Telephone

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A rotary dial telephone, c. 1940s

AT&T push button telephone made by Western Electric, model 2500 DMG black, 1980

A telephone is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a

conversation when they are too far apart to be heard directly. A telephone converts sound,
typically and most efficiently the human voice, into electronic signals that are transmitted via
cables and other communication channels to another telephone which reproduces the sound to
the receiving user. The term is derived from Greek: τῆλε (tēle, far) and φωνή (phōnē, voice),
together meaning distant voice. A common short form of the term is phone, which came into use
almost immediately after the first patent was issued.[1]

In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be granted a United States patent for a device
that produced clearly intelligible replication of the human voice at a second device.[2] This
instrument was further developed by many others, and became rapidly indispensable in business,
government, and in households.

The essential elements of a telephone are a microphone (transmitter) to speak into and an
earphone (receiver) which reproduces the voice in a distant location.[3] In addition, most
telephones contain a ringer to announce an incoming telephone call, and a dial or keypad to enter
a telephone number when initiating a call to another telephone. The receiver and transmitter are
usually built into a handset which is held up to the ear and mouth during conversation. The dial
may be located either on the handset or on a base unit to which the handset is connected. The
transmitter converts the sound waves to electrical signals which are sent through a telephone
network to the receiving telephone, which converts the signals into audible sound in the receiver
or sometimes a loudspeaker. Telephones are duplex devices, meaning they permit transmission
in both directions simultaneously.

The first telephones were directly connected to each other from one customer's office or
residence to another customer's location. Being impractical beyond just a few customers, these
systems were quickly replaced by manually operated centrally located switchboards. These
exchanges were soon connected together, eventually forming an automated, worldwide public
switched telephone network. For greater mobility, various radio systems were developed for
transmission between mobile stations on ships and automobiles in the mid-20th century. Hand-
held mobile phones were introduced for personal service starting in 1973. In later decades, their
analog cellular system evolved into digital networks with greater capability and lower cost.

Convergence has given most modern cell phones capabilities far beyond simple voice
conversation. Most are smartphones, integrating all mobile communication and many computing
needs.

Contents
 1 Basic principles
 2 Details of operation
 3 Early history
o 3.1 Timeline of early development
 4 Early commercial instruments
 5 Digital telephones and voice over IP
 6 Mobile phone usage
 7 See also
 8 References
 9 Further reading
 10 External links

Basic principles
Schematic of a landline telephone installation

A traditional landline telephone system, also known as plain old telephone service (POTS),
commonly carries both control and audio signals on the same twisted pair (C in diagram) of
insulated wires, the telephone line. The control and signaling equipment consists of three
components, the ringer, the hookswitch, and a dial. The ringer, or beeper, light or other device
(A7), alerts the user to incoming calls. The hookswitch signals to the central office that the user
has picked up the handset to either answer a call or initiate a call. A dial, if present, is used by the
subscriber to transmit a telephone number to the central office when initiating a call (A5). Until
the 1960s dials used almost exclusively the rotary technology, which was replaced by dual-tone
multi-frequency signaling (DTMF) with pushbutton telephones.

A major expense of wire-line telephone service is the outside wire plant. Telephones transmit
both the incoming and outgoing speech signals on a single pair of wires. A twisted pair line
rejects electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk better than a single wire or an untwisted
pair. The strong outgoing speech signal from the microphone (transmitter) does not overpower
the weaker incoming speaker (receiver) signal with sidetone because a hybrid coil (A3) and other
components compensate the imbalance. The junction box (B) arrests lightning (B2) and adjusts
the line's resistance (B1) to maximize the signal power for the line length. Telephones have
similar adjustments for inside line lengths (A8). The line voltages are negative compared to
earth, to reduce galvanic corrosion. Negative voltage attracts positive metal ions toward the
wires.

Details of operation
Further information: Telephone call

The landline telephone contains a switchhook (A4) and an alerting device, usually a ringer (A7),
that remains connected to the phone line whenever the phone is "on hook" (i.e. the switch (A4) is
open), and other components which are connected when the phone is "off hook". The off-hook
components include a transmitter (microphone, A2), a receiver (speaker, A1), and other circuits
for dialing, filtering (A3), and amplification.

