorous materials and items used in the tests showed that the learners scored highly
 Humour in the classroom is seen as an necessary ingredient for effective classroom
instruction
 There is excellent retention in all subjects through humour
Types of humour
The contextual humour
 It is related to the material/concept that is being taught
 These can be funny stories
The spontaneous humour
 It takes place in class without prior planning
 It is just impromptu , unintentional can take the form of riddles or jokes
 Humour in general it positively affects the level of attention and actual draws
interest
 It makes students to enjoy the lesson
Disadvantages
 It result in negative results when it is negative
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 In appropriate humour that manipulates
 Humour can denigrate the students
DRAMA
 There are various forms of the drama which ca be used in the claroom:
I. Role play
 it referred to as personification o a character
 The learner is given the opportunity to look at the situation at a different angle
II. Puppetry
 It is where the puppeteer moves the puppets and goes o to speak on their
behalf
III. Musical
 Here actors sing to express themselves
 It can used with the puppet
 Exchange of words is minimal
IV. Miming
 Use of signs only
 There is action only
V. Poetry
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 It is very catchy and motivates the students
 It is when learners recite a stanza or stanzas of a learnt poem or on subject or
topic that is being covered
VI. Music
 Can be used in the classroom
 The rhythmic nature and the tune of the son helps the students to grasps the
concept
 The mnemonic appeal of the song motivates the children
TASK
1. Press conference
2. Market square
3. Case study
4.
MR M MOYO
10-06-2014
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FIELD TRIP STRATYEGY / EXCURSION METHOD
Definition
 Gwarinda 1993 says a field trip is another form of live teaching where by pupils visit
a particular place of an educational value e.g. the historical ruins, museums, national
parks or any other place of educational value to the learner
 Beach (1980) posits that a field trip is a structured activity that occurs outside the
classroom
 A filed trip is a visit to a place outside the regular classroom which is designed to
achieve certain objection / learning outcomes which cannot be achieved by using
other means
Approach
 It is a method or manner of doing something
 Core cliché – a rhyme that helps you remember a concept
Core cliché
 If I here I forget, if I see I remember, if I do I know
 20% of listening
 30% from what we see
 50% from what we see and hear
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Features of the field trip
i. They facilitate the learning of abstract concept – make pupils to learn effectively
ii. Helps pupils to internalise concepts much better about things they see better than what
they learn theoretical
iii. Motivate students through increased interest and curiosity
iv. Add variety of regular classroom instructional program and they tend to be special
and enjoyable learning experiences
v. Learners are taught by a stranger meaning that it is not only the educational
environment which is refreshing and new but also an expert is parting knowledge to
the pupil
vi. It increase pupil to pupil and pupil to teacher interaction
vii. There is active participation of pupils in the lesson and during pupil to pupil
interaction pupils exchange views or ideas
viii. Concrete media helps the learners to appreciate and internalise the concept faster than
illustrations
How do you involve pupils in the field trip?
i. They develop social awareness - makes children aware of learning activities in
everyday life
ii. Make pupils use discovery learning
iii. Learners are involved in groups task which enhance them to develop skills such as
tabulating, concluding, graphing, observing, recording, reporting
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Purpose of a field trip
i. Bring about variety in learning which is necessary when dealing with young minds
ii. It helps in making the concepts real through concrete evidence and introduces element
of novelty which encourages a high level of attention
iii. For the pupils to actual experience the places for themselves which is a form of live
teaching
iv. Transfer history, geography, etc. from a familiar and often
v. Educating youths about their local history, religions, shrines
vi. Breaks down the barriers between the theoretical work at school and the real social
world outside school
vii. Enhance the curriculum
viii. Involvement in real world experiences makes learning more meaningful and
memorable comparing to regular classroom instructional program
ix. Give learners experimental learning experience
x. Concrete skills such as note taking are developed, learners have to develop questions
to ask, write reports, write thank you letters, evaluate their experiences so by doing
such activates will be enhanced
xi. Help learners to appreciate the relevance and the importance of what they learn in the
classroom
Steps involved in conducting the field trips
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 Identify objectives and plan of evaluation of the field trip
 Select site to be visited and arrange date and time
 Conduct pre visit if possible to familiarise yourself with the major feature of the field
and obtain address, direction, contact person or mobile numbers
 Apply for administrative approval and file requisition for transportation
 Make arrangements for meals and make a schedule of the day
 Arrange special equipment like cameras
 Inform parents about the trip so that they can allow you to take their pupils outside the
school – by sending indemnity forms
 Create a list of students names and home phone numbers for emergency
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MR T MKANTJO
17-06-2014
QUESTIONING TECHNIC
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DEFINITION
 It is an oragative statement with a view
 It may also be a gesture intended to get response in the form of an answer
 It is the ability by a teacher to frame and distribute a variety of questions among the
learners to obtain answers from pupils as well as in invite questions from pupils
 It may also be viewed as teaching through interrogation to put across specific
concepts, knowledge and skills
 Questioning is thus teaching, learning, full interrogation to extended the learner’s
capacity to think and solve problems or develop more critical or rational
consciousness
Characteristics of good questions
I. Good questions are worded in clear, precise and suitable terms to fit the abilities
and ages of pupils
II. Good questions should be not be general and verge
III. Good questions should be encouraging
IV. They should be well worded and thought of in advance
V. They are intended to get correct responses
VI. They are valid in time
Purpose of questions
 They can e used to
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I. Arouse interest and focus attention of the pupils to learning tasks at the beginning
of a lesson
II. Elicit from the pupils, the prior knowledge of the learning area to be introduced
enhance help pupils to develop the ability to think and solve problems
III. Help to make learning of new information more meaningful
IV. Allow pupils to take active part in the lesson
V. Encourage pupils to ask their own questions
VI. Help pupils to clarify what may not be clear and elaborate in the lesson
VII. Help to determine areas in which pupils are experiencing some difficulties and
provide feedback
VIII. Help to determine the success of a lesson
IX. Reinforce key points and evaluate at the end of the lesson the pupil’s learning
X. To stimulate thinking, interest and curiosity
XI. To create new knowledge
XII. To mix certain psycho-social needs like attitudes, change, communication and
rapour
XIII. To revise the lesson taught
Purpose and timing of question
 Many different question should be asked during a lesson
 Each stage of a lesson demands a different type of a question
 For a question to be effective it must be phrased in just the right way and asked just
in the right time
 When a question is asked an answer is expected
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Purpose of question when introducing a lesson
 Arousingg interests and curiosity
 Determining what pupils already know
 Motivating pupils to participate in the activities
 Establishing the relevance to the topic
 Putting the topic in context
 Relating the topic to pupil’s interest
 reviewing previous lessons
Purpose of questions in developing the lesson
 You are ascertaining the level of understanding
 Renewing and maintain interests
 Clearing up confusion
 Encouraging the exchange of experience
 Stimulating possible solution to the problems
 Stimulating independence and critical thinking
 Helping pupils make connection between existing knowledge and new knowledge
 Helping pupils to refocus their thinking
 Helping pupils make comparisons
 Helping pupils make inferences or deductions
Purpose of questions in concluding the lesson
 Help pupils review what they have learnt
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 Clarifying any misunderstanding
 Identifying gaps in knowledge
 Deciding what to do next
Levels of questioning
i. Recall or knowledge level
 This is the lowest level of learning mostly used for evaluation or mastery
 This is the remembering go previously learnt information
 Pupils are expected to state, name, identify, list, define and recognise
 At this level understanding is not tested but the pupils ability to memorise and to
recall
ii. Comprehension level
 It is the ability to grasp the meaning of material
 It involves the use of specific rules , concepts and methods in situations typical of
those used in class and text books
 At this level the pupils demonstrate that they have understood the content since
they have make use of the content in a visible performance e.g. translation,
interpretation of facts or calculating using appropriate formula
 To identify patterns, state reasons for, convert information, state advantages and
disadvantages, explain, demonstrate and to illustrate
 It is from this level that behaviour becomes complex and pupils need the
additional experience to be able to solve new problems in new situation
iii. Application level
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 It is the ability to select learnt rules, concepts and methods in new and concrete
situations
 Pupils are expected to calculate, relate, show, use, produce, solve, use graphs and
to use information given to solve problems
 It is a specific visible application of knowledge, skills and attitudes
iv. Analysis level
 It is the ability to break content into parts and identify its organisation, structure
and relationships between parts
 To separate the whole into its components
 Pupils are expected to show in the form of diagrams and charts, to break down,
distinguish, differentiate, infer, separate and to subdivide
Types of question and techniques
A. Lower order questions
 Mostly knowledge and skill application
 These require pupils to remember specific facts or informstion which have been
previously taught or which are from general knowlgde
B. Higher order questions
 Mostly judgement, synthesis, evaluation and justification
 Demand higher levels of thinking
 To arrive at a response pupils have to manipulate or transform information for
some purpose
 They may have to compare, explain or evaluate
C. Open questions
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 Variety of responses are accepted
 In some cases there is no correct answer
 Sometime a longer answer perhaps a sentence or more
D. General questions
 These are lower order question relying on recall such as what, where, who, when
 Are of a factual nature based on retention or memory rather than reasoning
 Useful in introducing the lesson before moving on to the concept
 Useful in bringing facts which are considered necessary for application to the
solution of other problems or the understanding of new materials
E. Diverging questions
 Designed to encourage pupils to think divergently and to express their own
feelings about certain issues
 Do not have single answers
 Require pupils to think creatively, live the comfortable compiles of the known
and to get into the world of the unknown
 Though open ended they relate to the topic being discussed
 Allows pupils to be creative and imaginative
F. Probing questions
 It means investigating something or examine penetratingly
 These challenge pupils to think more deeply
 Requires pupils to justify or clarify in some detail their original answer or
statement
 Requires or forces pupils to go beyond the information given in the answer

