COURSE CODE: CVS 415

COURSE TITLE: STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

COURSE CONTENT

Elements of steel structures, types and grades of steel. Principles of structural steel design:
Elastic and plastic approach. Design of: tension members, compression members, beams and
joists, plate girders, bolted and welded connections, composite beam. Fire safety. Corrosion
control. Detailing of structural steel elements. Fabrications and erection of steel trusses and
portal frames for low rise buildings. Inspection, preventive maintenance and repairing of
existing steel structures.
Emphasis shall be laid on design and drawing exercises.

Course Grading
 Continuous Assessment Tests 20%
 Course Work 40%
 End of Semester Exams 40%

Course References/Reference Texts

1. Thomas Telford, (1996) Structural Steel Work to BS 5950 By Morris L.J. et al
2. Limit States Design of Steelwork 2nd ed. by Nethercot D.A (1991)
3. Design of structural element to BS and Eurocodes 3rd ed. by Chanakya Arya (2009)
4. Design of structural element by W.M.C. MCkenzie (2004)
5. Gardner, L. and Nethercot, D.A., Designers’ guide to EN 1993–1–1, Eurocode 3: Design
of steel structures, general rules and rules for buildings, London.

Code of Practice
1. BS 5950–1: 2000: Structural use of steelwork in buildings; Part 1: Code of practice for
design – rolled and welded sections
2. BS 6399: Design loading for buildings; Part 1: Code of practice for dead and imposed
loads, 1996; Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads, 1997; Part 3: Code of practice for
imposed roof loads, 1988
3. CP3: 1972: Code of basic design data for the design of buildings; Chapter V: Part 2: Wind
loads
CHAPTER 1: ELEMENTS OF STEEL STRUCTURES
1.1. Introduction

Manufacture of steel

The first stage starts with iron ore and coke, which are mixed and heated to produce sinter.

Limestone is the added to form the burden of raw material fed into a blast furnace which are

burnt at high temperatures to form iron; the molten iron is tapped continuously from the

bottom of the blast furnace. The molten metal at this stage is approximately 90% - 95% iron,

the remainder being impurities which have to be removed or reduced to acceptable levels.

This material is the fed together with recovered scrap iron or steel into the steelmaking furnace

either known as the basic oxygen furnace or an elastic arc furnace.

In the basic oxygen furnace oxygen is blown on to the molten metal by a water-cooled lance.

In the electric arc furnace heat is produced by an arc between electrodes over the metal surface

and the molten metal itself conducting electricity. Here chemical reactions take place

following additions of selected materials to the molten metal, which lead to the reduction of

the impurities and to the achievement of the required controlled chemical composition of

steel. The impurities are reduced by addition of elements which combine and float out to the

surface of the molten metal in the slag or dross waste material on the surface. Deoxidation or

killing of the steel takes place in the final stages before the furnace is tapped. Older steel

manufacturing practice was to tap the steel from the furnace into ladies and the pour the

molten steel into large moulds to produce ingots. The ingots would normally be allowed to

solidify and cool before reprocessing at a later stage by rolling into the required product form.

Modern steelmaking practice has now moved to a process called continuous casting, in which

molten steel is poured at a steady rate into a mould to form a continuous solid strand from

which lengths of semi-finished product are cut for subsequent processing. Semi-finished

products take the form of slabs, billets or blooms. Continuous casting has the advantage of

eliminating the reheating and first stage rolling required in the ingot production route, and is

generally more efficient, but ingot production is still required for some product forms.

Forming into final products

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 1. Casting

Liquid steel is poured directly into a mould of the required geometry and shape. It is

good where either many items of the same type are required and/or complex

geometries are involved.

2. Forging

A bloom is heated to the austenitizing (non-heat treatable) temperature range and

formed by repeated mechanical pressing in different directions to achieve the required

shape. Combination of temperature and mechanical work enables high quality

products with good mechanical properties to be obtained e.g. steel rings to form the

shell/barrel of the reactor pressure vessel in a pulverized water reactor system. (Forms

small and specialized part of overall steel production)

3. Rolling

Forms the largest amount of finished steel production. The semi-finished products cast

from the steelmaking furnace are reheated to the austenitizing range and passed

through a series of mills with rolls of the required profile to force the hot steel into the

finished shape e.g. strip or sheet material is produced by continuous rolling from slabs

down to sheets of required width and thickness which is collected as a coil at the end

of the rolling process and subsequently cut into required lengths. The sheet material

can be supplied as in bare steel form or with different types of coating as steel sheet

with a continuous galvanizing zinc coating for corrosion protection an integral plastic

coatings of different colours and patterns for decorative finish as well as corrosion

protection.

