Precast Concrete Structures Second Edition PDF Compressed 600 733

Beam and column connections 561
where, for a strut not subjected to lateral compression and liable to splitting cracks as shown
in Figure 10.38,
Exp. 6.56 sRd ,max = 0.6v¢fcd = 0.6(1 - fck /250)fck /1.5 (10.44)
Continuing the above example, if fck = 40 N/mm 2 , C Rd1 = 13.44 × 250 × 120 × 0.70 ×
10−3 = 282.4 kN, almost 279.4 kN, suggesting that ae = 0.6dh is a reasonable limit for this
particular example where ae /dh = 158/200 = 0.79.
This strut must be anchored into a horizontal tie at the loaded area. The area of the hori-
zontal tie, which is in addition to that given in Equation 10.38, is
Ah = VEd cot a/0.87fyk (10.45)
The force in the tie is therefore Fh = V Ed(cotα + μ) + Ft and the stress in the bars is σs = Fh /Ah.
If the bars are welded to the bearing plate, then mild steel stress of f yk = 250 N/mm 2 is used
because of the weakening effect around the heat-affected zones when using grade E275 elec-
trodes (previously known as E43). Therefore, σs will be in the region of 200 N/mm 2 , quite
low for HT, and so the design anchorage bond length will be quite small (BS EN 1992-1-1,
clause 8.4.3) = 0.25σsΦ/f bd , typically 0.25 × 200/3.68 = 13.5Φ. Therefore, the bars have a
bond length of at least 40Φ beyond the end of the recess.
The bars are fillet welded to the plate with a weld size tw that should be at least 6 mm, but
due to the narrow crevice between the circular bar and plate, particularly with ribbed bars,
the leg length will inevitably be larger than this, typically Φ/2. The design stress for grade
E275 electrodes (see Table 2.14) is pywd = 275/1.25 = 220 N/mm 2 . The length of the weld is
lw ³ Fh /2tw pywd + 2t run outs (10.46)
At the top of the strut, point A, the force C 1 is resolved vertically to give
Asw1 = VEd /0.87fyk (10.47)
These links should be positioned within a distance 0.5d from the end of the recess.
The force C1 is resolved horizontally to give compression steel
As¢ = VEd cot a/0.87fyk (10.48)
The second diagonal strut forms at an inclination of between 22.5° and 45° according to BS
EN 1992-1-1, clause 6.2.3. In the worst situation of C 2 being less than CRd2 , the inclination
is taken as 45°, then
C2 = VEd / sin 45° (10.49)
with a limiting value of
CRd 2 = sRd ,maxb0.5d cos 45° (10.50)
The area of longitudinal steel in the bottom of the beam is
As = C2 cos 45° /0.87fyk = VEd /0.87fyk (10.51)
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562 Precast Concrete Structures
These bars should be anchored for a distance of 12 × diameter beyond the nodal point D
in Figure 10.45a. The second set of links A sw2 are designed according to the usual shear
requirements of BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 6.2.3.
The bars in the nib directly over the reaction shown as Aw in Figure 10.45b require no
design unless a diagonal crack occurs in the nib, and the compressive strut O–A is ren-
dered ineffective. This is unlikely to happen, providing the horizontal bars Abst and Ah are
in place. However, it is a common practice to provide at least 2 no. links to form Av of the
same diameter as A sw1, and the links are positioned at the start and at the end of the nib (at
cover + bursting bar bend radius, typically 30 + 3 × 8 = 54 mm) and one between (if space
permits). If the length of the recess (nib length) is quite large, say 200 + mm, then 3 no. links
would certainly be used. However, designed links are required if the gap between the first
link in the body of the beam and the centre of bearing is greater than the minimum spacing
between links 0.75dh, that is ae –lb /2>0.75dh. V Ed is resolved as a compressive strut and does
not cause direct shear stress in nib alone. V Ed is first distributed at an angle of 45° over a
depth z = 0.9dh. Using the same diameter as the main links, the number of links = z/s, then,
VEd = 0.87fywk Asw z /s (10.52)
s = 0.87fywk Asw z /VEd (10.53)
As the links are positioned in the region of nib, and as the main links at the end of the
recess take over, the total force in these links may be less than V Ed. In the above example,
ae –lb /2 = 98<150 mm, use 2 no. H8 links in the nib with the first link at 30 + say 3 × 8 mm
bursting bars = 54 mm cover. Other link at 150–8 = 142 mm, then spacing = 88 mm.
10.3.2 Deep recess