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Techniques to be followed in questioning
 the suitable techniques to follow are
i. preparation of question before the lesson begins
 this will help the wording of question to be precise and show that question
vary in level of difficulty
 organise the questions in a logical sequence and be prepared to deal with
unexpected
ii. using questions that cover the subject step by step
iii. putting the question to the whole group and posing briefly so that all the pupils
have a chance to think
iv. naming the pupils to respond from those who have raised their hands to
discourage chorus answers
v. avoiding the temptation to follow the question with another, rewarding, qualifying
or even explaining the questions such a habit confuses pupils
vi. giving praise for correct responses, remarks such as good, thus right, yes, correct
and no verbal cues e.g. gestures, nodding of the head and facial expressions can
save the purpose
vii. sometimes the pupil repeating a correct answer to make sure that all heard
viii. for those pupils who give I don’t know answer or a weak response prompt them
by giving hints to help them answer the question
ix. on receiving less detailed answers probe the pupils further so that they express
themselves more clearly and thinks his answers more deeply
x. not punish a pupil gives the wrong a answer or even ridicule him
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 this may cause them to avoid trying again or a make them hate the teacher and
his or her subject
 simply try him try again, not quit right, listen carefully or to tell them a
straight NO
MR T MKANTJO
18-06-2014
QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE (continues)
i. refer to the pupils by their names rather than using ‘you’, that one in a red shirt
 this may have negative effects
ii. if possible ask a question once
How should a teacher deal with pupil’s questions
i. If the answer to the question is simply and obvious get it quickly from the other pupils
ii. Use cues and sequential questions together with the pupil’s experiences to he;p the
pupil answer the question himself/herself
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iii. If he does not know to a question tell the pupil that he find out and keep his promise
iv. Use illustration, diagrams, apparatus or actions while answering if a pupil’s questions
screams from lack of understanding
v. Tell the pupil that you answer a question outside the classroom if the question is
irrelevant to the topic
Common mistakes in questioning
 A teacher should avoid
i. Asking verge questions
ii. Asking question inviting yes or no answers – this may encourage guessing
iii. Asking question begging with Who can or Does anyone know – these may lead to
unwanted answers like I can or I do
iv. Asking rhetoric questions e.g. isn’t it, - they serve no purpose as they merely seek
approval
v. Repeating a question, rephrasing, explaining – these confuse pupils it may not be
clear which question should be answered first
vi. Asking questions that are beyond the pupil’s level of thinking and that are
complicated e.g. give us a critique of post independence education policies
vii. Corroboratory questions where by a teacher is practically forcing the pupils to say
Yes or No in agreement with the teacher
viii. Echo questions where the teacher puts forward the statement then turns it into a
statement – this encourages rot learning
ix. Rhetoric questions – these does not require an answer and they normally force the
opinion of the teacher on the pupils
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x. Partial answer questions for instance Bulawayo is called the city of
.............and..............? this encourage laziness on the part of pupils
xi. Haughty questions - these are questions put forward by the teacher when he
knows full well that the pupils will not be able to answer it
Advantages of question
 It provokes thinking
 Encourages effective communication
 Encourages participation
 Helps on checking subject mastery
 Can be used to introduce or conclude a lesson
Disadvantages of question
 Ambiguous questions are not motivating to the pupils
 Irrelevant question can frustrate pupils at times fast learners respond leading to slow
learners being passive participants
 Slow learners may get frustrated and de-motivated if the questions are not fairly
distributed
 Questioning requires a good skill and if the teacher has no questioning skill the
children may be frustrated
 Failure to effectively used taxonomy of questioning ay disadvantaged the pupils
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MR D NDHLOVU
01-07-2014
 Teaching falls into 3 phases each one requiring appropriate methods:
Phase 1- Presenation
 Methods to use new materials to the students to encourage them to think on their own
 This might involve facts, theories, concepts, stories or any other content
Phase 2 – application
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 These are methods that require students to apply new materials just presented to them
 This is the way to ensure that students conceptualise the new materials so that they
can understand, recall and use it appropriately in the future
Phase 3 – Review
 These are methods that encourage students to recall formal learning so as to clarify
and focus on key points, ensure understanding and to practise and to recall
 It is commonly accepted that the most effective way of increasing student’s interest in
any subject is by applying issues that students find relevant in life
 Without adequate and appropriate method, clear objectives and carefully arranged
materials one is likely to fail to produce satisfactory results on the part of students
 Methods are the means by which the learners are kept inspired/motivated in the
teaching activities which result in learning
 Teaching methods therefore occupy a very paramount position in the teaching
learning process
 Methods serve as a communication link between the teacher, the student and the
subject matter
 Teaching ,methods invariably determine the success or failure of a lesson
 Methods depend on the topic the teacher wants to present or teach in order to aid
effective understanding or learning
The teaching learning triangle
 It includes the teacher, the learner and the subject matter/material
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 The methods are the communication link between the triangle
Resource person
 What is a resource person? – Is who has knowledge, relevant skills and expertise to
give a talk , guidance or first-hand information in a given subject or area
 It is one who is well based with the subject matter e.g. a lawyer, an accountant, a
doctor, a teacher
 A resource person can be drawn from the community in which you are practising on a
person who has knowledge/information on a particular topic either as an professional
or through practise and experience
 He/she is expected to explain concepts/ideas/processes to the students as an expect
with specialised knowledge in that area of subject
Advantages of using a resource person
 The method is fascinating to the learners who are excited to see a professional like a
author of a books, an artisan coming to talk to them on a given concept
 It motivates and sustains the interests of students in the subject area
 It exposes the students to broad knowledge of a subject matter when expects in the
field give them first-hand information which the teacher might not have included in
his teaching notes or might not be well based with
 Information from a resource person is always current and authentic than that
contained in the books
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 It also boosts the relation between the school and the community as these resource
persons feel honoured and being part of school community
