Chemistry 11 Unit 07 Atoms and The Periodic Table Notes

Chemistry 11, Atoms and the Periodic Table, Unit 07 1
Lesson 01: The Structure of the Atom
01 Introduction
All physical objects in the universe are composed of matter

and all matter is composed of elements and all elements are
composed of atoms.
But what are atoms composed of?
Matter
02 Modern Basic Structure of the Atom
Atoms are made up of three types of sub atomic particles…

 electrons: negatively charged particles which orbit the
nucleus
 protons: positively charged particles which are located
in the nucleus
 neutrons: particles with no charge located in the
nucleus
An Atom of the Element Carbon

Atoms are not all the same, since any two atoms of…
 one particular element will always be identical since
both would have the same number of sub atomic
particles
 different elements will always be different since both
would have differing numbers of sub atomic particles
Two Atoms, Two Elements

Hydrogen Atom Helium Atom
03 Atomic Number, Atomic Mass, Ions and Isotopes
The way in which all known elements are displayed is using

the periodic table of elements…
For a neutral atom, there are three pieces of information are

usually displayed on the periodic table…
 element symbol
 atomic number is the number of protons or electrons
there are in the nucleus
 atomic mass is the number of neutrons added to the
number of protons
Atoms of the same element will always have the same

number of…
 electrons
 protons
 neutrons
Two Atoms of Hydrogen

H Atom H Atom
1 proton 1 proton
1 electron 1 electron
Example 01
How many electrons, protons and neutrons are in a neutral

atom of C ?
atomic number  protonscarbon  electronscarbon  6
atomic masscarbon  protonscarbon  neutronscarbon

neutronscarbon  atomic masscarbon  protonscarbon
neutronscarbon  12  6  6
Example 02
How many electrons, protons and neutrons are in a neutral

atom of Fe ?
 iron
atomic number  protonsiron  electronsiron  26
atomic massiron  protonsiron  neutronsiron

neutronsiron  atomic massiron  protonsiron
neutronsiron  56  26  30
Atoms of the same element…

 having different numbers of electrons but having the
same number of protons and neutrons
 are called ions
Three Forms of the Element Hydrogen

H Ion H Atom H Ion
1 proton 1 proton
1 proton
1 electron 2 electrons
positively charged neutral negatively charged
hydrogen ion hydrogen atom hydrogen ion
Example 03
How many electrons, protons and neutrons are in the ion

Fe2 ?
atomic number  protonsiron  26

atomic number  electronsiron  26  2  24
atomic massiron  protonsiron  neutronsiron

neutronsiron  atomic massiron  protonsiron
neutronsiron  56  26  30
Atoms of the same element…

 having the same number of electrons and protons, but
differing by the number of neutrons
 are called isotopes…
Three Isotopes of Hydrogen

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium
1 proton 1 proton
1 proton
1 neutron 2 neutrons
1 electron
1 electron 1 electron
most common less common less common
isotope isotope isotope
04 Modern Detailed Structure of the Atom
Electron Arrangement
Electrons are arranged around a nucleus in shells…
In most cases (not all)…

 a shell will have subshells, and
 a subshell will have its own orbitals
Quantum Numbers
Quantum numbers determine the location and number of

electrons in a particular shell…
There are four quantum numbers…
Location and Number of Electrons

Name Symbol Meaning Values
principle
quantum n energy level 1, 2, 3…
number
angular
momentum 0, 1, 2, 3...
l shape
quantum s, p, d, f...
number
s: 1 orbital
magnetic p: 3 orbitals
quantum ml orientation
number d: 5 orbitals
f: 7 orbitals
spin quantum 1 1
ms electron spin + or -
number 2 2
Orbital Shapes
Since a maximum of two electrons can exist in any atomic

orbital the following results…
Number of Electrons Per Shell and Sub-Shell

Maximum
Total Number
Shell Sub-Shell(s) Electrons Per
of Electrons
Sub-Shell
1 s 2 2
2 s, p 2, 6 8
3 s, p, d 2, 6, 10 18
4 s, p, d, f 2, 6, 10, 14 32
Electron Configurations
How do we write the exact distribution for all electrons within

a particular atom?
This depends on two factors…

 how many electrons an atom has, and...
 how many electrons each shell and sub-shell can
accommodate
The Aufbau Principle is used to determine the electron

configuration of an atom.
According to the principle, electrons fill orbitals…

 lowest energy levels first, followed by
 higher levels next
To determine the electron distribution, a useful diagram is