For structural industry steel bars can be rolled into plates of required thickness or

structural sections as universal columns, universal beams, rail sections etc

Round blooms or ingots can be processed by a seamless tube rolling mill into seamless

tubes of different diameters and thickness or solid bar subsequently drawn into wires.

Tubes can be used either for carrying fluids in small-diameter pipelines or as a

structural hollow section of circular or rectangular shape

Engineering properties and mechanical test

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As part of normal quality control procedures of the steel manufacturers, tests are carried out

on each batch of steel and results recorded on a test certificate. The certificate contain;

i. Chemical composition of the steel; at the stage where chemical analysis of steel is being

adjusted in steel making furnace, samples are taken from liquid steel met at different

stages to check the analysis result. Samples are taken just before the furnace is tapped

and analysis is taken to represent chemical composition of the complete cast. It

includes carbon (C), manganese(Mn), silicon(Si), S and P for all steel and any other

additional element as chromium(Cr), nickel(Ni), cupper(Cu), V, molybdenum(Mb)

and aluminium(Al). See BS 4360: Specification for weldable structural steel.

ii. Carbon equivalent to assist fabricator on deciding about precautions during welding.

iii. Mechanical test results.

- Tensile tests (yield strength, ultimate strength and elongation at failure)

- Fracture toughness; requirements for Charpy V-notch impact test BS 131: part 2.

The Charpy test is a standard notched bar impact test of 10 mm2 cross-section with

a 2 mm deep V-notch in one face. A series of specimens is tested under impact

loading either at one specification temperature or over a range of temperatures and

the energy required to break the sample is recorded. The ductility requirements

are specified designated as JR, J0, J2 and K2. These requirements are that steel

should show a minimum of 27J energy absorption at a specified testing

temperature corresponding to the letter grade.

When do we refer to hot-rolled and cold-rolled steel?

Hot-rolling refers to a mill process in which you roll the steel at a temperature above its

recrystallization temperature; a heat that typically exceeds 1000° F. When steel is heated past

its recrystallization point, it becomes more malleable and can be properly formed and shaped.

It also allows for the ability to produce larger quantities of steel. The steel is then cooled at

room temperature, which “normalizes” it, eliminating the worry for stresses in the material

arising when quenching or work-hardening.

When the steel cools off, it will shrink non-uniformly, which gives slightly less control on the

overall size and shape of a finished hot-rolled product. Hot-rolled steel typically has a scaly

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surface finish. For situations in which the appearance of the material is a concern, the scales

can be removed by several techniques: pickling, grinding, or sand-blasting. These properties

make hot-rolled steel most suitable for structural components and other applications where

incredibly precise shapes and tolerances are of less importance, such as:

Railroad tracks, I-beams, Agricultural equipment, Sheet metal and Automotive frames.

In cold-rolling, steel is pressed with the pressure of a roller at room temperature. Compared

to hot-rolled steel, cold-rolled steel has a nearly 20% increase in strength through the use of

strain hardening. It’s through a series of breakdown, semi-finishing, sizing, semi-roughing,

roughing, and finishing that cold-rolled steel shapes can be created. Cold-rolling steel allows

for the creation of very precise shapes. Since the process is performed at room temperature,

the steel will not shrink as it cools, as it does in the hot-rolled process. The exterior finish of

cold-rolled steel is very desirable when aesthetics and visual appeal are a priority in your

project. However, the applications of cold-rolled steel are somewhat limited to a couple of shapes –

square, round, flat, and variations thereof.

They form Strips, Bars, Rods, Home appliances, Roof and wall systems, Metal furniture and

Aerospace structural members

If you require large structural components, you will most likely need the hot-rolled steel

process to create the parts. For smaller parts that require more precise and durable qualities,

then the cold-rolled steel process is the way to go.

Types and grades of steel

Structural and engineering steel

Engineering steels are essentially wrought steels designed for mechanical and allied

engineering applications. These require critical and often stringent levels of elasticity,

strength, ductility, toughness and fatigue resistance. (Steel used in vehicle manufacture)

Structural steel is a category of steel construction material that is produced with a particular

cross section or shape, and some specified values of strength and chemical composition. The

word structural steel includes a broad variety of low carbon and manganese steels that are

used in great numbers for civil and marine engineering applications.