Where the depth of the recess is more than 2d/3, or where av>0.6dh, or where dh is less than
about 200 mm, the structural behaviour changes from the pattern shown in Figure 10.45a
to that shown in Figure 10.46a. Here, 50% of the end reaction V Ed is transferred to the body
of the beam using a diagonal tie B–C, inclined at θ to the vertical, whilst the remainder is
carried through the inclined strut. Remember that lateral bursting steel Abst and horizontal
tie steel Ah is still present.
The area of diagonal bars Ad is
Ad = 0.5VEd / cos q 0.87fyk (10.54)
where θ is usually 40° to 45°.

These bars must be fully anchored in both the top and bottom of the beam as shown in
Figure 10.46b. The bend at the top is usually 135°, and so the bending radius, Equation
10.55, must be strictly obeyed because the force in the bar must continue around the top
bend. The diagonal bar must also continue for a full anchorage length from the root of the
recess. A small triangular chamfer, say 25 × 25 mm, is often used to reduce the possibility
of cracks developing at the internal corner.
According to BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 8.3(3), Exp. 8.1, the internal radius ri of a bar of
diameter Φ which extends for more than five diameters beyond the point at which it is
required to resist the full force Fbt at the start of the bend is
Exp. 8.1 ri = Fbt[(1/ab) + (1/2Φ)]/2fcd (10.55)
where ab = cover + Φ/2, or half of the centre–centre distance between bars. Cover to the end
of the beam and to the internal root of the recess should be not less than 25 mm.
The remaining 0.5V Ed is carried by the first diagonal compressive strut, assumed to be
inclined at α to the horizontal. This force is dealt with by using Equations 10.41 through
10.47, substituting 0.5V Ed for V Ed . The prime top bars A s must not be less than the
minimum percentage steel for concrete in compression, and they must be surrounded by
links up to the end of the beam in order to be fully effective. The bars should extend to
within a cover distance from the end of the beam and be lapped to the diagonal bars at
a distance equal to the design lap length for ‘poor’ compaction (BS EN 1992-1-1, clause
8.4.2 and 8.4.3 and code Fig. 8.2) at the top of a beam = 0.25 × 0.87f ykΦ/0.7f bd , typically
0.25 × 435/3.68 = 42Φ. Occasionally, the top bars are welded to the first vertical link to
provide the necessary anchorage at the end of the cage.
To complete the shear cage, the first full-depth vertical links A sw1 designed using the truss
action, shown in Figure 10.38, should be placed at one cover distance from the inner face of
the recess. The area of the links is
Asw = 0.5VEd /0.87fyk (10.56)
Note that the concrete shear stress vRd is ignored. It is likely that pairs of links are required.
The links should enclose the diagonal bars Ad, the U-bars Abst and the tie bars A h. The verti-
cal force in the links is equilibrated by a second compressive strut C 2 , inclined at 45° to the
horizontal. Equations 10.42 and 10.43 are used, again substituting 0.5V Ed for V Ed.
At the bottom of the inclined bar, the two separate actions are additive. Thus, the area
of the longitudinal bar in the bottom of the beam is given by Equation 10.44. At this same
point, the vertical resolution of the diagonal forces calls for a second set of vertical links
A sw2 positioned at the nodal distance L sb so that
Asw 2 = VEd / 0.87fyk (10.57)
Beyond L sb, the development of shear resistance is subsequently catered for by the links and
concrete according to BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 6.2, Exp. 6.8 and 6.9.
Example 10.7: Recessed beam end reinforcement

