Good day everyone!

Maybe you're one of those people who are FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION (Secondary)
currently preparing for the Licensure Examination for Teacher. I'm
glad that you're here because this article is for you.  I know that 1. ENGLISH
you're trying your best reviewing those past lessons about your
course so, I gathered some information about the Coverage of the  Remedial Instruction in English
LET.  English for Specific Purposes

Elementary Level
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE AND
General Education - 40%
LITERATURE
Professional Education - 60 %

Secondary Level  Introduction to Linguistics

General Education - 20%  Structure of English
Professional Education - 40%  Introduction of Stylistics
Area of Specialization - 40%  Literary Criticism
Taken from the upcoming program of LET scheduled on March
2018, here are the detailed areas to study. The list is courtesy of PRC
LITERATURE
Board of Professional Teachers.

GENERAL EDUCATION (Elementary and Secondary)  Mythology and Folklore

 Afro-Asian Literature
1. ENGLISH   English and American Literature

 Study and Thinking Skills  METHODOLOGY

 Writing in the Discipline 
 Speech and Oral Communication   The Teaching of Speaking
 Philippine Literature  Listening and Reading
 Master Works of the World  Teaching of Literature
2. FILIPINO
 Preparation and Evaluation of Instructional Materials
 Language and Literature Assessment
 Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino  Language Research
 Pagbasa at Pagsulat tungo sa Pananaliksik  Campus Journalism
 Masining na Pagpapahayag  Translation and Editing of Text
3. MATHEMATICS  Speech and Stage Arts
 Creative Writing
 Fundamentals of Math
 Plane Geometry 2. FILIPINO
 Elementary Algebra
 Statistics and Probability
4. SCIENCE MGA BATAYANG TEORETIKAL

 Biological Science - General Biology  Introduksyon sa Pag-aaral ng Wika

 Physical Science - Earth Science  Panimulang Linggwistika
5. SOCIAL SCIENCES
NILALAMAN
 Philippine Government New Constitution with Human
Rights  Wika
 Philippine History  Panitikan
 Basic Economics  Metodolohiya
 Taxation  Pagtataya at Ebalwasyon
 Agrarian Reform  Kagamitang Pangturo
 Society
 Culture with Family Planning 3. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
 Rizal and Other Heroes
 Philosophy of Man
 Arts  Biological Science I
 General Psychology  Biological Science II
 Information and Communication Technology  Inorganic Chemistry
 Cell Biology
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION (Elementary and Secondary)  Ecology
 Organic Chemistry
 Microbiology
1. Teaching Profession, Social Dimensions of Education
2. Principles of Teaching, Educational Technology,  Genetic and Evolution
Curriculum Development  Biochemistry and Anatomy
3. Facilitating Learning, Child and Adolescent Development  Physiology
4. Assessment of Student Learning, Developmental Reading
5. Field Study, Practice Teaching 4. PHYSICAL SCIENCES

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INTRODUCTION  Teaching Approaches in Secondary Social Studies
 Productions of Instructional Materials for Social Studies
 Nature of Science  Building Bridges Across Social science Discipline
 Chemistry ( MAKABAYAN as a core learning area in Basic
 Atomic and Molecular Education)
 Chemical Bonds
 Conservation of Matter and Stoichichiometry ASSESSMENT
 Gases, Liquids and Solids
 Acids and Bases  Assessment and Evaluation in the Social Sciences/Social
 Solutions Studies
 Chemical Thermodynamics
 Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium 7. VALUES EDUCATION
 Organic and Biochemistry
 Nuclear Processes
FOUNDATION OF VALUES EDUCATION
PHYSICS
 Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of VE
 Physical Quantities and Vectors  Socio-Cultural, Anthropological & Legal Bases of VE
 Mechanics  Psychological Theories of Values Development
 Electricity
 Magnetism and Electronics PERSONHOOD DEVELOPMENT
 Thermodynamics
 Modern Physics  Personhood Development
 Light and Geometries Optics  Dynamics of Intra and Interpersonal Relations
 Earth and Space  Psycho-Spiritual Development
 Astronomy  Management of Behavior Problems
 Environment
TRANSFORMATIVE EDUCATION (SOURCES OF VALUES
5. MATHEMATICS AND FACTORS IN VALUES ED)

 Arithmetic & Number Theory and Business Math  Family Life and Filipino Values System
 Basic & Advanced Algebra  Education for Human Rights and Responsible Citizenship
 Plane and Solid Geometry  Foundations of Gender Studies
 Trigonometry  Peace and Global Education
 Probability and Statistics  Information Technology and Human Development
 Analytical Geometry  Moral Issues and Concerns in Contemporary Living
 Calculus
 Modern Geometry WORK ETHICS AND COMMUNITY SERVICE
 Linear and Abstract Algebra COMMITMENT TO SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND
 History of Mathematics ACCOUNTABILITY
 Problem Solving
 Mathematical Investigation  Career Development and Work Values
 Instrumentation and Assessment  Values Education through Community Service

6. SOCIAL STUDIES/SOCIAL SCIENCES APPROACHES AND METHODOLOGIES

 Trends and Issues in Social Studies  Facilitation

 Research  Theory and Practice
 Geography  Teaching Approaches and Strategies in Transformative
 Sociology and Anthropology Education
 Politics/Governance/Law-Related  Values Integration in the School Setting

HISTORY:  RESEARCH AND EVALUATION

 World History and Civilization I  Behavioral Statistics

 World History and Civilization II  Development of VE Instruction Materials and Assessment
 Asian Studies Tools
 Research in VE
ECONOMICS

 Micro-Macro Economics 8. MAPEH

 Economic Planning and Strategies
 Foundations of MAPEH
METHODS  Methods and Strategies of Teaching MAPEH

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  Coaching and Officiating of Sports Events, Dance the reason why you're here in this article. That's good!
Competitions and Music Activities because this article will really help you!
 Organization and Management, Research, Special
Education in MAPEH  Actually I only have 3 Basic Tips on How to Pass the
Licensure Examination for Teachers and here are they:
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
 #1 Pray to God
 God is our Creator so this should be the first thing that you
 Anatomical, Mechanical and Physiological Bases of must do. Talk to God through a sincere prayer. Just one
Movement simple prayer is enough as long as it comes from your
 heart. It doesn't have to be very long, all you have to do is
close your eyes and talk to Him as if He's in front of you.
GYMNASTICS He will never give you the answer keys but He will surely
give you His guidance. Give thanks to God our Creator.
Amen?
 Philippine Folkdance
 Team SPORTS, Aquatics
 #2 Believe in Yourself
 International Folk Dance and Other Dance Forms
 This is the second thing that you need to do. It's really
 Athletics, Individual, Dual and Combative Sports simple right? You have to believe in yourself. God created
you and gave you talents and skills so you must believe
HEALTH EDUCATION that you can do it. Throw away those "What if..." questions
from your mind! Avoid being pessimist because it will
 Personal Community never help you. Trust your self because God has a plan for
you. If  you believe in yourself you'll eventually gain some
 Environmental Health
sort of interest or energy to take up the next step.
 Safety Education and First Aid
 Health Practicum
 #3 Review Review Review
 This is the last but the most important thing that you must
MUSIC do. Review those past lessons that you had taken from your
school/university. God will give you His guidance to pass
 Philippine and Asian Music the LET but He'll never give you the answer keys so, do
 Solfeggio and Applied Piano your part. If you really want to pass you have to review.
 Integrated Music Theory There are lots of reviewers in this website and some
 Music Literature important points that will help you to pass the examination.
 Choral Works and Conducting and Randalia Playing
Instrumentation
 ART EDUCATION There are lots of Famous Filipino Writers in Philippines. All of them
are great writers and they contributed a lot of compositions and
writings. Those writers used Pen Names/Pseudonyms and here are
9. AGRICULTURE AND FISHERY ARTS
they:

 Functional Application of Knowledge
 Breeds of Farm Animals and Fish
 Pests and Diseases Affecting Animals and Fish
List of the Famous Filipino Writers and their Pen Names
Propagation
or Pseudonyms
 Marketing Strategies in the Industry/Entrepreneurship
 Proper Care and Management of Agricultural and Fishery
Products  Jose dela Cruz - Huseng Sisiw
 Marcelo H. Del Pilar - Plaridel, Dolores Manapat, Piping
10. TECHNOLOGY AND LIVELIHOOD EDUCATION Dilat, Siling Labuyo, Kupang, Haitalaga, Patos, Carmelo,
D.A. Murgas, L.O. Crame D.M. Calero, Hilario, and M.
Dati.
 Basic Drafting  Severino de las Alas - Di-kilala
 Business Math  Epifanio delos Santos - G. Solon
 Basic Electricity  Valeriano Hernandez Peña - Ahas na Tulog, Anong,
 Basic Plumbing Damulag, Dating Alba, Isang Dukha, Kalampag and Kintin
 Cosmetology Kulirat
 Foods  Severino Reyes - Lola Basyang
 Carpentry and Masonry  Pedro de Govantes de Azcarraga - Conde de Albay
 Basic Electronics and Entrepreneurship  Francisco dela Cruz Balagtas - Francisco Baltazar
 Asuncion Lopez Bantug (Rizal’s grand niece) - Apo ni
Dimas
 Jose Ma. Basa
 Dr. José Protasio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda - José
 "How to pass the Licensure Examination for
Rizal, Dimas-alang (Tagalog for Touch me not), Laong-
Teachers?"
Laan (which means Ever-prepared), Agnoand Calambeño
 This is a very common question to some people who are
 Hugo Salazar - Ambut
currently preparing for the upcoming Licensure
Examination for Teachers. Some of them asked their  Moises Salvador - Araw
relatives or any other friends who are ahead of them, while  Jose Turiano Santiago - Tiktik
the others used the internet to search for the tips on how to  Lope K. Santos - Anak-Bayan and Doctor Lukas
pass the LET. I believe that you're one of them and that's  Juan Crisostomo Soto - Crissot
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  Luis Taruc - Alipato (which means spark that spreads a fire d. Haraya - Bisaya
and one of Rizal’s pet dogs) e. Lagda - Bisaya
 Jose Ma. Sison - Amado Guerrero f. Kumintang - Tagalog
 Dr. Pio Valenzuela - Madlang-Away g. Hari sa Bukid - Bisaya
 Clemente Jose Zulueta - M. Kaun       5. Karunungan Bayan
 J. Zulueta - Juan Totoó           a. Salawikain - nagsisilbing batas at tuntunin ng kagandahang-
 Isaac Fernando delos Rios asal ng ating mga ninuno.
             Halimbawa: Aanhin pa ang damo kung wala na ang kabayo.
 Bautista - Ba Basiong
          b. Sawikain - mga kasabihang walang natatagong kahulugan
 Gen. Vito Belarmino - Blind Veteran
             Halimbawa: Nasa Diyos ang awa, nasa tao ang gawa.
 Andres Bonifacio - Agapito Bagumbayan, while his           c. Bugtong - maikling tulang karaniwang naglalarawan ng
inspiring Katipunan name was Maypagasa isang bagay na siyang pahuhulaan.
 Felipe Calderon - Simoun and Elias (names from Rizal’s              Halimbawa: Isang tabo , laman ay pako. (langka)
novels)
 José Corazón de Jesús - Huseng Batute
 Mariano del Rosario - Tito-Tato
Pananakop ng Mga Kastila:
 Antonio K. Abad - Akasia
 Jose Abreu - Kaibigan Mga Impluwensya ng Kastila sa ating Panitikan:
 Macario Adriatico - Amaori, C. Amabri and Felipe Malayo
 Faustino Aguilar - Sinag-Ina 1. Nahalinan ng Alpabetong Romano ang Alibata
 Emilio Aguinaldo - Magdalo 2. Naituro ang Doctrina Cristiana
3. Naging Bahagi ng Wikang Filipino ang maraming salita sa Kastila
 Virgilio Almario - Rio Alma
4. Nadala ang ilang akdang pampanitikan ng Europa at tradisyong
 Pascual Alvarez - Bagongbuhay
Europeo na naging bahagi ng ating panitikan gaya ng awit, corido,
 Aurelio Alvero - Magtanggul Asa moro-moro at iba pa.
 Cecilio Apostol - Catulo, Calipso and Calypso 5. Nasinop at nasalin ang makalumang panitikan sa Tagalog sa ibang
 Francisco Arcellana - Franz Arcellana wikain
 Salvador Vivencio del Rosario - X and Juan Tagalo 6. Nailathala ang iba’t ibang aklat pambalarila sa wikang Filipino
 Domingo Gomez - Romero Franco tulad ng Tagalog, Ilokano at Bisaya 
 Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez - N.V.M. Gonzalez 7. Nagkaroon ng makarelihiyong himig ang mga akda
 Fernando Ma. Guerrero - Fluvio Gil
 Amado Hernandez - Amante Ernani, Herininia de la Riva
and Julio Abril Mga Unang Aklat:
 Emilio Jacinto - Dimas-ilaw and his Katipunan name was
Pingkian a. Ang Doctrina Cristiana (1593) – Padre Juan de Placencia at Padre
 Nick Joaquin - Quijano de Manila Dominga Nieva
 Jesus Lava - B. Ambrosio Rianzares b. Nuestra Senora del Rosario (1602) – Padre Blancas de San Jose
 Sixto Lopez - Batulaw c. Ang Barlaan at Josaphat (nobelang Tagalog) – Padre Antonio
 Gen. Antonio Luna - Taga-Ilog de Borja
d. Ang Pasyon – iba’t ibang bersyon sa Tagalog (Mariano Pilapil,
 Juan Luna - J.B. and Buan (a translation of his surname
Gaspar Aquino de Belen, Anecito de la Merced at Luis de Guia)
Luna which means moon)
e. Ang Urbana at Felisa – Modesto de Castro (Ama ng klasikang
 Apolinario Mabini - Bini and Paralitico
tuluyan sa Tagalog)
 Jose Palma - Ana-haw, Esteban Estebanes and Gan Hantik
 Rafael Palma - Hapon and Dapit-Hapon
 Jose Maria Panganiban - Jomapa and J.M.P. Mga Akdang Pangwika:
 Pascual H. Poblete - Anak-Bayan a. Arte Y Reglas de la Lengua Tagala
 Mariano Ponce - Naning, Tikbalang, and Kalipulako b. Compendio de la lengua Tagala
c. Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala
d. Vocabulario de la Lengua Pampango
Iba’t Ibang Panahon ng Panitikang Pilipino
e. Vocabulario de la Lengua Bisaya
Sinaunang Panahon f. Arte de la Lengua Bicolana
g. Arte de la Lengua Iloka
Mga Dulang Panlibangan
 May sarili nang panitikan ang ating mga ninuno sa
panahong ito. 1. Tibag 7. duplo
 Alibata ang kadalasang ginagamit. 2. Lagaylay 8. kurido
 Gumagamit din sila ng mga biyas ng kawayan , talukap ng 3. Sinakulo 9. saynete
bunga o niyog at dahon at balat ng punungkahoy bilang 4. Panubong 10. karagatan
sulatan at matutulis na bagay naman bilang panulat. 5. Karilyo 11. sarswela
6. Moro-moro
Mga uri ng Panitikang sumibol at sumikat sa sinaunang
panahon: Panahon ng Pagbabagong-isip (Propaganda)

1. Alamat  Ang diwang maka-relihiyon ay naging makabayan at

2. Kwentong Bayan humihingi ng pagbabago sa sistema ng pamamalakad sa
3. Mga Awiting Bayan pamahalaan at simbahan.
4. Epiko  Pagpasok ng diwang liberalismo.

a. Bidasari - Moro Mga Propagandista:

b. Biag ni Lam-ang - Iloko
a. Dr. Jose Rizal/ Laong Laan at Dimasalang (“Noli at El Fili)
c. Maragtas - Bisaya
b. Marcelo H. Del Pilar (Palridel, Piping Dilat at Dolores Manapat) –
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Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa, Kaiigat Kayo at Tocsohan a. Panday Pira – ni Jose Ma. Hernandez
c. Graciano Lopez Jaena (Fray Botod, Sa Mga Pilipino atbp) b. Sa Pula sa Puti --- Francisco Soc. Rodrigo
d. Antonio Luna (Noche Buena, Por Madrid atbp) c. Bulaga - ni Clodualdo del Mundo
d. “Sino ba Kayo?” “Dahil sa Anak” at “Higanti ng Patay” ni NVM
Gonzales
Panahon ng Amerikano
Ilang Mahusay na Maikling Kwento
1. Maalab ang diwang makabayan na hindi na magawang igupo ng
mga Amerikano a. Lupang Tinubuan - Narciso Reyes
2. Pinasok ng mga manunulat na Pilipino ang iba’t ibang larangan ng b. Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa - Liwayway Arceo
panitikan tulad ng tula, kwento, dula, sanaysay, nobela atbp. c. Lunsod Nayon at Dagat-dagatan - NVM Gonzales
3. Pag-ibig sa bayan at pagnanais ng kalayaan ang tema ng mga
isinusulat Bagong Kalayaan (1945 - 1972)
4. Namayani sa panahong ito ang mga akda sa wikang
Kastila, Tagalog at wikang Ingles  Sumigla muli ang panitik sa Pilipinas.
5. Pinatigil ang mga dulang may temang makabayan  Naging paksain ang kabayanihan ng mga gerilya, kalupitan
6. Sa panahong ito nailathala ang babasahing Liwayway ng mga Hapon, Kahirapan ng pamumuhay noon atbp.
7. Pinauso rin ang balagtasan katumbas ng debate  Nabuksang muli ang mga palimbagang naipasara dahil sa
8. Nagkaroon/Nagsimula ang pelikula sa Pilipinas giyera.
 Naitatag ang Palanca Memorial Award in Pilipino
and English Literature noong 1950.
Mga Pahayagan:  Nagkaroon din ng Republic Cultural Award, Gawad ni
Balagtas at Taunang Gawad ng Surian ng Wikang
1. El Nuevo Dia (Ang Bagong Araw) ni Sergio Osmena (1900)
Pambansa.
2. El Grito del Pueblo (Ang Sigaw ng Bayan) itinatag ni Pascual
Poblete (1900)  Sumigla rin ang pagkakaroon ng pahayagan sa mga
3. El Renacimiento (Muling Pagsilang) – itinatag ni Rafael Palma paaralang pangkolehiyo.
(1900)  Nagbukas rin ang palimbagan ng lingguhang babasahin:
Liwayway, Bulaklak, Tagumpay, Ilang-ilang atbp.
Mga Dulang Pinatigil:
Ilang Samahang Naitatag para sa Panitikang Filipino:
1. Kahapon Ngayon at Bukas – Aurelio Tolentino
2. Tanikalang Ginto – Juan Abad
3. Walang Sugat – Severino Reyes  Taliba ng Inang Wika (TANIW)
 Kapisanan ng Diwa at Panitik (KADIPAN)
 Kapisanan ng mga Mandudulang Pilipino (KAMPI)
Ilang kilalang manunulat sa Kastila na sumikat:  Ilang Samahang Naitatag para sa Panitikang Ingles:
 Philippine Writers Association
1. Cecelio Apostol  Dramatic Philippines
2. Fernando Ma. Guerrero  Philippine Educational Theater Association (PETA)
3. Jesus Balmori  Arena Theater
4. Manuel Bernabe Manalang  Barangay Writer’s Guild
5. Claro M. Recto
Batas Militar 1972 – 1986
Ilang kilalang manunulat sa Wikang Tagalog:
 1972 idiniklara ang Batas Militar sa Pilipinas sa
1. Lope K. Santos pamumuno ni Pangulong Ferdinand Marcos.
2. Jose Corazon de Jesus  Paksa ang paghingi ng pagbabago sa pamahalaan at
3. Florentino Collantes lipunan.
4. Amado V. Hernadez  Pagsisimula ng programang Bagong Lipunan noong
5. Valeriano Hernandez Pena Setyembre 21, 1972.
6. Inigo Ed Regalado  Pinahinto ang mga pampahayagan at maging samahang
pampaaralan.
 Pagpapatatag ng “Ministri ng Kabatirang Pangmadla”
Panahon ng Hapon (sumubaybay sa mga pahayagan, aklat at mga iba pang
babasahing panlipunan).
1. Natigil ang panitikan sa Ingles kasabay ng pagpatigil ng lahat ng
pahayagan.
2. Gintong Panahon para sa mga manunulat sa wikang tagalog. Kasalukuyang Panahon
3. Ipinagbawal din ng mga Hapon ang paggamit ng wikang Ingles.
4. Ang paksa ay natutungkol sa buhay lalawigan.  Isa pang makulay na kabanata ng panitikang Pilipino.
5. Napasara ang mga sinehan at ginawa na lamang tanghalan.  Namumulat ang mamayang Pilipino sa kahalagahan ng
6. Nagkaroon ng krisis ng papel kaya hindi masyadong marami ang pambansang wika.
akdang naisulat.  Marami na ang sumusubok na sumulat gamit ang kanilang
sariling bernakyular.
Tatlong Uri ng Tula na sumikat sa panahon ng Hapon  Mas mayaman ang pinagkukunan ng paksang isusulat.
 Malaki ang impluwensiya ng teknolohiya at agham.
1. Haiku
2. Tanaga  Malayo na rin ang naaabot ng media.
3. Karaniwang Anyo  Kahit sa mga telebisyon nagbabago na rin ang wikang
ginagamit.
Ilang Dula na sumikat sa panahon ng Hapon