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The minimum yield stress and the maximum tensile stress (Clause 3.1.1 of BS 5950-1:2000) are

represented by the symbols Ys and Us respectively. The assumed strength (py) for design

purposes is the smaller of 1.0Ys and Us/1.2, and is dependent on the thickness of the material

being used. Values of py for the more commonly used grades and thicknesses of steel are given

in Table 9 of BS 5950.

Structural steel is manufactured in three basic grades: S275, S355 and S460. Grade S460 is the

strongest, but the lower strength grade S275 is the most commonly used in structural

applications. In classification system ‘S’ stands for structural and the number indicates the

yield strength of the material in N/mm2.

Steel grades are specified in accordance with BS 5950-2:2000 in which reference is made to the

following European Standards:

 BS EN 10025 Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels – Technical delivery

conditions.

 BS EN 10113-2 Hot rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steels −Part 2:

Delivery conditions for normalized/normalized rolled steels.

 BS EN 10113-3 Hot rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steels − Part 3:

Delivery conditions for thermo mechanical rolled steels.

 BS EN 10137-2 Plates and wide flats made of high yield strength structural steels in the

quenched and tempered or precipitation hardened conditions − Part 2: Delivery

conditions for quenched and tempered steels.

 BS EN 10155 Structural steels with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance −

Technical delivery conditions. (i.e. weathering steels).

 BS EN 10210-1 Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain

structural steels − Part 1: Technical delivery requirements.

In each code a designation system is used to describe the steel: BS EN X − Y Z

Where: X identifies the standard,

Y identifies the type of steel i.e. S for structural steel, E for engineering steel

Z identifies the minimum yield strength e.g. 235 N/mm2, 275 N/mm2 etc.

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The following example represents the designation for non-alloy steel with a minimum yield

strength of 255 N/mm2 used to manufacture hot-rolled sections and plates:

BS EN 10025 − S 255

Ductility (Clause 2.4.4)

It is important to ensure that steel has sufficient ductility, particularly at low temperatures, to

avoid brittle fracture. The ductility is measured in terms of the notch toughness and the

Charpy value from the Charpy V-notch test.

In addition to specifying the grade of the steel, e.g. S 275, it is necessary to identify the

appropriate quality by specifying a sub-grade. Sub-grades are defined in the appropriate

British Standards for steels and used in Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7 of BS 5950-1:2000; e.g.

 JR represents an impact resistance value of 27 Joules at room temperature

 J0 represents an impact resistance value of 27 Joules at 0oC

 J2 represents an impact resistance value of 27 Joules at −20oC

 K2 represents an impact resistance value of 27 Joules at −30oC

The full designation for a steel includes the sub-grade, e.g. BS EN 10025 − S 255J2.

When determining the required sub-grade for a particular situation consideration must be

given to a number of factors: the minimum service temperature, the thickness, steel grade, the

type of detail, the stress level, the strain level or strain rate as indicated in Clause 2.4.4 of the

code. The appropriate steel sub-grade is selected such that the thickness t of each component

satisfies the following criteria:

i. 𝑡 ≤ 𝐾𝑡1

Where:

K is a factor that depends on the type of detail, the general stress level, the stress

concentration effects and the strain conditions and is given in Table 3 of the code

t1 is the limiting thickness at the appropriate minimum service temperature Tmin for a

given steel grade and quality, when the factor K = 1. Values of t1 are given in Tables 4

and 5 of the code for plates, flats and rolled sections and for structural hollow sections

respectively.

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And

ii. 𝑡 = 𝑡2

Where:

t2 is the thickness at which the full Charpy impact value applies to the selected steel

quality for that product type and steel grade, according to the relevant product

standard. Values of t2 are given in Table 6 of the code.

For rolled sections t and t1 should be related to the same element of the cross-section as the

factor K, but t2 should be related to the thickest element of the cross-section. The value of t1

can also be determined from equations given in the code.

[Examples ]

Exampe 1

Consider an internal steel structure fabricated from rolled steel sections in which both welding

and bolting are used. Assuming the design data given, check the suitability of the proposed

steel designation.

Design data

Maximum steel stress - > 150 N/mm2

Maximum thickness of element - (i) t = 14 mm and (ii) t = 35 mm

Proposed steel grade - BS EN 10025 S 275

Assume all connections are bolted using punched holes and welded end plates/cleats.