commonly used…
Orbital Filling Order for Multi-Electron Atoms

It is also useful to realize that the periodic table of the

elements has been constructed with electron configuration
in mind…
Orbital Filling and the Periodic Table
Knowing this, it is now possible to generate electron

configurations for atoms of any element...
Example 04
Determine the electron configuration for the following

atoms…
Atomic
Element Structure
Number
1 Hydrogen 1s1
2 Helium 1s2
3 Lithium 1s2 2s1
4 Beryllium 1s2 2s2
5 Boron 1s2 2s2 2p1
6 Carbon 1s2 2s2 2p2
7 Nitrogen 1s2 2s2 2p3
8 Oxygen 1s2 2s2 2p4
9 Fluorine 1s2 2s2 2p5
10 Neon 1s2 2s2 2p6

Electron Configurations and Core Notation
Displaying electron configurations for elements following a

noble gas is done using core notation. Core notation is a
way of displaying electron configurations in a kind of short
form.
 core electrons are referred to as those electrons
nearest noble gas having an atomic number less than
that which is being considered
 outer electrons are those outside the core
Example 05
Determine the electron configuration using core notation for

the following…
Atomic
Element Structure
Number
Neon 1s2 2s2 2p6
10
Neon [Ne]
(core notation)
Sodium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
11
Sodium
[Ne]3s1
(core notation)
Magnesium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
12
Magnesium
[Ne]3s2
(core notation)
Aluminum 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
13
Aluminum
(core notation)
Ne 3s2 3p1
Silicon 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
14
Silicon
(core notation)
Ne 3s2 3p2
Electron Configurations and Ions
Displaying electron configurations for ions is straightforward.

All the needs to be done is…
 determine the number of electrons in the atom that
forms the ion, and then
 add an electron for each negative change
 remove an electron for each positive charge
Example 06
Determine the electron configuration for Br  using core

notation.
 first determine the total number of electrons in bromine

and then make sure to add an extra electron due to the
presence of one negative charge
atomic number  electronsbromine  35  1  36
 determine the nearest noble gas
argon
 place electrons in the core and remainder outside the

core
 Ar  4s2 3d10 4p5

There are two exceptions to the configurations of elements

up to krypton.
These two exceptions are due to the fact that there is

greater stability in having either…
 a filled sub-shell
 exactly half filled sub-shell
Electron Configuration Exceptions

Incorrect Correct
Chromium  Ar  4s2 3d4  Ar  4s13d5
Copper  Ar  4s2 3d9  Ar  4s13d10
Valence Electrons – Accessible or Reactable Electrons
Valence electrons are all accessible electrons or all

electrons in outer shells even if the outer shell is completely
closed (filled).
Core electrons are inaccessible electrons or electrons of the

nearest noble gas.
Accessible / Valence and Inaccessible / Core Electrons

element core electrons valence electrons
He 2s1
lithium
inaccessible accessible
Valence electrons are important in determining how the

atom reacts chemically with other atoms…
 complete shell: atoms with a complete or closed shell
of valence electrons tend to be chemically inert
 over-filled shell: atoms with one or two valence
electrons more than a closed shell are highly reactive
because the extra electrons are easily removed to form
positive ions
 under-filled shell atoms with one or two valence
electrons fewer than a closed shell are also highly
reactive because of a tendency either to gain the
missing electrons and form negative ions
Example 07
Determine the number of valence electrons in the following

atoms...
Electrons
Structure
Element
Valence
Number
Atomic
1 Hydrogen 1s1 1
2 Helium 1s2 2
3 Lithium He 2s1 1
4 Beryllium He 2s2 2
5 Boron He 2s2 2p1 3
6 Carbon He 2s2 2p2 4
7 Nitrogen He 2s2 2p3 5
8 Oxygen He 2s2 2p4 6
9 Fluorine He 2s2 2p5 7
10 Neon He 2s2 2p6 8
Lesson 02: The Periodic Table
01 Introduction to the Periodic Table
The periodic table of the chemical elements is a method of

displaying the chemical elements.
The invention of the periodic table is generally credited to

Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. Mendeleev
intended the table to illustrate recurring (periodic), trends in
the properties of the elements…
Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table