To place a telephone call, the calling party picks up the telephone's handset, thereby operating a
lever which closes the hook switch (A4). This powers the telephone by connecting the
transmission hybrid transformer, as well as the transmitter (microphone) and receiver (speaker)
to the line. In this off-hook state, the telephone circuitry has a low resistance of typically less
than 300 ohms, which causes the flow of direct current (DC) in the line (C) from the telephone
exchange. The exchange detects this current, attaches a digit receiver circuit to the line, and
sends dial tone to indicate its readiness. On a modern push-button telephone, the caller then
presses the number keys to send the telephone number of the destination, the called party. The
keys control a tone generator circuit (not shown) that sends DTMF tones to the exchange. A
rotary-dial telephone uses pulse dialing (A5), sending electrical pulses, that the exchange counts
to decode each digit of the telephone number. If the called party's line is available, the
terminating exchange applies an intermittent alternating current (AC) ringing signal of 40 to 90
volts to alert the called party of the incoming call. If the called party's line is in use, however, the
exchange returns a busy signal to the calling party. If the called party's line is in use but
subscribes to call waiting service, the exchange sends an intermittent audible tone to the called
party to indicate another call.

The electromechanical ringer of a telephone (A7) is connected to the line through a capacitor
(A6), which blocks direct current and passes the alternating current of the ringing power. The
telephone draws no current when it is on hook, while a DC voltage is continually applied to the
line. Exchange circuitry (D2) can send an alternating current down the line to activate the ringer
and announce an incoming call. In manual service exchange areas, before dial service was
installed, telephones had hand-cranked magneto generators to generate a ringing voltage back to
the exchange or any other telephone on the same line. When a landline telephone is inactive (on
hook), the circuitry at the telephone exchange detects the absence of direct current to indicate
that the line is not in use.[4] When a party initiates a call to this line, the exchange sends the
ringing signal. When the called party picks up the handset, they actuate a double-circuit
switchhook (not shown) which may simultaneously disconnect the alerting device and connect
the audio circuitry to the line. This, in turn, draws direct current through the line, confirming that
the called phone is now active. The exchange circuitry turns off the ring signal, and both
telephones are now active and connected through the exchange. The parties may now converse
as long as both phones remain off hook. When a party hangs up, placing the handset back on the
cradle or hook, direct current ceases in that line, signaling the exchange to disconnect the call.

Calls to parties beyond the local exchange are carried over trunk lines which establish
connections between exchanges. In modern telephone networks, fiber-optic cable and digital
technology are often employed in such connections. Satellite technology may be used for
communication over very long distances.

In most landline telephones, the transmitter and receiver (microphone and speaker) are located in
the handset, although in a speakerphone these components may be located in the base or in a
separate enclosure. Powered by the line, the microphone (A2) produces a modulated electric
current which varies its frequency and amplitude in response to the sound waves arriving at its
diaphragm. The resulting current is transmitted along the telephone line to the local exchange
then on to the other phone (via the local exchange or via a larger network), where it passes
through the coil of the receiver (A3). The varying current in the coil produces a corresponding
movement of the receiver's diaphragm, reproducing the original sound waves present at the
transmitter.
Along with the microphone and speaker, additional circuitry is incorporated to prevent the
incoming speaker signal and the outgoing microphone signal from interfering with each other.
This is accomplished through a hybrid coil (A3). The incoming audio signal passes through a
resistor (A8) and the primary winding of the coil (A3) which passes it to the speaker (A1). Since
the current path A8 – A3 has a far lower impedance than the microphone (A2), virtually all of
the incoming signal passes through it and bypasses the microphone.

At the same time the DC voltage across the line causes a DC current which is split between the
resistor-coil (A8-A3) branch and the microphone-coil (A2-A3) branch. The DC current through
the resistor-coil branch has no effect on the incoming audio signal. But the DC current passing
through the microphone is turned into AC (in response to voice sounds) which then passes
through only the upper branch of the coil's (A3) primary winding, which has far fewer turns than
the lower primary winding. This causes a small portion of the microphone output to be fed back
to the speaker, while the rest of the AC goes out through the phone line.