Disadvantages
 Time may not be sufficient for the resource person to exhaust all the information that
she has for the students about the subject matter
 Time allocated to him/her might encroach to other lessons/subjects and cause
problems in the school programmes
 The resource person may also disappoint you as a teacher by not coming or turning up
 The resource person might not have the requisite qualification or pedagogical skills of
handling students and this could mess up everything
Tips to note when using a resource person
I. Allow student s to speak to the resource person freely as they ask question on the
major components of the subject
II. Provide a vehicle/channel/platform for the students to use the information obtained I
a follow up session, you can ask student to make a written documents on what they
have learnt so that it can be shared with others
III. Prior preparations enhance the benefits to be obtained from a resource person
IV. Ensure that the person you invite students have no objection to
V. Avoid over using one person as a resource
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VI. Talk to the resource person about the content and to procedure to be followed before
hand – the resource person should know the target audience the students their age
range, background before he give a talk
Panel discussion
 It is an important teaching technique which can be employed by a teacher in
classroom situations for educational purposes
 It was originated by Harry Overstreet in 1929
 It is a discussion in which a few pupil carry on the conversation in front of other pupil
or audience
 At the conversation the audience can also participate
 They audience can raise important questions to the panellists and they will provide
answers
Objectives of using panel discussion
I. To provide information and views on new facts/ideas
II. To analyse a problem from various angles
III. To provide mental recreation
IV. Educationally they provide conceptual and factual knowledge and clarification of
certain theories and principles
V. Provide solution to certain problems
Ranges from 6 – 10 people
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google
market place method
PROFFESSIONAL STUDIES
MR L MUTEMA
16-09-2014
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
BACKGROUND
The Zimbabwean centralised education system is characterised by the central curriculum that
is developed Curriculum Development Unit. The curriculum provides overall control/the
ministry of education through the CDU and the syllabus is the school subject plan providing
guidance to the teachers on each particular subject. The curriculum plans and intentions
consists of syllabus document, suggested teaching methods teaching material and
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recommended text books. These components of the curriculum plans are discriminated to the
schools for the implementation
DEFINITION OF TERMS
CURRICULUM
 Kerr (1988:106) define curriculum as, ‘all the learning which is planned or guided by
the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individual inside or outside the
school.’
 Gatawa (1990:8) says, ‘curriculum is the totality of experiences of children or groups
of children or take place within classroom or ground or outside the school.’
CURRICULUM IMPLENTATION
 Ndawi and Maravhanyika (2011:68) define curriculum implementation as, ‘the
process of the school facilitating the interaction between the learner and the
curriculum.’
 Fullan and Panfret (1992) sited by Marsh (2009:92) say, ‘the term curriculum
implementation refers to the actual use of a curriculum/ syllabus or what it consists of
in practise, ‘the process in which the teacher selects and mixes is different ingredients
contained in the curriculum document is infact the actual implementation of the
curriculum.’
 The syllabus refers to the breaking down of the curriculum proposal or plan into
manageable units, topics and materials to be covered over a period of time
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3 forms of curriculum in schools
I.
MR T M NCUBE
20-10-2016
EDUCATION ACT
CHILDREN’S RIGHT IN ZMBABWE
 1996 EDUCATION ACT states that every child in Zimbabwe shall have the right to
school education
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 No child in Zimbabwe shall be refused admission to any school on grounds of race,
tribe, colour, religion, creed, place of origin, political opinion or the social status of
his/her parents
 Every child of school going age shall be entitled to be enrolled at the government
primary or secondary school at the case may be nearest to the place of residence
unless such a primary or secondary is full enrolled
 where the primary or secondary school at which a child of school going age has sort
enrolment is unable to enrol the child because the school is fully enrolled the head of
the school shall forth with issue to the child a certificate in writing certifying that fact
 where a child who has been issued with a certificate applies for an enrolment at the
next nearest school and produces such a certificate the school should enrol the child
COMPULSORY EDUCATION
i. according to the Zimbabwe education act, it is the objective in Zimbabwe that
primary education for every child for school going age shall be compulsory and to
this end it shall be the duty of the parents to see that the child attends primary school
GENERAL DUTY OF LOCAL AUTHORITY (Rural and Urban)
ii. education act states that for the purpose of ensuring a fair provision of primary
education throughout Zimbabwe every local authority shall try to establish and
maintain such primary schools as may be necessary for all children in the area under
its due restriction
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DUTIES OF MINISTER OF EDUCATION: PRESCRIBING OF FESS AT
GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS
iii. the minister shall from time to time prescribe the fees which shall be paid for :
i. instruction at government school(tuition)
ii. accommodation at government hostels and may prescribe different fees for
accommodation at different government schools
iv. the minister of education may prescribe additional fees for instruction in special
education subjects or course
v. the secretary for education may advise the head of government school to refuse to
admit to the school any people in respect of whom any fees payable has not been paid
vi. the secretary for education may direct the school head that a people be admitted to a
government school despite the fact that any fees payable in have not been paid shall
not affect the parents’ liability to pay such a fees
vii. if a child pays fees his/her school but decide not to attend school no rebut or refund
of the whole of the fees will be made except the secretary of education say so
viii. if a child overpays his/her fees no refund of overpayment of such a fees will be made
REGISTRATION OF NON GOVERNMENT SCHOOL
 according to the education act, no person shall establish and maintain a school other
than a government unless it is registered
 any responsible authority wishing to establish and maintain a school shall make an
application to the secretary in the prescribed form for the registration for such a
school accompanied by such documents as may be prescribed
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 fees payable at non-government school no responsible authority shall charge:
i. any fee or levy in respect of any people attending non-government school unless
the fee or levy or increase has been approved by the secretary
ii. no responsible authority shall increase any fee or levy by more than prescribe
amount or percentage in any period of 12 months in respect of any people
attending non-government school unless the fees or levy has been approved by the
secretary