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  Hindi lamang pamapanitikan ang uri ng salitang ginagamit El Grito del Pueblo at Ang Tinig ng Bayan. Siya rin ang kauna-
ngunit mapapansin na may mga akda na gumagamit na rin unahang nagsalin sa Tagalog ng Noli Me Tangere.
ng pabalbal, kolokyal at lalawiganin.
Jose Maria Panganiban (1865-1895)
Sumulat ng mga sanaysay, lathalain at mga talumpati sa ilalim ng
sagisag na Jomapa.
Jose P. Rizal (1861-1896) 
Pedro Serrano Laktaw 
Naipalimbag niya sa Berlin ang nobelang Noli Me Tangere (1887).
Noong 1890, tinapos niya ang ikalawang nobela, ang El Leksikograpo at manunulat; isa ring pangunahing Mason. Siya ang
Filibusterismo sa Ghent, Belgium. Gumamit si Rizal ng mga sagisag unang sumulat ng Diccionario Hispano-Tagalog (1889).
na “Dimas-Alang” at “Laong-Laan”. Si Rizal ay nakapagsasalita ng
dalawampu’t dalawang wika. Isabelo delos Reyes 
Nagtatag ng “Iglesia Filipina Independente”; nagtamo ng gantimpala
Marcelo H. del Pilar 
sa Exposisyon sa Madrid, sa sinulat na “El Folklore Filipino”.
Bilang pangunahing pinuno ng Kilusang Propaganda, ipinakita niya
kaagad ang pagtutol sa mga pamamalakad ng mga Kastila. Lantad Fernando Canon 
ang gayon niyang damdamin sa pahayagang Diariong Tagalog, na
itinatag at pinamatnugutan niya noong 1882. Noong Nobyembre 15, Kaklase ni Rizal sa Ateneo. Sumulat siya ng tula ukol kay Rizal. Sa
1889, napasalin sa kanya ang pagiging patnugot ng La Solidaridad. mga tulang pang-Rizal nagsimula ang kanyang katanyagan. Kapwa
Gumamit siya ng mga sagisag tulad ng “Dolores Manapat”, “Piping pintor naman sina Juan Luna at Felix Resureccion Hidalgo.
Dilat”, “Maitalaga”, “Kupang”, “Carmelo”, “L.O. Crame” at
“Pupdoh”.
Mga Nakilalang Mandudula
Mga Akda ni Marcelo H. del Pilar:
1. “Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa” – salin ng tulang “Amor Patrio” ni
Rizal. Severino Reyes (1861-1942) 
2. Caiigat Cayo (1888)
Pangunahing manunulat ng sarsuwela si Severino Reyes. Kilala rin
3. Dasalan at Tocsohan (1888)
siya sa sagisag na “Lola Basyang” dahil sa kanyang mga kuwentong-
4. Ang Kadakilaan ng Dios
bayan na inilathala sa Lingguhang Liwayway. Ang kanyang
5. Sagot ng Espanya sa Hibik ng Pilipinas (1889)
sarsuwelang Walang Sugat ang itinuturing na kanyang obra-maestra.
6. Dupluhan…Dalit…mga Bugtong…
Noong 1922, naging patnugot siya ng Liwayway.

Graciano Lopez Jaena (1856-1896)  Patricio Mariano 

Itinatag niya sa Espanya ang Circulo Hispano-Filipino; sumulat ng
Isang mandudula, peryodista, kuwentista, nobelista at makata.
mga ulat para sa Circulo. Noong 1889, itinatag niya ang La
Marami siyang nasulat na dula na kinabibilangan ng Anak ng Dagat,
Solidaridad at naging unang patnugot nito. Nang mapalipat kay M.
Ang Tulisan, Ang Dalawang Pag-ibigi, Ako’y Iyo Rin, at iba pa.
del Pilar ang tungkulin ng patnugot, naging manunulat na lamang
Siya ng tinaguriang Dekano ng mga Mandudulang Tagalog.
siya ng pahayagan. Nagkubli siya sa pangalang “Diego Laura”. Sa
kanyang panahon, higit siyang kinilalang orador kaysa manunulat.
Sinulat niya ang FrayBotod, isang maikling nobelang mapang-uyam
Hermogenes Ilagan
na naglalarawan sa “kasibaan ng mga prayle”. Ang FrayBotod ay
prayleng napakalakas kumain. Siya ang masasabing kaagaw ni Severino Reyes sa kasigasigan sa
paglikha at pagtatanghal ng sarsuwela. Ang pinakatanyag niyang
Mariano Ponce (1863-1899)  dula ay ang Dalagang Bukid.
Gumamit ng mga sagisag na “Naning”, “Tikbalang”, “Kalipulako”.
Kabilang sa mga akda niya ang “Mga Alamat ng Bulakan”, at ang
Julian Cruz Balmaseda 
dulang “Pagpugot kay Longino”.
Namumukod ang kanyang aral sa pag-iimpok sa sulang Ang Piso ni
Anita. Ito ang dulang nagtamo ng unang gantimpala sa timpalak ng
Antonio Luna (1866-1899)  Kawanihan ng Koreo; sa kanyang Sa Bunganga ng Pating, binaka
niya ang sakit na nililikha ng salaping patubuan.
Parmasyutikong gumamit ng sagisag na Taga-ilog sa kanyang pag-
akda. Marami siyang naiambag sa La Solidaridad. Kabilang sa mga
akda niya ang “Noche Buena”, “La Tertulia Filipina”, “La Maestra Aurelio Tolentino (1868-1913) 
de Mi Pueblo” at ang “Impresiones”.
Dalubhasa sa paggamit ng tatlong wika, Pampango, Tagalog at
Kastila. Maraming dula siyang nasulat tulad ng Bagong Kristo, isang
sulang sosyolohiko; Sumpaan, isang romantikong sarsuwelang may
tatlong yugto. Ngunit higit sa lahat ng mga dula niya, ang nakilala’y
Pedro A. Paterno (1858-1911)  ang kanyang Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas. Isang alegoriya ang dulang
ito ay naglalahad sa pamamagitan ng mga simbolikong tauhan na
May-akda ng Ninay isang nobelang sosyolohiko. Ito ang unang pinagdadaanan ng Pilipinas.
nobelang sinulat sa Kastila ng isang Pilipino.

Pascual Poblete (1858-1921)  Juan K. Abad 

Nobelista, makata, mananalaysay at tinaguriang “Ama ng Nang magsimula ang himagsikan sinunog ng lahat ni Abad ang
Pahayagan”. Siya ang nagtatag ng mga pahayagang El Resumen, kanyang mga akdang nanunuligsa sa pamahalaan at sa mga prayle at
pagkaraa ay umanib siya sa Katipunan. Hinarap ni Abad ang pagbaka
6
sa comedia sa paniniwalang ito ay nakakalason sa isipan ng mga examinations shall be made public and every applicant shall be
Pilipino. furnished with his score and rank in said examinations. 

Sec. 4. Probationary Period. When recruitment takes place after

THE MAGNA CARTA FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS adequate training and professional preparation in any school
recognized by the Government, no probationary period preceding
also known as regular appointment shall be imposed if the teacher possesses the
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 4670 appropriate civil service eligibility: Provided, however, That where,
(June 18, 1966) due to the exigencies of the service, it is necessary to employ as
I. DECLARATION OF POLICY COVERAGE teacher a person who possesses the minimum
educational qualifications herein above set forth but lacks the
Sec. 1. Declaration of Policy. It is hereby declared to be the policy of appropriate civil service eligibility, such person shall be appointed on
this Act to promote and improve the social and economic status of a provisional status and shall undergo a period of probation for not
public school teachers, their living and working conditions, their less than one year from and after the date of his
terms of employment and career prospects in order that they may provisional appointment. 
compare favorably with existing opportunities in other walks of life,
attract and retain in the teaching profession more people with the Sec. 5. Tenure of Office. Stability on employment and security of
proper qualifications, it being recognized that advance in education tenure shall be assured the teachers as provided under existing laws. 
depends on the qualifications and ability of the teaching staff and that
Subject to the provisions of Section three hereof, teachers appointed
education is an essential factor in the economic growth of the nation
on a provisional status for lack of necessary civil service eligibility
as a productive investment of vital importance. 
shall be extended permanent appointment for the position he is
Sec. 2. Title Definition. This Act shall be known as the "Magna Carta holding after having rendered at least ten years of continuous,
for Public School Teachers" and shall apply to all public school efficient and faithful service in such position. 
teachers except those in the professorial staff of state colleges and
Sec. 6. Consent for Transfer Transportation Expenses. Except for
universities. 
cause and as herein otherwise provided, no teacher shall be
As used in this Act, the term "teacher" shall mean all persons transferred without his consent from one station to another. 
engaged in classroom teaching, in any level of instruction, on full-
Where the exigencies of the service require the transfer of a teacher
time basis, including guidance counselors, school librarians,
from one station to another, such transfer may be effected by the
industrial arts or vocational instructors, and all other persons
school superintendent who shall previously notify the teacher
performing supervisory and/or administrative functions in all
concerned of the transfer and the reason or reasons therefor. If the
schools, colleges and universities operated by the Government or its
teacher believes there is no justification for the transfer, he may
political subdivisions; but shall not include school nurses, school
appeal his case to the Director of Public Schools or the Director of
physicians, school dentists, and other school employees. 
Vocational Education, as the case may be. Pending his appeal and the
II. RECRUITMENT AND CAREER  decision thereon, his transfer shall be held in abeyance: Provided,
however, That no transfers whatever shall be made three months
Sec. 3. Recruitment and Qualification. Recruitment policy with before any local or national election. 
respect to the selection and appointmentof teachers shall be clearly
defined by the Department of Education: Provided, however, That Necessary transfer expenses of the teacher and his family shall be
effective upon the approval of this Act, the following shall constitute paid for by the Government if his transfer is finally approved. 
the minimum educational qualifications for teacher-applicants: 
Sec. 7. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers. Within six
(a) For teachers in the kindergarten and elementary months from the approval of this Act, the Secretary of Education
grades, Bachelor's degree in Elementary Education (B.S.E.ED.);  shall formulate and prepare a Code of Professional Conduct for
Public School Teachers. A copy of the Code shall be furnished each
(b) For teachers of the secondary schools, Bachelor's degree in teacher: Provided, however, That where this is not possible by reason
Education or its equivalent with a major and a minor; or a Bachelor's of inadequate fiscal resources of the Department of Education, at
degree in Arts or Science with at least eighteen professional units in least three copies of the same Code shall be deposited with the office
Education.  of the school principal or head teacher where they may be accessible
for use by the teachers. 
(c) For teachers of secondary vocational and two years technical
courses, Bachelor's degree in the field of specialization with at least Sec. 8. Safeguards in Disciplinary Procedure. Every teacher shall
eighteen professional units in education;  enjoy equitable safeguards at each stage of any disciplinary
procedure and shall have: 
(d) For teachers of courses on the collegiate level, other than
vocational, master's degree with a specific area of specialization;  a. the right to be informed, in writing, of the charges; 

b. the right to full access to the evidence in the case; 

Provided, further, That in the absence of applicants who possess the c. the right to defend himself and to be defended by a representative
minimum educational qualificationsas hereinabove provided, the of his choice and/or by his organization, adequate time being given to
school superintendent may appoint, under a temporary the teacher for the preparation of his defense; and 
status, applicantswho do not meet the minimum qualifications:
Provided, further, That should teacher-applicants, whether they d. the right to appeal to clearly designated authorities. 
possess the minimum educational qualifications or not, be required to
take competitive examinations, preference in making appointments No publicity shall be given to any disciplinary action being taken
shall be in the order of their respective ranks in said competitive against a teacher during the pendency of his case. 
examinations: And provided, finally, That the results of the Sec. 9. Administrative Charges. Administrative charges against a
teacher shall be heard initially by a committee composed of the
7
corresponding School Superintendent of the Division or a duly scale shall be such that the relation between the lowest and highest
authorized representative who should at least have the rank of a salaries paid in the profession will be of reasonable order. Narrowing
division supervisor, where the teacher belongs, as chairman, a of the salary scale shall be achieved by raising the lower end of the
representative of the local or, in its absence, any existing provincial salary scales relative to the upper end. 
or national teacher's organization and a supervisor of the Division,
the last two to be designated by the Director of Public Schools. The Sec. 16. Salary Scale. Salary scales of teachers shall provide for a
committee shall submit its findings and recommendations to the gradual progression from a minimum to a maximum salary by means
Director of Public Schools within thirty days from the termination of of regular increments, granted automatically after three years:
the hearings: Provided, however, That where the school Provided, That the efficiency rating of the teacher concerned is at
superintendent is the complainant or an interested party, all the least satisfactory. The progression from the minimum to the
members of the committee shall be appointed by the Secretary of maximum of the salary scale shall not extend over a period of ten
Education.  years. 

Sec. 10. No Discrimination. There shall be no discrimination Sec. 17. Equality in Salary Scales. The salary scales of teachers
whatsoever in entrance to the teaching profession, or during its whose salaries are appropriated by a city, municipal, municipal
exercise, or in the termination of services, based on other than district, or provincial government, shall not be less than those
professional consideration.  provided for teachers of the National Government. 

Sec. 11. Married Teachers. Whenever possible, the proper authorities Sec. 18. Cost of Living Allowance. Teacher's salaries shall, at the
shall take all steps to enable married couples, both of whom are very least, keep pace with the rise in the cost of living by the
public school teachers, to be employed in the same locality.  payment of a cost-of-living allowance which shall automatically
follow changes in a cost-of-living index. The Secretary of Education
Sec. 12. Academic Freedom. Teachers shall enjoy academic freedom shall, in consultation with the proper government entities,
in the discharge of their professional duties, particularly with regard recommend to Congress, at least annually, the appropriation of the
to teaching and classroom methods.  necessary funds for the cost-of-living allowances of teachers
employed by the National Government. The determination of the
cost-of-living allowances by the Secretary of Education shall, upon
approval of the President of the Philippines, be binding on the city,
III. HOURS OF WORK AND REMUNERATION 
municipal or provincial government, for the purposes of calculating
Sec. 13. Teaching Hours. Any teacher engaged in actual classroom the cost-of-living allowances of teachers under its employ. 
instruction shall not be required to render more than six hours of
actual classroom teaching a day, which shall be so scheduled as to Sec. 19. Special Hardship Allowances. In areas in which teachers are
give him time for the preparation and correction of exercises and exposed to hardship such as difficulty in commuting to the place of
other work incidental to his normal teaching duties: Provided, work or other hazards peculiar to the place of employment, as
however, That where the exigencies of the service so require, any determined by the Secretary of Education, they shall be compensated
teacher may be required to render more than six hours but not special hardship allowances equivalent to at least twenty-five per
exceeding eight hours of actual classroom teaching a day upon cent of their monthly salary. 
payment of additional compensation at the same rate as his regular Sec. 20. Salaries to be Paid in Legal Tender. Salaries of teachers
remuneration plus at least twenty-five per cent of his basic pay.  shall be paid in legal tender of the Philippines or its equivalent in
Sec. 14. Additional Compensation. Notwithstanding any provision of checks or treasury warrants. Provided, however, That such checks or
existing law to the contrary, co-curricula and out of school activities treasury warrants shall be cashable in any national, provincial, city or
and any other activities outside of what is defined as normal duties of municipal treasurer's office or any banking institutions operating
any teacher shall be paid an additional compensation of at least under the laws of the Republic of the Philippines. 
twenty-five per cent of his regular remuneration after the teacher has Sec. 21. Deductions Prohibited. No person shall make any deduction
completed at least six hours of actual classroom teaching a day.  whatsoever from the salaries of teachers except under specific
In the case of other teachers or school officials not engaged in actual authority of law authorizing such deductions: Provided, however,
classroom instruction, any work performed in excess of eight hours a That upon written authority executed by the teacher concerned, (1)
day shall be paid an additional compensation of at least twenty-five lawful dues and fees owing to the Philippine Public School Teachers
per cent of their regular remuneration.  Association, and (2) premiums properly due on insurance policies,
shall be considered deductible. 
The agencies utilizing the services of teachers shall pay the
additional compensation required under this section. Education IV. HEALTH MEASURES AND INJURY BENEFITS 
authorities shall refuse to allow the rendition of services of teachers Sec. 22. Medical Examination and Treatment. Compulsory medical
for other government agencies without the assurance that the teachers examination shall be provided free of charge for all teachers before
shall be paid the remuneration provided for under this section.  they take up teaching, and shall be repeated not less than once a year
during the teacher's professional life. Where medical examination
Sec. 15. Criteria for Salaries. Teacher's salaries shall correspond to
show that medical treatment and/or hospitalization is necessary, same
the following criteria: 
shall be provided free by the government entity paying the salary of
(a) they shall compare favorably with those paid in other occupations the teachers. 
requiring equivalent or similar qualifications, training and abilities; 
In regions where there is scarcity of medical facilities, teachers may
(b) they shall be such as to insure teachers a reasonable standard of obtain elsewhere the necessary medical care with the right to be
life for themselves and their families; and  reimbursed for their traveling expenses by the government entity
concerned in the first paragraph of this Section. 
(c) they shall be properly graded so as to recognize the fact that
certain positions require higher qualifications and greater Sec. 23. Compensation For Injuries. Teachers shall be protected
responsibility than others: Provided, however, That the general salary against the consequences of employment injuries in accordance with
existing laws. The effects of the physical and nervous strain on the
8
teacher's health shall be recognized as a compensable occupational Secretary of Education deems reasonably sufficient to give interested
disease in accordance with existing laws.  parties general notice of such issuance. 