Today, the periodic table is now common within chemistry,

providing an extremely useful way to classify, systematize
and compare all the many different chemicals and their
behaviours.
The current periodic table, as of January 2008 contains 117

elements.
Modern Periodic Table

02 Arrangement of Elements
Groups, Families or Columns
A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table.

Groups are considered the most important method of
classifying the elements.
Groups are numbered numerically 1 to 18 from the left to

right.
Some of these groups have been given trivial names, such

as…
 alkali metals (group 1)
 alkaline earth metals (group 2)
 pnictogens (group 15)
 chalcogens (group 16)
 halogens (group 17)
 noble gases (group 18)
 transition metals (group 3 through group 12)
However, other groups, are referred to simply by their group

numbers, since they display fewer similarities and/or vertical
trends.
Periods or Rows
A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table.
Although groups are the most common way of classifying

elements, there are regions where horizontal trends are
more significant than vertical trends.
Blocks
Because of the importance of the outermost electron shell,

the different regions of the periodic table are sometimes
referred to as blocks, named according to the sub-shell in
which the last electron resides…
 s-block
 p-block
 d-block
 f-block
Periodic Table Blocks

03 Trends in the Periodic Table
Atomic Radius
As an atom's atomic number increases, more protons are

added to the nucleus, while more electrons are stacked in
the shells and sub shells around the atom.
The trends are…

 left to right (radius decreases): electrons become more
tightly held to the nucleus because they are not being
added to new energy levels
 up to down (radius increases): electrons become more
loosely held to the nucleus because they are being
added to new energy levels
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the desire of an atom to take another

atom's electrons.
The trends are…

 left to right (electronegativity increases): greater desire
to fill missing valence shell electrons
 up to down (electronegativity decreases): greater
radius, increased shielding effect
Ionization Energy
The ionization energy is the energy required to remove an

outermost electron.
The trends are…

 left to right (ionization energy increases): greater
desire to fill missing valence shell electrons
 up to down (ionization energy decreases): greater
radius, increased shielding effect
Note Regarding the Shielding Effect
The shielding effect describes the attraction between an

electron and the nucleus in any atom with more than one
electron shell.
Shielding effect can be defined as a reduction in the

effective nuclear charge on electrons due to a difference in
attractive forces of between outer electrons on the nucleus.
Shielding Effect
Lesson 03: Chemical Bonding
01 Introduction
Chemical reactions involve…

 making bonds, and
 breaking bonds
Chemical Reactions are a Result of Chemical Bonding
Before we can understand how a chemical reaction takes place, it

is essential that we know…
 what bonds are, and
 how they form
Once we have discussed these two topics we also need to

discuss…
 what makes bond strong or weak, and
 the implications of both
02 Review
There are three terms you need to be aware of and careful not to
confuse…
 valence electrons
 core electrons
 valence
Valence Electrons and Core Electrons
Valence electrons are those electrons in the outermost shell of an

atom. Core electrons are all electrons inside the outermost shell of
an atom.
Valence and Core Electrons Example: Carbon Atom
Valence Electrons Core Electrons

4 2
Valence electrons are important in determining two things…

 IF an atom will react with other atoms, AND
 HOW an atom will react with other atoms
Atoms can have a…

 completely filled outer shell: tend to be chemically inert and
thus unreactive
Completely Filled Outer Shell: Helium:
He
 over filled outer shell: one or two valence electrons more
than a complete shell are highly reactive because the extra
electrons are easily removed to form positive ions
Over Filled Outer Shell: Lithium:
He 2s1
 under filled outer shell: one or two valence electrons less

than a complete shell are also highly reactive because of a
tendency to gain the missing electrons and form negative
ions or to share electrons and form covalent bonds
Under Filled Outer Shell: Fluorine
He 2s2 2p5

Valence
Valence, on the other hand, is the number of electrons gained or

lost to make the outermost shell of an atom stable.
Filling or emptying the outermost shell results in increased

stability.
Atoms bond to form compounds so as to fill their outer shells and

thus increase their stability.
Note
Never assume, however, that the valence of a given atom is simply
determined by the number of electrons present in the outermost
shell, or its valence electrons. In reality it is much more
complicated. Instead, just memorize valence values as column
numbers on the periodic table.
Valence Electrons and Valence
Here is a table showing the differences between…

 valence electrons, and
 valence
Electrons
Structure
Element
Valence
Number
Valence
Atomic
1 Hydrogen 1s1 1 1
2 Helium 1s2 2 0
3 Lithium He 2s1 1 1
4 Beryllium He 2s2 2 2
5 Boron He 2s2 2p1 3 3
6 Carbon He 2s2 2p2 4 4
7 Nitrogen He 2s2 2p3 5 3
8 Oxygen He 2s2 2p4 6 2
9 Fluorine He 2s2 2p5 7 1
10 Neon He 2s2 2p6 8 0
11 Sodium Ne 3s1 1 1
12 Magnesium Ne 3s2 2 2
03 What is a Bond?
A chemical bond is the process…

 responsible for the attractive interactions between atoms and
molecules
 which confers stability to all chemical compounds
There are two main types of chemical bonds or forces...