A lineman's handset is a telephone designed for testing the telephone network, and may be
attached directly to aerial lines and other infrastructure components.

Early history
Main article: History of the telephone
Further information: Invention of the telephone and Elisha Gray and Alexander Bell telephone
controversy

Alexander Graham Bell's Telephone Patent Drawing

Replica of the telettrofono, invented by Antonio Meucci and credited by several sources as the
first telephone.[5]

Bell placing the first New York to Chicago telephone call in 1892

Before the development of the electric telephone, the term "telephone" was applied to other
inventions, and not all early researchers of the electrical device called it "telephone". Perhaps the
earliest use of the word for a communications system was the telephon created by Gottfried Huth
in 1796. Huth proposed an alternative to the optical telegraph of Claude Chappe in which the
operators in the signalling towers would shout to each other by means of what he called
"speaking tubes", but would now be called giant megaphones.[6] A communication device for
sailing vessels called a "telephone" was invented by the captain John Taylor in 1844. This
instrument used four air horns to communicate with vessels in foggy weather.[7][8]

Johann Philipp Reis used the term in reference to his invention, commonly known as the Reis
telephone, in c. 1860. His device appears to be the first device based on conversion of sound into
electrical impulses. The term telephone was adopted into the vocabulary of many languages. It is
derived from the Greek: τῆλε, tēle, "far" and φωνή, phōnē, "voice", together meaning "distant
voice".

Credit for the invention of the electric telephone is frequently disputed. As with other influential
inventions such as radio, television, the light bulb, and the computer, several inventors pioneered
experimental work on voice transmission over a wire and improved on each other's ideas. New
controversies over the issue still arise from time to time. Charles Bourseul, Antonio Meucci,
Johann Philipp Reis, Alexander Graham Bell, and Elisha Gray, amongst others, have all been
credited with the invention of the telephone.[9][4]

Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be awarded a patent for the electric telephone by the
United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in March 1876.[10] Before Bell's patent, the
telephone transmitted sound in a way that was similar to the telegraph. This method used
vibrations and circuits to send electrical pulses, but was missing key features. Bell found that this
method produced a sound through intermittent currents, but in order for the telephone to work a
fluctuating current reproduced sounds the best. The fluctuating currents became the basis for the
working telephone, creating Bell's patent.[11] That first patent by Bell was the master patent of the
telephone, from which other patents for electric telephone devices and features flowed.[12] The
Bell patents were forensically victorious and commercially decisive.

In 1876, shortly after Bell's patent application, Hungarian engineer Tivadar Puskás proposed the
telephone switch, which allowed for the formation of telephone exchanges, and eventually
networks.[13]

In the United Kingdom the blower is used as a slang term for a telephone. The term came from
navy slang for a speaking tube.[14] In the U.S., a somewhat dated slang term refers to the
telephone as "the horn," as in "I couldn't get him on the horn," or "I'll be off the horn in a
moment."[15]

Timeline of early development

Main article: Timeline of the telephone

Reis's telephone

Bell's first telephone transmitter, ca. 1876, reenacted 50 years later

Acoustic telephone ad, The Consolidated Telephone Co., Jersey City, New Jersey, 1886