V. LEAVE AND RETIREMENT BENEFITS  Sec. 31. Budgetary Estimates. The Secretary of Education shall
submit to Congress annually the necessary budgetary estimates to
Sec. 24. Study Leave. In addition to the leave privileges now enjoyed implement the provisions of the Act concerning the benefits herein
by teachers in the public schools, they shall be entitled to study leave granted to public school teachers under the employ of the National
not exceeding one school year after seven years of service. Such Government. 
leave shall be granted in accordance with a schedule set by the
Department of Education. During the period of such leave, the Sec. 32. Penal Provision. A person who shall willfully interfere with,
teachers shall be entitled to at least sixty per cent of their monthly restrain or coerce any teacher in the exercise of his rights guaranteed
salary: Provided, however, That no teacher shall be allowed to by this Act or who shall in any other manner commit any act to
accumulate more than one year study leave, unless he needs an defeat any of the provisions of this Act shall, upon conviction, be
additional semester to finish his thesis for a graduate study in punished by a fine of not less than one hundred pesos nor more than
education or allied courses: Provided, further, That no compensation one thousand pesos, or by imprisonment, in the discretion of the
shall be due the teacher after the first year of such leave. In all cases, court. 
the study leave period shall be counted for seniority and pension
purposes.  If the offender is a public official, the court shall order his dismissal
from the Government service. 
The compensation allowed for one year study leave as herein
provided shall be subject to the condition that the teacher takes the Sec. 33. Repealing Clause. All Acts or parts of Acts, executive orders
regular study load and passes at least seventy-five per cent of his and their implementing rules inconsistent with the provisions of this
courses. Study leave of more than one year may be permitted by the Act are hereby repealed, amended or modified accordingly. 
Secretary of Education but without compensation. 
Sec. 34. Separability Clause. If any provision of this Act is declared
Sec. 25. Indefinite Leave. An indefinite sick leave of absence shall be invalid, the remainder of this Act or any provisions not affected
granted to teachers when the nature of the illness demands a long thereby shall remain in force and in effect. 
treatment that will exceed one year at the least. 
Sec. 35. This Act shall take effect upon its approval. 
Sec. 26. Salary Increase upon Retirement. Public school teachers
having fulfilled the age and service requirements of the applicable
retirement laws shall be given one range salary raise upon retirement,
which shall be the basis of the computation of the lump sum of the
retirement pay and the monthly benefits thereafter. 

VI. TEACHER'S ORGANIZATION  Here are some of the salient points in the Philippine History:

Sec. 27. Freedom to Organize. Public school teachers shall have the
 The first book published in the Philippines was
right to freely and without previous authorization both to establish
Doctrina Cristiana.
and to join organizations of their choosing, whether local or national
 The Father of Ilocano Literature is Pedro Bukaneg.
to further and defend their interests. 
 The Father of Tagalog Poetry is Francisco Baltazar.
Sec. 28. Discrimination Against Teachers Prohibited. The rights  Lola Basyang is the pen name of Severino Reyes.
established in the immediately preceding Section shall be exercised  The first and longest running komiks series in the
without any interference or coercion. It shall be unlawful for any Philippines is Kenkoy (Liwayway Magasin,1929)
 The Father of Pampango Literature who wrote "There is no
person to commit any acts of discrimination against teachers which
God" is Juan Crisostomo Soto.
are calculated to (a) make the employment of a teacher subject to the
 The oldest existing newspaper in the Philippines since the
condition that he shall not join an organization, or shall relinquish
1900 is Manila Bulletin.
membership in an organization, 
 The Father of Modern Tagalog Poetry is Alejandro
(b) to cause the dismissal of or otherwise prejudice a teacher by Abadilla.
reason of his membership in an organization or because of  The work of Bonifacio which tells the history of the
Philippines Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog.
participation in organization activities outside school hours, or with
 He wrote the popular fable The Monkey and the Turtle -
the consent of the proper school authorities, within school hours, and
Jose Rizal
(c) to prevent him from carrying out the duties laid upon him by his
 This is known as Andres Bonifacio's
position in the organization, or to penalize him for an action
Ten Commandments of the Katipunan - The Decalogue.
undertaken in that capacity.   Rizal's model for Pilosopong Tasyo was Paciano Rizal.
Sec. 29. National Teacher's Organizations. National teachers'  The following characters created by Rizal reflect his own
personality except Simoun (El Filibusterismo)
organizations shall be consulted in the formulation of national
 The line "whoever knows not how to love his native tongue
educational policies and professional standards, and in the
is worse than any beast or even smelly fish" To My Fellow
formulation of national policies governing the social security of the
Childred
teachers. 
 Rizal's pen name - Dimasalang, Laong-Laan
VII. ADMINISTRATION AND ENFORCEMENT   Taga-ilog is Juan Luna's Pen name.
 The first filipino alphabet was called Alibata
Sec. 30. Rules and Regulations. The Secretary of Education shall  Baybayin - The first filipino alphabet consisted of 15
formulate and prepare the necessary rules and regulations to Letters
implement the provisions of this Act. Rules and regulations issued  This is a song about love - Talindaw
pursuant to this Section shall take effect thirty days after publication  Awit ng mga taong hindi naimbetahan sa kainan - Colado
in a newspaper of general circulation and by such other means as the  He was known for his `Memoria Fotografica` - Jose Ma.
Panganiban 
9
  He is known as the `poet of the workers or laborers` -  Any methodological activity. such as observational.
Amado Hernandez experimental investigation and theoretical explanation of
 Ilocano balagtasan is called Bukanegan natural phenomena.
 Visayan epic about good manners and right conduct -  Systematized knowledge based on facts.
Maragtas
 The father of Filipino newspaper is Pascual Poblete Divisions of Science
 Lupang Tinubuan is considered to be the best story written
during Japanese Period. The author is Narciso Reyes
 Social Science
 The original title of Ibong Adarna was Corido at Buhay na
 Political Science
Pinagdaanan ng Tatlong Prinsipeng Anac ng Haring
Fernando at Reyna Valeriana sa Caharian Berbania  History
 Pan de Regla - First filipino bread  Mathematics
 The Great Plebian - Andres Bonifacio  Natural science
 The Father of the Katipunan - Andres Bonifacio
 Hero of the Tirad Pass Battle - Gregorio Del Pilar Branches of Natural Science
 President of the First Philippine Republic -
General Emilio Aguinaldo  Physical Science - Dealing with non-living things.
 Brains of the Philippine Revolution - Apolinario Mabini  Biological Science - Dealing with living things.
 Martyred Priests in 1872 - GOMBURZA
 Brains of the Katipunan - Emilio Jacinto Scientific Method
 Co-founder of La Independencia - General Antonio Luna
 Mother of Balintawak - Melchora Aquino
 Greatest Filipino Orator of the Propaganda Movement -  An orderly. logical and rational manner of solving
Graciano Lopez- Jaena problems.
 First Filipino Cannon-maker - Pandar Pira  Enables and Ieads scientists towards unveiling the truths
 Managing Editor of La Solidaridad - Mariano Ponce about observable phenomena and construct their clear
representations.
 Lakambini of Katipunan - Gregoria de Jesus
 Poet of the Revolution - Fernando Ma. Guerrero
 Outstanding Diplomat of the First Philippine Republic - Cell Theory
Felipe Agoncillo
 First University of the Philippines President - Rafael Palma  Describes or explains what a cell is.
 Greatest Filipino Painter - Juan Luna  Cell is the basic component of a living organism.
 Greatest Journalist of the Propaganda Movement - Marcelo  New cells are produced from existing cells.
H. del Pilar  Cell is the building block of life.
 First Filipino Poetess - Leona Florentino
 Peace of the Revolution - Pedro Paterno Kinds of Cell
 Founder of Philippine Socialism - Isabelo Delos Reyes 
 Viborra - Artemio Ricarte
 Author of the Spanish lyrics of the Philippine National  Prokaryotic - has no nucleus; ex. Bacteria
Anthem - Jose Palma  Eukaryotic - has true nucleus; ex. Mammals
 Composer of the Philippine National Anthem - Julian
Felipe Electromagnetism
 Chief of Tondo - Lakandola
 The Last Rajah of Manila - Rajah Soliman  Magnetism  - derived from Magnesia, an island in the
 Fiancée of Jose Rizal - Leonor Rivera Aegean Sea
 Maker of the First Filipino Flag - Marcela Agoncillo  Magnet  - an object that attracts magnetic objects like
 Co-founder of Katipunan - Galicano Apacible metals
 Leader of the Ilocano Revolt - Diego Silang  A magnet has two poles, north and south.
 First Filipino Hero: Lapu-Lapu  Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
 Leader of the Longest Revolt in Bohol - Francisco  Generator - a device that changes mechanical energy
Dagohoy to electrical energy
 The Man of Many Talents - Epifanio Delos Santos  Motor - a device that changes electrical energy to
 Prince of Tagalog Poets - Francisco Baltazar mechanical energy
 Visayan Joan of Arc - Teresa Magbanua
 Mother of Biak-na-Bato - Trinidad Tecson Mixtures
 Wife of Artemio Ricarte - Agueda EstebanLeader of the
Tarlac Revolt: Gen. Francisco Makabulos
 Physical combination of 2 or more substances which can
 Spaniards born in the Philippines - Insulares
be separated by mechanical means.
 Leader of Magdalo - Baldomero Aguinaldo 
 Leader of Magdiwang - Mariano Alvarez
 Founder of La Liga Filipina - Jose Rizal  Homogeneous mixture 
 Painter of the Spolarium - Juan Luna  a mixture in which the molecules are thoroughly mixed: a
mixture that is uniform throughout.
 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. The components of
Science solution are solute, which is the dissolved particles. and the
solvent. which is the dissolving particles.
 From Latin word “scientia." which means "knowledge".
 Heterogeneous mixture

10
  Suspensions - heterogeneous mixture where particles are Select media that are well suited to the group size you have
too large that they settle at the bottom of the container. or, if this is difficult, modify the group or structure to
 Colloids - heterogeneous mixtures whose particles are not media you have.
large enough to settle nor small enough to be dissolved,
like the Tyndall Effect. which is the scattering of light by
the particles. d.) Physical Disabilities of Learners (poor vision, hearing,
dyslexia, color blindness, etc.)
Methods of Separating Mixtures
1.2. Teacher factors- refer to those factors that affect the
 Filtration - use of filter paper to separate liquid from solid success of media implementation.
components.
2. Instructional method
               Filtrate - liquid that passes through the filter paper. The method of instructions dictates or limit our choice of
               Residue - substance that did not pass through the presentation media. Is it self-regulated learning method or
filter paper. lecture/expository?

 Decantation - pouring off a layer of liquid from a mixture. 3. Practical constraints

 Magnetism - use of magnets to separate magnetic materials Administrative and economic constraints both limit the
from the nonmagnetic ones. choice of methods and media.
 Centrifugation - substance is subjected to circular or        1.) Objectives           3.) Time
rotational motion in a centrifuge.
       2.) Availability         4.) Resources
 Distillation - liquid is set to boiling. Vapour is collected
and later cooled to condense.
 Chromatography - passing mixture in solution or Contributions of education technology
suspension or as a vapour (as in gas chromatography)
through a medium in which the components move at to education
different rates.
• Increase students’ motivation, self-esteem, self-
confidence and academic achievement.
• Supplies stimulating environment that encourage student
involvement in the learning process.
• Promotes higher-level thinking skills and student-
centered instruction.
Basic Concept in Educational • Offers students diversity, self-paced learning, and
opportunities for individuals growth and self expression.
Technology • Provides students with unique opportunities to apply
A field dedicated to a theory and practice of design,
skills and talent and to interact with other in non-
development, utilization, management and evaluation of
threatening environments.
process and resources for learning.
• Changes teacher’s and student’s role into positive
Technology Integration directions.
It is the process of determining where and how technology • Inspires student and teacher by making learning exciting
fits in the Teaching and Learning process. and interesting.
Factor affecting the selection of • Forests the development of leadership abilities and
teamwork.
educational technologies • Support new instructional approaches: cooperative
1. Human factors learning, inquiry approach, problem- based learning,
1.1. Learner factors – refer to learner differences that can project-based learning and multiple intelligence.
influence media choice. • Provides unique opportunities for student to practice,
demonstrate and critique communication skill.
a.) Individual Differences • Supplies information through multi-sensory delivery
Research suggests that learner differ in: channels, allowing students with various learning styles to
• Their preference for learning: by observing (visual assimilate and apply knowledge.
learners) or by listening (aural learners) • Expand classroom “walls” and links students and teachers
• Their perception of a given message: a factor of past in national and international exchanges.
experience, and often a culture difference exists
• Their understanding of the conventions used by various
media: language and technical drawings used Essential conditions for technology
integration in the classroom
b.) Attention Span For technology to have desired impact on improved
Factors that affect how long a learner can attend to one teaching and learning, several conditions must be in place;
type of task are age, interest and learners’ motivation • Shared vision for technology integration – this
requires coordinated school district planning with teacher
c.) Number of Learner and other personnel at all levels, budgeting yearly amounts
for technologies purchases with incremental funding,

11
emphasizing teacher training, matching technology to 9. Use color/audio/music to stimulate but not to overpower,
curriculum needs, and keeping current and building the senses.
flexibility. 10. Produce the materials with technical excellence – good
• Standard and curriculum support – technology and quality good audio, clear etc.
content area standard are designed to support each other.
• Required policies – policies are in place to ensure legal/
ethical use, safe, internet use, and equity. According to UNESCO the four pillars of learning are the
• Access to hardware, software and other resources – there fundamental principles for reshaping education.
is adequate funding, purchasing procedures are organized
and effective, and procedure are in place to set up
and maintain technology resources. FOUR PILLARS OF
• Trained personnel- staff development that includes hands- EDUCATION/LEARNING
on , integration emphasis, training over time; modeling,
mentoring and approaching and post training-access to
technology resources.
• Technical assistance- continuing support for diagnostic LEARNING TO KNOW
and maintenance problem for teachers’ and students’
computer.  Focuses on combining broad gen. knowledge and
• Appropriate teaching and assessment approaches - basic educ. with the opportunity to work on a
teaching strategies are matched to needs and assessment small number of subjects in the light of rapid
strategies are matches to the type of learning being changes brought about by scientific progress
measured. ang new forms of economic and social acitivity.
 Learning how to learn and to discover, as to
Some of the most important benefits of benefit from ongoing educational opportunities
internet and other distances resources:  continuously arising throughout life.
• Easy and rapid communication.  Developing the faculties of memory, imagination,
• Access to expert resources and information not reasoning and problem solving.
locally available.  Understanding about one's environment.
• Access to up-to-date information.  Communicating with others.
• Easy sharing the information and product.
• Support of a cooperative group work. LEARNING TO DO
• Support for learning information and visual literacy.
 Emphasizes on the learning of skills necessary to
Evaluating Instructional Resources practice a profession or trade.
In evaluating instructional resources, several question you  Applying in practice what has been learned.
should ask yourself are important, regardless of the type  Developing vocational / occupational and
are resources you are considering; technical skills.
1. Does the content match the curriculum?  Developing social skills in building
2. Is the content accurate, up to date, and appropriate with meaningful interpersonal relationships.
the students?  Developing competence, social behavior, aptitude
3. Do the materials teach and/or reinforce learning for teamwork.
effectively?
 Enhancing the ability to communicate and work
4. Do these resources enhance instruction?
with others.
5. Is the resource easy for the teacher and students to use?
 Managing and resolving conflicts.
6. Are the materials of high quality technically?
7. Is the use of resource practical of my teaching setting
(cost, needed equipment, etc.)? LEARNING TO BE 
Ten Commandments in creating  Prioritizes the development of the human potential
learning/presentation materials to the fullest.
1. Don’t overcrowd.  Tapping the talents hidden with individual.
2. Be consistent in formal, layout and conventions.  Developing personal commitment and
3. Use appropriate type paces and point uses. responsibilty for the common good.
4. Used bold and italics for emphasis, but don’t overuse
them. LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER
5. Use titles, headings, and subheadings to clarify
and guide.  Emphasizes understanding of others, their history,
6. Use numbers through direct sequence. tradition and cultures, and also living and
7. Use graphics and illustration to reinforce ideas. interacting peacefully together.
8. Use symbols and icons as identifying markers.
 Appreciating diversity of human race
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  Being receptive to others and encounter others 7) PAGTUTULAD (Simile) - Isang di-tuwirang
through dialogue and debate. paghahambing ng dalawang magkaibang bagay gamit ang
 Caring about others pariralang tulad ng, kawangis ng, para ng, gaya ng,
 Working toward common objectives in makasing, at magkasim.
cooperative undertakings. Halimbawa: 
 Managing and resolving conflicts. a. Parang hari si Tonio kung mag-utos.

8) PAGWAWANGIS (Metaphor) - Isang tuwirang

paghahambing ng magkaibang bagay at hindi gumagamit
ANO ANG TAYUTAY? ng mga pariralang nabanggit sa itaas.
Halimbawa: 
a. Ang kanyang buhay ay isang bukas na aklat.
Ang Tayutay ay isang salita o grupo ng mga salita na
kadalasang ginagamit upang maipahayag ang isang 9) PAGHAHALINTULAD (Analogy) - Ito ay
emosyon sa paraang hindi karaniwan upang makabuo ng paghahambing na nagpapakita ng ugnayan ng kaisipan sa
kapwa kaisipan.
mas malalim na kahulugan. Ito ay hindi literalkundi isang
Halimbawa: 
patalinghaga na minsa'y ginagamit bilang simbolo.
a. Ang mga dalaga ay bulaklak at ang mga binata naman ay
bubuyog.
MGA URI NG TAYUTAY
1) ALITERASYON (Alliteration) - Pag-uulit ng mga 10) PAGBIBIGAY - KATAUHAN (Personification) -
tunog-katinig sa inisyal na bahagi ng salita. Ginagamit ito upang bigyang-buhay ang mga bagay na
Halimbawa:  walang buhay sa pamamagitan ng pagkakapit sa mga ito ng
a. Makikita sa mga mata ni Maria ang mga masasayang mga gawi o kilos ng tao.
nangyari sa kaniya kasama si Marco. (makikita, mga, mata, Halimbawa: 
Maria, masasayang, Marco) a. Ang mga bituin sa langit ay kumikindat sa akin.