iii. the school head of non-government school shall maintain such accounts and other
records and provide such an information as the sectary may be invited from time
to time
OTHER GOVERNMENT EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTES
 the minister may establish and maintain such educational institutions including
correspondence school or classes for the teaching of any subject which forms part of
school education
 the minister may close or change the site of any institution in the country
 the minister may make regulation for the efficient administration for any institutions
including the provision of corresponding courses
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27 JANUARY 2016
MR MOYO
PUBLIC SERVICE REGULATIONS
THE TEACHER AS A CIVIL SERVANT
 as a civil servant you are an employee of the civil service commission
 the CSC works closely with the Ministry of Public Service and Social Welfare,
because these are two organs that develop regulations controlling the civil servants in
terms of the Republic of Zimbabwe and the Public Service Act
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 public servants are appointed either as officers or as employees
 teachers are in the officer grade while auxiliary staff and office orderlies are classified
as employees
 according to the CSC Manual 199, “ officer are appointed to established post on a
probation period of a minimum of two years and maximum for five years
 employees are appointed to un-established posts on a probation period of thirty days
OFFICIAL SECRECY ACT
 on appointment, all Public servants are required to sign a declaration that they have
read and understood the pertinent contents of the Secrecy Act, Chapter 97, given to
him/her by the head of the school on arriving at the Station
 a copy of the act will be availed to you to read through by your head
 all public servants are bound by the act during and after service
 information obtained the course of employment may if divulged severely embarrass
the state
 failer to comply with the provisions of the act, may result in prosecution, or
disciplinary proceedings
 consult Policy Circular No 2
IMPARTIALITY
 the CSC manual 1991 says that, “civil servants have an obligation to act within the
law, so in order that your integrity and impartiality may be above reproach, you are
advised not to benefit from any special consideration or favour from a member of the
public, or other public servants
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 public servants therefore are urged to be impartial in the performance of their official
duties, and should not give preferential treatment to relatives, organisations or friends,
or to have a financial interest in the task that they are performing
 the CSC Manual 1991 points out that “ all public servants are expected to inform their
permanent secretaries and obtain the commission’s consent before they become
involved in any business commercial, or financial interest
POLITICAL ACTIVITY
 according to the manual, public servants, other than those in restricted posts, may join
parties
 you are also allowed to attend political meetings and contribute to the funds of any
political party, but such political activities should not present a conflict of interest or
impair work performance
 teachers belong to the group of civil servants, the Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000,
under Act of Misconduct, sub section 20 says, “ it is an act of misconduct for a civil
servant to be an office bearer, or to be seen addressing a rally
 a public servant who wishes to campaign for election to parliament, should resign for
a period covering the election
 should you lose the election, you are required to re-apply within thirty days to join the
CSC, if elected, you are required to resign, permanently
PUBLIC SERVICE STARNDAND OF DRESS, CIRCULAR No OF 2006
 the CSC noted with concern the deteorating standard of dress by members of the
CSC, hence directed the following standard to be maintained by members, during the
course of their duties, in order to uphold the dignity and formality expected of them,
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 Civil Servants are expected to dress appropriately
 Teachers are observed and viewed as role models by pupils, colleagues and various
other stake holders in the community so making a good first impression is important
for building relationships with other people
WOMEN’S DRESS AS DIRECTED BY THE ACT
 Despite the complexity of women’s fashion, women should put on correspondingly
high standard of dress
 It is expected that their dressing should comply with the dictates of the society within
which you will be operating or suggestive, or demeaning dressing that distracts the
attention of pupils, fellow work mates, and the community at large, should be avoided
ass this puts a lot of questions on your personal character thereby sending wrong
signals about your character
 Hence the following items are not acceptable when reporting to work,
 Tops with no neckline
 Jeans
 Translucent dress
 Tight fitting dresses
 Mini skirts
 Tennis shoes in the classroom
 Tracksuits
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28 JANUARY 2016
MR MOYO
REGULATIONS ON DRESS
ATTIRE FOR MEN
 Attire for men must include collar and neck-tie everyday
 There is no objection to wearing tailored safari suits
 Alternative type is a suit
 Male winter dress (May - August) must include collar and tie, or tailored safari suits
 Sumer dress (September – April ) safari suit, long trouser and a shirt
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ACTS OF MIS-CONDUCT: FIRST SCHEDULE [SECTION 2 STATUTORY
INSTRUMENT 1 (ONE) OF 2000, AS AMMENDED BY STATUTORY INSTRUMENT
58A OF 2001]
 There are about 24 acts of misconduct
 Heads of schools are vested with the power to be disciplinary authorities by virtue of
their duties
 They have the mandate to prefer charges of misconduct against a member who has
committed an act or omission
 The CIVIL SERVICE REGULATION 2000 defines misconduct as “ an act or
omission which constitutes an act of misconduct personified in the first section
(STATUTORY INSTRUMENT OF 2000 BEFFORE ITS AMMENDMENT)”
 Act means something done
 you commit an offence by doing something that you are not supposed to do
 omission is leaving out, or not doing what you should have done, negligence of duty,
and failure to do given duties
WHY DO MEMBERS COMMIT ACTS OF MISCONDUCT
 mostly through ignorance, or lack of knowledge
 an example is when a women gives birth without giving a maternity leave form
 you commit an offence by wilful/deliberate/intentional disregard for regulation. e.g.
absence from duty without reporting to the Head’s office
HOW AND WHEN DOES AN ACT OF MISCONDUCT OCCUR
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 it can occur anytime, anywhere and anyhow likely to bring the Civil Service into
disrepute
 act of misconduct are also situational e.g. being late for a school choir practice by an
hour can never have the same gravity as being late by the same hour to lead the
National Anthem at Independence
SOME OF THE ACTS OF MISCONDUCT THAT CAN BE COMMITED BY A
TEACHER
 a teacher should be disciplined
 he should show order
 we have minor and major acts of misconduct
 use of corporal punishment
 improper association with students
 storerooms are a crime trap for young teacher’s
 use and showing of pornographic material is a criminal offence
 contacting of school children through use of media must be avoided
 Taking pupils to a beer outlet
 Failure to produce results
 Don’t comment on politics , through reading of newspapers and headlines aloud
 Not clocking in and out is a chargeable offence
 Absence from duty
 Failure to plan your work
 Recycling schemes of work
 Failure to obey lawful instruction
 Taking money and failing to repay it