1896 telephone from Sweden

Wooden wall telephone with a hand-cranked magneto generator

 1844: Innocenzo Manzetti first mooted the idea of a "speaking telegraph" or telephone.
Use of the "speaking telegraph" and "sound telegraph" monikers would eventually be
replaced by the newer, distinct name, "telephone".
 26 August 1854: Charles Bourseul published an article in the magazine L'Illustration
(Paris): "Transmission électrique de la parole" (electric transmission of speech),
describing a "make-and-break" type telephone transmitter later created by Johann Reis.
 26 October 1861: Johann Philipp Reis (1834–1874) publicly demonstrated the Reis
telephone before the Physical Society of Frankfurt.[4] Reis's telephone was not limited to
musical sounds. Reis also used his telephone to transmit the phrase "Das Pferd frisst
keinen Gurkensalat" ("The horse does not eat cucumber salad").
 22 August 1865, La Feuille d'Aoste reported "It is rumored that English technicians to
whom Mr. Manzetti illustrated his method for transmitting spoken words on the telegraph
wire intend to apply said invention in England on several private telegraph lines".
However telephones would not be demonstrated there until 1876, with a set of telephones
from Bell.
 28 December 1871: Antonio Meucci files patent caveat No. 3335 in the U.S. Patent
Office titled "Sound Telegraph", describing communication of voice between two people
by wire. A 'patent caveat' was not an invention patent award, but only an unverified
notice filed by an individual that he or she intends to file a regular patent application in
the future.
 1874: Meucci, after having renewed the caveat for two years does not renew it again, and
the caveat lapses.
 6 April 1875: Bell's U.S. Patent 161,739 "Transmitters and Receivers for Electric
Telegraphs" is granted. This uses multiple vibrating steel reeds in make-break circuits.
 11 February 1876: Elisha Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with a telephone but
does not build one.
 14 February 1876: Gray files a patent caveat for transmitting the human voice through a
telegraphic circuit.
 14 February 1876: Alexander Graham Bell applies for the patent "Improvements in
Telegraphy", for electromagnetic telephones using what is now called amplitude
modulation (oscillating current and voltage) but which he referred to as "undulating
current".
 19 February 1876: Gray is notified by the U.S. Patent Office of an interference between
his caveat and Bell's patent application. Gray decides to abandon his caveat.
 7 March 1876: Bell's U.S. patent 174,465 "Improvement in Telegraphy" is granted,
covering "the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds
telegraphically…by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the
air accompanying the said vocal or other sound."
 10 March 1876: The first successful telephone transmission of clear speech using a liquid
transmitter when Bell spoke into his device, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you."
and Watson heard each word distinctly.
 30 January 1877: Bell's U.S. patent 186,787 is granted for an electromagnetic telephone
using permanent magnets, iron diaphragms, and a call bell.
  27 April 1877: Edison files for a patent on a carbon (graphite) transmitter. The patent
474,230 was granted 3 May 1892, after a 15-year delay because of litigation. Edison was
granted patent 222,390 for a carbon granules transmitter in 1879.

Early commercial instruments

Early telephones were technically diverse. Some used a water microphone, some had a metal
diaphragm that induced current in an electromagnet wound around a permanent magnet, and
some were dynamic – their diaphragm vibrated a coil of wire in the field of a permanent magnet
or the coil vibrated the diaphragm. The sound-powered dynamic variants survived in small
numbers through the 20th century in military and maritime applications, where its ability to
create its own electrical power was crucial. Most, however, used the Edison/Berliner carbon
transmitter, which was much louder than the other kinds, even though it required an induction
coil which was an impedance matching transformer to make it compatible with the impedance of
the line. The Edison patents kept the Bell monopoly viable into the 20th century, by which time
the network was more important than the instrument.

Early telephones were locally powered, using either a dynamic transmitter or by the powering of
a transmitter with a local battery. One of the jobs of outside plant personnel was to visit each
telephone periodically to inspect the battery. During the 20th century, telephones powered from
the telephone exchange over the same wires that carried the voice signals became common.

Early telephones used a single wire for the subscriber's line, with ground return used to complete
the circuit (as used in telegraphs). The earliest dynamic telephones also had only one port
opening for sound, with the user alternately listening and speaking (or rather, shouting) into the
same hole. Sometimes the instruments were operated in pairs at each end, making conversation
more convenient but also more expensive.

At first, the benefits of a telephone exchange were not exploited. Instead telephones were leased
in pairs to a subscriber, who had to arrange for a telegraph contractor to construct a line between
them, for example between a home and a shop. Users who wanted the ability to speak to several
different locations would need to obtain and set up three or four pairs of telephones. Western
Union, already using telegraph exchanges, quickly extended the principle to its telephones in
New York City and San Francisco, and Bell was not slow in appreciating the potential.

