Review of Heat Transfer

熱傳回顧
Reference:
1 Incropera, DeWitt,
1. i Bergmann, andd Lavine,i Fundamentals
d l off Heat andd Mass
Transfer, 6th Ed., 2007.
2. Çengel, Y.A., Heat Transfer, 2nd Ed., 2003

Three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation

Conduction Mechanisms in Different Phases

Source: Y
Y.A.
A Cengel
Thermal Conductivities of Various Materials

Under room temp.

Source: Y.A. Cengel

Temperature Effect on the Thermal Conductivities of
Various Materials

Source: Y.A. Cengel

Thermal Conductivities of Some Materials

Source: Y.A. Cengel

The Heat Diffusion Equation of Conduction
In Cartesian coordinates:
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⎜k ⎟+ ⎜k ⎟+ ⎜k ⎟ + q& = ρ c p
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ∂t
If k =constant,
=constant
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q& 1 ∂T
+ 2 + 2 + =
∂x 2
∂x ∂x k α ∂t
If steady-state,
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
⎜k ⎟+ ⎜k ⎟+ ⎜k ⎟ + q& = 0
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠
If one-dimensional with no energy generation,
d ⎛ dT ⎞
⎜k ⎟=0
dx ⎝ dx ⎠
Under steady-state, 1-D conditions with no energy generation,
dqx′′ dx = 0
Steady-State,
Steady State, 1-D
1 D Conduction with No Heat Source
T(x) = C1x + C2

where C1 and C2 are to be determined by boundary conditions.

.
Thermal Resistance
Withh the
Wi h analogy
l between
b the
h diffusion
diff i off heat
h andd electrical
l i l charge,
h
the thermal resistance for conduction is
Ts,1 − Ts,2 L
Rt ,cond = qx = k
kA
Similar for convection

Ts − T∞ 1
Rt ,conv = q = hA

I Fig.
In Fi 3.1,
3 1 the
th total
t t l thermal
th l resistance,
it Rtot , is
i

Rtot = h1A + kA
L + 1
h2 A
1
The Composite Wall (Fig. 3.2; Fig. 3.3)
R = ∑ R = ΔT = 1
tot t q UA
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, defined by analogy
to Newton's law of cooling as
qx ≡ UAΔ T
Examples of The Composite Wall
R1= 0.5oC/W, R2 = 1.0oC/W

Series composite wall Parallel composite wall

=0 5+1 0=1 5 oC/W
R=R1+R2=0.5+1.0=1.5 R = 1/(1/R1+1/R2) =1/3 oC/W

0 25 oC/W
If R1 is halved to become 0.25

→R=R1+R2=0.25+1.0=1.25 oC/W R = 1/(1/R

( 1+1/R2) = 1/5 oC/W
If R2 is halved to become 0.5 oC/W

→R=R1+R2=0.5+0.5=1.0 oC/W R = 1/(1/R1+1/R2) = 1/4 oC/W

The more efficient way is to: improve the largest R in

series but improve the smallest R in parallel.
The Problem of Convection
Determination of heat convection coefficients (local h and average h )
is viewed as the problem of convection.
However the problem is not a simple one,
However, one as
h or h = f (fluid properties, surface geometry, flow conditions)
↑ i.e., ρ , μ , k f , c p , f
Once h or h is known, then
Local Convection
q ′′ = h(Ts − T∞ )
Global Convection
q = hA(Ts − T∞ )
Nusselt No.—Dimensionless heat transfer coeff.
hx x hL
Nu x ≡ , NuL ≡
k k
In general, Nu x = CRexm Pr n or Nu L = CReLm Pr n
Representative Ranges of Convection Thermal Resistance
h (W/m2K) Areal Rth,conv (Kcm2/W)
___________________________________________________________________
Natural Convection
Air 2~25 5,000~400
Oils 20~200 500~50
Water 100~1,000 100~10
Forced Convection
Air 20~200 5,000~500
Oils 200~2,000 500~50
Water 1,000~10,000 10~1
Mi
Microchannel
h lCCooling
li 40 000
40,000 0 25
0.25
Impinging Jet Cooling 2,400~49,300 4.1~0.20
H t Pipe
Heat Pi 0 049*
0.049*
_________________________________________________________________________
* based on THERMACORE 5 mm heat pipe having capacity of 20W with ΔT=5K.
ΔT=5K
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Critical
C iti l R
Reynolds
ld no. where
h transition
t iti from
f laminar
l i boundary
b d layer
l
to turbulent occurs:

ρ u∞ xc
Re x,c = = 5 ×105
μ
2-D Governing Equations for Heat Convection
„ Continuity equation:
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
„ momentum eq
eq. (incompressible):
xx-dir.
dir. ⎛ ∂u ∂u ∂u ⎞ ∂p ⎛ ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ⎞
ρ⎜ +u +v ⎟ = − +μ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟+ X
⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂y ⎠ ∂x ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠

y-dir. ⎛ ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎞ ∂p ⎛ ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ⎞
ρ ⎜ +u + v ⎟ = − + μ ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟+Y
⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂y ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
„ energy equation:
ti
usually negligible
2
⎛ ∂T ∂T ∂T ⎞ ⎛ ∂ T ∂ T ⎞ ν ⎛ ∂u ⎞
2 2
ρcp ⎜ + u + v ⎟ = k ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ c p ⎝ ∂y ⎠
energy transport heat transport thru
thru convection conduction
Boundary Layer Equations for Heat Convection
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 1 dp∞ ∂ 2u
u +v =− +ν 2
∂x ∂y ρ dx ∂y
∂T ∂T ∂ 2T
u +v =α 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
energy transport heat transport thru
h h
thru convection conduction

In non-dimensional forms,
∂ u * ∂v *
+ =0
∂ x * ∂y *
∂u * ∂u * dp * 1 ∂ 2
u*
u* + v* =− + Re
∂x * ∂y * dx * R L ∂ y *2
∂T * ∂T * 1 ∂ 2
T*
u* + v* = Re Pr
∂x * ∂y * L ∂ y *2
Functional Form of the Solutions
From the non-dimensional momentum equation
⎛ dp * ⎞
u* = f ⎜ x*, y*, ReL , ⎟,
⎝ dx * ⎠
where dp*/dx* depends on the surface geometry.
For a prescribed geometry, the shear stress and the friction
coefficient at the surface are
∂u ⎛ μV ⎞ ∂ u *
τs = μ =⎜ ⎟
∂y y=0 ⎝ L ⎠ ∂y * y*= 0
τs 2 ∂u * 2
Cf = = Re = f ( x*, ReL )
ρV / 2
2
L ∂y *
y* =0 ReL
From the non-dimensional energy
gy equation
q
⎛ dp * ⎞
T * = f ⎜ x*, y*, ReL , Pr , ⎟
⎝ dx * ⎠
k f (T∞ − Ts ) ∂ T * k f ∂T *
h = − L (T − T ) =+ L
s ∞ ∂ y * y*=0 ∂y * y*=0
Nusselt number can be defined as
hL ∂T *
Nu ≡ =+
kf ∂y * yy*=0

For a prescribed geometry,

Nu = f ( x*,
* ReL , Pr )
The spatially average Nusselt number is then
hL
Nu = = f (ReL , Pr )
kf
Forced Convection over a Flat Plate
• Constant-Temperature
C T Plate
Pl
Local laminar convection (analytic solution)
hx x
Nu x ≡ = 0.332 Re1/x 2 Pr1/ 3 Pr ≥ 0.6
k
Local turbulent convection
Nu x = St Rex Pr = 0.0296 Rex4 / 5 Pr1/ 3 , 0.6 < Pr < 60

• Constant-Heat-Flux Plate
Local laminar convection (analytic solution)
hx x
Nu x ≡ = 0.453Re1/x 2 Pr1/ 3 Pr ≥ 0.6
k
Local turbulent convection
Nu x = St Rex Pr = 0.0308
0 0308Rex4 / 5 Pr1/ 3 , 6 < Pr < 60
00.6
Global convection of a mixed boundary layer
hL = ∫
L 0(
1 xc L
hlam dx + ∫ hturb dx
xc )
→ Nu L = (0.037 ReL4 / 5 − A) Pr1/ 3 , A = 0.037 Rex4,/c5 − 0.664 Re1/x ,c2
Average plate temperature with constant heat flux
1 L qs" L x qs" L
(Ts − T∞ ) = ∫ (Ts − T∞ )dx = ∫ dx =
L 0 L 0 kNu x k Nu L
where Nu L can be relevant correlations for constant-temperature plates.