 intramolecular forces: strong bonding forces
 intermolecular forces: weak bonding forces
These two types are commonly subdivided more-or-less as

follows...
04 Intramolecular Forces
There are three main types of intramolecular forces…

 metallic bonds
 covalent bonds
 ionic bonds
Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding is the type of bonding found in metallic

elements.
This is the electrostatic force of attraction between positively

charged ions and delocalised outer electrons.
Pure (Non-Polar) Covalent Bonding
Atoms in a covalent bond are held together by electrostatic forces

of attraction between positively charged nuclei and negatively
charged equally shared electrons.
When two atoms are bonded by a covalent bond and have…

 the SAME electronegativity the electrons will be equally
shared between nuclei
For example, diatomic molecules such as…

 nitrogen gas or N2
 oxygen gas or O2
 hydrogen gas or H2
Polar Covalent Bonding
In most covalent compounds the bonding is polar covalent. This

type of covalent bond exhibits an unequal sharing of electrons.
When two atoms are bonded by a covalent bond and have…

 DIFFERENT electronegativities the electrons will not be
equally shared between nuclei
In this case, the end result is one atom having a slight negative
charge and the other a slight positive charge.
Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between

positively and negatively charged ions.
The formation of ions is a result of a transfer of electron(s)

between atoms with a…
 LARGE DIFFERENCE in electronegativities
Ionic bonding results from metals combining with non-metals. For

example, sodium combining with chlorine forms sodium chloride.
Bonding Spectrum
Covalent, polar covalent and ionic bonding can be considered as

forming a continuous bonding spectrum…
 as the difference in electronegativity increases
 the bonds become more polar (then finally ionic)
Electronegativity and Bond Type
Relative Strengths of Intramolecular Forces

05 Intermolecular Forces
Polarity is an important concept in understanding intermolecular

forces.
Molecules will either be…

 polar, or
 non-polar
Polarity is a situation that arises when a molecule develops a…

 slight positive end due to fewer negative charges or more
positive charges
 slight negative end due to more negative charges or less
positive charges
To determine whether a molecule is polar or not depends on

symmetry…
Polar VS Non-Polar
Polar Non-Polar
unequal sharing equal or unequal sharing
of electrons between bonded of electrons between bonded
atoms atoms
asymmetrical symmetrical
arrangement of bonded atoms arrangement of bonded atoms
Polar Example Non-Polar Example

hydrogen fluoride, HF boron tri-fluoride, BF3
There are five main types of intermolecular forces…

 permanent dipole - permanent dipole
 permanent dipole - induced dipole
 instantaneous dipole - induced dipole
 ion dipole
 ion - induced dipole
Permanent Dipole – Permanent Dipole Force

This type of attraction take place when two or more neutral

permanently polar covalent molecules orient themselves so that
their positive and negative ends are close to each other.
One very important and unique case of the permanent dipole -

permanent dipole attraction is known as hydrogen bonding.
A hydrogen bond is a type of attractive intermolecular force that

exists between…
 a hydrogen atom on one molecule, and
 an electronegative atom such as nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine
on another molecule
A hydrogen bond results when the partial positive charge on the

hydrogen is attracted to a lone pair of electrons on another atom
which bears a partial negative charge.
The most common, and perhaps simplest, example of a hydrogen

bond is found between water molecules…
Permanent Dipole – Induced Dipole Force

This type of attraction takes place due to the interaction between a

permanent dipole and a non-polar molecule.
Instantaneous Dipole - Induced Dipole Force

This type of attraction is also known as…

 London forces, or
 London dispersion forces, or
 dispersion forces
It is a relatively weak forces of attraction that exists between…

 all substances, but
 are of particular importance with nonpolar covalent
molecules and noble gases
In this process…
 electron distribution in individual molecules suddenly
becomes asymmetrical (or distorted)
 the newly formed dipoles now become attracted to one
another
The ease with which the electron cloud of an atom can be distorted
to become asymmetrical is called the molecule’s polarizability.
The greater the number of electrons an atom has, the farther they
will be from the nucleus, and the greater the chance for them to
shift positions within the molecule.
This means that larger nonpolar molecules tend to have stronger