Solution:

Clause 2.4.4; 𝑡 ≤ 𝐾𝑡1

Table 3; K requires the type of steel and stress level and the value of Ynom which is the nominal

yield strength as in the steel grade designation.

Case (i): 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟒 𝒎𝒎 𝒀𝒏𝒐𝒎 = 𝟐𝟕𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐

Table 3 0.3𝑌𝑛𝑜𝑚 = (0.3 × 275) = 82.5 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 ∴ 𝐾 = 1.0

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 > 150 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 > 0.3 𝑌𝑛𝑜𝑚
8
Welded generally and punched holes

Table 4 Normal temperatures / Internal (−50 C)

 Case (ii): 𝒕 = 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝒀𝒏𝒐𝒎 = 𝟐𝟕𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐

Table 3 0.3𝑌𝑛𝑜𝑚 = (0.3 × 275) = 82.5 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 ∴ 𝐾 = 1.0

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 > 150 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 > 0.3 𝑌𝑛𝑜𝑚
Welded generally and punched holes

Table 4 Normal temperatures / Internal (−50 C)

BS EN 10025 S 275J0 gives t1 = 65 mm ≥ 35 mm

Table 6 Maximum thickness based on Charpy value = 100 mm for sections.

Required steel designation BS EN 10025 S 275J0

Example 2

Using the design data given, check the suitability of the proposed steel designation for a

structure which is exposed to a temperature of − 300C.

Design data

Maximum steel stress - > 240 N/mm2

Maximum thickness of element - t = 20 mm

Proposed steel grade - BS EN 10025 S 355J2

Assume all connections are welded to unstiffened flanges.

Clause 2.4.4 𝒕 ≤ 𝑲𝒕𝟏

Table 3 𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝒀𝒏𝒐𝒎 = 𝟑𝟓𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐

0.3𝑌𝑛𝑜𝑚 = (0.3 × 355) = 106.5 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 ∴ 𝐾 = 0.5
2
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 > 240 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
9 > 0.3 𝑌𝑛𝑜𝑚
Welded connections to unstiffened flanges
𝑡 ≤ 𝐾𝑡1 ∴ 20 ≤ 0.5𝑡1 ∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡1 ≥ 40 𝑚𝑚
A more precise value of 𝑡1 for (−30oC) may be calculated from the equations given in the code

as follows:

Table 7 T27J = −200C (assuming BS EN 10025 S 355J2)

Tmin = the minimum service temperature (in 0C) expected to occur in the steel

within the intended design life of the part

= −300C
355 1.4
T27J ≤ 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 200 𝐶 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡1 ≤ 50(1.2)𝑁 [𝑌 ]
𝑛𝑜𝑚

𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 −𝑇27𝐽 −30+20

Where 𝑁 = [ 10
]=[ 10
] = −1.0

355 1.4
∴ 𝑡1 ≤ 50 × (1.2)−1 × [ ] = 41.7 𝑚𝑚 ≥ 40 𝑚𝑚
355
In this instance BS EN 10025 S 355J2 is satisfactory.

Elastic properties

Steel is a ductile material. The most commonly required material elastic properties for steel

are given in Clause 3.1.3 as:

• Modulus of Elasticity E = 205 × 103 N/mm2

• Poisson’s Ratio ν = 0.3

• Shear Modulus G = E/[2(1+ν)] = (78.85 × 103 N/mm2)

• Coefficient of Thermal Expansion α = 12 × 10−6/ oC

Steel design is based on limit state design. The central concepts of limit state design are:

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 1) All the separate conditions that make the structure unfit for use are taken into account

– separate limit states; i.e the structure should not overturn under applied loads and

its members and joints should be strong enough to carry applied loads.

2) The design is based on actual behaviour of materials and performance of structures

and members in service; strength are calculated using plastic theory and post buckling

behaviour is taken into account.

3) Design should be based on statistical methods with small probability of the structure

reaching a limit state; recognition of fact that loads and material strength vary,

approximations are used in design and imperfection in fabrications and erection affect

the strength in service. All these factors can only be realistically assessed in statistical

terms. Because of this difficulty, partial safety factors are introduced to take account

of the uncertainties in loads and material strengths.

The limit states are the ultimate limit states and the serviceability limit states.