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 Attending a court hearing as the accused
 Being drunk and being a public nuisance
 Child labour
VACATION LEAVE
 The purpose of a vacation leave is for members to be afforded an opportunity to take
one long period to rest on a regular basis
 Vacation leave may be granted to a member at any time after the member has
completed one year service
 It cannot be granted for any period which is less than three days in duration it accrues
to a member at the rate of 1/22 X 365
 No member may accumulate vacation leave in excess of 123 days
 A member who falls sick during a period of vacation leave may cancel his/her
vacation leave and apply for sick leave
SICK LEAVE
 May be granted to a member who is prevented from attending his/her duties because
of ill-health which was not occasioned by his/her recklessness
 During any none year period, a member may be granted a maximum of 90 days sick
leave on full and another 90 days on half pay,
 Three days sick leave may be granted to a member by his/her head of Department
without production of a medical certificate if the member is stationed 16 km away
from practitioner
 a head of department may grant 90 days leave upon production of a medical
practitioner.
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03 FEBRUARY 2016
MR MKANTSHO
CURRICULUM IMLEMENTATION
 curriculum implementation is central to the school mission and as such deserves
particular interest
 While the curriculum may be viewed as a plan, actual implementation I affected by
several factors and these will be closely examined
 It is important for one to grasp the interaction among various factors treated rather
view each of the factors as independent
 It is when some of these factors work against effective and efficient curriculum
implementation that they can be viewed as barriers to curriculum implementation
 Solutions will be discussed
DEFNITION OF TERMS
WHAT IS CURRICULUM
 Tanner and tanner (1980:36) defines curriculum in various ways ass
1. The curative tradition of organized knowledge
2. Models of thought
3. race experience
4. a planned learning environment
5. cognitive or affective content and processes
6. an instructional plan
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 Kerr (1968:16) defines curriculum as “all the learning which is planned or guided by
the school whether it is carried on in groups or individually inside or outside the
school
 Curriculum is all of the learning of students which is planned and directed by the
school to attain its educational goal (Taylor, 1941)
 Steves et al (1975,235), “the curriculum is a plan for providing sets of learning
opportunities to achieve road goals and related specific objectives, for an identified
population saved by a single school centre”
 Tanner and tanner (1980,45) view curriculum as, “ the plan and guided learning
experiences and intended outcomes formulated through systematic reconstruction of
knowledge and experience under the auspices of the school for the learner’s
continuous and wilful growth in personal, social competence
 Curriculum (educational plans and intentions) is put into actual practice to achieve
learning and knowledge or experience on the part of the people
 It is in this way therefore that the curriculum is implemented or put into effect or use
or operation during which process the learner should acquire both the planned or
intended, incidental, or un-intended experiences, ideas or attitudes that are aimed at
enabling him or her to survive in his or her particular society
 It should be clear that implementation refers to the stage of the actual use or
application of the curriculum or education proposal
 Again it is important to note the manner in which a teacher selects and mixes various
ingredients contained in the curriculum document, is in fact the actual implementation
of the curriculum
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 For the curriculum to be put into practice, the teacher uses a syllabus
 Whereas the curriculum provides an overall plan, handed down from central control,
the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education through the CDU,
 The syllabus is a school subject plan providing guidance to the teachers on each
particular subject in the curriculum
 The syllabus refers to the breaking of the curriculum proposal or plan into
manageable units topics and materials to be covered over a specific period
 At school, there are three forms of curriculum namely
1. The national plan from central Government
2. Subject syllabus from the CDU
3. Subject syllabus made by the classroom teacher as he/she interprets the
national plan from the National Government, and the syllabus from the CDU
 In short, when the teacher-constructed syllabus, the teacher’s personality, teaching
materials and the whole instructional environment interacts with learner, then curriculum
implementation is implemented
FACTORS INFLUENCING CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
 Those conditions or elements that support the implementation of curriculums
 The following Section we identify and discus the various factors that influence the
actualization of the curriculum documents in our Zimbabwean centralized education
system
 The national curriculum is developed by the CDU
 Once the curriculum plans (which consist of syllabus documents, suggested teaching
methods, teaching materials, and recommended textbooks) reach the schools, where the
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process of implementation begins, it is important to us as educational practitioners that we
become aware of the factors which influence and determine the way schools tend t go
about the business of organizing learning
A. THE TEACHER’S INFLUENCE IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
 The classroom teacher may be viewed s ne the most important curriculum
implementers
 As curriculum implementers, teachers view their role as involving prescriptions
(what we must do), expectations (what we have to take into account),
predilections (what we would like to do) , requiring the teacher to use his/her own
autonomy and individual choices
 From the definitions of curriculum given earlier one would realize that the
expected position and behavior of a teacher in curriculum implementation and
development is emphasized as one of mediating between the learner and his
environment in order to facilitate learning
 It is also evident that a teacher plays a key role I the implementation and
development of the curriculum intention and translating the ideas into operational
reality
 It is imperative that the teacher understands the plan, proposal or document in
order to implement it effectively
 While the nature of curriculum places the teacher in a central position in the
organization of the curriculum as the principal implementer as well as the central
translator and facilitator of learning, the big question is, “does the reality of the
actual operation of the education system allow the teacher to perform this role
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 The teacher in a school interprets the objects and the contents in the curriculum
plan and manages the learning situations through which intention is transformed
into actual practice
 The above point stresses the interrelatedness of the curriculum planner the teacher
and the instructional process, e.g. in Zimbabwe, the teacher uses the syllabus as a
general outline for an individual subject at each level in the school produced and
provided by CDU to implement and develop the intended outcomes into realities
B. LEARNERS AS DERTEMINANTS OF CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
 The complex nature of curriculum implementation is further illustrated by the fact
that the learning situation involves not only teachers with their varying
conceptions of how to carry out the proposed plan but also leaners, with the all
their individual differences
 The reality of curriculum implementation also depends on the interaction of the
learning materials and experiences the teacher has provided and the pupil’s
affective and cognitive dispositions
 Different teachers teaching ostensibly the same curriculum do present varied
information, assignments, and activities to their students so that, even where time
allocation is equal, students are exposed to different information and learning
opportunities, or for good or worse
 The enacted curriculum is the result of both conscience and unconscious decision
making by teachers
 The same enacted curriculum is further modified by students themselves when
their efforts to make sense of what they are learning causes them to interpret
information differently from the teacher intends
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04-FEBRUARY-2016
MR L MUTEMA
 Mgabwi and Maravanyika (2011;68), define curriculum implementation as, “the
process of the school facilitating the interaction between the learner and the
curriculum.”
 When the teacher-constructed syllabus, the teacher personality, teaching materials,
and the whole instructional environment interact with the learner, then curriculum
implementation has taken place
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION (cont.)
C. INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCE MATERIALS AND LEARNING FACILITIES
 For effective curriculum implementation, teachers need adequate instructional
resource materials, e.g. textbooks, teaching media, stationery, etc.
 These instructional resource materials should be supplied in adequate and on time
 From effective curriculum implementation, a conducive learning environment
must be created in form of very basic facilities such as classrooms, laboratories,
workshops, libraries, sports fields, computer resources, etc.
 The provision of facilities necessary for curriculum implementation cannot be
possible without the cooperation of the two in the local community and central
government, e.g., the joint action between SDA/SDCs, and government in every
school
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D. INTEREST AS DERTEMINANTS IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