London dispersion forces.
Ion - Dipole Forces and Ion - Induced Dipole Forces

An ion - dipole force consists of interactions between…

 an ion, and
 a polar molecule
They align so that the positive and negative forces are next to one
another, allowing for maximum attraction.
An ion - induced dipole force consists of interactions between…

 an ion, and
 a non-polar molecule
Like a dipole-induced dipole force, the charge of the ion causes a

distortion of the electron cloud on the non-polar molecule.
Relative Strengths of Intermolecular Forces

06 Structures Caused by Bonding

Metallic Structure
A metallic structure consists of a giant lattice of positively charged

ions and delocalised outer electrons.
Covalent Molecular Structure
A covalent molecular structure consists of discrete molecules held

together by weak intermolecular forces, and hydrogen bonds.
Network Covalent Structure

A network covalent solid is a chemical compound in which the

atoms are bonded by covalent bonds in a continuous network. In a
network solid there are no individual molecules and the entire
crystal may be considered a macromolecule.
Ionic Structure
An ionic structure consists of a giant lattice of oppositely charged

ions.
Monatomic Structure
A monatomic structure consists of discrete atoms held together by

intermolecular forces, such as the Noble gases.
07 Why Make a Bond?
In nature we find that…

 Noble gases: are never found bonded to other atoms,
whereas
 most other elements: are only found bonded to other
elements
The reason for this is due to electron configurations…

 Noble gases: the valence shell is completely full, it cannot
accept another electron into the shell
 most other elements: the valence shell is not completely full,
it can accept another electron into the shell
In essence, all atoms with unfilled valence shells…

 react with other atoms to form bonds, in an attempt
 to achieve a closed shell electron configuration
Example 01: Lithium Fluoride
For example, when a lithium atom and a fluorine atom meet,

lithium can achieve a noble gas configuration by donating an
electron to fluorine...
Example 02: Diatomic Fluorine
You may have asked yourself why two fluorine atoms don't come
together to perform the following reaction...
Even though the reaction may appear to be favourable because of

the production of a closed shell species, there is a better way to
achieve a Noble gas configuration… by sharing electrons.
See the next part of this lesson…

08 Lewis Structures and Covalent Bonding
A covalent bond represents a shared electron pair between

atoms…
Methane Covalent Bond
Before we can determine how an atom bonds covalently with

other atoms we need a simple method for displaying valence
electrons…
Lewis Structures Basics
Since only valence electrons are involved in bonding, all other

electrons can be ignored when it comes to determining the number
of covalent bonds between atoms. The way involves drawing
Lewis Structures.
Lewis structures are drawn using the following steps…

 determine the number of valence electrons
 draw one dot next to the symbol for the atom for each
valence electron
 place two electrons (max) on each of the four sides of the
atomic symbol since atoms strive to achieve a full octet of
electrons
Lewis Structures for First 18 Elements
Lewis structures allow us to simplify complex multi-electron

diagrams.
Lewis Structures and Covalent Bonding (Atoms)
Lewis structures are going to display two features…

 bonding (pair) electrons: drawn using a line between the two
atoms
 non-bonding electrons: drawn using dots to represent each
non-bonding electron
Example 03
Take for instance the bonding that takes place between hydrogen
and bromine…
Once bonding has completed, both atoms have completely filled

outer shells…
 hydrogen has two electrons
 bromine has eight electrons
Example 04
The deadly gas carbon monoxide provides an interesting example

of how to correctly draw Lewis structures…
Since carbon has four electrons and oxygen has six…

 using a single bond: if only one bond were to be formed
between carbon and oxygen, carbon would have five
electrons and oxygen 7
 using a double bond: if two bonds were to be formed
between carbon and oxygen, carbon would have six
 using a triple bond: if three bonds were to be formed
between carbon and oxygen, carbon would have eight
Such multiple bonds must be employed to explain the bonding in

many molecules. However, only single, double, and triple bonds
are commonly encountered.
Lewis Structures and Covalent Bonding (Ions)
For more complex molecules and molecular ions, it becomes