Limitations on Use of Convection Coefficients

Errors as large as 25% may be incurred by using the expressions due
to varying free stream turbulence and surface roughness.
Boundary Layer Flow over a Flat Plate
Global Nu (h) and Cf (τs)
hL C f = 1.328 / Re1/L 2
Laminar NuL ≡ = 0.664 Re1/L 2 Pr1/ 3
k
hL
Turbulent NuL ≡ = 0.037
0 037 ReL4 / 5 Pr1/ 3 C f = 0.074
0 074 / Re1/L 5
k
2 Chilton-Colburn analogy:
ρV
τs = Cf Cf Nu
2 = 1/ 3
, 0.6 < Pr < 60
2 RePr

V Laminar Turbulent
1 h=1 ΔP = 1 h=1 ΔP = 1
2 1.414 2.828 1.741 3.480
3 1.732 5.196 2.408 7.225
‹Increasing
‹I i flow
fl velocity
l i would ld increase
i both
b h heat
h transfer
f andd drag,
d
with a stronger effect for drag.
Internal Flow Conditions
ρ um D Re D,c ≈ 2300
Re D ≡
μ
where um is the mean fluid velocity over the tube cross section
section.
Entrance length
⎛ x fd,h ⎞
•For laminar flow is ⎜ D ⎟ ≈ 0.05 Re D
⎝ ⎠ lam
⎛ x fd,h ⎞
•For turbulent flow 10 ≤ ⎜ ⎟ ≤ 60
⎝ D ⎠ turb
Thermal entrance length
g
⎛ xfd,t ⎞
•For laminar flow: ⎜ D ⎟ ≈ 0. 05 Re D Pr
⎝ ⎠ lam
l

⎛ xfd,t ⎞
•For turbulent flow: ⎜ D ⎟ ≈ 10
⎝ ⎠ turb
Newton's Law of Cooling
"
qs = h(Ts − T m )
Fully Developed Conditions
The thermally fully developed condition is when the relative shape
of the profile no longer changes and is stated as
∂ ⎡ T s ( x) − T (r, x) ⎤ = 0
∂ x ⎢⎣ T s ( x)) − T m ( x)) ⎥⎦ fd,t
for cases with either a uniform
f surface
f
heat flux or a uniform surface
temperature.

∂ ⎛ Ts − T ⎞ −∂T / ∂r r = r
= = − h ≠ f ( x)
⎜ ⎟
0

∂r ⎝ Ts − Tm ⎠ r = r Ts − Tm k
0

Hence, iin the

H h thermally
h ll fully
f ll developed
d l d flowfl off a fluid
fl id with
ih
constant properties, the local convection coefficient is a constant.
Fully Developed Pipe Flow

For Pr < 1
 The Energy Balance
Generall Considerations
G C id i
Energy conservation for a
diff
differential
ti l control
t l volume
l leads
l d tot
dqconv = m& c p dTm
• Constant surface heat flux
dTm qs" P
= P h(Ts − Tm )
h
=
dx m& c p m& c p
qs" P
→ Tm ( x) = Tm ,i + x
mc
& p
• Constant surface temperature
qconv = h As ΔTlm
ΔTo − ΔTi
where ΔTlm ≡
ln( ΔTo / ΔTi )
This
hi means for constant Ts, the
h totall qconv is
i proportional
i l to h andd the
h
log mean temperature difference ΔTlm.
Fully Developed Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes
Hydraulic diameter:
4 Ac
Dh ≡ P
hDh
N =
Nu = constant
t t
k
f Re Dh = constant

−(dpp / dx) D ρ um D
R D≡
f Re
ρ um2 / 2 μ
−2(dp / dx) D 2
= =C
μ um

→ h ∝ 1/ Dh
ΔP ∝ 1/ Dh2
Heat Transfer Enhancement
To induce secondary flow or
turbulence
Heat Transfer Enhancement