2) KONSONANS - Pag-uulit ng mga tunog-katinig sa 11) PAGMAMALABIS (Hyperbole) - Lagpas sa

final na bahagi ng salita. katotohanan o eksaherado ang mga pahayag kung
Halimbawa:  pagkasusuriin.
a. Ang aking pagmamahal para kay Rosal ay lalong Halimbawa: 
tumatatag habang tumatagal. (pagmamahal, Rosal, a. Narinig ng buong mundo ang iyong sigaw.
tumatagal) b. Huminto ang pagtibok ng aking puso nang makita kong
may kasama siyang iba.
3) ASONANS - Pag-uulit ng mga tunog-patinig sa
alinmang bahagi ng salita. 12) PAGPAPALIT-TAWAG (Metonymy) - Ito ang
Halimbawa:  pagpapalit ng katawagan o pangalan sa bagay na tinutukoy.
a. Ang aking alagang aso ay agad kong pinaliguan Halimbawa: 
pagdating ko sa amin. a. Ang palasyo ay nag-anunsyo na walang pasok bukas.
(palasyo - Presidente ng Pilipinas)
4) ANAPORA - Pag-uulit sa unang bahagi ng pahayag o
taludtod. 13) PAGPAPALIT-SAKLAW (Synecdoche) - Ito ay ang
Halimbawa: pagbabanggit ng bahagi bilang pagtukoy sa kabuuan.
Ikaw ang aking pangarap. Halimbawa: 
Ikaw ang bigay ng maykapal. a. Apat na mata ang patuloy na tumititig sa kanya.
Ikaw ang lahat sa akin.
14) PAGLUMANAY (Euphemism) - Ito ay paggamit ng
5) EPIPORA - Pag-uulit sa huling bahagi ng pahayag o mga piling salita upang pagandahin ang isang
taludtod. dikagandahang pahayag.
Halimbawa: Halimbawa: 
Ang Konstitusyon ay para sa mamamayan, a. Sumakabilang buhay kagabi ang ama ni
Gawa ng mamamayan, Nena. (sumakabilang buhay - namatay)
At mula sa mamamayan.
15) PANAWAGAN (Apostrophe) - Ito ay isang
6) ANADIPLOSIS - Pag-uulit sa una at huling bahagi ng panawagan o pakiusap sa isang bagay na tila ito ay isang
pahayag o talutod. tao.
Halimbawa: Halimbawa: 
Ang mahal ko ay tanging ikaw, a. O tukso! Layuan mo ako!
Ikaw na nagbigay ng ilaw, b. Buhos na ulan, aking mundo’y lunuring tuluyan.
Ilaw sa gabi na kay dilim, c. Kamatayan nasaan ka na? Wakasan mo na ang aking
Dilim man o liwanag, ikaw ay mahal pa rin. kapighatian.

13
16) PAGHIHIMIG (Onomatopeia) - Sa pamamagitan ng 5. Metonymy - An association wherein the name of
tunog o himig ng salita ay nagagawang maihatid ang something is substituted by something that represents it.
kahulugan nito. Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate.
Halimbawa: 
a. Dumagundong ang malakas na kulog na sinundan ng 6. Irony - The contrast between what was expected and
pagguhit ng matatalim na kidlat. what actually happened.
b. Ang tik-tak ng relo ay nangibabaw. Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break.

17) PAG-UYAM (Irony) - Isang pagpapahayag na may 7. Hyperbole - An exaggeration

layuning mangutya ngunit itinatago sa paraang waring Example: Cry me a river.
nagbibigay-puri. 8. Synecdoche - An association of some important part
Halimbawa:  with the whole it represents.
a.Siya ay may magandang mukha na kung saan tanging ina Example: The face who launched a thousand ships.
niya lang ang humahanga.
9. Euphemism - Creating a positive connotation out of
18) PAGTATAMBIS (Oxymoron) - Ito ay ang something negative.
paglalahad ng mga bagay na magkasalungat upang higit na Example: Loved child (illegitimate child).
mapatingkad ang bisa ng pagpapahayag.
Halimbawa: 10. Asyndeton - Not putting any connectors (conjunctions
a. Kailan nagiging tama ang mali? or prepositions).
Example: No retreat. no surrender.
19) PAGLILIPAT-WIKA (Transferred Epithet) -
Katulad ng pagbibigay-katauhan na pinagsasabay ang mga 11. Apostrophe - A direct address to an abstract things or a
katangiang pantao na ginagamit ang pang-uri. person who passed away.
Halimbawa: Example: Love, please come and take me!
a. Madilim ang kinabukasan para sa kaniya at kaniyang
pamilya mula nang iwanan sila ng kanilang ama.
Correct your grammar! Here are the 20
20) TANONG RETORIKAL (Rhetorical Question) - Ito rules in subject verb agreement with
ay isang tanong na walang inaasahan sagot na ang layunin examples.
ay maikintal sa isipan ng nakikinig ang mensahe.
Halimbawa:
a. Natutulog ba ang Diyos?
b. Bakit napakalupit ng kapalaran? 1. Subjects and verbs must agree in
number. This is the cornerstone rule
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE that forms the background of the
"Figurative Language is a language that uses words or concept.
expressions with a meaning that is different from the literal · The baby cries when he is hungry.
interpretation. When a writer uses literal language, he or · The babies cry when they are hungry.
she is simply stating the facts as they are. Figurative · The dog eats bones.
language, in comparison, uses exaggerations or alterations · The dogs eat bones.
to make a particular linguisticpoint." - Your Dictionary · The apple is sweet.

2. Don’t get confused by the words that

1. Simile - An indirect association and comparison come between the subject and verb;
between two things. they do not affect agreement.
Example: She is like a flower. · The cat, who is chewing on my jeans , is usually very
good.
· The plants, which grows in our backyard , are very nice to
2. Metaphor - A direct comparison. the see.
Example: You are the sunshine of my life. · The boy, who pushes the carts is my friend.
· The ants in the ant-hill are working.
3. Personification - Giving human attributes to an · The knight under the trees is the guard.
inanimate object (animal, idea, etc)
Example: The sun is looking down on me.
3. Prepositional phrases between the
4. Oxymoron - A self-contrasting statement. subject and verb usually do not affect
Example: Loud silence agreement.
· The colors of the bag are beautiful.

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· One of the schools in Pampanga is implementing a new neither/nor, either/or , and not only/but
curriculum.
· Bones of the cow are nutritious. also the verb is singular.
· The computers found in the library are new. · Erick or Christian is to blame for the accident.
· Schools in this town are very nice. · Neither Lina nor Cathy was absent yesterday.
· Either apple or grape is sweet.
· Neither Marco nor Vincent is good in class.
4. When sentences start with “there” or · Either Jessy or Daisy is good in singing.
“here” the subject will always be placed 10. The only time when the object of the
after the verb, so care needs to be taken preposition factors into the decision of
to identify it correctly. plural or singular verb forms is when
· There is a problem with the internet connection.
· Here are the files you requested. noun and pronoun subjects like some,
· There are some computers left in the library. half, none, more, all, etc. are followed by
· Here is your ball pen.
· There is an error with the codes.
a prepositional phrase. In these
sentences, the object of the preposition
5. Subjects don't always come before determines the form of the verb.
verbs in questions. Make sure you · All of the chicken is gone.
· All of the chickens are gone.
accurately identify the subject before · None of the apples are eaten.
deciding on the proper verb form to use. · None of the apple is eaten.
· Does Doggy usually eat fish ? · Some of the oranges are eaten.
· Where are the pieces of this collection?
· Is there something wrong with Lina? 11. The singular verb form is usually
· Who is the president in this institution?
· Where are the songs in this album?
used for units of measurement or time.
· Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running.
· One half of the members of the cabinet believes that
6. If two subjects are joined by and , president is responsible for the incident.
they typically require a plural verb · Two third of the spectators of the concert shouts when the
show started.
form. · Eight o’clock is the start of the class.
· The singer and the actress are from different country. · One fourth of the class is absent.
· My father and I will go to market today.
· The lawyer and the judge will go to the court later.
· The teachers and the principal will have a meeting.
· The police and the detective will have the case. 12. If the subjects are both plural and
are connected by the words or, nor,
7. The verb is singular if the two neither/nor, either/or , and not only/but
subjects separated by and refer to the also , the verb is plural.
same person or thing. · Dogs and cats are both available at the pet shop.
· Red beans and rice is my favorite dish. · The president and the former PNP chief are both
· Ham and bread has been my favorite snack. responsible for the misencounter.
· Spoon and fork is used in eating. · Apples and grapes are both sweet.
· Shoes and socks is the gift that I received. · Teachers and students are part of the teaching – learning
· Pen and Note is my tool in school. process.
· Scientists and inventors are great people.
8. If one of the words each, every, or no
13. If one subject is singular and one
comes before the subject, the verb is
plural and the words are connected by
singular.
· No eating or drinking is allowed. the words or, nor, neither/nor,
· Every man and woman is required to take the survey. either/or , and not only/but also , you
· Every child is special to God.
· No man is an island.
use the verb form of the subject that is
· Every student is required to wear proper uniform. nearest the verb.
· Either the tigers or the lion has escaped from the zoo.
9. If the subjects are both singular and · Neither the lion nor the tigers have escaped from the zoo.
· Either the teacher or the students have participated on the
are connected by the words or, nor, show.
15
· Neither the principal nor the teachers are the performer. · Assessment of Learning Outcomes is our reference book
· Either the police men or the criminals are dead. in this subject.

14. Indefinite pronouns typically take 20. Use the singular form of the verb if
singular verbs. the subject is singular, and plural if the
· Everybody wants to be loved. subject is plural except for the word I
· Nobody has passed for the examination.
· Someone is waiting outside the hall. and You.
· Anybody is the player of the game. · I have two hands.
· Somebody starts the drill. · You are the best for me.
· You are my last hope.
· I have my money inside the bag.
15. Except for the pronouns (few, many, · You are the shining star.
several, both, all, some) that always take
the plural form.
· Few were left in the school after the parade.
· Many people were stranded during the typhoon.
· Some are gathering their data about the experiment.
· Both police and criminal were found dead.
· All are good in the game.
Educational Philosophies
16. If two infinitives are separated by
and they take the plural form of the NATURALISM
verb.  Naturalism stands for a democratic and universal
· To sing and to play guitar require great skill.
way-everyone must be educated in the same
· To sketch and to paint are his talent.
manner.
· To dance and to sing are her talent.
· To belt and to sing are difficult.  Education is in accordance to human development
· To glide and to fly are extraordinary. and growth.
 Emphasis is given more on the physical
development-informal exercise-and hygiene of the
17. When gerunds are used as the person rather of the 3 R’s.
subject of a sentence, they take the  Aims to unfold the child’s potential not to prepare
singular verb form of the verb; but, him for a definite vocation or social position-but to
prepare him to adapt to the changing times and
when they are linked by and, they take needs.
the plural form.  Consequently, one’s conduct is governed by
· Standing in the tower was a bad idea. impulse, instincts and experience.
· Swimming in the river and playing guitar are my hobbies.  It puts the child at the center of educational
· Singing is my hobby. process and prepares him to experience life as it is.
· Dancing and singing are quite difficult.
· Playing basketball is very tiring. IDEALISM
18. Collective nouns like herd, senate,
class, crowd, etc. usually take a singular  Ideas are the only true reality, the ultimate truths
verb form. for matter is nothing but just a mere representation
of ideas.
· The faculty is going to participate in the program.
· The crowd is very thick.  Emphasis is given on knowledge obtained by
· The senate decides to make the judgement. speculation and reasoning for its central tenet is
· The class is the participant of the meeting. that ideas are the only things worth knowing for.
· The yellow team is the winner.  Focus is on conscious reasoning of the mind in
order to attain truth. This includes the activities
pertinent to the human mind such as introspection
19. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. and intuition and the use of logic.
are treated as singular and take a  Its aim is to discover the full potentials in child
singular verb. and cultivates it in order to prepare him for a better
· The Tomorrow land is a movie starring George Clooney. position in the society and for him to serve the
· Back to the future is my favorite movie. society better.
· El Filibusterismo is the novel of Dr. Jose Rizal
· Noli Me Tangere is a great novel.
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  Emphasis is given on subjects - philosophy,  Methods of teaching include experimentation,
literature, religion and history - that will develop project making and problem solving.
and enhance the mind of the child.  Stresses on the application of what have learned
 Methods used in teaching include lecture, rather that the transfer of the organized body of
discussion and Socratic dialogue. knowledge.
 Character development is through emulation of
examples and heroes. PERENNIALISM
 Some of the ideas in the past are still being taught
REALISM because they are significant.
 Curriculum should contain cognitive subjects that
 The most effective way to find about reality is to cultivate rationality, morality, aesthetics and
study it through organized, separate and religious principles. This includes history,
systematically arranged matter - emphasis is on language, mathematics, logic, literature,
subject matter concerning Science humanities and science.
and Mathematics.  Curriculum must be based on recurrent themes of
 Methods used in teaching include recitation, human life for it views education as a recurring
experimentation and demonstration. process based on eternal truths.
 Character development is through training in the  The teacher must have the mastery of the subject
rules of conduct. matter and authority in exercising it.
 Aims for the education of the rational person—to
develop man’s power of thought—the central aim
EXISTENTIALISM of this philosophy.

 Subject matter is personal choice.

 Learning is based on the willingness of the student
PROGRESSIVISM
to choose and give meaning to the subject.
 Emphasis is given on the students rather than on  Focuses on the child as a whole rather than of the
the curriculum content. content or the teacher.
 Students should not be treated as objects to be  Curriculum content comes from the questions and
measured and standardized. interests of the students.
 Methods are geared on giving opportunities for the  Emphasis is given on the validation of ideas by the
students for self-actualization and self-direction. students through active experimentation.
 Character development is through the  Methods of teaching include discussions,
responsibility of every individual in making a interaction (teacher with students) and group
decision. dynamics.
 Opposes the extreme reliance on bookish method
of instruction, learning through memorization, the
ESSENTIALISM use of fear and punishment and the four walled
philosophy of education.
 Schooling is practical for this will prepare students
to become competent and valuable members of the
society.
CONSTRUCTIVISM
 Focuses on the basic - reading, writing, speaking
and the ability to compute (arithmetic).  A philosophy of learning which asserts that reality
 Subjects that are given emphasis include does not exist outside of human conceptions. It is
geography, grammar, reading, the individual who constructs reality by reflecting
history, mathematics, art and hygiene. on his own experience and gives meaning to it.
 Stresses the values of hard work, perseverance,  Learning is the process of adjusting one’s mental
discipline and respect to authorities. modes to accommodate new experience.
 Students should be taught to think logically and
systematically-grasping not just the parts but the RECONSTRUCTIVISM
whole.
 Methods of teaching center on giving  Schools should originate policies and progress that
regular assignments, drills, recitation, frequent will bring social reforms and orders.
testing and evaluation.  Teachers should be an instrument to encourage
and lead students in the program or social reforms.
PRAGMATISM  Curriculum emphasizes on social reforms as the
aim of education. It focuses on student experience
 Involves students to work in groups. and taking social actions on real problems.

17
  Method of teaching include the problem-oriented 1. Taken care by the Technical Education and Skills
type (students are encouraged to critically examine Development Authority (TESDA)
cultural heritage), group discussions, inquiry, 2. For the TechVoc track in SHS, DepEd and TESDA work
dialogues, interactions and community-based in close coordination (Technology and Livelihood
learning. Education (TLE) and Technical-Vocational-Livelihood
 The classroom will serve as a laboratory in (TVL) Track specializations may be taken between Grades
experimenting school practices “bringing the 9 to 12. Exploratory Subjects at 40 hours per quarter are
world into the classroom”. taken during Grades 7 to 8.)

Higher Education
BEHAVIORISM Colleges with some courses. The new basic education
levels are provided in the K to 12 Enhanced Curriculum of
 Asserts that human beings are shaped entirely by 2013
their external environment.
 The only reality is the physical world. 7 types of Curriculum According to
Allan Glatthorn
NATIONALISM
1. Recommended Curriculum - The curriculum that is
 The most important development was the creation recommended by scholars and professional organizations.
of common language. Basic Education - Recommended by DepEd
 Stresses on the teaching of the principles of Higher Education - Recommended by CHED
democracy, and duties of citizenship.  Vocational Education - TESDA
 Stimulates the development of the state which
2. Written Curriculum - Documents based on
includes the control and support of public school
recommended curriculum
system.
 Example: syllabi, course of study, module, books or
 Curriculum includes the teaching of grammar,
instructional guides, lesson plan.
geography and history.
 Method of teaching gives emphasis on the content 3. Taught Curriculum - The curriculum which teachers
regarding on nature studies, physical exercisesand actually deliver day by day.
play activities.
4. Supported Curriculum - Includes those resources that
HUMANISM support the curriculum-textbooks, software, and other
media supporting materials that make learning and teaching
 Education is a process and should not be taken meaningful print materials like books, charts, posters,
abruptly. The unfolding of human character worksheets, or non-print materials like Power Point
proceeds with unfolding of nature. presentations, movies, slides, models, mock ups, realias
 The learner should be in control of his destiny. facilities – playground, laboratory, AV rooms, zoo,
museum, market or plaza (places where direct experiences
 Concern is more on methods which include theme
occur)
writing rather than oral discussions, drills
and exercises, playing.
5. Learned Curriculum - The bottom-line curriculum it is
 Asserts the importance of playing in the
the curriculum that students actually learn.
curriculum.
 Emphasizes motivations and the use of praise and 6. Assessed Curriculum - The curriculum which appears
rewards. as tests and performance measures: state tests, standardized
 Curriculum includes subjects concerning literary tests, district tests, and teacher-made tests.
appreciation, physical education, social training in
manners and development. 7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum - This is the unintended
curriculum. It defines what students learn from the physical
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT environment, the policies, and the procedures of the school.
Not planned but has a great impact on students
FOR TEACHERS SUMMARY
The Education Levels in the Philippines Ways of Presenting the Curriculum
Basic Education includes the following: 1.Topical Approach – Content is based on knowledge and
1. Kindergarten experiences.
2. Grade 1 – Grade 6 (elementary) 2. Concept Approach – Fewer topics in clusters around
3. Grade 7 – Grade 10 (Junior High School) major and sub concepts.
4. Grade 11- 12 (Senior High School) 3. Thematic – Combination of concepts.
4. Modular – Leads to complete units of instruction.
Technical Vocational Education
18
 experiences or activities and the selection of the assessment
Criteria in the Selection of the Subject procedure and tools to measure achieved learning
outcomes. Also include the resources to be utilized and the
Matter statement of the intended learning outcomes.
1. Self-Sufficiency – it is about helping the learners to 3. Curriculum Implementing – Putting into action the
attain the utmost independence in learning yet in an plan; it is where the action takes place; involves the
inexpensive way. It is the most important guiding principle activities transpire in every teacher’s classroom where
in selecting the content according to Scheffler. This means, learning becomes an active process.
more of the results and effective learning outcomes though 4. Curriculum Evaluating – Determines the extent to
a lesser amount of the teacher’s effort and so with the which the desired outcomes have been achieved. This is an
learner’s effort. ongoing procedure as in finding out the progress of
2. Significance – It is significant if fundamental ideas, learning (formative) or the mastery of learning
concepts, principles and generalization are supplied in the (summative)
subject matter to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum.
3. Validity – The genuineness of a content selected is by Curriculum Development Process
its legality. The subject matter to be selected has to be legal Models
to avoid selecting the obsolete ones.; must be verified at
regular interval. Ralph Tyler Model : Four Basic
4. Interest – The learner’s interest is a major factor in
selecting the content; one of the driving forces of the Principles
learner to learn better.
5. Utility - Deciding on subject matter, its usefulness is 1. Purposes of the school
considered to be essential. 2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
6. Learnability – if there is a quotation to “live within our 3. Organization of the purposes
means” then there is also the consideration of “teaching 4. Evaluation of the experience
within the means of the learners.”
7. Feasibility – content selection takes into thought the Hilda Taba Model : Grassroots
possibility, the practicability and the achievability of the
subject matter in terms of the availability of the resources, Approach
proficiency of the teachers, and the personality of learners
Taba strongly believed teachers should take part in the
especially within the framework of the society and the
design of curricula. Taba’s model included seven steps:
government
1. Educators must first identify the students’ needs
Guides in Addressing Content in the for the development of the curriculum.
Curriculum 2. Objectives should by specific.
3. The content matches the objectives, as well as
1. Balance – Content should be fairly distributed in depth demonstrates validity.
and breadth. 4. Curriculum content is designed based on students’
2. Articulation - As the content complexity progresses, interest, development, and achievement.
vertically or horizontally, smooth connections or bridging 5. Instructional methods are selected by teachers.
should be provided. This ensures that there is no gaps or 6. The organization of the learning activities is
overlaps in the content. determined by the teacher.
3. Sequence – Logical arrangement 7. Evaluation procedures are determined by students
- Vertically – For deepening the content and teachers.
- Horizontally – For broadening the content
4. Integration – Relatedness or connection to other
contents. Provides a holistic or unified view of curriculum
instead of segmentation.
5. Continuity – Should be perennial, endures time. Galen Sayler and Wiliam Alecander
Constant repetition, reinforcement and enhancement are Curriculum Model 
elements of continuity.
Viewed curriculum development as consisting of four
steps:
Four Phases of Curriculum
Development 1. Goals, Objectives and Domain
1. Curriculum Planning – Considers the school vision, 2. Curriculum Designing
mission, and goals; includes the philosophy or strong 3. Curriculum Implementation
education belief of the school. 4. Evaluation
2. Curriculum Designing – The way curriculum is
conceptualized to include the selection and organization of Philosophical Foundations of
content, the selection and organization of learning
Curriculum
19
 1. Perennialism evaluate a knowledge base and then project or predict
2. Essentialism different outcomes.
3. Progressivism
4. Reconstructionism Example: In the story, what do you think will happen to the
boy if he ran away from their home?
Elements/Components of a Curriculum 4. Evaluative - It is the type of question that usually
Design requires sophisticated levels of cognitive and emotional
judgment. To answer evaluative question, the students must
1. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired combine multiple logical and affective thinking process or
Learning Outcomes DLO comparative frameworks. Answers in this type of question
2. Subject matter or content is analyzed at multiple levels and from different
3. Teaching and learning methods perspective to arrive at the newly synthesized information
4. Assessment /Evaluation or conclusions.