A precast rc beam is 500 mm deep × 300 mm wide. It is reinforced at its ends using H16
top and bottom bars. It is supported on steel billet inserts cast into 300 × 300 mm col-
umns. The clear span of the beam is 5.7 m. The cross section of the billet is 150 × 100 mm
wide, erected into a pocket recess of 210 mm deep × 150 mm wide. The total ultimate
uniformly distributed loading on the beam (including self-weight) is 70 kN/m. Other
details are given in Figure 10.47a. Given the following data, calculate the reinforcement
required in the end of the beam and, if necessary, a bearing plate. Assume that stability
tie forces Ft are carried elsewhere.
Use fck = 40N/mm 2 , f yk = 500 N/mm 2 , f yk = 250 N/mm 2 for welded bars, f y = 275 N/mm 2 ,
f y = 275 N/mm 2 for the plate, pywd = 220 N/mm 2 for weld. Cover to all steel = 30 mm.
The nominal gap between end of beam and column face = 20 mm. Allow an end tolerance
for factory positioning the plate = 10 mm. Bearing shims thickness = 10 mm.
Solution
Beam end reaction V Ed = 70 × 6.0/2 = 210.0 kN
Construction deviation Δa 2 = max{10;5700/1200} = 10 mm
Beam length deviation Δa3 = 5700/2500 = 2.3 mm
Maximum gap = 20 (nominal) + 12.3 = 32.3 mm, say 35 mm.
Dowel
50 mm dia. grout tube
35 gap
290
×300
500
10
150
RHS insert
50
30 cover to bolt head
Pocketed recess
300 × 300 135

(a) 35
48
Fs΄
θ
C1
217
Fsv
α Fh
µVEd
25
100 × 100 × 12 C2
plate
VEd
Fs
48
50 35 35
Assume H10 links, H16 top and

(b) bottom bars and H25 welded to plate
Figure 10.47 Detail to Example 10.7 with pocketed recess (a) general arrangement and dimensions, and
(b) diagonal strut and tie model.
Refer Figure 10.47a. Let edge distance to the grout tube = 25 mm and tube radius =
25 mm.
∴ The distance from the end of the beam to the tube centre = 50 mm.
Target distance for the centre of bearing to coincide with dowel position
a = 35gap + 50 to dowel = 85 mm. Bearing length = 2 × 50 = 100 mm.
Then, length of billet = 35 + 100 = 135 mm
Length of recess = 135 + 35 gap to billet – 35 gap to beam = 135 mm
Bearing plate
Try bp = 100 mm × length, bl = 100 mm (see later where t ≤ 12 mm)
To determine Sq
Resistance width = 100 + 2 × 100 either side = 30 mm ≤ beam width, and height to
resistance area based on 2:1 angle of spread = 200 mm < 290 mm available.
Resistance length = 100 + 0 at end of beam + 100 = 200 mm
Equation 9.13 Sq = Ö 300 ´ 200 /100 ´ 100 = 2.45 < 3
Equation 9.12 fRdu = 0.567fck Sq = 55.5 N/mm 2
Required bl ³ 210 ´ 103 /100 ´ 55.5 = 38 mm
Allow 10 mm plate fixing tolerance as given plus Δa 2 + Δa3
bl ³ 38 + 10 + 12.3 = 60.3 mm < 100 mm
Effective plate bearing length bl = 100–22.3 = 77 mm

Plate thickness
TEd = mVEd = 0.4 ´ 210 = 84.0 kN
Equation 10.39 Area of plate bl t = 84.0 ´ 103 /275 = 305 mm2 so

t ³ 305/100 = 3.1 mm
The plate is also subjected to double shear of design stress 0.6f y from the steel billet.
Equation 10.39 t ³ 210 ´ 103 /2 ´ 0.6 ´ 275 ´ 77 = 8.3 mm
Total t ≥ 3.1 + 8.3 = 11.4<12 mm preferred (if bl = 80 mm then t = 14 mm)
Use 100 × 100 × 12 plate

Shear stress at nib
d = 500 - 50 cover - 150 - 10 shims = 290 mm
Horizontal bars quick calc. A h = (cot60° + 0.4) × 210 × 103/0.87 × 250 = 943 mm 2 Assume
H25 (982)
dh = 290 - 12 plate - 25/2 bars = 265 mm
Equation 10.37 vEd = 210 ´ 103 = 300 ´ 265 = 2.64 N/mm 2 < vRd
= 0.5 ´ 0.6 ´ 0.84 ´ 40/1.5 = 6.72 N/mm 2