Ultimate limit states

When ultimate limit states are reached, the whole structure or part of it collapses. (BS 5950,

Table 1)

1) Strength including general yielding, rapture, buckling and transformation into a

mechanism;

2) Stability against overturning and sway;

3) Fracture due to fatigue;

4) Brittle fracture

Serviceability limit states

The serviceability limit states, when reached make the structure or part of it unfit for normal

use but do not indicate that collapse has occurred. (BS 5950, Table 1)

5) Deflection;

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 6) Vibration e.g wind-induced oscillation;

7) Repairable damage due to fatigue;

8) Corrosion and durability.

In the design of structural elements we will be concentrating on the ultimate limit state of

strength (1), and the serviceability limit state of deflection (5). Stability (2) is an aspect of

complete structures or sub-structures that will not be examined at this point, except to say

that structures must be robust enough not to overturn or sway excessively under wind or

other sideways loading. Fatigue (3) is generally taken account of by the provision of adequate

safety factors to prevent occurrence of the high stresses associated with fatigue. Brittle fracture

(4) can be avoided by selecting the correct grade of steel for the expected ambient conditions.

Avoidance of excessive vibration (6) and oscillations (7), are aspects of structural dynamics

and are beyond the scope of course. Corrosion can be a serious problem for exposed steelwork,

but correct preparation and painting of the steel will ensure maximum durability (8) and

minimum maintenance during the life of the structure. Alternatively, the use of weather

resistant steels should be considered.

1.2. Structural steel and steel sections

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Figure 1.1: standard hot-rolled sections

The geometric properties of these steel sections, including the principal dimensions, area,

second moment of area, radius of gyration and elastic and plastic section moduli have been

tabulated in a booklet entitled Structural Sections to BS4: Part 1: 1993 and BS EN10056: 1999.

1.3. Symbols

Refer to BS 5950 Clause 1.4.

1.4. Design methods

Three methods of design are given in Clause 2.1.2

1) Simple design – Clause 2.1.2.2. This apparently conservative assumption is a very

popular method of design.

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 2) Continuous design – Clause 2.1.2.3. In theory a more economic design can be achieved

by this method, but unless the joints are truly rigid the analysis will give an upper

bound (unsafe) solution.

3) Semi-continuous design - Clause 2.1.2.3. The actual strength and stiffness of the joints

should be determined experimentally.

1.5. Loading

In structural design, the designer needs to estimate the loading to which the structure may be

subject during its design life. The characteristic dead and imposed loads can be obtained from BS

6399: Parts 1 and 3. Wind loads should be determined from BS 6399: Part 2 or CP3: Chapter V:

Part 2. In general, a characteristic load is expected to be exceeded in only 5% of instances, or

for 5% of the time, but in the case of wind loads it represents a gust expected only once every

50 years.

To obtain design loading at ultimate limit state for strength and stability calculations, the

characteristic load is multiplied by a load factor obtained from Table 2 of BS 5950. Several

loading cases may be specified to give a ‘worst case’ envelope of forces and moments around

the structure. In the design of buildings without cranes, the following load combinations

should normally be considered (clause 2.4.1.2, BS 5950):

- Load combination 1: dead plus imposed

- Load combination 2: dead plus wind

- Load combination 3: dead, imposed plus wind

To obtain design loading at serviceability limit state for calculation of deflections the most

adverse realistic combination of unfactored characteristic imposed loads is usually used. In

the case of wind loads acting together with imposed loads, only 80% of the full specified

values need to be considered.

1.6. Section Classification – Clause 3.5

Compression elements of structural members are classified into four categories depending

upon their resistance to local buckling effects which may influence their load carrying

14
capacity. The compression may be due to direct axial forces, bending moments, or a

combination of both. There are two distinct types of element in a cross-section identified in

the code:

a) Outstand elements − elements which are attached to an adjacent element at one edge

only, the other edge being free, e.g. the flange of an I-section.

b) Internal elements − elements which are attached to other elements on both longitudinal

edges, including:

- webs comprising the internal elements perpendicular to the axis of bending

- flanges comprising the internal elements parallel to the axis of bending e.g. the

webs and flanges of a rectangular hollow section.

The classifications specified in the code Clause 3.5.2 determined by consideration of the

limiting values given in Tables 11 and 12 of the code are:

- Class 1 - Plastic Sections: cross- sections with plastic hinge capacity.

- Class 2 - Compact Sections: cross-sections with plastic moment capacity.

- Class 3 - Semi-compact Sections: cross-sections in which the stress at the extreme

compression fibre can reach the design strength, but the plastic moment capacity

cannot be developed.