Example: What are the similarities and differences between

5 Categories of Curriculum Change Erikson and Freuds theory of development?
1. Substitution - Current curriculum will be replaced or
5. Combinations - It is the combination of the types of
substituted by a new one. Complete overhaul and not
merely a revision. questions above.
2. Alteration - There is a minor change.
Example: graphing paper – to graphing calculator
3. Restructuring - Major change or modification in the
school system, degree program or educational system. Here are some of the important people
4. Perturbations - Changes that are disruptive, but in the Philippine History:
teachers have to adjust to them within a fairly short time.
Ex. Changes in time schedule to catch up with something  The Philippine National Hero: Dr. Jose Rizal
5. Value Orientation  The Great Plebian: Andres Bonifacio 
Ex. A teacher who gives emphasis on academic and forget  The Father of the Katipunan: Andres Bonifacio 
the formation of faith and values needs value orientation.
 Hero of the Tirad Pass Battle: Gregorio Del Pilar 
The art of questioning is one of the basic skills of good  President of the First Philippine Republic:
teaching. Through asking questions, we can General Emilio Aguinaldo 
stimulate critical thinking to the students. The art of  Brains of the Philippine Revolution: Apolinario
thoughtful questioning can also help the teacher Mabini 
to extract not only the factual information from the  Martyred Priests in 1872: GOMBURZA 
learners, but also the genuine idea of them. In this article  Brain of the Katipunan: Emilio Jacinto 
we will discuss the 5 types of questions that may help to  Co-founder of La Independencia: General Antonio
improve your questioning technique. Luna 
 Mother of Balintawak: Melchora Aquino Tandang
Sora: Melchora Aquino 
There are 5 Types of Questions:  Greatest Filipino Orator of the Propaganda
Movement: Graciano Lopez- Jaena 
1. Factual - It is the type of question that is reasonably
 First Filipino Cannon-maker: Pandar Pira 
simple and straight forward. The answers are based on  Managing Editor of La Solidaridad: Mariano
obvious facts or awareness and commonly requires one fact Ponce 
based answers. It is at the lowest level  Lakambini of Katipunan: Gregoria de Jesus 
of cognitive or affective processes.  Poet of the Revolution: Fernando Ma. Guerrero 
Example: What is the name of the little girl in the story?  Outstanding Diplomat of the First
Philippine Republic: Felipe Agoncillo 
2. Convergent - It is the type of question that requires  First University of the Philippines President:
inferences or conjecture. Answers to this type of question Rafael Palma 
is usually within a very finite range of acceptable accuracy.  Greatest Filipino Painter: Juan Luna 
 Greatest Journalist of the Propaganda Movement:
Example: What were the reason why the boy got mad? Marcelo H. del Pilar 
(This is not specifically stated in one direct statement in the  First Filipino Poetess: Leona Florentino 
text or story so, the reader must make simple inferences as  Peace of the Revolution: Pedro Paterno 
to why the boy got mad.)  Founder of Philippine Socialism: Isabelo Delos
Reyes 
3. Divergent - It is the type of question that allows the
 Viborra: Artemio Ricarte 
learners to generate variety of answers. This type of
question often requires students to analyze, synthesize, or
20
  Author of the Spanish lyrics of the Philippine  REPUBLIC ACT No. 7796 - The TESDA Law
National Anthem: Jose Palma   REPUBLIC ACT No. 7836 - Philippine Teachers
 Chief of Tondo: Lakandola  Professionalization Act of 1994
 The Last Rajah of Manila: Rajah Soliman   REPUBLIC ACT No. 7877 - Anti Sexual
 Fiancée of Jose Rizal: Leonor Rivera  harassment Act of 1995
 Maker of the First Filipino Flag: Marcela  EXECUTIVE ORDER No. 27 - the inclusion of
Agoncillo  subject courses on human rights in the school
 Co-founder of Katipunan: Galicano Apacible  curricula, textbooks, and other reading materials
 Leader of the Ilocano Revolt: Diego Silang   EXECUTIVE ORDER No. 189 - All public
 First Filipino Hero: Lapu-lapu  Secondary School teachers under the
 Leader of the Longest Revolt in Bohol: Francisco administrative supervision and control of
Dagohoy  DECS. Issued by former President Corazon
 The Man of Many Talents: Epifanio Delos Santos  Aquino.
 Prince of Tagalog Poets: Francisco Baltazar   PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 6-A - Known as
 Visayan Joan of Arc: Teresa Magbanua  the Educational Development Decree of 1972, and
was implemented by the late former President
 Mother of Biak-na-Bato: Trinidad Tecson 
Ferdinand Marcos.
 Wife of Artemio Ricarte: Agueda Esteban 
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 146 - This
 Leader of the Tarlac Revolt: Gen. Francisco
decree requiring ALL senior high school students
Makabulos 
to pass the National College Entrance
 Composer of the Philippine National
Examination (NCEE) as pre-requisite
Anthem: Julian Felipe 
for admission to any post- secondary academic or
 Spaniards born in the Philippines: Insulares  professional degree program.
 Leader of Magdalo: Baldomero Aguinaldo   PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No.451 - This law
 Leader of Magdiwang: Mariano Alvarez  repealed R.A No. 6139 and authorized the Sec. of
 Founder of La Liga Filipina: Jose Rizal  Education and Culture to regulate the imposition
 Painter of the Spolarium: Juan Luna of tuition fee and other school fees in all private
educational institutions.
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 688 - This law
gave the Civil Service Commission the power and
Here are the republic acts for all teachers in the authority to give the appropriate examination for
all public school teachers.
Philippines:
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 1139 - This
decree issued on May 13, 1977, created the
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 137 -Board of Textbooks. position of the undersecretary for NON-FORMAL
It provided for all public schools to use only those Education who shall make an overall assessment
books approved by the board for a period of six of the existing non formal education programs and
years from the date of their adoption. shall take charge of all non-formal education
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 1425 -The inclusion of a programs of DECS.
course on the life, works and writings- especially  DEPARTMENT ORDER No. 1, s.1973 - This
the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo of Dr. DECS order reiterates the policy on the use of
Jose Rizal in the curricula of all public and private locally published textbooks of
schools. Filipino authorship in all levels of education, both
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 4670 -The Magna Carta public and private.
for Public School Teachers.  DEPARTMENT ORDER No. 25, s.1974 - The
 REPUBLIC ACT 1079 - Commonwealth Act implementation of BILINGUAL EDUCATION
No.117. Civil Service Eligibility shall be Program which mandates the use of English and
permanent and shall be valid throughout a person’s Filipino as separate media of instruction.
lifetime.  MEC ORDER No. 22, s.1978 - ALL institutions
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 6728 -The Act Providing shall offer in all their curricular programs at least
Government Assistance to Students and Teachers six (6) units of Filipino, starting the FIRST SEM
in Private Education. (Scholarship Programs) Of school year 1979- 1980.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7722 -Creating the  DECS ORDER No. 30, s. 1993 - This order
Commission on Higher Education (CHED) issued on May 20, 1993, providing for a National
composed of a chairperson and four (4) Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT) for ALL
commissioners. grade six pupils in Public and Private schools
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7743 - The establishment  DECS ORDER No. 38, s. 1994 - Provided for a
of public libraries and reading centers in every National Secondary Assessment Test (NSAT) to
barangay and municipality of the country. be administered to ALL graduating public and
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7784 - The Centers of private high school.
Excellence Law

21
  REPUBLIC ACT No. 1265 - The Law on the Article XIV Sections 1-5(5)
Observance of Flag Ceremony Section 1. The state shall protect and promote the right of
 EXECUTIVE ORDER No. 200, sec.3 -The Law all the citizens to quality education at all levels and shall
prohibits fund raising in school take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to
 1987 CONSTITUTIONS ARTICLE XIV, sec. all.
3:2 -The Law teaches and imposes discipline Section 2. The state shall:
 BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 232, sec. 13:2 / 1. Establish, maintain and support a complete,
1987 CONSTITUTION, ARTICLE XIV, sec adequate and integrated system of education
5:2,/ 1973 CONSTITUTION, ARTICLE XV, relevant to the needs of the people and society;
sec. 8:2 -the Law recognizes Academic Freedom 2. Establish and maintain a system of free public
 1992 MANUAL OF REGULATION FOR education in the elementary and high school levels.
PRIVATE SCHOOL, sec 48-49 - The Law Without limiting the natural rights of parents to rear
requires to have a fixed calendar their children, elementary education is compulsory
 1992 MANUAL OF REGULATION FOR for all children of school age;
PRIVATE SCHOOL, sec. 44-47 - The Law on 3. Establish and maintain a system of scholarship
Education specifies faculty qualification grants, student loan programs, subsidies and other
 R.A No. 1054 AS AMENDED BY P.D.’s Nos. incentives which shall be available to deserving
442, 570-A, 622, AND 643 - The Law requires students in both public and private schools,
Education to provide Medical and Dental Services especially to the underprivileged;
 CIVIL CODE, ARTICLE 349 - The Law 4. Encourage non-formal, informal and indigenous
considers teachers, professors, and administrators learning system, as well as self- learning
to be in LOCO PARENTIS to their pupils and independent and out-of-school study programs
students particularly those that respond to community needs;
 1987 CONSTITUTIONS ARTICLE XIV, sec. and
5:4 - The Law requires Education to provide 5. Provide adult citizens, the disabled and out-of-
professional advancement teachers. school youth with training in civics, vocational
efficiency and skills.
Section 3.
1. All educational institutions shall include the study
LAWS ALLOWING PUBLICATIONS of the Constitution as part of the curricula.
IN THE SCHOOL CAMPUS 2. They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism,
foster love of humanity, respect for human rights,
- The Revised Penal Code of the Philippines prohibits the appreciation of the role of national heroes in the
publication of the following: historical development of the country, teach the
rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical
1. ARTICLE 138 – Inciting the people to rebellion and spiritual values, develop moral character and
personal discipline, encourage critical and creative
2. ARTICLE 142 – Seditious Libel thinking, broaden scientific and technological
knowledge and promote efficiency.
3. ARTICLE 154 – Unlawful utterances 3. At the option expressed in writing by the parent or
4. ARTICLE 201 – Immoral Doctrine, obscene publication guardians, religion shall be allowed to be taught to
and exhibition their children or wards in the public elementary and
5. ARTICLE 356 – Threatening to publish and offering the high schools within the regular class hours by
prevent publication of an article for a certain fee. instructors designated or approved by the religious
6. ARTICLE 357 – Acts in the official proceedings that are authorities of the religion to which the children or
prohibited to be published wards belong, additional cost to the Government.
7. ARTICLE 362 – Libelous remarks Section 4.
1. The state recognizes the complementary roles of
the public and private institutions in the educational
Here are the bases of the Philippine Educational System. system and shall exercise reasonable supervision
The texts below are the articles, section, and and regulation of all educational institutions.
the republic acts under the Philippine Constitution. 2. Educational institutions, other than those
established by religious groups and mission boards,
MAJOR LEGAL BASES shall be allowed solely by citizens of the Philippines
The Philippine Constitutions or corporations or associations at least sixty per
1. 1935 CONST. Article XIV Section 5 centum of the capital of which is owned by such
2. 1973 CONST. Article XV Section 8 (1-8) citizens. The Congress may, however, require
3. 1987 CONST. Article XIV Sections 1-5(5) increased Filipino equity participation in all
educational institutions. The control and
administration of educational institutions shall
vested in citizens of the Philippines. No educational
THE 1987 CONSTITUTIONS institution shall be established exclusively for aliens
22
 and no group of aliens shall comprise more than one The State shall promote the right of every individual to
third of the enrollment in any school. The relevant quality education, regardless of sex, age, creed
provisions of this subsection shall not apply to socio- economic status, physical and mental conditions,
schools established for foreign diplomatic personnel racial or ethnic origin, political or other affiliation. The
and their dependents and, unless otherwise provided State shall therefore promote and maintain equality of
by law, for other foreign temporary residents. access to education as well as the benefits of education by
3. All revenues and assets of non- stock, non- profit all its citizens.
educational institutions used actually, directly and RIGHTS OF STUDENTS IN SCHOOL (Section
exclusively for educational purposes shall be 9)
exempt from taxes and duties. Upon the dissolution 1. The right to receive competent instruction,
or cessation of the corporate existence of such relevant quality education.
institutions, their assets shall be disposed of in the 2. The right to freely choose their field of study
manner provided by law. Proprietary educational subject to the existing curricula and continue their
institutions, including those cooperatively owned, course up to graduation, except in cases of academic
may likewise be entitled to such exemptions subject deficiency or violations of disciplinary regulations.
to the limitations provided by law including 3. The right to school guidance and counseling
restrictions on dividends and provisions for services.
reinvestment. 4. The right to access to his owns school records and
4. Subject to conditions prescribed by law, all grants the confidentiality of it.
endowments, donations or contributions used 5. The right to issuance of official certificates,
actually, directly and exclusively for educational diplomas, transcript of records, grades, transfer
purposes shall be exempt from tax. credentials and similar document within thirty days
Section 5. from request.
1. The State shall take into account regional and 6. The right to publish a student newspaper and
sectoral needs and conditions and shall encourage invite resource persons during symposia, assemblies
local planning in the development of educational and other activities.
policies and programs. 7. The right to free expression of opinions and
2. Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all suggestions and to effective channels of
institutions of higher learning. communication with appropriate academic and
3. Every citizen has a right to select a profession or administrative bodies of the school or institutions.
course of study, subject to fair, reasonable and 8. The right to form or establish, join and participate
equitable admission and academic requirements. in organizations and societies recognized by the
4. The State shall enhance the right of teachers to school…, or to form, join
professional advancement. Non- teaching academic and maintain organizations and societies for
and non-academic personnel shall enjoy the purposes not contrary to law.
protection of the State. 9. The right to be free from
5. The State shall assign the highest budgetary involuntary contributions except those approved by
priority to education and ensure that teaching will their organizations and societies.
attract and retain its rightful share of the RIGHT OF ALL SCHOOL PERSONNEL
best available talents through adequate
remuneration and other means of job satisfaction
(Section 10)
1. Free expression of opinions and suggestions.
and fulfillment.
2. To be provided with free legal service by the
BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 232 (THE appropriate government office in case of public
EDUCATION ACT OF 1982) school personnel and the school authorities
This was an act providing for the establishment and concerned in case of private school personnel, when
maintenance of an integrated system of education. In charged in administrative, civil and/or criminal
accordance with Section 2, this act shall apply to and proceedings, by parties other than the school
govern both formal and non- formal system in public and authorities concerned, for actions committed
private schools in all levels of the entire educational directly in the lawful discharged of professional
system. duties and/or in defense of school policies.
As provided by this Act, the national development goals 3. Establish join, maintain labor organization of their
are as follows: choice to promote their welfare and defend their
1. To achieve and maintain an accelerating rate of interest.
economic development and social progress. 4. To be free from involuntary contributions except
2. To assure the maximum participation of all the those imposed by their own organizations.
people in the attainment and enjoyment of the SPECIAL RIGHTS and/or PRIVILEGES OF
benefits of such growth; and
3. To achieve and strengthen national unity and
TEACHING OR ACADEMIC STAFF (Section
consciousness and preserve, develop and promote 11)
desirable cultural, moral and spiritual values in 1. Right to be free compulsory assignment not related
changing world. to their duties defined in their appointment or
It is also stated in Section 3 that: employment contracts unless compensated thereof.
23
 (additional compensation Sec. 14 R.A. 4670- at maintain a standard of efficiency in all private schools and
least 25% his regular remuneration) colleges in the country.
2. Right to intellectual property………
3. Teachers are persons in authority when in lawful This law was amended by Commonwealth Act No. 180
discharge of duties and responsibilities… shall passed on November 13, 1936 which provided that:
therefore be accorded due respect and protection
(Commonwealth Act No. 578) The Secretary of Public Instruction was vested with power
4. Teachers shall be given opportunity to choose to “supervise, inspect and regulate said schools and
career alternatives for advancements. colleges in order to determine the efficiency of instruction
RIGHTS OF ADMINISTRATORS (Section 12) given in the same.”
1. School administrators shall be deemed persons in
authority while in the lawful discharge of their And all private schools come under the supervision and
duties and responsibilities…. Shall be accorded due regulation of the Secretary of DPI, thus eliminating
respect and protection (Commonwealth Act No. “diploma mills” and substandard schools.
578)

RIGHTS OF SCHOOLS (Section 13) 3. Commonwealth Act No. 1 (Amended by R.A.