Compressive struts
Because the width of the recess is 150 mm, this leaves 75 mm each side to accommodate
the main flexural bars, allowing the first link past the end of the recess to be at 30 mm
cover.
ae = 100 /2 + 35 gap + 30 cover + 10 /2 link = 120 mm
dh - d¢ = 265 - (30 + 10 + 16/2) = 217 mm
a = tan -1(217/120) = 61.1° to the horizontal
Equation 10.42 C1 = 210 /0.875 = 240.0 kN
Equation 10.43 CRd1 = 13.44 ´ 300 ´ 0.6 ´ 265 ´ 0.483 ´ 10-3 = 309.8 kN > 240.0
Equation 10.44 where sRd, max = 0.6 ´ 0.84 ´ 40 /1.5 = 13.44 N/mm 2
Equation 10.49 C2 = 210 / sin 45°=

296.9 kN
d = 500 - (30 + 10 + 16/2) = 452 mm
Equation 10.50 CRd2 = 13.44 ´ 300 ´ 0.5 ´ 452 ´ 0.707 ´ 10-3 = 644.2 kN > 296.9
First and second compressive strut capacity OK

Reinforcement
Horizontal resolution and frictional tie. Use HT deformed bars welded to the plate with
mild steel stress limitation.
Equation 10.38 and 10.45 Ah = (0.4 ´ 210 + 0 + 210 cot 61.1°)/0.87kt 250 = 919 mm2
Use 2 no. H25 (982) × 100 mm length (beyond the end of the recess)
Fh = 199.9 kN and s s = 199.9 ´ 103 /982 = 203.6 N/mm 2
The length of a 6 mm double-sided fillet weld required to resist the rebar force distributed
equally between two bars is
lw = 199.9 ´ 103 /4 ´ 6 ´ 220 = 38 mm + 2 ´ 6 = 12 mm run outs = 50 mm
Use 50 mm long × 6 mm minimum size CFW grade E275 weld to the steel plate
Bursting steel loops
Equation 9.22 z = 0.25(300 - 100)/300 = 0.167 for bp /b = 100/300 = 0.3

Fbst = 0.167 ´ 210 = 35.0 kN
Equation 10.41 Abst = 35.0 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 500 = 81 mm2
Use 2 no. H8 U loops (100 across end face) × 320 mm length with the first bar 10 mm
above the welded horizontal bar
Links at the end of the recess
Equation 10.47 Asw1 = 210 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 500 = 483 mm2
Use 4 no. H10 links (628) at 75 mm spacing up to a point 0.5d = 225 mm from the end
of the recess.
Links in nib
ae - lb /2 = 120 - 50 = 70 mm < 0.75 ´ 265
Use 2 no. H8 links in the nib first link at 30 mm cover + 3 × 8 (ro for bursting bars) =
54 mm cover. Other link at 135–8 = 127 mm, then spacing = 73 mm OK
Top main steel
Equation 10.47 As¢ = 210 ´ 103 ´ cot 61.1° /0.87 ´ 500 = 115.0 ´ 103 /435 = 264 mm2
Try 2 no. H16 bars. σs = 115.9 × 103/402 = 289 N/mm 2

Code Table 8.2 α2 = 1–[0.15(30 + 10–16)/16] = 0.775, and ‘poor’ casting condition
lbd = 0.25 ´ 289 ´ 16 ´ 0.775/0.7 ´ 3.68 = 21.7F = 347 mm
Use 2 no. H16 (402) × 350 mm length (beyond the end of the recess)
Bottom main steel
Equation 10.51 As = 210 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 500 = 482 mm2
Use 3 no. H16 (603) with a full-hooked end at end of beam.
Example 10.8: Full width recessed beam end reinforcement

Repeat Example 10.7 using a beam depth of 425 mm. The end recess is full width with a
25 mm chamfer at the root of the nib.
Solution
Nib bearing length = 135 – 25 chamfer = 110 mm > 100 mm plate, therefore bearing plate
is the same as in Example 10.7.
Refer Figure 10.48a, nib depth = 425 – 210 = 215 mm and dh = 190 mm
Equation 10.37 vEd = 210 ´ 103 = 300 ´ 190 = 3.68 N/mm 2 < vRd = 6.72 N/mm 2
Compressive struts
Distance to the first link at cover 30 mm + 3 × 16 =78 mm from the end of the recess
ae = 100/2 + 35 gap + 78 + 10 /2 link = 168 mm
dh - d¢ = 190 - (30 + 10 + 16/2) = 142 mm
a = tan -1(142/168) = 40.2° to the horizontal
Using 50% reaction V Ed = 0.5 × 210 = 105.0 kN
Equation 10.42 C1 = 105/0.645 = 162.7 kN
Equation 10.43 CRd1 = 13.44 ´ 300 ´ 0.6 ´ 190 ´ 0.764 ´ 10-3 = 351.1 kN > 162.7
Compressive strut capacity OK