 Curriculum Implementation influenced by interest groups as a result of the
increasing need for cost sharing between the state and the interest groups such as
SDAs and SDCs, missions, and Local Authorities
 Supplementation of the curriculum can be facilitated or hindered by parental or
local community attitudes, to both core-curricula, and co-curricula activities
 The introduction of sex education was opposed by the Catholic Church in their
schools, and other churches followed suit
 Teaching of religious education is compulsory in some church schools
 The F2 system that is practically oriented was opposed by parents and students
alike due to historical traits of the system
 Sporting and cultural activities offered in schools vary e.g. soccer, netball,
traditional dance in the less affluent rural communities, and tennis, swimming,
music, and rugby in the more affluent urban
 Private and church schools celect the type of teacher they want
E. PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES OF EACH SCHOOL
 These include historical background of the school, e.g. whether the school is
former group A or B, F2 or F1, Private, Mission school, etc.
 Effective teaching of ChiShona or IsiNdebele has been difficult
F. CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL INFLUENCES
 The school curriculum is a selection from the culture of a society
 Lorton (1975;6), “the school curriculum in the wider sense is essentially a
selection from culture of a society, certain aspects of our way of life, certain kinds
of knowledge, certain attitudes and values, are regarded as so important that their
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transmission to the next generation is not left to chance in our society, but is
entrusted to specially trained professionals (teachers) in elaborate and expensive
institutions (schools)
G. INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION (H.O.Ds, D.E.Os, P.E.Os)
 The school heads provides timetables, classroom and class allocation, textbooks
allocation, syllabus and all instructional material
 The head creates a conducive teaching atmosphere, monitors and guides the
implementation through ensuring that schemes of work, lesson plans and other
class documents are prepared
 The head motivates teachers towards achievement of instructional experience
 The head identifies the teacher’s weaknesses and strength individually and works
towards staff development
 The HODs monitor the day to day implementation per subject area
 DEOs and PEDs come in external asssors of the educational implementation
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10-FEBRUARY-2016
MRS MASHOKO
DELEGATING AND SUPERVISING DUTIES
DEIFINITION
 Musazi J C (1992) says delegating authority “includes assigning duties and
responsibilities to those whom the administrator expects to aid him/her in doing the
work of the organization.”
 It therefore involves granting the authority to act in such a way so as to fulfill those
responsibilities
BENEFITS OF DELEGATION
 Reduces workload of the senior executive and enables him to devote more time to
more important matters concerning the organization
 By delegating work to the specialist who possess detailed knowledge, for realistic
decision making, task are performed quickly and efficiently
 The school administrator maintains his control to ensure that the school’s objectives
are being fulfilled
 Control must be economic and understandable
 must be flexible enough to meet changing conditions
 excessive control kills the initiative of the subordinates
 whilst lack of control can make him an autocrat
 enables decentralization by increasing the level at which decisions are made
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 this in turn increases flexibility in the organization as every problem is no longer
referred to a central authority for a decision to be taken
 teachers can take decision without taking each and every one of them to the principal
 decentralization permits the making of decisions quickly
 gives the people freedom to direct their own activities, to assume responsibility and
thereby satisfy their ego needs
 self-esteem, self-fulfillment
 teachers and students, for example, develop a sense of participation in the running of
their school when they are given some voice in the decisions which affect them in
their day to day work
 Teachers begin to develop in their own job and also understand the responsibilities of
the head teacher. Such people are a future reserve of potential administrators or
managers
 People are prepared to shoulder more responsibility as they develop and their jobs are
enriched
 Delegation also helps in avoiding autocrats within the school organization
 Reduces indispensability
 It is easy for the person next in line to take the vacant chair
HOW TO DELEGATE
Ozig J I (2000) and Musazi
 A school head must know what individual teachers must do and cannot do before
assigning duties to them, delegation always implies taking calculated risk, but these
can be minimized by adjusting the delegation to the capacity of an individual
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 Initially , only assignments should be given where even mistakes are committed, they
will not do much damage to the overall objectives of the organization
 As a school administrator, you must always see delegation as a continuous and
dynamic process which needs to be reviewed from time to time as the school grows
and teachers develop
 As teachers get more experience and improve their performance, delegation may be
increased proportionately
 It is important that the objectives to be achieved in the school are clearly understood
by the teachers and that their duties and functions are clearly defined
 The administrator must be prepared that the subordinates would not exercise their
authority in exactly the same way as him/herself, and should not interfere frequently
and thereby neglect the usefulness of delegation
 In the beginning, the superior must be prepared for certain errors in the decisions
made by the subordinates
 The delegator will have to give guidance in order to build up self-reliance in the
subordinates
 Essential freedom of action should be given to the subordinates not only for the
purpose of effective delegation but also for his growth
 Be clear in your mind which responsibilities or specific duties you want to delegate
and to whom
 Your decision as to whom specific duties should be delegated should be guided by a
number of considerations, e.g. experience of the person, his suitability for the job, his
interest, enthusiasm, public relations image and so on
 In delegating responsibility, do not ask one person to do too much
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 Should delegate completely
 There can be no half delegation nor should you perform delegated duties
 In order to ensure that delegated task are being one properly, you should expert some
periodic communication or report
 Should not delegate responsibility to an unwilling or indifferent member of staff
 Should avoid favoritism
 Should show interest in all activities
 Use a committee system if possible, especially in a big system
 Periodically hold scheduled meetings with staff, committees and other groups to
whom you delegated responsibilities, so as to be fully aware of what is happening in
each case
 It is a good idea to put in writing any detailed instructions of specific duties to be
performed
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17 FEBRUARY 2016
MR D NDLOVU
DESIGNING THE SCHOOL SYLLABUS
 Curriculum refers to the means and materials with which students will interact for the
purpose of achieving identifiable educational outcomes
 Some scholars contend that curriculum includes not only the planned experiences but
also the unplanned through which students or learners go
 It can also be seen as all planned school activities including courses of study,
organized play athletics, clubs and home based programs for the students
 Its concerned with the minutes and years of study
 Curriculum Design, is the actual sequencing of instructional blocks or programs
operating in a school
 It may cover the whole or part of the; school, classes,
 It is taken in the context of “what should students do”, where should they go after
school, which college or university should they attend and which program should they
pursue
 Effective curriculum design needs a vision about the overall shape and purpose in
order to construct a coherent and progressive pattern of learning, teachers then use
this design to develop more detailed planning in ways that suit the statutory
requirements
HOW DO WE ORGANISE LEARNING
1. Clarity
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 Learning is to be built around a set of aims and purposes shared by the
teachers, school leadership, and broadly accepted and supported by parents
and students
 The rationale for the subject should be clearly understood
2. Balancing areas of inquiry (content)
 It should be built around key areas of knowledge and understanding that lie at
the heart of the subject
3. Incorporate a model of progression
 Build a clear and visible progression line showing learners, teacher, and
parents how to make progress in the subject
 Specific subjects should be deeper and more comprehensive, should have a wide
vocabulary, and this vocab must be competently used
 Concepts and materials should be challenging and getting more complex
 The units chosen must give a clear sense of a learning journey within a given period
 Doing a few topics in-depth rather than a superficial coverage would be a gud
principle
 Consider additional activities that enrich the curriculum, e.g. national events
 The learners should be able to encounter the subject material through people, books,
places objects, visiting sites and even online materials
 They should be able to use all their senses to explore the subject content
 It should be able to guide the learners to make sense of their physical world and
community through opportunities so that they explore, observe and find out people,
places, technology, and environment