important to keep an accurate count of the number of electrons in
the molecule.
Example 05
For example, let us make a Lewis structure for NO2 .
We have…
 5 electrons from nitrogen
 12 from the oxygens
 1 extra electron due to the negative charge
Therefore, NO2 has a total of 18 electrons and we should draw

the following Lewis structure…
If we had tried to draw the above structure without taking the

charge of the ion into account, we could not have produced a full
octet around at least one atom.
Example 05
If the NO2 ion had been positively charged, as in NO2 , we

would count the electrons as follows…
 5 from nitrogen
 12 from oxygens
 -1 one due to the charge
Therefore NO2 has 16 electrons and we should draw the

following structure...
Lesson 04: Properties of Major Chemical Families
Nobel Gases
Atomic Element Electrons / Reactivity MP / BP

Number Shell
2 helium 2 low
10 neon 2, 8
18 argon 2, 8, 8

36 krypton 2, 8, 18, 8
low
2, 8, 18, 18,
54 xenon
8
2, 8, 18, 32,
86 radon high
18, 8
Tendency: stable.
The noble gases are a group of chemical elements with very

similar properties: under standard conditions, they are all odorless,
colorless, monatomic gases, with very low chemical reactivity.
The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium (He), neon
(Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the radioactive
radon (Rn).
The properties of the noble gases can be well explained by modern

theories of atomic structure: their outer shell of valence electrons
is considered to be full, giving them little tendency to participate
in chemical reactions.
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its
electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in
trends in chemical behavior...
The noble gases have full valence electron shells. Valence

electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are normally
the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding. Atoms
with full valence electron shells are extremely stable and therefore
do not tend to form chemical bonds and have little tendency to
gain or lose electrons.
Alkali Metals

Number Shell
1 hydrogen 1 low high
3 lithium 2, 1
11 sodium 2, 8, 1
19 potassium 2, 8, 8, 1

37 rubidium 2, 8, 18, 8, 1
2, 8, 18, 18,
55 cesium
8, 1
2, 8, 18, 32,
87 francium high low
18, 8, 1
Tendency: give up 1 electron.
The alkali metals include lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium

(K), rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs) and francium (Fr). Hydrogen (H),
although a member, very rarely exhibits behaviour comparable to
the alkali metals. This group lies in the s-block of the periodic
table, which means that all its elements have their outermost
electron in an s-orbital.
electronic configuration, especially the outermost shells, resulting
in trends in chemical behaviour...
The alkali metals are all highly reactive and are never found in
elemental forms in nature. Because of this, they are usually stored
in mineral oil or kerosene.
Chemically, all of the alkali metals react aggressively with the

halogens to form ionic salts. They all react with water to form
strongly alkaline hydroxides. The vigor of reaction increases down
the group. All of the atoms of alkali metals have one electron in
their valence shells, hence their only way for achieving the
equivalent of filled outermost electron shells is to give up one
electron to an element with high electronegativity, and hence to
become singly charged cations.
Alkaline Earth Metals

Number Shell
4 Beryllium 2, 2 low high
12 Magnesium 2, 8, 2
20 Calcium 2, 8, 8, 2

38 Strontium 2, 8, 18, 8, 2
2, 8, 18, 18,
56 Barium
8, 2
2, 8, 18, 32,
88 Radium high low
18, 8, 2
Tendency: give up 2 electrons.
The alkaline earth metals contain beryllium (Be), magnesium

(Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba) and radium (Ra).
The group lies in the s-block of the periodic table.
This specific group in the periodic table owes its name to their
oxides that give basic solutions. These oxides melt at such high
temperature that they remain solids in fires.
electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in
trends in chemical behavior...
All the alkaline earth metals have two electrons in their valence
shell, so the energetically preferred state of achieving a filled
electron shell is to lose two electrons to form doubly charged
positive ions.
The alkaline earth metals have much higher melting points and
boiling points compared to the alkali metals. The alkali metals are
also softer and are more lightweight whereas the alkaline earth
metals are much harder and denser.
The second valence electron is very important when it comes to

comparing chemical properties of the alkaline earth and the alkali
metals. The second valence electron is in the same “sublevel” as
the first valence electron. This means that the elements of the
alkali earth metals group contain a smaller atomic radius and
much higher ionization energy than the alkali metals group. Even
though the alkali earth metals group contains much higher
ionization energy, they still form an ionic compound with 2+
cations. Beryllium, however, behaves differently. This is because
in order to remove two electrons from this particular atom, it
requires significantly more energy. It never forms Be2+ and its
bonds are polar covalent.
Halogens
The halogens or halogen elements are a series of nonmetal

elements comprising fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br),
iodine (I), and astatine (At).
Like other groups, the candidates of this family show patterns in

its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting
in trends in chemical behavior...