Reinforcement design
48
Fś
1
C
142
Fsw
α Fh
µVEd
25
2
C
0.5VEd
Fs
48
(a)
45° Fś
Fsw
F
d
0.5VEd
Fs
(b)
Figure 10.48 Detail to Example 10.8 with full width recess. (a) Compressive strut resistance model,
(b) diagonal tie model. (Continued)
2 H16 top bars 3 H8 U bars End of H12

diagonal bars
3 H8 links
2 H25 welded to plate

3 H10 stirrups
Full width recess
4 H12 diagonal
bars inside main
bars
(c) 3 H16 mainbars
Figure 10.48 (Continued) Detail to Example 10.8 with full width recess. (c) reinforcement details.
Equation 10.38 and 10.45 Ah = (0.4 ´ 210 + 105 cot 40.2°)/0.87 ´ 250
= 958 mm2 < 982 mm2 provided.

Links at the end of the recess
Equation 10.47 Asw1 = 105 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 500 = 242 mm2
Using 2 no. H10 links (314) would be adequate but the spacing would be too great, that
is first link at 78 mm and second link close to the end of the 45° diagonal bar, that is
210 mm from the end of the recess, thus spacing = 132 mm.
Use 3 no. H10 links (471) at 66 mm spacing
Links in nib
ae - lb /2 = 168 - 50 = 118 mm < 0.75 ´ 190 = 142 mm
However, as the distance to the first main link = 50 + 168 = 218 mm, and the first nib
link = 54 mm, provide three links at (218–54)/3 = 55 mm spacing.
Use 3 no. H8 links in the nib

Top main steel
Equation 10.47 A¢s = 105 ´ 103 ´ cot 40.2°/0.87 ´ 500 = 286 mm2
Use 2 no. H16 bars (402)

Diagonal bars inclined at 45°
Equation 10.54 Fd = 105.0 / sin 45° = 148.5 kN
Ad = 148.5 ´ 10 /0.87 ´ 500 = 341 mm2

3
Use even number of bars. Avoid using a bar on the centre line of the beam because of the
space needed for the grout tube to fixing dowel. Bars to fit inside of the main bars at a
spacing of (300–2 × (30 + 10 + 16)−12)/3 = 58 mm.
Use 4 no. H12 (452) at 58 mm spacing
Internal radius, Fbt per bar = 148.5/4 = 37.12 kN
ab = 30 + 10 + 12/2 = 46 mm < 58 mm spacing
Equation 10.55 ri = 37.12 ´ 103 ´ [(1/46) + (1/24)]/(2 ´ 40/1.5) = 44 mm
s s = 37.12 ´ 103 /113 = 329 N/mm 2
lbd = 0.25 ´ 329 ´ 12/3.68 = 268 mm
from root of nib, which is less than the diagonal distance to the bottom of the beam
(1.41 × 210 = 296 mm) therefore continue diagonal bar lapping 268 mm with the main
bottom bars.
Remainder of the reinforcement is given as Example 10.7.
Figure 10.48c shows the completed cage.
10.3.3 Steel shear boxes