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 Students should be able to share their thoughts and feeling through a variety of
activities
 They should be able to engage in comparative studies
 Learning experience should provide for assessment to show how well pupils are
progressing
PLANNING PROCESS
1. “begin with thee end in mind”, by Steven Coven
1. Identify the desired results
 What should students know and be able to do
 What is worth understand
 What is our goal
2. Determine the acceptable standard
 How will you know that our students have achieved the intended results, and
met the standards
3. Design learning experiences and instruments
 What requisite skills do students need in order to perform effectively
 Designed specific instructional material considering the teaching methods,
resource materials and the teaching sequence, and so forth
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18 FEBRUARY 2016
MR MKANTSHO
DESIGNING A SCHOOL SYLLABUS
 Mnkandla (2000) defines a syllabus as a “synopsis of the planed course of instruction
in a particular subject”
 Kasambira (2004) defines a syllabus as what one might call “blueprints or guidelines
of concepts and content to be covered at a given point in time”
 A syllabus can be defined as an outline of the course designed to be learnt by learners
at a given point in time
 The responsibility of designing a syllabus rest with the Curriculum Development Unit
 Its mandate is t develop relevant syllabi, develop material to interpret the syllabi,
conduct in-service courses for teachers
 Conduct research into the performance of school programs
 To evaluate school curriculum materials, commercially produced books, and testing
curriculum material
 The national subject teams develop syllabuses which the CDU subject teams, and the
commercial publishers follow in writing textbooks for use
 Classroom practitioners in Zimbabwe are not directly involved in the designing of the
syllabus
 The blue prints state the nature of the course or program to be studied and the rational
of studying the program, the educational aims or goals of the course are also reflected
in the syllabi
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 The syllabus tends to expose the subject matter with the teacher being free to explore
the ways of delivering the rest of the details of the whole course
 It sets out the standards to be followed and met by the learners
 Attainment standards are the standards of achievement such as passing the exams and
other demonstrations
SOME FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DESIGNING A SCHOOL SYLLABUS
1. Logical sequencing
 Arrangement of topics n a school syllabus culminating into a whole structure
or course
 Should reflect continuity from one topic to the next, for the term or year or
course
 Should ensure that learning becomes coherent and meaningful
2. Availability of resources
 These are resources and materials necessary to promote effective learning and
teaching
 Should consider the availability of textbooks and other materials
3. Time allocation
 Time is allocated according to the length of the topics to be covered
STRUCTURE OF A SYLLABUS
1. Preamble
 Introduction notes to the syllabus
 Reflects the nature of the course or program in relation to the specific syllabus
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 Reflects the importance of the syllabus and its relation to daily life and carriers
for the learners
 Also shows the audience for which it is meant
 Highlight the importance of including the subject in the curriculum
2. Aims and goals
 Relate to the values, attitudes, awareness and habits to be developed
 They are broad statements of intent
3. Educational objectives
 These are statements which highlight forms of changes hoped to be achieved
by the learners at the end of the course program
 They are derived from the syllabus aims or goals
 Teachers should be able to come up with appropriate objectives from the
syllabus whose achievement would achieve stated aim
 Objectives will outline what you expect of the pupils after going through a
course or program
 They are specific for the subject to translate them into action
4. Content
 The content aspect of the syllabus reflects the instructional matter of the
course or program
 It is shown in the form of fairly broad topics of the course
 In some cases, the topics, also reflects the concepts, skills, and values to be
developed in the learners
 Objectives must articulate the sum of knowledge addressed in the course
5. Approaches or teaching strategies
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 Highlights statements on teaching approaches or strategies
 Some of these include lectures, discussions, seminars, and so forth
 These also reflect the use of instructional materials considering different topics
of the course or program
 Also reflect statements pertaining to forms of facilities needed or available for
carrying a particular course process
6. Assessment
 Reflects how learners progress would be evaluated in the course program or
subject matter
 Concerned with the way the achievement of the syllabus objectives would be
assessed in the national or public examination
 An important component of the syllabus as it is evaluative in nature
NB, it is the duty of the teacher, H.O.D, and the subject area to extract the
school syllabus from the national one so that the school syllabus is adapted to
the school circumstances
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18 FEBRUARY 2016
MR L MUTEMA
MAJOR BARRIERS IN THE CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS
 A barrier is a wall, rail, fence that prevents, hinders or controls progress or movement
 In the context of curriculum, barriers are conditions and factors that act as hindrances
to effective curriculum process
1. Incompetence of the school head
 He is the one who provides the means of curriculum implementation through
timetabling, class and classroom allocation, book and syllabuses allocation
and provision of other instructional material, and creating a conducive school
tone for effective teaching and learning process
 He monitors and guides curriculum interpretation by way of ensuring effective
preparation of schemes of work and lesson plans
 Some head are so incompetent and in-effective that they hardly carry out their
duties
 They concentrate on their various businesses
 NB the solution can be holding staff development for heads on their duties and
rolls
 Also, in-service course programs for heads
2. Incompetence of classroom teacher
 Marsh (2009;92), “careful planning and development are important , but they
count for nothing unless teachers are aware of the product and have the skills
to implement the curriculum in their classroom.”
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 Centralized curriculum can be distorted at implementation stage by teachers
who lack knowledge, skills and initiative to adapt and not to adopt the
curriculum plan or innovation
 At school level, the implementation of the Zim-Scie innovation was affected
by a large number of temporal teachers who had difficulties in using the
approach effectively
 Currently the introduction of computer education in schools is facing some
challenges due to teacher’s lack of qualification in the subject
 Staff development programs at local, district, provincial and at national level
3. Negative attitude of other stakeholders
 Mgabwi and Maravanyika (2011;58), point out that “whoever initiates a new
curriculum or an innovation, is likely to face the problem of changing the
attitudes of the other stakeholders of the curriculum.”
 These stakeholders include policy makers, school supervisors, teachers,
parents, pupils, NGOs, churches, e.t.c.
 Teachers parent and pupils attach low value to any curriculum innovation on
which they do not have adequate information in terms of educational goal
orientation
4. Communication problems
 These develop a gap between the developers and implementers of the
curriculum
 Pilot studies carried out by curriculum design teams for particular innovations,
reach just a small sample of teachers or school leaving out the majority
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 If teacher don’t get information from the developers of particular curriculum
innovations, they may face problems in implementation and end up modifying
the project
5. In-adequate resource materials and learning facilities
 Shortage of textbooks in Zimbabwean schools contribute to the development
of a barrier towards curriculum implementation
 Some schools in Zimbabwe are facing challenge in the implementation of
computer education/E-learning due to factors like financial resources for the
purchase of the computer, un-electrified schools and in-securities in the school
infrastructure
 Bishop (1985:3) says, “lack of money can be as complete a barrier to
educational progress ass lack of ideas or innovation”
 Fund can be raised
6. Attitudes of the stakeholders towards test and examinations
 Assessment of the children’s performance in the form of internal and external
exams is a hindrance to effective curriculum implementation because teachers
teach pupils to enable them to pass the test and exams
 Non-examinable content is not taught
 Teachers, parents and pupils concentrate on passing O and A level
 IBID “parents are concerned with success in exams”
7. Lack of support from interest groups
1. Powerful pressure group such as mission authorities and local community
leaders can resist implementation of certain curriculum decisions.
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2. Church organizations and parents resisted the introduction of sex education as
they associated its teaching with the notion of promiscuity and immoral
behavior
3. Hostile school environment
Page 120 of 120