Signalling began in an appropriately primitive manner. The user alerted the other end, or the
exchange operator, by whistling into the transmitter. Exchange operation soon resulted in
telephones being equipped with a bell in a ringer box, first operated over a second wire, and later
over the same wire, but with a condenser (capacitor) in series with the bell coil to allow the AC
ringer signal through while still blocking DC (keeping the phone "on hook"). Telephones
connected to the earliest Strowger switch automatic exchanges had seven wires, one for the knife
switch, one for each telegraph key, one for the bell, one for the push-button and two for
speaking. Large wall telephones in the early 20th century usually incorporated the bell, and
separate bell boxes for desk phones dwindled away in the middle of the century.
Rural and other telephones that were not on a common battery exchange had a magneto hand-
cranked generator to produce a high voltage alternating signal to ring the bells of other
telephones on the line and to alert the operator. Some local farming communities that were not
connected to the main networks set up barbed wire telephone lines that exploited the existing
system of field fences to transmit the signal.

In the 1890s a new smaller style of telephone was introduced, packaged in three parts. The
transmitter stood on a stand, known as a "candlestick" for its shape. When not in use, the receiver
hung on a hook with a switch in it, known as a "switchhook". Previous telephones required the
user to operate a separate switch to connect either the voice or the bell. With the new kind, the
user was less likely to leave the phone "off the hook". In phones connected to magneto
exchanges, the bell, induction coil, battery and magneto were in a separate bell box or "ringer
box".[16] In phones connected to common battery exchanges, the ringer box was installed under a
desk, or other out-of-the-way place, since it did not need a battery or magneto.

Cradle designs were also used at this time, having a handle with the receiver and transmitter
attached, now called a handset, separate from the cradle base that housed the magneto crank and
other parts. They were larger than the "candlestick" and more popular.

Disadvantages of single-wire operation such as crosstalk and hum from nearby AC power wires
had already led to the use of twisted pairs and, for long-distance telephones, four-wire circuits.
Users at the beginning of the 20th century did not place long-distance calls from their own
telephones but made an appointment to use a special soundproofed long-distance telephone
booth furnished with the latest technology.

What turned out to be the most popular and longest-lasting physical style of telephone was
introduced in the early 20th century, including Bell's 202-type desk set. A carbon granule
transmitter and electromagnetic receiver were united in a single molded plastic handle, which
when not in use sat in a cradle in the base unit. The circuit diagram of the model 202 shows the
direct connection of the transmitter to the line, while the receiver was induction coupled. In local
battery configurations, when the local loop was too long to provide sufficient current from the
exchange, the transmitter was powered by a local battery and inductively coupled, while the
receiver was included in the local loop.[17] The coupling transformer and the ringer were mounted
in a separate enclosure, called the subscriber set. The dial switch in the base interrupted the line
current by repeatedly but very briefly disconnecting the line 1 to 10 times for each digit, and the
hook switch (in the center of the circuit diagram) disconnected the line and the transmitter
battery while the handset was on the cradle.

In the 1930s, telephone sets were developed that combined the bell and induction coil with the
desk set, obviating a separate ringer box. The rotary dial becoming commonplace in the 1930s in
many areas enabled customer-dialed service, but some magneto systems remained even into the
1960s. After World War II, the telephone networks saw rapid expansion and more efficient
telephone sets, such as the model 500 telephone in the United States, were developed that
permitted larger local networks centered around central offices. A breakthrough new technology
was the introduction of Touch-Tone signaling using push-button telephones by American
Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T) in 1963.


Ericsson DBH 1001 (ca. 1931), the first combined telephone made with a Bakelite
housing and handset.