- Class 4 - Slender Sections: cross-sections in which it is necessary to make explicit

allowance for the effects of local buckling.

The classifications are based on a number of criteria.

1.6.1. Aspect ratio

The aspect ratio for various types of element can be determined using the variables indicated

in Figure 5 of the code for a wide range of cross-sections. A typical example is the I-section

indicated in Figure 1.2.

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Table 1.1

Element Aspect ratio

outstand of compression flange b/T

Web d/t

Figure 1.2: Typical I-section

The limiting aspect ratios given must be modified to allow for the design strength p y. This is

done by multiplying each limiting ratio by ε which is defined in each Table as:

2
275
𝜀=( )
𝑝𝑦

In the case of the web of a hybrid section ε should be based on the design strength pyf of the

flanges. In addition to ε, some limiting values in Tables 11 and 12 also include parameters r 1

and r2 which are stress ratios, defined in Clause 3.5.5.

The classifications given in Tables 11 and 12 indicate the moment/rotation characteristics of a

section, as shown in Figure 1.3.

16
Figure 1.3: Moment-rotation characteristics of section

where:

Mp = plastic moment of resistance

Me = limiting elastic moment of resistance

M = elastic moment of resistance

These characteristics determine whether or not a fully plastic moment can develop within a

section and whether or not the section possesses sufficient rotational capacity to permit

redistribution of the moments in a structure.

Consider a section subject to an increasing bending moment; the bending stress diagram

changes from a linearly elastic condition with extreme fibre stresses less than the design

strength (py), to one in which all of the fibres can be considered to have reached the design

strength, as shown in Figure 1.4.

17
Figure 1.4:

where:

Zxx = elastic section modulus

Sxx = plastic section modulus

σ = elastic stress

py = design strength

Note: The shape factor of a section is defined as:

𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑆𝑥𝑥

𝑣= = − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐼 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ≈ 1.15
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑍𝑥𝑥

1.6.2. Plastic Sections

The failure of a structure such that plastic collapse occurs is dependent on a sufficient number

of plastic hinges developing within the cross-sections of the members (i.e. value of internal

bending moment reaching Mp), to produce a mechanism. For full collapse this requires one

more than the number of redundancies in the structure, as illustrated in the rigid-jointed

rectangular portal frame in Figure 1.5.

Number of redundancies = 1, Number of hinges = 2

18
Figure 1.5.

The required number of hinges will only develop if there is sufficient rotational capacity in

the cross-section to permit the necessary redistribution of the moments within the structure.

When this occurs, the stress diagram at the location of the hinge is as shown in Figure 1.4(c),

and the aspect ratios of the elements of the cross-section are low enough to prevent local

buckling from occurring. Such cross-sections are defined as plastic sections and classified as

Class 1. Full plastic analysis and design can only be carried out using Class 1 sections.

1.6.3. Compact Sections

When cross-sections can still develop the full plastic moment as in Figure 1.4(c), but are

prevented by the possibility of local buckling from undergoing enough rotation to permit

redistribution of the moments, the section is considered to be compact and is classified as

Class 2. Compact sections can be used without restricting their capacity, except at plastic hinge

positions.

1.6.3. Semi-compact Sections

Semi-compact sections may be prevented from reaching their full plastic moment capacity by

local buckling of one or more of the elements of the cross-section. The aspect ratios may be

such that only the extreme fibre stress can attain the design strength before local buckling

occurs. Such sections are classified as Class 3 and their capacity is therefore based on the limiting

elastic moment as indicated in Figure 1.4(b).

There is provision in Clause 3.6.5 in the case of Class 3, semi-compact cross-sections for

adopting an alternative method of determining a reduced capacity. In this case the design

strength py is modified to produce a reduced design strength pry, defined as:

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 𝛽3 2
𝑝𝑟𝑦 = ( ) 𝑝𝑦
𝛽

Where β is the value of b/T, b/t, D/t or d/t that exceeds the limiting value (i.e. β 3) given in

Table 11 or Table 12 for a Class 3, semi-compact section. The reduced design strength is

subsequently used in strength calculations for members subject to bending, lateral torsional

buckling, axial compression and combined bending and compression.

1.6.4. Slender Sections

When the aspect ratio is relatively high, then local buckling may prevent any part of the cross-

section from reaching the design strength. Such sections are called slender sections and are

classified as Class 4 sections; their reduced capacity is based on effective cross-section properties as

specified in Clause 3.6 of BS 5950-1:2000.

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