When the ultimate shear capacity of beam end connections using reinforcing bars, particularly
in recessed ends, exceeds about, for example 300 kN/300 mm wide beam, or 400 kN for
wider beams, the prefabricated ‘shear box’, shown in Figures 10.25 and 10.44 is a preferred
option. The shear box may be formed from a solid plate, RHS or other structural steel sec-
tion projects from the end of the beam. The main advantage is in reducing the total depth of
beams, enabling the depth to be controlled by bending and/or deflection rather than shear. For
example, it is possible to design a 600 kN capacity shear box in a beam of only 500 mm depth.
The most common shear box comprises a steel RHS of size 150 × 100 × 6−200 × 100
× 10 (grade S275 steel) that has an ultimate shear capacity of 250–400 kN, respectively.
SHS typically 100 × 100 × 6 may be used for lighter loads. About 75 mm cover distance
is required to the top of the insert, and shear stirrups must pass over the top of the insert
in order to carry tensile forces to the bottom of the beam. A minimum bearing length of
60 mm is recommended. Tie back forces are distributed into the concrete beam either by
an appropriate concentration of vertical stirrups, bent bars, or by welding a wide plate (or
similar) to the bottom of the shear box. Further details of the ultimate design and load test-
ing for these and the narrow plate design are given by Elliott and Jolly (2013).
The wide box design is based on three-point bending and is therefore statically determi-
nate. The section is completely filled with concrete (either at the factory or completed on site
as in Figure 10.44) and surrounded by rc to prevent local wall buckling, etc. The concrete is
otherwise ignored up to a point near to the end of the box where the truss action takes over
as in a normal beam.
End reactions VEd are transferred to the box either directly, providing the local bearing stresses
allow, or through a flat plate welded to the bottom of the box. If the top of the box is less than
200 mm, it is restrained vertically and prevented from bursting out of the top of the beam by a
tension hanger in the form of a plate strap (500–100 mm wide × 6 mm thick) as shown in Figure
10.25. A compressive strut force must be allowed to develop above the bottom plate of the strap
acting at 45° to the horizontal. Alternatively, rebars may be welded to the sides (or bottom) of the
box and provided with a full anchorage length and correct bend radius Equation 10.55.
At the remote end of the shear box (Figure 10.49), the concrete beneath the end of the
box is not confined laterally (across width of beam) and only longitudinally by the main
bottom bars, which are often too far away to be active. This causes a dilemma in defining a
bearing stress f Rdu in BS EN 1992-1-1 as the situation does not comply with either a ‘node’
RHS
Rebar CFW to RHS
46
µVEd
69
µVEd α TEd
25
L3
d˝ = 210
VEd
r
168
100
VEd
L1=120 L4
(a) (b)
450
270
µVEd
100 × 8
d˝ straps
VEd
CL
100
L1 = 147.5 140
(c) End view
Figure 10.49 Detail to Example 10.9 (a) strut and tie model (b) general arrangement of shear box with hold-
ing down rebars (c) general arrangement of shear box with holding down strap.
or ‘partially loaded area’ (cannot use σRd,max or Sq). The most reasonable value to use is
therefore 0.85fck (comparable to 0.8fcu in BS 8110). This equates to 1.5 times 0.567fck, which
suggests some confinement contribution(s) from the surrounding reinforcement.
Taking moments about the centre of the tension strap, then referring to Figure 10.49b:
VEd = 0.85fckbpL3(L4 -0.5L3)/L1 (10.58)
The length of the box (L 4 + L1) is in the order of 500 mm for connector capacities of about
250 kN, reaching 700 mm for 400–500 kN capacity connectors depending on the concen-
tration of stirrups at the remote end of the box. Resolving vertically
VEd = TEd - 0.85fckbpL3 (10.59)
From Equation 10.58,
L3L4 - 0.5L23 = VEd L1 /p (10.60)
where p = 0.85fckbp
Differentiating, a minimum value of L 3 exists when L 3 = 0.5L 4.
Hence,
L3 = Ö (VEd L1 /1.5p) (10.61)
T Ed may be computed from Equations 10.59 and 10.61. The area of reinforcement is
As = TEd /0.87fyk for rebar (10.62)
or
As = TEd /fy for steel plate (strap) (10.63)
The thickness of the plate at the bottom of the strap is based on the shear capacity of the
plate, and a sufficient thickness to be welded to the strap, typically 6 mm.
Example 10.9: Recessed beam end shear box

Repeat Example 10.8 using a further reduction in the depth of 75–350 mm. Use f y =
275 N/mm 2 for the steel section and pywd = 220 N/mm 2 for the welds.
Solution
It is clear from Figure 10.48c that it is impossible to position the diagonal reinforcing
bar in the nib. Also, from Figure 10.49a, α = tan−1(69/168) = 22.3° to the horizontal, for
which the inclined strut action is not possible. The solution calls for the use of a prefab-
ricated shear box as shown in Figure 10.49b.
Depth of nib above bearing = 350 – 210 = 140 mm.
To provide 30 mm cover to links (of say 10 mm dia.), the maximum depth of steel box =
140 – 30 – 10 = 100 mm.
Try 100 × 100 SHS with 65 mm steel-steel bearing.
Length of recess in beam = 65 + 35 = 100 mm
Try reinforcement hanger bars