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PROFESSIONAL STUDIES LECTURE NOTES MOYO DUMISANI 2014/44

WHAT SI PREOFESSIONAL STUDIES

of actual teaching and learning

experiments with the reality of actual classroom through doing

making appropriate adjustments until effectiveness

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES VALIDITY

teaching and learning

by the community which it is part

 Requiring a length period of initial training complimented by in-service growth and

 Profession is an occupation which performs an essential social function to

accomplish this function it require a body of knowledge grounded on theory

length of period of higher reduction

 The period of education and training involves the process of socialisation in

professional values centre on the pre-eminence of essential profession to exercise

 A profession id therefore one who has

I. A specialised knowledge base (technical culture)

II. Commitment to meeting client needs (service ethics)

III. Strong collective identity (professional commitment)

IV. Collegial as opposed to bureaucratic control over practise and

professional practice (professional autonomy)

 Professionals should possess a specialised skill enabling them to offer a specialised

 Undergo intellectual and practical training in a well defined area of study

 Maintain detachment and integrity in exercising personal judgement on behalf of a

integrity of the profession as a whole

 Tend to or required to avoid certain manners of attracting business or delivering

to provide the machinery of testing competence and regulating standards of

competence and conduct

TEACHER ETHICS AND PRINCIPLES

scrupulous from unscrupulous professional conduct

incompetent or unscrupulous or defending the practitioner who is unjustly attacked

in fulfilling this obligation the teacher skill

for higher goal in the development of their physical, moral, spiritual

economical, social, racial and religious affiliation

 Accept no enumeration for tutoring except in accordance with employment conditions

student’s purposes and acts towards socially acceptable ends

 The effectiveness of many methods of teaching are dependently on the co-operative

guardian and responsibility of their children

 Seek to establish a friendly relationship with the home

be discreet with the information got from parents

 Keep parents informed about their children’s performance

DISCUSSION METHOD OR SEMINAR

most of the talking but in guided manner

WAYS OF MAINTAINING GOOD QAULITY DISCUSSION

a. Stick to the topic

b. Respect the view point of others

c. Listen carefully when others are speaking

d. Use facts to support statement

e. Ask question when you do not understand

f. Let as many people as possible to take part in the discussion

g. Do not allow individuals to dominate the discussion

WAYS OF HANDLING DISCUSSION METHOD

 A useful way of employing this method is to:

a. Divide the pupils into groups

collected, assessed and filed at the end of the lesson

TYPES OF DISCUSSION METHODS

1. Small group discussion

 To develop an air of intimacy group members sit in a circle

 Individuals should not be allowed to monopolise the discussion