1. The right of their governing boards…….to adopt
and enforce administrative or management systems.
9163)
Known as the “National Defense Act” passed by the
2. The right of institutions of higher learning to
Philippine Assembly on December 21, 1935, which
determine on academic grounds who shall be
provided in Section 81 that:
admitted to study, who may teach, and who shall be
“Preparatory Military training shall be given with the youth
the subjects of the study and research.
in the elementary grade school at the age of ten years and
MAINTENANCE OF QUALITY EDUCATION shall extend through the remainder of his schooling into
1. Voluntary Accreditation (Section 29) college or post-secondary education.
2. Teachers and Administrators obligations and By virtue of Presidential Decree 1706, issued by the late
qualification (Sections 176 and 17) President Marcos on August 8, 1980, otherwise known as
3. Government Financial Assistance to Private the “National Service Law”, Commonwealth Act No. 1
Schools (Section 41) was amended, and required all citizens to render, civic
OTHER LEGAL BASES welfare service, law enforcement service and military
1.  Republic Act No. 74 service.
This law was enacted on January 21, 1901 by the
Philippine Commission, and provided: 4. Commonwealth Act No. 80
a. Establishment of the Department of Public Instruction This law created the Office of Adult Education on October
headed by the General superintendent 26, 1936, so as to eliminate illiteracy and to give vocational
and citizenship training to adult citizens of the country.
b. The archipelago was divided into school divisions and
districts for effective management of the school system. 5. Commonwealth Act No. 578
Enacted on June 8, 1940, conferred the status of “persons
c. English was made as medium of instruction in all levels in authority” upon the teachers, professors, and persons
of schooling charged with the supervision of public or duly recognized
private schools, colleges and universities.
d. Optional religious instructions in all schools (Section 16)
This Act also provided a penalty of imprisonment ranging
e. Establishment of a Trade school in Manila (Philippine from six months and one day to six years and a fine
College of Arts and Trade- PCAT now known as ranging from 500 to 1, 000 pesos upon any person found
Technological University of the Philippines), a school of guilty of assault upon those teaching personnel.
Agriculture in Negros, a Normal school in Manila
(Philippine Normal School) (Section 18)
6. Commonwealth Act No. 586 (Repealed by
• Philippine Normal School, however, was renamed R.A. 896)
Philippine Normal College (PNC) by virtue of Republic This is known as Education Act of 1940. It was approved
Act No. 416 on June 18, 1949. And on December 26, 1991, on August 7, 1940 by the Philippine Assembly.
the PNC was converted to Philippine Normal University as The law provided for the following:
provided by Republic Act No. 7168. a. Reduction of seven- year elementary course to six- year
elementary course.
2. Republic Act No. 2706
This was known as the “Private School Law”, enacted on b. Fixing the school entrance age to seven.
March 10, 1917 by the Philippine Legislature, which made
obligatory the recognition and inspection of private schools c. National support of elementary education.
and colleges by the Secretary of Public Instruction so as to
24
 function is now assumed by the commission on Higher
d. Compulsory attendance in the primary grades for all Education or CHED by virtue of Republic Act No. 7722.
children who enroll in Grade I.
11. Republic Act No. 1265 (amended by R. A.
e. Introduction of double- single session- one class in the 8491)
morning and another in the afternoon under one teacher to This law was approved on June 11, 1955, and provided that
accommodate more children. a daily flag ceremony shall be compulsory in all
educational institutions. This includes the singing of the
Philippine National Anthem.
7. Commonwealth Act No. 589
This law, approved on August 19, 1940, established a
school ritual in all public and private elementary and 12. Republic Act No. 1425
secondary schools in the Philippines. It was approved on June 12, 1956, it prescribed the
The ritual consists of solemn and patriotic ceremonies that inclusion in the curricula of all schools, both public and
include the singing of the National Anthem and Patriotic private, from elementary schools to the universities, the
Pledges. life, works and writings of Jose Rizal especially the Noli
Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo.
8. Republic Act No. 139 (Repealed by R. A.
8047) 13. Republic Act No. 4670
Enacted on June 14, 1947, and the Board of Textbooks. Known as the “Magna Carta for Public School Teachers”.
This law provided that all public schools must only use This was approved on June 18, 1966 to promote and
books that are approved by the Board for a period of six improve the social and economic status of public school
years from the date of their adoption. teachers, their living and working conditions, their
employment and career prospects.
The private schools may use books of their choice, It also provided the following:
provided the Board of Textbooks has no objections with 1. Recruitment qualifications for teachers
those books. 2. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers
3. Teaching hours- 6 hours of classroom teaching
(maximum load)
4. Additional compensation- 25% of the regular
9. Republic Act No. 896 remuneration
Enacted on June 20, 1953 and known as the Elementary 5. Health and injury benefits (thru the GSIS)
Education Act of 1953, it repealed Commonwealth Act 586 6. One year study leave (sabbatical leave) after seven
and provided for the following: years of continuous teaching, the teacher should
a. Restoration of Grade VII (but never implemented due to receive 60% of the monthly salary.
lack of funds) 7. One range salary increase upon retirement (basis
computing the retirement fee).
b. Abolition of the double - single session and return to the 8. Freedom to form organizations.
former practice of only one
14. Republic Act No. 1079
c. Class under one teacher in the primary and three teachers Approved on June 15, 1959, it provided that Civil Service
to two classes or five teachers to three classes in the eligibility shall be permanent and shall have no time limit.
intermediate level

d. Compulsory completion of the elementary grades 15. Republic Act No. 6655
Known as the “Free Public Secondary Education Act of
e. Compulsory enrollment of children in the public schools 1988”, it was approved on May 26, 1988 and provided for:
upon attaining seven years of age. a. Free public secondary education to all qualified citizens
and promote quality education at all level.

10. Republic Act No. 1124 (Repealed by R. A. b. No tuition or other fees shall be collected except fees
7722) related to membership in the school community such I.D.,
Approved on June 16, 1954, this law created the Board of student organization and publication.
National Education charged with the duty of formulating
general educational policies and directing the educational c. Non- payment of these shall not hinder a student from
interests of the nation. enrollment or graduation.
However, this Board which was later renamed National
Board of Education (P.D. No. 1), was abolished bu virtue d. Nationalization of all public secondary schools ( Section
of the Creation of the board of Higher Education as 7)
stipulated in Batas Pambansa Blg. 232. The Board’s

25
e. A student who fails in majority of his academic subjects in return AFP accepted US $100 M worth of
for two consecutive years could no longer avail of their military equipment) 
program.  March 17, 1957 – Pres. Magsaysay died in a plane
crash in Mt. Manunggal Cebu 
 March 17, 1957 – Garcia become the president of
Here are some of the important dates in the Philippines 
 March 29, 1512 – Blood compact Magellan and
the Philippine History: Rajah Kulambo of Limasawa 
 March 29, 1942 – Creation of HUKBALAHAP
January (Luis Taruc) 
 March 31, 1899 – Transfer of capital republic from
 January 1, 1571 – LaVilla de San Miguel Malolos to San Fernando Pampanga 
renamed Ciudad del Santissimo, Nobre de Jesus  March 31, 1521 – First mass officiated b y Father
“Sto Nino”  Pedro de Valderrama 
 January 12, 1889 – La Association Hispano
founded by Miguel Morayta to introduce changes
in the Philippines and have a Filipino April
representative in the Spanish Cortes 
 January 20, 1872 – Meeting in Cavite led by  April 4, 1947 – Pres. Roxas died of cardiac
Sargent Lamadrid and killed their Spanish officers  arrest at Clark air base 
 January 23, 1899 – Inauguration of the  April 4, 1947 – Elpidio Quirino become the
first republic (Mololos) Aguinaldo as president  president 
 April 9, 1942 – Fall of Bataan, Death March from
Bataan to San Fernando Pampanga 
February  April 13-14, 1671 – defeat of the 6 Dutch led by
Juan Ronquillo in battle of Playa Honda, Zam 
 February 2, 1543 – Villalobos named Samar and  April 25, 1898 – US declare war against Spain 
Layte “Pilipinas”   April 27, 1521 – Magellan killed in the battle of
 February 13, 1565 – Miguel Lopes de Villalobos Mactan 
reached Cebu   April 27, 1565 – First Spanish settlement establish
 February 14, 1899 – Outbreak of Filipino by Legaspi name La Villa de San Miguel 
– American War (Sta. Mesa Manila)   April 30, 1846 – Approved of Philippine
 February 15, 1898 – Spanish blew up the amiracan Rehabilitation Act by the US. 
warship in Havana Cuba 
 February 15, 1889 – The newspaper La Soliraridad
founded by Graciano Lopes Jaena  May
 February 17, 1872 – Execution of GOMBURZA 
 February 18, 1891 – Rizal second novel El  May 1, 1898 – US naval under George Dewey
Filibusterismo was publish and finance by defeat the Spain armada led by Patrico Montojo in
Valentin Ventura  famous battle of Manila Bay 
 May 6, 1942 – Fall of Corregidor Island (Gen.
Jonathan Wainwright) – (Gem. Homma of Japan) 
March  May 10, 1897 – Execution of Bonifacio brathers 
 May 12, 1935 – SAKDALISTA Party by Benigno
 March 16, 1521 – Magellan sighted the island of Ramos against the Commonwealth Government 
samar   May 12, 1962 – Macapagal change the date of
 March 16, 1565 – Blood compact Legaspi and Independence day from July 4, 1946 to June 12,
Rajah Sikatuna of Bohol  1898 
 March 17, 1521 – Magellan landed Homnhon  May 16, 1584 – Royal Audiencia referred to as the
“Archipelago of St. Lazarus”  Supreme Court during Spanish 
 March 22, 1897 – Tejeros Convention resolved the  May 17, 1764 – Britain surrendered the
conflict between Magdalo and Magdiwang  Philippines to Spanish 
 March 23, 1935 – ConCon was headed by C.M.  May 28, 1898 – Gen. Aguinaldo waved the
Recto  Philippine flag for the first time to celebrate its
 March 23, 1901 – Gen. Aguinaldo captured at victory 
Palanan   May 31, 1764 – Truce was signed between France
 March 24, 1934 – Creation of Commonwealth and England 
Government as provided by Tyding McDuffie
Law and approved by US President F. Roosevelt 
 March 14, 1947 – Formal agreement between US
and Philippine (22 sites as military bases for 99yrs

26
June  September 2, 1945 – Japanese imperial
surrendered and ended the war in asia pacific 
 September 5, 1955 – The Laure-Langley
 June 3, 1571 – Manila conquered by Martin de
Agreement was replacing the Bell Trade Act 
Goiti 
 September 6, 1834 – manila was opened to world
 June 5, 1899 – Assassination of Antonio Luna at
trade led to an era of commercial revolution I the
Cabanatuan 
Philippines 
 July 7, 1987 – Biak-na-Bato revolutionary
 September 8-10, 1954 – SEATO (Southeast Asian
government was established 
Treaty Organization) 
 June 12, 1898 – Proclamation of Philippines
 September 12, 1896 – 13 men from Cavite know
Independence by Gen. Aguinaldo 
as “Los Tresce Martirez” was executed 
 June 18, 1908 – UP was established (Murray
 September 28, 1901 – Gen. Antonio Lucban
Barlett as first President) and (Ignacio Villamor as
attacked the American Garrison in Balangiga,
first Filipino President) 
Samar 
 June 19, 1861 – birth of Jose Rizal 
 June 24, 1571 – Manila was named “Distinguished
and Ever Loyal City” by Legaspi and First October
Governor-General of the Philippines 
 October 3, 1646 – defeat of Dutch in battle of
July manila 
 October 5, 1762 – manila was conquered by
British forces under Gen. William Draper and
 July 3, 1892 – La Liga Filipina founded by Dr.
Admiral Samuel Cornish 
Rizal 
 October 6, 1913 – Francis Burton Harrison first
 July 4, 1946 – Inauguration of 3rd Republic and
American Governor General of the Philippines 
the signing of the Treaty of General legalized the
 October 13, 1913 – Signing of underwood-simons
retention of US bases in the Philippines 
tariff law (open trade Phil. and American) 
 July 7, 1892 – Rizal exiled in Dapitan for 4yrs 
 October 14, 1943 – Inauguration of Japanese
 July 7, 1892 – KKK organized by Andres
puppet republic Jose P. Laurel as President 
Bonifacion in Azcarraga st. (C.M. Recto) 
 October 16, 1907 – First Philippine Assembly (M.
Quezon as M.Floor Leader) and (S. Osmena as
August Speaker) 
 October 20, 1943 – McArthur landed the Red
 August 6, 1945 – First Atomic bomb dropped in Beach, Polo Layte (Osmena as President with C.
Hiroshima Japan  Romulo) 
 August 8, 1963 – Macapagal approved the  October 24 – 26, 1944 – Battle of Leyte Gulf 
Agriculture Land Reform to abolish tenancy   October 31, 1829 – Dagohoy Longest Revolt in
 August 9, 1945 – Second Atomic bomb dropped in the Philippines lasted 85yrs 
Nagasaki Japan 
 August 13, 1898 – Mock battle of manila bay
between Spain and America 
 August 14, 1898 – Military government under
General Wesley Merit 
 August 19, 1896 – Katipunan was discovered by
Fr. Mariano Gil trough Teodoro Patino 
November
 August 23, 1896 – Philippine Revolution “Cry of
Balintawak”   November 4, 1841 – Apolinario Dela Cruz
 August 25, 1896 - Battle of Pasong Tamo  “Hermano Pule” was executed by Spanish 
 August 26, 1930 – Founding of the Communist  November 10, 1953 – Magsaysay and Garcia were
Party of the Philippines CPP by Crisostomo elected as Pres and Vice Pres 
Evangelista   November 11, 1957 – Macapagal (Poor boy from
 August 29, 1916 - Creation of bicameral Lubao) elected as President of the Philippine 
legislature as granted by the jones law   November 15, 1935 – Inauguration of
 August 30, 1896 – Battle of Pinaglabanan  Commonwealth government with Quezon as
president and Osmena as vice president 
 August 31, 1896 – Gen. Aguinaldo led the
uprising in Kawit Cavite   November 30, 1574 – De Goiti was killed by
Limahong 

September December

27
 December 2, 1899 – Gen. Gregorio del Pilar was 1, The observer is reinforced by the model. For
killed by the Americans  example a student who changes dress to fit in with
 December 7, 1933 – Right of Suffrage was granted a certain group of students has a strong likelihood
to Filipino by Gov. Frank Murphy  of being accepted and thus reinforced by that
 December 8, 1941 – Bombing of Pearl Harbor  group.
 December 10, 1898 – Treaty of Paris was signed 2. The observer is reinforced by a third person.
between Spain and America  The observer might be modeling the actions of
 December 15, 1897 – treaty Biak-na-Bato was someone else, for example, an outstanding class
signed by Pedro Paterno and Gov. Primo de leader or student. The teacher notices this
Rivera  and compliments and praises the observer for
 December 21, 1898 – The Philippines was modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that
considered American benevolent assimilation 
behavior.
 December 26, 1941 – Declaration of manila as
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing
open city by Gen. McArthur 
consequences. Many behaviors that we learn from
 December 30, 1896 – Execution of Rizal at Luneta
de Bagumbayan others produce satisfying or reinforcing results.
For example, a student in my multimedia class
could observe how the extra work a classmate
Social learning theory focuses on the learning that
does is fun. This student in turn would do the same
occurs within a social context. It considers that
extra work and also receive enjoyment.
people learn from one another, including such
4. Consequences of the model's behavior affect the
concepts as observational learning, imitation, and
observers behavior vicariously. This is known as
modeling. Among others Albert Bandura is
vicarious reinforcement. This is where in the
considered the leading proponent of this theory.
model is reinforced for a response and then the
observer shows an increase in that same response.
Bandura illustrated this by having students watch a
 General principles of social film of a model hitting a inflated clown doll. One
learning theory follows: group of children saw the model being praised for
 1. People can learn by observing the behavior is of such action. Without being reinforced, the group
others and the outcomes of those behaviors. of children began to also hit the doll .
 2. Learning can occur without a change in
behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has to be
represented by a permanent change in behavior, in Contemporary social learning
contrast social learning theorists say that because
people can learn through observation alone, their perspective of reinforcement and
learning may not necessarily be shown in their punishment:
performance. Learning may or may not result in a
 1. Contemporary theory proposes that both
behavior change.
reinforcement and punishment have indirect
 3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last
effects on learning. They are not the sole or main
30 years social learning theory has become
cause.
increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of
 2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the
human learning. Awareness and expectations of
extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior
future reinforcements or punishments can have a
that has been learned.
major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit.
 3. The expecfation of reinforcement
 4. Social learning theory can be considered a
influences cognitive processes that promote
bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning
learning. Therefore attention pays a critical role
theories and cognitive learning theories.
in learning. And attention is influenced by the
expectation of reinforcement. An example would
 How the environment reinforces be, where the teacher tells a group of students that
what they will study next is not on the test.
and punishes modeling: Students will not pay attention, because they do
People are often reinforced for modeling the not expect to know the information for a test.
behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the
environment also reinforces modeling. Behaviors that can be learned
through modeling:
This is in several possible ways: Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly,
through modeling. Examples that can be cited are,
students can watch parents read, students
28
 can watch the demonstrations of mathematics prob  7. Teachers should help students set realistic
lems, or seen someone acting bravely and a fearful expectations for their academic accomplishments.
situation. Aggression can be learned through In general in my class that means making sure that
models. Much research indicate that children expectations are not set too low. I want to
become more aggressive when they observed realistically challenge my students. However,
aggressive or violent models. Moral thinking and sometimes the task is beyond a student's ability,
moral behavior are influenced by observation and example would be the cancer group.
modeling. This includes moral  8. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective
judgments regarding right and wrong which can in method for improving student behavior.
part, develop through modeling.
Observational Learning (2)
Effects of modeling on behavior:
 Definition
 1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.  Observational learning, also called social learning
 2. Modeling influences the frequency of theory, occurs when an observer's behavior
previously learned behaviors. changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An
 3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden observer's behavior can be affected by the positive
behaviors. or negative consequences-called vicarious
 4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar reinforcement or vicarious punishment - of a
behaviors. For example a student might see a model's behavior.
friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in
football because he is not tall enough for  Discussion
basketball. There are several guiding principles behind
observational learning, or social learning theory:
 Educational implications of social  l. The observer will imitate the model's behavior if
learning theory: the model possesses characteristics- things such as
talent, intelligence, power, good looks, or
Social learning theory has numerous implications popularity-that the observer finds attractive or
for classroom use. desirable
 1. Students often learn a great deal simply by  2. The observer will react to the way the model is
observing other people. treated and mimic the model's behavior. When the
 2. Describing the consequences of behavior is can mddel's behavior is rewarded, the observer is more
effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and likely to reproduce the rewarded behavior. When
decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve the model is punished, an example of vicarious
discussing with learners about the rewards and punishment, the observer is less likely to
consequences of various behaviors. reproduce the same behavior.
 3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for  3. A distinction exists between an observer's
teaching new behaviors. Instead of using shaping, "acquiring" a behavior and "performing" a
which is operant conditioning, modeling can behavior. Through observation, the observer can
provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching acquire the behavior without performing it. The
new behavior. To promote effective modeling a observer may then later, in situations where there
teacher must make sure that the four essential is an incentive to do so, display the behavior.
conditions exist; attention, retention , motor  4. Learning by observation involves four separate
reproduction, and motivation. processes: attention, retention, production and
 4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate motivation.
behaviors and take care that they do not model  - Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they
inappropriate behaviors. pay attention to what's happening around them.
 5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of This process is influenced by characteristics of the
other models. This technique is especially model, such as how much one likes or identifies
important to break down traditional stereotypes. with the model, and by characteristics of the
 6. Students must believe that they are capable of observer, such as the observer's expectations or
accomplishing school tasks. Thus it is very level of emotional arousal.
important to develop a sense of selfeflicacy for  - Retention: Observers must not only recognize
students. Teachers can promote such self-efficacy the observed behavior but also remember it at
by having students receive confidence-building some later time. This process depends on the
messages, watch others be successful, and observer's ability to code or structure the
experience success on their own. . information in an easily remembered form or

29
 to mentally or physically rehearse the model's Thorndike studied learning in animals using a
actions. puzzle box to propose the theory known as the
 - Production: Observers must be physically 'Law of Effect'.
and/intellectually capable of producing the act. In
many cases the observer possesses the necessary  Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant
responses. But sometimes, reproducing the Conditioning, but his work was based on
model's actions may involve skills the obseryer Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a
has not yet acqufued. It is one thing to carefully new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement.
watch a circus juggler, but it is quite another to go Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated
home and repeat those acts. (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not
 - Motivation: In general, observers will perform reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e.
the act only if they have some motivation or weakened).
reason to do so. The presence of reinforcement or
punishment, either to the model or directly to the  Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by
observer, becomes most important in this process. conducting experiments using animals which he
 5. Attention and retention account for acquisition placed in a “Skinner Box” which was similar to
or learning of a model's behavior; production and Thorndike’s puzzle box.
motivation control the performance. 
 6. Human development reflects the complex 
interaction of the person, the person's behavior,
and the environment. The relationship between
these elements is called reciprocal determinism.A
person's cognitive abilities, physical
characteristics, personality, beliefs, attitudes, and
so on influence both his or her behavior and
environment. These influences are reciprocal,
however. A person's behavior can affect his
feelings about himself and his attitudes and beliefs
about others. Likewise, much of what a person
knows comes from environmental resources such
as television, parents, and books. 