Telephone used by American soldiers (WWII, Minalin, Pampanga, Philippines)

 Play media

Video shows the operation of an Ericofon


 Modern sound-powered emergency telephone

One type of mobile phone, called a cell phone

Digital telephones and voice over IP

Main articles: Digital telephony and Voice over IP

An IP desktop telephone attached to a computer network, with touch-tone dialing

Fixed telephone lines per 100 inhabitants 1997–2007

The invention of the transistor in 1947 dramatically changed the technology used in telephone
systems and in the long-distance transmission networks, over the next several decades. With the
development of stored program control and MOS integrated circuits for electronic switching
systems, and new transmission technologies such as pulse-code modulation (PCM), telephony
gradually evolved towards digital telephony, which improved the capacity, quality, and cost of
the network.[18]

The development of digital data communications methods made it possible to digitize voice and
transmit it as real-time data across computer networks and the Internet, giving rise to the field of
Internet Protocol (IP) telephony, also known as voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), a term that
reflects the methodology memorably. VoIP has proven to be a disruptive technology that is
rapidly replacing traditional telephone network infrastructure.

By January 2005, up to 10% of telephone subscribers in Japan and South Korea had switched to
this digital telephone service. A January 2005 Newsweek article suggested that Internet
telephony may be "the next big thing."[19] The technology has spawned a new industry
comprising many VoIP companies that offer services to consumers and businesses. The reported
global VoIP market in October 2021 was $85.2 billion with a projection of $102.5 billion by
2026.[20]

IP telephony uses high-bandwidth Internet connections and specialized customer premises

equipment to transmit telephone calls via the Internet, or any modern private data network. The
customer equipment may be an analog telephone adapter (ATA) which translates the signals of a
conventional analog telephone to packet-switched IP messages. IP Phones have these function
combined in standalone device, and computer softphone applications use microphone and
headset devices of a personal computer.

While traditional analog telephones are typically powered from the central office through the
telephone line, digital telephones require a local power supply. Internet-based digital service also
requires special provisions to provide the service location to the emergency services when an
emergency telephone number is called.

Mobile phone usage

In 2002, only 10% of the world's population used mobile phones and by 2005 that percentage
had risen to 46%.[21] By the end of 2009, there were a total of nearly 6 billion mobile and fixed-
line telephone subscribers worldwide. This included 1.26 billion fixed-line subscribers and 4.6
billion mobile subscribers.[22]

See also

 Telephones portal

 Bell System
 Bell Telephone Memorial
 Cordless telephone
  Harvard sentences
 Index of telephone-related articles
 Jipp curve
 List of telephone operating companies
 Party line (telephony)
 Phone hacking
 Satellite phone
 Spamming
 Telephone keypad
 Telephone jack and plug
 Telephone tapping
 Tip and ring
 Videophone

References
1.

 "Etymology of the word "phone"".

  "Who Is Credited With Inventing the Telephone". Library of Congress.
  "United States Coast Guard Sound-Powered Telephone Talkers Manual, 1979, p. 1"
(PDF).
  Kempe, Harry Robert; Garcke, Emile (1911). "Telephone"  . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 547–57.
  Carroll, Rory (June 17, 2002). "Bell did not invent telephone, US rules" – via
www.theguardian.com.
  Holzmann, Gerard J.; Pehrson, Björn, The Early History of Data Networks, pp. 90-91,
Wiley, 1995 ISBN 0818667826.
  The Year-book of Facts in Science and Art. Simpkin, Marshall, and Company. July 6,
1845. p.  55 – via Internet Archive.
  "The Telephone and Telephone Exchanges" by J. E. Kingsbury published in 1915.
  Coe, Lewis (1995). The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History. Jefferson, NC:
McFarland & Company, Inc. p. 5. ISBN  978-0-7864-2609-6.
  Brown, Travis (1994). Historical first patents: the first United States patent for many
everyday things (illustrated  ed.). University of Michigan: Scarecrow Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-
8108-2898-8.
  Beauchamp, Christopher (2010). "Who Invented the Telephone?: Lawyers, Patents, and
the Judgments of History". Technology and Culture. 39: 858–859 – via Project MUSE.
  US 174465 Alexander Graham Bell: "Improvement in Telegraphy" filed on February 14,
1876, granted on March 7, 1876.
  "Puskás, Tivadar". Omikk.bme.hu. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
  Rick Jolly (2018). Jackspeak: A guide to British Naval slang & usage. p. 46.
ISBN 9781472834140.
  "on the horn". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  "Ringer Boxes". Telephonymuseum.com. Archived from the original on 2001-10-12.
Retrieved 2010-05-23.
  Circuit Diagram, Model 102, Porticus Telephone website.
  Allstot, David J. (2016). "Switched Capacitor Filters". In Maloberti, Franco; Davies,
Anthony C. (eds.). A Short History of Circuits and Systems: From Green, Mobile, Pervasive
Networking to Big Data Computing (PDF). IEEE Circuits and Systems Society. pp. 105–110.
ISBN 9788793609860.
  Sheridan, Barrett. "Newsweek – National News, World News, Health, Technology,
Entertainment and more..." MSNBC. Archived from the original on January 18, 2005. Retrieved
2010-05-23.
  "Global VoIP Services Market 2021-2026". Research and Markets. October 2021.
  "Are Cell Phones Ruining Our Social Skills? – SiOWfa15: Science in Our World:
Certainty and Controversy". sites.psu.edu.