„ Boundaryy layer
y regrowth
g
„ Flow transition or turbulence

Air
Flow

US patent 4817709
Heat Transfer Enhancement

Plain fin - continuous fin Interrupted surface

Performance Performance

average
average

x x
Heat Transfer Enhancement
Heat Transfer Enhancement

平板型 百葉窗型 裂口型

Natural Convection
Natural convection is due to buoyancy from density difference as a
result of temperature and/or concentration variations.
GrL1/2 plays the same role in free convection that the Re plays in
forced convection.
gβ (T s − T∞ )L ⎛ u0 L ⎞ 2 gβ (Ts − T ∞ ) L3
Gr L ≡ ⎜ ν ⎟ =
2
u0 ⎝ ⎠ ν2
In general,
NuL = f (Re L , GrL , Pr)

If (GrL / Re2L ) ≈ 1 both free & forced convection to be considered

If (GrL / Re2L ) << 1 → NuL = f (Re L , Pr) forced convection

If (GrL / Re2L ) >> 1 → NuL = f (GrL , Pr) free convection

The Effects of Turbulence
For vertical
i l plates
l the
h transition
i i occurs at
gβ (Ts − T ∞ ) x 3 9
Rax,c = Gr x,c Pr = ≈ 10
να

Empirical Correlations
E t
Externall Free
F Convection
C ti Flows
Fl
Generally,

Nu L = hkL = CRa L
n

n = 1/4, for laminar flow

n = 1/3,
1/3 for
f turbulent
t b l t flow
fl
F Kreith & MS Bohn,
Principles of Heat
Transfer, 2001
Flow Pattern
Flow Pattern
 Example of Natural Convection

exterior Cool air R=1/hA

R 1/hA R=2.0 K/W
A = 0.1m2
chassis R=t/kA h = 5W/m2K
t = 2mm
interior Hot air R=1/hA R=2.0 K/W

Chassis Material 1 k=0.2W/mK, R=0.1K/W

Chassis Material 2 k=100W/Mk, R=0.0002K/W

→R1_total=4.1K/W The chassis material is not critical when

→R
R2_total=4.0002K/W
4 0002K/W there is only natural convection.
Thermal Radiation
Black-Body Emission

For electronic
equipment,
q p ,
~300-350K
Real Surface vs Black Surface
Emissivities of Some Real Surfaces

The Kirchhoff’s Law

For a gray and diffuse surface, the
surface emissivity and absorptivity
are equal at a given T,
ε(T) = α(T).
Radiation Heat Transfer
The radiative heat transfer rate of an object in a very large
environment can be calculated with

Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67×10-8W/m2K4

Qrad = εσ As Fs-sur
s sur (T − T )
s
4 4
sur

Emissivity View Factor

(Shape Factor)
Emissivity ε
Al, Polished 0.05
Al, Anodized 0.7-0.95
Cu, Polished 0.06
C O
Cu, Oxidized
idi d 0 78
0.78
 Example of Natural Convection and Radiation
Calculate Q under natural convection
W=12cm
and radiation
Ts + T∞
= 55o C
L=18cm Ts=80℃ Tair=30℃
Tf =
2
K = 0.0277W/Mk, Pr=0.72, v=1.846×10-5 m2/s
β = 1/Tf =1/328K, ρ =1.07 kg/m3 , ε = 0.95

gβ (Ts − T∞ )L3
RaL = 2
Pr
ν

(9.81m2 /s)[1/(328K)][(80 − 30)K](0.18m)3 7 < 109, laminar

= (0.72) = 1.8 ×10
(1.846×10−5 m2 /s)2
 2
⎧ 1/ 6
0.387RaL ⎫
Nu = ⎨0.825+ 9 / 16 8 / 27 ⎬
[1 + (0.492/ Pr) ] cf. Incropera et al. (9.26)
⎩ ⎭

2
⎧ 0.387(1.846×10 ) 7 1/ 6 ⎫
= ⎨0.825+ 9 / 16 8 / 27 ⎬
= 37.1
⎩ [1 + (0.492/ 0.7) ] ⎭

Nu × k
h= = 5.7W/m2oC
L
Q = hAs (Ts − T∞ )

= (5.7W/m2oC)[(0.18m)(0.12m)](80 − 30) o C = 6.156W

Qrad = εσ A(Ts4 − Tsur4 )

−8
= 0.95 × 5.67 × 10 × (0.18 × 0.12) × (353 − 300 ) = 8.64W
4 4
IR Thermal Imager or Thermometer

‹Air invisible

‹Not for covered objects

‹For relative temperature

measurement only, y, because the surface
emissivities are different for different
materials. To obtain the precise
p
temperature, the surface emissivity is
required.