 Environment also affects behavior: what a person

observes can powerfully influence what he does.
But a person's behavior also contributes to
his environment.
 By the 1920s John B. Watson had left  B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant
academic psychology and other behaviorists were conditioning; it means roughly changing of
becoming influential, proposing new forms of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is
learning other than classical conditioning. Perhaps given after the desired response. Skinner identified
the most important of these was Burrhus Frederic three types of responses or operant that can follow
Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons he is more behavior.
commonly known as B.F. Skinner.
 Skinner coined the term operant conditioning; it
 Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than means roughly changing of behavior by the use of
those of Watson. Skinner believed that we do have reinforcement which is given after the desired
such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more response. Skinner identified three types of
productive to study observable behavior rather responses or operant that can follow behavior.
than internal mental events. • Neutral operants: responses from the environment
that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a
behavior being repeated.
 Skinner believed that the best way to understand
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that
behavior is to look at the causes of an action and
increase the probability of a behavior being repeated.
its consequences. He called this approach operant
Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
conditioning.
• Punishers: Response from the environment that
decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
 Skinner's theory of operant conditioning was based
Punishment weakens behavior.
on the work of Thorndike (1905). Edward
30
 We can all think of examples of how our own would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to
behavior has been affected by reinforcers and go straight to the lever after a few times of being
punishers. As a child you probably tried out a put in the box. The consequence of escaping the
number of behaviors and learnt from their electric current ensured that they would repeat the
consequences.  action again and again.
 For example, if when you were younger you tried  In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the
smoking at school, and the chief consequence was electric current by turning on a light just before the
that you got in with the crowd you always wanted electric current came on. The rats soon learned to
to hang out with, you would have been positively press the lever when the light came on because
reinforced (i.e. rewarded) and would be likely to they knew that this would stop the electric current
repeat the behavior. If, however, the main being switched on.
consequence was that you were caught, caned,
suspended from school and your parents became  These two learned responses are known as
involved you would most certainly have been Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.
punished, and you would consequently be much  Punishment (weakens behavior) 
less likely to smoke now.  Punishment is defined as the opposite of
reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or
eliminate a response rather than increase it. 
 Reinforcement (strengthens  Like reinforcement, punishment can work either
behavior) by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a
 Skinner showed how positive reinforcement shock after a response or by removing a
worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance,
The box contained a lever in the side and as the rat deducting someone’s pocket money to punish
moved about the box it would accidentally knock undesirable behavior.
the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet  Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between
would drop into a container next to the lever. The punishment and negative reinforcement.
rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after
a few times of being put in the box. The  Behavior Modification
consequence of receiving food if they pressed the  Behavior modification is a set of therapies /
lever ensured that they would repeat the action techniques based on operant conditioning
again and again. (Skinner, 1938, 1953). The main principle
 Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by comprises changing environmental events that are
providing a consequence an individual finds related to a person's behavior. For example, the
rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or
£5 each time you complete your homework (i.e. a punishing undesired ones. 
reward) you are more likely to repeat this behavior  This is not as simple as it sounds — always
in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of reinforcing desired behavior, for example, is
completing your homework. basically bribery.
 The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also  There are different types of positive
strengthen behavior. This is known as negative reinforcements. Primary reinforcement is when a
reinforcement because it is the removal of an reward strengths a behavior by itself. Secondary
adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the reinforcement is when something strengthens a
animal. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it leads to a primary reinforcer.
behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant  Examples of behavior modification therapy
experience.  include token economy and behavior shaping
 For example, if you do not complete your
homework you give your teacher £5. You  Token Economy
will complete your homework to avoid paying £5,  The token economy is a system in which targeted
thus strengthening the behavior of completing behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary
your homework. reinforcers) and are later exchanged for rewards
 (primary reinforcers). 
 Skinner showed how negative reinforcement  Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons,
worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and poker chips, stickers, etc. While rewards can range
then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current anywhere from snacks to privileges/activities.
which caused it some discomfort. As the rat  Token economy has been found to be
moved about the box it would accidentally knock very effective in managing psychiatric patients.
the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current However, the patients can become over reliant on
31
 the tokens, making it difficult for them once they negotiate mazes in order to get to their dinner, then
leave prisons, hospital etc. you are probably thinking of behavioral
 Teachers use token economy at primary school by psychology. 
giving young children stickers to reward good
behavior.  Behaviorism and its offshoots tend to be among
the most scientific of the psychological
 Operant Conditioning in the perspectives. The emphasis of behavioral
Classroom psychology is on how we learn to behave in
certain ways. We are all constantly learning new
behaviors and how to modify our existing
 Behavior modification therapy is much used in behavior. Behavioral psychology is the
clinical and educational psychology, particularly psychological approach that focuses on how this
with people with learning difficulties. In the learning takes place.
conventional learning situation it applies largely to
issues of class- and student management, rather  Critical Evaluation
than to learning content. It is very relevant to  Operant conditioning can be used to explain a
shaping skill performance. wide variety of behavior, from the process of
 A simple way of giving positive reinforcement in learning, to addiction and language acquisition. It
behavior modification is in also has practical application (such as token
providing compliments, approval, encouragement, economy) which can be applied in classrooms,
and affirmation; a ratio of five compliments for prisons and psychiatric hospitals. 
every one complaint is generally seen as being the  However, operant conditioning fails to taken into
most effective in altering behavior in a desired account the role of inherited and cognitive
manner.  factors in learning, and thus is an incomplete
explanation of the learning process in humans and
 Operant Conditioning Summary animals.
 For example, Kohler (1924) found that primates
often seem to solve problems in a flash of insight
Looking at Skinner's classic studies on pigeons’
rather than be trial and error learning. Also social
behavior we can identify some of the major
learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that
assumptions of behaviorists approach.
humans can learn automatically through
• Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied
observation rather than through personal
in a scientific manner. Skinner's study of behavior in
experience.
rats was conducted under carefully controlled
laboratory conditions.
• Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable  The use of animal research in operant conditioning
behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking studies also raises the issue of extrapolation.
and emotion. Note that Skinner did not say that the rats Some psychologists argue we cannot generalize
learnt to press a lever because they wanted food. He from studies on animals to humans as their
instead concentrated on describing the easily observed anatomy & physiology is different from humans,
behavior that the rats acquired. & they cannot think about their experiences and
• The major influence on human behavior is learning invoke reason, patience, memory or self-comfort.
from our environment. In the Skinner study, because
food followed a particular behavior the rats learned to
repeat that behavior, e.g. classical and operant  Behaviorism is essentially the study of how we
conditioning. learn. Humans are different from many animals
• There is little difference between the learning that in that we possess very little instinct, or genetic
takes place in humans and that in other animals. blueprint for our behaviors. For example,
Therefore research (e.g. classical conditioning) can be
humans do not instinctively know how to
carried out on animals (Pavlov’s dogs) as well as on
humans (Little Albert). Skinner proposed that the way
perform a ritual mating dance or we do not
humans learn behavior is much the same as the way instinctually fly south for the winter. Instead,
the rats learned to press a lever. humans progress through life continually
changing our behaviors due to new or
repetitive experiences. In a word, we LEARN.
 So, if your layperson's idea of psychology has  It was the Greek philosopher, Aristotle who
always been of people in laboratories wearing came to the conclusion, over 2000 years ago
white coats and watching hapless rats try to that we learn by association. Learning by
32
 association is connecting events that occur in During this time Pavlov identified 5 major
sequences. Psychologists have determined that conditioning processes;
there are two basic types of learning by
 Pavlov’s 5 Major Conditioning
association: Classical Conditioning and Operant
Conditioning.
Processes
 1. Acquisition - Is the initial learning that takes
 Classical Conditioning was first developed by a
place.  It is determined by how much time elapses
Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov during between the presenting the neutral stimuli (NS)
the late 1920’s. Pavlov was originally trying to and the unconditioned stimuli (UCS).
study the saliva’s role in the digestive system of  2. Extinction - Is how long it takes to forget or
dogs. During the course of his experiments he eliminate the conditioned response (CR).
made the connection between reflex and  3. Spontaneous Recovery - Happens after
a conditioned response. the conditioned response (CR) reappears after a
 Essentially, what Pavlov discovered was the long period of time. It proved that Extinction only
model of learning that works on both animals suppressed the conditioned response (CR), not
completely eliminated it.
and humans. To understand classical
 4. Generalization - Is the tendency to respond to
conditioning it is best to describe
stimuli that is similar to the conditioned stimuli
Pavlov’s experiments. (CS).  For example Pavlov’s dog would drool
 Pavlov realized that when a dog is introduced upon hearing a buzzer as well as the bell.
to a plate of food, the dog’s natural reaction or  5. Discrimination - Is the learned ability to
reflex was to begin to drool. Drooling was then differentiate between similar stimuli (the dog
an Unconditioned Response (UCR) to the learns eventually to tell the difference between the
presence of the food. The food was then the bell and the buzzer).
Unconditioned Stimuli (UCS). What Pavlov then
stumbled upon was an association that took
place when a bell was rung when the food was
presented to the dog. Normally, a bell is a  In the end, Pavlov was a Nobel Prize-winning
Neutral Stimuli (NS), which means that on its physiologist who discovered classical conditioning
own a bell will not cause any real reaction to a in the course of his physiological research. He
dog. However, when the bell was rung in eventually and begrudgingly became a
conjunction with the presenting of the food, psychologist and in the process helped change the
direction of psychological research. Classical
the dog began to associate the ringing of the conditioning became a major tool in the
bell with the presence of food. After awhile, theoretical formulations of later behaviorists. It
Pavlov had only to ring the bell and the dog allowed them to explain behavior without having
would begin to drool. In this sense the bell to consider consciousness. Pavlov's discovery of
became a Conditioned Stimuli (CS) and the classical conditioning provided the first
mechanism for explaining learning without
drooling at the bell became reference to the mind.
the Conditioned Response (CR).
  Definition of Learning
 Life is a process of continual change. From
infancy to adolescence to adulthood to death, we
are changing. Many factors work together to
produce those changes, but one of the most
important is the process of learning. Through
our experiences, we learn new information, new
attitudes, new fears, and new skills; we also learn
to understand new concepts, to solve problems in
new ways, and even to develop a personality over
a lifetime. And in the course of reading textbooks,
we learn new definitions for words like learning:
In psychology the term learning refers to any
relatively permanent change in behaviour brought
 This discovery led Pavlov on another 30 about through experience—that is, through
years of study around the concept interactions with the environment.
of conditionedresponses and learning.
33
 Classical Conditioning:  Learning last time you ate a hot dog, you will likely feel
nauseous the next time you see one. Learning
by Association through association is a common part of our lives.
 We begin our study of specific types of learning  Before we can proceed much further in our
with a simple form called classical conditioning. understanding of classical conditioning, we need
The scientific study of classical condition began to learn some new terminology. Although a bit
around the turn of the [20th] century with an awkward and confusing at first, these new terms
accidental discovery made in the Leningrad will allow us to expand our discussion of classical
laboratory of Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was a Russian conditioning to topics more relevant to your
physiologist who was studying the role of saliva in own experiences than salivating dogs without
digestion at the time of the discovery. To study the losing sight of the basic concept. First we use each
reflexive response of the salivary glands to the of these four new terms to refer to the specific
presence of food in the mouth, he had surgically stimuli and responses in Pavlov’s experiments,
implanted tubes in the cheeks of dogs so that then we use them with new examples. The new
saliva could be drained and precisely measured terms are as follows.
when small amounts of food were placed in the  1. Unconditioned Stimulus – The meat which
dogs’ mouths. Pavlov noticed, however, that dogs was given to the dogs in Pavlov’s experiments was
that had been in the experiment a few days started the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). This can be
salivating when the attendant entered the room any stimulus that can elicit the response without
with the food dish before the food was placed in any learning. In other words, the response to an
their mouths. The sights (and probably sounds) of unconditioned stimulus is natural and inborn.
the attendant had come to elicit (evoke or produce)  2. Unconditioned Response – The dogs’
a reflexive response that only the food had salivation to the meat powder was the
originally elicited. This fact would have gone quite unconditioned response (UCR). It is an unlearned,
unnoticed had the tubes not been placed in the inborn reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.
dogs’ cheeks—that is the accidental part of the  3. Conditioned Stimulus – The bell used in
discovery. A dog that salivates whenever he or she
Pavlov’s experiments was originally unable to
sees a laboratory attendant may not seem like a elicit the response of salivation, but it acquired the
great step forward for science at first glance. But
ability to elicit the response through the process of
Pavlov recognized that a reflexive response to classical conditioning. It was the conditioned
food, which was biologically ―wired into‖ the
stimulus (CS) in Pavlov’s studies.
nervous system, had come under the control of an
 4. Conditioned Response – When the dog began
arbitrary stimulus—the sight of the attendant.
salivating to the conditioned stimulus, salivation
 Stated in a different way, Pavlov knew he had
became the conditioned response (CR). When a
witnessed a form of learning that was based on response that is similar or identical to the
nothing more that the repeated association of two
unconditioned response is then elicited by the
stimuli. Because the dog’s experience of food was conditioned stimulus, it’s referred to as the
linked to the sight of the attendant, the behaviour
conditioned response.
of the dog was changed— the dog now salivated to
 To summarize: The meat was the unconditioned
the stimuli of the approaching attendant. That is,
stimulus (UCS); the bell was the conditioned
the stimuli elicited a response. When you were
stimulus (CS), the salivation was the
born, you could only respond to the outside world
unconditioned response (UCR); and when the
with a limited repertoire of inborn reflexes, but
salivation was elicited by the conditioned stimulus,
now you are a marvelously complex product of
it became the conditioned response (CR).
your learning experiences. Pavlov wanted to
understand this process of learning, so over his  Definition of Classical
colleagues’ objections, he hastily completed his
studies of digestion and devoted the rest of his Conditioning
career to the study of learning.  We have finally covered enough terminology to be
able to give a precise definition of classical
 Association:   The Key Element in conditioning. Classical conditioning is a form of
learning in which a previously neutral stimulus
Classical Conditioning (CS) is paired with a stimulus (UCS) that elicits an
 It had been noted by Aristotle more than 2,000
unlearned response (UCR). As a result of these
years before Pavlov that two sensations repeatedly
experienced together will become associated. If pairings of the CS and the UCS, the CS comes to
you have frequently visited the seashore with a elicit a response (CR) that is identical or very
friend, visiting the seashore alone will probably similar to the UCR.
trigger memories of that friend. If you got sick the
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 Note that we consider classical conditioning to be little Albert. Albert was first allowed to play with
a form of learning not because a new behaviour a white laboratory rat to find out if he was afraid
has been acquired, but because an old behaviour of rats. At that time they discovered that he was
can be elicited by a new stimulus; behaviour is not. Then as he played with the white rat, an iron
―changed‖ only in that sense. It is important to bar was struck loudly with a hammer behind
notice also that the process of classical Albert’s head. As might be expected, the noises
conditioning does not depend on the behaviour of caused Albert to cry fearfully. After seven such
the individual being conditioned. The critical pairings, Albert showed a strong fear response
element in classical conditioning is that the CS and when the rat was placed near him. He had learned
the UCS be closely associated in time. to fear the rat through classical conditioning. In
addition, the fear seemed to have generalized to
 The Bell and Pad: An Application other similar objects. Five days later, Albert
of Classical Conditioning reacted fearfully to a white rabbit, a dog, and a
 A problem that affects many children is nocturnal sealskin coat. He also showed mild fearful
enuresis, or nighttime bed-wetting. Some children reactions to balls of cotton and a Santa Claus
do not develop the ability to wake up during the mask.
night when they have a full bladder, long after  For understandable reasons, this experiment would
most children have learned to do so; instead, they not be considered ethical by today’s standards.
wet the bed in their sleep. About 1 percent of all 5- Although the conditioned fear probably did not
year-olds and 2 percent of children over 12 have persist, Watson and Rayner made no attempt to
this problem, especially boys. While this is not a reverse the conditioning of Albert’s fear, and they
problem of major concern, it’s embarrassing for possibly left him with a minor phobia for the rest
the child and often quite upsetting for the parents. of his life.
 A simple device, called the bell and pad, was
developed many years ago based on the principle  According to Sigmund Freud, personality is
of classical conditioning that deals with the mostly established by the age of five. Early
problem of nocturnal enuresis rather successfully. experiences play a large role in personality
The device consists of two thin metallic sheets that development and continue to influence behavior
are perforated with small holes and attached later in life.
separately by wires to a battery-operated alarm. 
The flexible metallic sheets are placed on top of  Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one
one another and separated by a sheet of fabric and of the best known, but also one of the most
then laid under the child’s sheets. As soon as the controversial. Freud believed that personality
child passes the first drops of urine, the urine develops through a series of childhood stages
closes the electric circuit between the metallic during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the
sheets, causing the alarm to wake the child. id become focused on certain erogenous areas.
 In the terminology of classical conditioning, the This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described
alarm is a UCS that elicits the UCR of awaking. as the driving force behind behavior.
By repeatedly pairing the alarm with the sensation
of a full bladder, these sensations become a CS  If these psychosexual stages
that elicits the CR of awakening. This process of are completed successfully, the result is a healthy
classical conditioning—which does not hurt, but is personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the
not appropriate for the bed training of normal appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is
children—has be found to been over 60 percent a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage.
successful in treating nocturnal enuresis. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will
remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person
 Of Special Interest: John B who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-
Watson an Little Albert – dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation
Classical Conditioned Fear through smoking, drinking, or eating.
 In 1920, behaviourist John B. Watson and his
associate Rosalie Rayner published what must be
1. The Oral Stage
the most widely cited example of classical  Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
conditioning and stimulus generalization in  Erogenous Zone: Mouth 
psychology. Watson was convinced that many of  During the oral stage, the infant's primary source
our fears are acquired through classical of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the
conditioning and sought to test this idea by rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.
teaching a fear to a young child, the now famous The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant
35
 derives pleasure from oral stimulation through 4. The Latent Period 
gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
the infant also develops a sense of trust and  Age Range: 6 to Puberty
comfort through this oral stimulation. The primary  Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the  During the latent period, the libido interests are
child must become less dependent upon caretakers. suppressed. The stage begins around the time that
If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the children enter into school and become more
individual would have issues with dependency or concerned with peer relationships, hobbies and
aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems other interests. This stage is important in the
with drinking, eating, smoking or nail biting. development of social and communication
skills and self-confidence.
2. The Anal Stage
5. The Genital Stage 
 Age Range: 1 to 3 years
 Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control  Age Range: Puberty to Death
 Focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and  Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage  During the final stage of psychosexual
is toilet training--the child has to learn to control development, the individual develops a strong
his or her bodily needs. Developing this control sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage
leads to a sense of accomplishment and begins during puberty but last throughout the rest
independence. According to Freud, success at this of a person's life.
stage is dependent upon the way in which parents  Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on
approach toilet training. If parents take an individual needs, interest in the welfare of others
approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that grows during this stage. If the other stages have
an anal-expulsive personality could develop in been completed successfully, the individual should
which the individual has a messy, wasteful or now be well-balanced, warm and caring. The goal
destructive personality. If parents are too strict or of this stage is to establish a balance between the
begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that various life areas.
an anal-retentive personality develops in which the  Erik Erikson was a psychoanalyst who developed
individual is stringent, orderly, rigid and the theory of psychosocial development. He was
obsessive. born on June 15, 1902 in Karlsruhe Germany. His
classic work "Childhood and Society" set forth his
3. The Phallic Stage theory of the life cycle. He believed that the
 Age Range: 3 to 6 Years achievements and failures of earlier stages
 Erogenous Zone: Genitals influence later stages, whereas later stages modify
 During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the and transform earlier ones. Erikson's
libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also conceptualization of psychosocial development
begin to discover the differences between males based its model the epigenetic principle of
and females. Freud also believed that boys begin organismic growth in utero. Erikson views
to view their fathers as a rival for the psychosocial growth occurs in phases.
mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex  Erikson’s theory was largely influenced by
describes these feelings of wanting to possess the Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended the theory
mother and the desire to replace the father. and incorporated cultural and social aspects
However, the child also fears that he will be into Freud’s biological and sexually oriented
punished by the father for these feelings, a fear theory. It’s also interesting to see how his ideas
Freud termed castration anxiety. The term Electra developed over time, perhaps aided by his own
complex has been used to described a similar set journey through the ‘psychosocial crisis’ stages
of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, model that underpinned his work.
however, believed that girls instead experience  Like other influential theories, Erikson’s model is
penis envy.Eventually, the child begins to identify simple and well designed. The theory is a basis for
with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously broad or complex discussion and analysis of
possessing the other parent. Psychologists such as personality and behaviour, and also for
Karen Horney disputedthis theory, calling it both understanding for facilitating personal
inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, development – of self and others. It can help the
Horney proposed that men experience feelings of teacher in becoming more knowledgeable and at
inferiority because they cannot give birth to the same time understand the
children. various environmental factors that can affect