Number Shell
9 fluorine 2, 7 high low
17 chlorine 2, 8, 7
35 bromine 2, 8, 18, 7 

2, 8, 18, 18,
53 iodine
7
2, 8, 18, 32,
85 astatine low high
18, 7
Tendency: gain 1 electron.
Halogens are highly reactive, and as such can be harmful or lethal

to biological organisms in sufficient quantities. This high
reactivity is due to the atoms being highly electronegative due to
their high effective nuclear charge. They can gain an electron by
reacting with atoms of other elements. Fluorine is one of the most
reactive elements in existence, attacking otherwise inert materials
such as glass, and forming compounds with the heavier noble
gases. It is a corrosive and highly toxic gas. The reactivity of
fluorine is such that if used or stored in laboratory glassware, it
can react with glass in the presence of small amounts of water to

form silicon tetrafluoride. Thus fluorine must be handled with
substances such as Teflon (which is itself an organofluorine
compound), extremely dry glass, or metals such as copper or steel
which form a protective layer of fluoride on their surface.
The high reactivity of fluorine means that once it does react with
something, it bonds with it so strongly that the resulting molecule
is very inert and non-reactive to anything else. For example,
Teflon is fluorine bonded with carbon.
Both chlorine and bromine are used as disinfectants for drinking

water, swimming pools, fresh wounds, spas, dishes, and surfaces.
They kill bacteria and other potentially harmful microorganisms
through a process known as sterilization. Their reactivity is also
put to use in bleaching. Sodium hypochlorite, which is produced
from chlorine, is the active ingredient of most fabric bleaches and
chlorine-derived bleaches are used in the production of some
paper products. Chlorine also reacts with sodium to create sodium
chloride, which is another name for table salt.

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Chemistry 11, Atoms and the Periodic Table, Unit 07 1

Lesson 01: The Structure of the Atom

All physical objects in the universe are composed of matter

But what are atoms composed of?

02 Modern Basic Structure of the Atom

Atoms are made up of three types of sub atomic particles…

An Atom of the Element Carbon

Two Atoms, Two Elements

03 Atomic Number, Atomic Mass, Ions and Isotopes

The way in which all known elements are displayed is using

For a neutral atom, there are three pieces of information are

Atoms of the same element will always have the same

Two Atoms of Hydrogen

How many electrons, protons and neutrons are in a neutral

atomic number  protonscarbon  electronscarbon  6

atomic masscarbon  protonscarbon  neutronscarbon

How many electrons, protons and neutrons are in a neutral

atomic number  protonsiron  electronsiron  26

atomic massiron  protonsiron  neutronsiron

Atoms of the same element…

Three Forms of the Element Hydrogen

How many electrons, protons and neutrons are in the ion

atomic number  protonsiron  26

atomic massiron  protonsiron  neutronsiron

Atoms of the same element…

Three Isotopes of Hydrogen

04 Modern Detailed Structure of the Atom

Electrons are arranged around a nucleus in shells…

In most cases (not all)…

Quantum numbers determine the location and number of

There are four quantum numbers…

Location and Number of Electrons

Since a maximum of two electrons can exist in any atomic

Number of Electrons Per Shell and Sub-Shell

How do we write the exact distribution for all electrons within

This depends on two factors…

The Aufbau Principle is used to determine the electron

According to the principle, electrons fill orbitals…

To determine the electron distribution, a useful diagram is

Orbital Filling Order for Multi-Electron Atoms

It is also useful to realize that the periodic table of the

Orbital Filling and the Periodic Table

Knowing this, it is now possible to generate electron

Determine the electron configuration for the following

3 Lithium 1s2 2s1

4 Beryllium 1s2 2s2

5 Boron 1s2 2s2 2p1

6 Carbon 1s2 2s2 2p2

7 Nitrogen 1s2 2s2 2p3

8 Oxygen 1s2 2s2 2p4

9 Fluorine 1s2 2s2 2p5

10 Neon 1s2 2s2 2p6

Electron Configurations and Core Notation

Displaying electron configurations for elements following a

Determine the electron configuration using core notation for

Electron Configurations and Ions

Displaying electron configurations for ions is straightforward.

Determine the electron configuration for Br  using core