22.  Next-Generation Networks Set to Transform Communications, International

Telecommunications Union website, 4 September 2007. Retrieved 5 July 2009.

Further reading
 Brooks, John (1976). Telephone: The first hundred years. HarperCollins.
 Bruce, Robert V. (1990). Bell: Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude.
Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9691-2.
 Casson, Herbert Newton. (1910) The history of the telephone online.
 Coe, Lewis (1995). The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History. Jefferson, NC:
McFarland & Co.
 Evenson, A. Edward (2000). The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray
– Alexander Bell Controversy. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co.
 Fischer, Claude S. (1994) America calling: A social history of the telephone to 1940
(Univ of California Press, 1994)
 Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). The Worldwide History of Telecommunications Hoboken:
NJ: Wiley-IEEE Press.
 John, Richard R. (2010). Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
 MacDougall, Robert. The People's Network: The Political Economy of the Telephone in
the Gilded Age. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
 Mueller, Milton. (1993) "Universal service in telephone history: A reconstruction."
Telecommunications Policy 17.5 (1993): 352–69.
 Todd, Kenneth P. (1998), A Capsule History of the Bell System. American Telephone &
Telegraph Company (AT&T).

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Telephone.

 Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Telephone service for travel.

Look up telephone or cordless telephone in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

 Early U.S. Telephone Industry Data

 "Telephone"  . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
 Kempe, Harry Robert; Garcke, Emile (1911). "Telephone"  . Encyclopædia Britannica.
26 (11th ed.). pp. 547–557.
 Virtual museum of early telephones
 The Telephone, 1877
 The short film "Now You're Talking (1927)" is available for free download at the Internet
Archive.
 The short film "Communication (1928)" is available for free download at the Internet
Archive.
 The short film "Telephone Memories (Reel 1 of 2) (1931)" is available for free download
at the Internet Archive.
 The short film "Telephone Memories (Reel 2 of 2) (1931)" is available for free download
at the Internet Archive.
 The short film "Far Speaking (ca. 1935)" is available for free download at the Internet
Archive.
 "US 174,465". pdfpiw.uspto.gov.—Telegraphy (Bell's first telephone patent)—Alexander
Graham Bell
 US 186,787—Electric Telegraphy (permanent magnet receiver)—Alexander Graham
Bell
 US 474,230—Speaking Telegraph (graphite transmitter)—Thomas Edison
 US 203,016—Speaking Telephone (carbon button transmitter)—Thomas Edison
 US 222,390—Carbon Telephone (carbon granules transmitter)—Thomas Edison
 US 485,311—Telephone (solid back carbon transmitter)—Anthony C. White (Bell
engineer) This design was used until 1925 and installed phones were used until the
1940s.
 US 3,449,750—Duplex Radio Communication and Signalling Apparatus—G. H.
Sweigert
 US 3,663,762—Cellular Mobile Communication System—Amos Edward Joel (Bell Labs)
 US 3,906,166—Radio Telephone System (DynaTAC cell phone)—Martin Cooper et al.
(Motorola)
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Telecommunications
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