36
 his/her own and his/her students’ personality and believe anyone would mean them harm, and will
behaviour. use all the defences at their command to find an
 Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two explanation or excuse for the person who did him
opposing emotional forces. A helpful term used by wrong. Worse is the malignant tendency which
Erikson for these opposing forces is Erikson calls Withdrawal which is characterized
‘contrary dispositions’. Each crisis stage relates to by depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis. 
a corresponding life for the stage and its inherent  If the proper balance is achieved, the child will
challenges. Erikson used the word ‘syntonic’ for develop the virtue hope, the strong belief that,
the first-listed positive dispositionin each crisis even when things are not going well, they will
(e.g., trust) and ‘dystonic’ for the second-listed work out well in the end. One of the signs that a
negative disposition (e.g., mistrust). To signify the child is doing well in the first stage is when the
opposing or conflicting relationship between each child isn't overly upset by the need to wait a
pair of dispositions, Erikson connected them with moment for the satisfaction of his or her needs:
the word ‘versus’. Mom or dad don't have to be perfect; I trust them
 If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain enough to believe that, if they can't be here
virtue or psychosocial strength which will help us immediately, they will be here soon; Things may
through the rest of the stages of our lives. be tough now, but they will work out in the end.
Successfully passing through each crisis involves This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us
‘achieving’ a healthy ratio or balance between the through disappointments in love, our careers, and
two opposing dispositions that represents each other domains of life. 
crisis.
 On the other hand, if we don’t do so well, we may Stage two (Autonomy vs. Shame and
develop maladaptation and malignancies, as well Doubt) 
as endanger all our future development. A
malignancy is the worse of the two, and involves  The second stage is the early childhood, from
too little of the positive and too much of the about eighteen months to three or four years old.
negative aspects of the task, such as a person who The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while
can’t trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as minimizing shame and doubt. If mom and dad
bad and involves too much too much of the (and the other care-takers that often come into the
positive and too little of the negative, such as a picture at this point) permit the child, now a
person who trusts too much. toddler, to explore and manipulate his or her
environment, the child will develop a sense of
THE 8 STAGES OF autonomy (independence). The parents should not
discourage the child, but neither should they push.
PSYCHOSOCIAL A balance is required. People often advise new
DEVELOPMENT parents to be "firm but tolerant" at this stage, and
the advice is good. This way, the child will
 Stage one (Trust vs. Mistrust)  develop both self-control and self-esteem. 
 The first stage is the infancy, approximately the  On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to
first year or year and a half of life. The task is to develop instead a sense of shame and doubt. If the
develop trust without completely eliminating the parents come down hard on any attempt to explore
capacity for mistrust. If mom and dad can give the and be independent, children will soon give up
newborn a degree of familiarity, consistency, and with and assume that they cannot and should not
continuity, then the child will develop the feeling act on their own. We should keep in mind that
that the world - especially the social world - is a even something as innocent as laughing at the
safe place to be, that people are reliable and toddler's efforts can lead the child to feel deeply
loving. Through the parents' responses, the child ashamed, and to doubt his or her abilities. 
also learns to trust his or her own body and the
 And there are other ways to lead children to shame
biological urges that go with it. If the parents are
and doubt: If you give children unrestricted
unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the infant
freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to
or harm it, if other interests cause both parents to
help children do what they should learn to do for
turn away from the infants needs to satisfy their
themselves, you will also give them the impression
own instead, then the infant will develop mistrust.
that they are not good for much. If you aren't
He or she will be apprehensive and suspicious
patient enough to wait for your child to tie his or
around people. 
her shoe-laces, your child will never learn to tie
 Too much trust leads to maladaptive tendency them, and will assume that this is just too difficult
which Erikson calls Sensory Maladjustment: to learn! Shame and doubt sound very negative.
Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot Do we really need them? Yes, unless you think it
37
 is a good idea to run around naked in public or initiative alright; they have their plans, wether it’s
jump off of buildings. a matter of school or romance or etc. It’s just that
 Too much autonomy will leads to maladaptive they don’t care who they step on too achieve their
tendency which Erikson calls impulsiveness, a sort goals. Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually
of shameless wilfulness that leads you, in later relatively easy on the ruthless person. Harder on
childhood and even adulthood, to jump into things the person is the malignancy of too much guilt,
without proper consideration of your abilities. which Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited
Worse is too much shame and doubt, will leads to person will not try things because “nothing
malignant tendency which Erikson calls ventured, nothing lost” and, particularly, nothing
compulsiveness. The compulsive person feels as if to feel guilty about. They are so afraid to start and
their entire being rides on everything they do, and take a lead on a project. They fear that if it fails,
so everything must be done perfectly. they will be blamed. 
Following all the rules precisely keeps you from  A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength
mistakes, and mistakes must be avoided at all cost. of purpose. A sense of purpose is something many
 If you get the proper, positive balance of people crave in their lives, yet many do not realize
autonomy and shame and doubt, you will develop that they themselves make their purposes, through
the virtue of willpower (determination). One of the imagination and initiative. I think an even better
most admirable - and frustrating - thing about two- word for this virtue would have been courage, the
and three-year-olds is their determination. "Can capacity for action despite a clear understanding of
do" is their motto. If we can preserve that "can do" your limitations and past failings. 
attitude (with appropriate modesty to balance it)
we are much better off as adults.  Stage four (Industry vs. Inferiority) 
 Stage four is the school-age stage from about six
Stage three (Initiative vs. Guilt) 
to twelve. The task is to develop a capacity for
 Stage three is the early childhood stage. From industry while avoiding an excessive sense of
three or four to five or six, the task confronting inferiority. Children must "tame the imagination"
every child is to learn initiative without too much and dedicate themselves to education and to
guilt. Initiative means a positive response to the learning the social skills their society requires of
world's challenges, taking on responsibilities, them. There is a much broader social sphere at
learning new skills, feeling purposeful. Parents can work now: The parents and other family members
encourage initiative by encouraging children to try are joined by teachers and peers and other
out their ideas. We should accept and encourage members of he community at large. They all
fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a contribute: Parents must encourage, teachers must
time for play, not for formal education. The child care, peers must accept. Children must learn that
is now capable, as never before, of imagining a there is pleasure not only in conceiving a plan, but
future situation, one that isn't a reality right now. in carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of
Initiative is the attempt to make that non-reality a success, whether it is in school or on the
reality.  playground, academic or social. 
 But if children can imagine the future, if they can  A good way to tell the difference between a child
plan, then they can be responsible as well, and in the third stage and one in the fourth stage is to
guilty. If my two-year-old flushes my watch down look at the way they play games. Four-year-olds
the toilet, I can safely assume that there were no may love games, but they will have only a vague
"evil intentions." It was just a matter of a shiny understanding of the rules, may change them
object going round and round and down. What several times during the course of the game, and
fun! But if my five year old does the same thing... be very unlikely to actually finish the game, unless
well, she should know what's going to happen to it is by throwing the pieces at their opponents. A
the watch, what's going to happen to daddy's seven-year-old, on the other hand, is dedicated to
temper, and what's going to happen to her! She can the rules, considers them pretty much sacred, and
be guilty of the act, and she can begin to feel is more likely to get upset if the game is not
guilty as well. The capacity for moral judgement allowed to come to its required conclusion. 
has arrived. Do we really need guilt? Very much.  If the child is allowed too little success, because of
The only people that don't feel guilt are called harsh teachers or rejecting peers, for example, then
psychopaths. he or she will develop instead a sense of inferiority
 Too much initiative and too little guilt means a or incompetence. An additional source of
maladaptive tendency Erikson calls ruthlessness. inferiority Erikson mentions is racism, sexism, and
To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling or be other forms of discrimination: If a child believes
“without mercy”. The ruthless person takes the
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 that success is related to who you are rather than to childhood and the powerful and responsible time
how hard you try, then why try?  of adulthood, is made clear. 
 Too much industry leads to the maladaptive  Without these things, we are likely to see role
tendency called narrow virtuosity. We see this in confusion, meaning an uncertainty about one's
children who aren’t allowed to be children, the place in society and the world. When an
ones that parents or teacher push into one area of adolescent is confronted by role confusion,
competence, without allowing the development of Erikson say he or she is suffering from an identity
broader interests. These are kids without a life: crisis. In fact, a common question adolescents in
child actors, child athletes, child musician, child our society ask is a straight-forward question of
prodigies at all sorts. We al admire their industry, identity: "Who am I?" Notice how long it takes, in
but if we look a little closer, it’s all that stands in our society, before we have an answer to the
the way of an empty life. Much more common is parallel question "What do I want to be when I
the malignancy called inertia. This includes all of grow up?"
us who suffer from “inferiority complexes” that  Too much Ego Identity leads to maladaptive
Alfred Adler talked about. If at first you don’t tendency which Erikson calls fanaticism. A fanatic
succeed, don’t ever try again! Many of us didn’t person believes that his way is the only way.
do well in mathematics, for example, so we’d die Adolescents are, of course, known for their
before we took another math class. idealism, and for their tendency to see things in
 Good and balanced development of industry and black-and-white. These people will gather others
inferiority is a happier thing - that is, mostly around them and promote their beliefs and life-
industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us styles without regard to others’ rights to disagree.
sensibly humble. This virtue called competency. The lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still,
and Erikson refers to the malignant tendency here
Stage five (Ego identity vs. Role as repudiation. To repudiate is to reject. They
Confusion)  reject their membership in the world of adults and,
even more, they reject their need for an identity.
 Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty Some adolescents prefer to go to groups that go
and ending around 18 or 20 years old. The task against the norms to form their identity: religious
during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and cults, militaristic organizations, groups founded on
avoid role confusion. It was adolescence that hatred, groups that have divorced themselves from
interested Erikson first and most, and the patterns the painful demands of mainstream society. They
he saw here were the bases for his thinking about may become involved in destructive activities,
all the other stages. Ego identity means knowing drugs, or alcohol, or you may withdraw into their
who you are and how you fit in to the rest of own psychotic fantasies.
society. It requires that you take all you've learned  If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will
about life and yourself and mold it into a unified have the virtue Erikson called fidelity. Fidelity
self-image, one that your community finds means loyalty, the ability to live by society's
meaningful.  standards despite the imperfections and
 There are a number of things that make things incompleteness and inconsistencies. We are not
easier: First, we should have a mainstream adult talking about blind loyalty, and we are not talking
culture that is worthy of the adolescent's respect, about accepting those imperfections. After all, if
one with good adult role models and open lines of you love your community, you will want to see it
communication. If the teenager looks around and become the best it can be. But fidelity means that
sees nothing but sexism, racism, war-mongering, you have found a place in that community, a place
unbridled materialism, self-centered hedonism, that will allow you to contribute. 
puritanical self-righteousness, etc. - why bother to
become an adult?  Stage six (Intimacy vs. Isolation) 
 Further, society should provide clear rites of
passage - certain accomplishments and rituals that  If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of
help to distinguish the adult from the child. In the young adult, which lasts (in modern society)
primitive and traditional societies, an adolescent from about 20 to about 30. The ages in the adult
boy may be asked to leave the village for a period stages are much fuzzier than in the childhood
of time to live on his own, hunt some symbolic stages, and people may differ dramatically. The
animal, or seek an inspirational vision. Boys and task is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as
girls may be required to go through certain tests of opposed to remaining in isolation. 
endurance, symbolic ceremonies, or educational  Intimacy is the ability to be close to others, as a
events. In one way or another, the distinction lover, a friend, and as a participant in society.
between the powerless but carefree time of Because you have a clear sense of who you are,
39
 you no longer need to fear "losing" yourself, as With generativity, that implicit expectation of
many adolescents do. The "fear of commitment" reciprocity isn't there, at least not as strongly. Few
some people seem to exhibit is an example of parents expect a "return on their investment" from
immaturity in this stage. This fear isn't always so their children; If they do, they aren't very good
obvious. Many people today are always putting off parents! 
the progress of their relationships: I'll get married  Although the majority of people practice
(or have a family, or get involved in important generativity by having and raising children, there
social issues) as soon as I finish school, as soon as are many other ways as well. Erikson considers
I have a job, as soon as I have a house, as soon teaching, writing, invention, the arts and sciences,
as.... If you've been engaged for the last ten years, social activism, and generally contributing to the
what's holding you back?  welfare of future generations to be generativity as
 Neither should the young adult need to prove him- well. 
or herself anymore. A teenage relationship is often  This is the stage of the "midlife crisis." Sometimes
a matter of trying to establish identity through men and women take a look at their lives and ask
"couple-hood." A teenager might respond to "Who that big, bad question "what am I doing all this
am I?" with "I'm her boy-friend" or "I'm his girl- for?" Notice the question carefully: Because their
friend". The young adult relationship should be a focus is on themselves, they ask what, rather than
matter of two independent egos wanting to create whom, they are doing it for. In their panic at
something larger than themselves. getting older and not having experienced or
 Erikson calls the maladaptive form promiscuity, accomplished what they imagined they would
referring particularly to the tendency to become when they were younger, they try to recapture
intimate too freely, too easily, and without any their youth. Men are often the most flambouyant
depth to your intimacy. This can be true of your examples: They leave their long-suffering wives,
relationships with friends and neighbors and your quit their humdrum jobs, buy some "hip" new
whole community as well as with lovers. The clothes, buy a Porsche, and start hanging around
malignancy he calls exclusion, which refers to the singles bars. Of course, they seldom find what
tendency to isolate oneself from love, friendship, they are looking for, because they are looking for
and community, and develop a certain hatefulness the wrong thing! 
in compensation for one’s loneliness.  Maladaptive tendency in this stage was called
 If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will Overextensions. Some people try to be so
carry with you for the rest of your life the virtue or generative that they no longer allow time for
psychosocial strength Erikson calls love. Love, in themselves, for rest and relaxation. The person
the context of his theory, means being able to put who is overextended no longer contributes well.
aside differences and antagonisms through More obvious is the malignant tendency which
"mutuality of devotion." It includes not only the Erikson calls rejectivity. Too little generativity and
love we find in a good marriage, but the love too much stagnation and you are no longer
between friends and the love of one's neighbor, co- participating in or contributing to society. And
worker, and compatriot as well.  much of what we call “the meaning if life” is a
matter of how we participate and what we
Stage seven (Generativity vs. participate. 
Stagnation)   If you are successful at this stage, you will develop
a virtue which is the capacity for caring that will
 The seventh stage is the middle adulthood. It is serve you through the rest of your life. 
hard to pin a time to it, but it would include the
period during which we are actively involved in Stage eight (Ego Integrity vs.
raising children. For most people in our society,
Despair) 
this would put it somewhere between 30 and 60.
The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of  This last stage, referred to delicately as late
generativity and stagnation.  adulthood or maturity, or less delicately as old age,
 Generativity is an extension of love into the future. begins sometime around retirement, after the kids
It is a concern for the next generation and all have gone, somewhere around 60 years old in our
future generations. As such, it is considerably less society. Some older folks will protest and say it
"selfish" than the intimacy of the previous stage: only starts when you feel old and so on, but that's
Intimacy, the love between lovers or friends, is a an effect of our youth-worshipping culture, which
love between equals, and it is necessarily has even old people avoiding any
reciprocal. Oh, of course we love each other acknowledgement of age. In Erikson's theory,
unselfishly, but the reality is such that, if the love reaching this stage is a good thing, and not
is not returned, we don't consider it a true love.
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 reaching it suggests that earlier problems retarded means a contempt of life, one’s own or anyone’s.
your development!  The person becomes very negative and appears to
 The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal hate life.
amount of despair. This stage, especially from the  Good balance will leads to the development of the
perspective of youth, seems like the most difficult virtue which Erikson calls wisdom. Someone who
of all. First comes a detachment from society, approaches death without fear. He calls it a gift to
from a sense of usefulness, for most people in our children, because "healthy children will not fear
culture. Some retire from jobs they've held for life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear
years; others find their duties as parents coming to death." 
a close; most find that their input is no longer
asked for or required. 
 Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as
the body no longer does everything it used to. -
Women go through a sometimes dramatic
menopause; Men often find they can no longer
"rise to the occasion." Then there are the illnesses
of old age, such as arthritis, diabetes, heart
problems, concerns about breast and ovarian and
prostrate cancers. There come fears about things
that one was never afraid of before - the flu, for
example, or just falling down. Along with the
illnesses come concerns of death. Friends die.
Relatives die. One's spouse dies. It is, of course,
certain that you, too, will have your turn. Faced
with all this, it might seem like everyone would
feel despair. 
 In response to this despair, some older people
become preoccupied with the past. After all, that's
where things were better. Some become
preoccupied with their failures, the bad decisions
they made, and regret that (unlike some in the
previous stage) they really don't have the time or
energy to reverse them. We find some older people
become depressed, spiteful, paranoid,
hypochondrical, or developing the patterns of
senility with or without physical bases. 
 Ego integrity means coming to terms with your
life, and thereby coming to terms with the end of
life. If you are able to look back and accept the
course of events, the choices made, your life as
you lived it, as being necessary, then you needn't
fear death. Although most of you are not at this
point in life, perhaps you can still sympathize by
considering your life up to now. We've all made
mistakes, some of them pretty nasty ones; Yet, if
you hadn't made these mistakes, you wouldn't be
who you are. If you had been very fortunate, or if
you had played it safe and made very few
mistakes, your life would not have been as rich as
is. 
 The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called
presumption. This is what happens when a person
“presumes” ego integrity without actually facing
the difficulties of old age. The person is old age
believes that he alone is right. He does not respect
the ideas and views of the young. The malignant
tendency is called disdain, by which Erikson

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