Refer Figure 10.49c. Assuming reinforcement hanger bars of 25 mm diameter, L1 = 65/2 +
35 + cover 30 + 25/2 = 110 mm, but allow extra 10 mm tolerances = 120 mm.
Bearing pressure under box f Rdu = 0.85fck = 34.0 N/mm 2
p = 34.0 ´ 100 = 3400 N/mm 2
Equation 10.58 210 ´ 103 = 3400L3(L4 - 0.5L3)/120
Equation 10.61 L3 = Ö (210 ´ 103 ´ 120 /1.5 ´ 3400) = 70.3 mm
and L 4 = 140.6 mm.
This arrangement will give rise to very large strain gradients and a potentially small
lever arm between the hanger bar and compression zone.
Increase L 4 = 297.5 mm (making the overall length of shear box = 297.5 + 152.5 =
450 mm.
Equation 10.60 L3 = 26.1 mm
FEd3 = 3400 ´ 26.1 ´ 10-3 = 88.6 kN
Equation 10.59 TEd = 210 + 88.6 = 298.6 kN
Equation 10.62 As = 298.6 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 250 = 1373 mm2
Use 2 no. H32 (1608) bars welded to sides of the box

Internal radius. Fbt per bar = 298.6/2 = 149.3 kN
ab = 100 mm between bars
Equation 10.55 ri = 149.3 ´ 103 ´ [(1/100) + (1/64)]/(2 ´ 40 /1.5) = 72 mm
s s = 149.3 ´ 103 /804 = 185.7 Nmm2
BS EN 1992-1-1, Table 8.2, α1 = 0.7 because cd = 100 mm just >3 × 32 = 96 mm, but use α1 = 1
lbd = 0.25 ´ 185.7 ´ 32 ´ 1/3.68 = 403 mm from bottom of box
The minimum depth of beam d″ beneath the box to accommodate these bars = 72 + 32 +
link 10 + cover 30 = 144 mm < 210 mm is available. This means that the straight height
of the hanger bar beneath the box = 210 – 144 = 66 mm < 4 × diameter = 128 mm. This
renders the use of hanging bars not possible.
Try mild steel strap
Refer Figure 10.49c. Assuming the length of the strap = 100 mm
L1 = 65/2 + 35 + cover 30 + (100/2) = 147.5 mm
RHS design
MEd = 210 ´ 103 ´ 147.5 = 30.97 ´ 106 Nmm
Wpl > 30.97 ´ 106 /275 = 112.6 ´ 103 mm3
2dt > 210 ´ 103 /0.6 ´ 275 = 1273 mm2
Use 100 × 100 × 10 RHS grade S275 steel (119 cm3 , 2000 mm 2)

Using L 4 = 270 mm (making overall length of shear box 270 + 147.5 + 32.5 = 450 mm)
Equation 10.58 210 ´ 103 = 3400L3(270 - 0.5L3)/147.4
L3 = 36.2 mm
FEd = 3400 ´ 36.2 ´ 10-3 = 123.0 kN
Equation 10.59 TEd = 210 + 123.0 = 333.0 kN
Equation 10.63 As (strap) = 333.0 ´ 103 /275 = 1211 mm2
t = 1211/2 ´ 100 = 6.6 mm
Use 100 mm × 8 mm thick straps

Bottom plate design.
Length = 100 mm
Width = 100 + (2 × 8) + 2 × weld leg say 8 = 132 mm, use 140 mm

A bearing capacity of the concrete above the plate = 3400 × 140 × 10 −3 = 476.0 kN >
333.0 kN is required.
Thickness of the plate (based on shear) pq = 0.6 × 275 = 165 N/mm 2
t = 333.0 ´ 103 /2 ´ 100 ´ 165 = 10.1 mm
Use 12 mm thick bottom plate

Weld straps to bottom plate
Weld is deposited on both sides of both straps. Maximum weld length = 100 − 2 run out
say 16 = 84 mm
t w = 333.0 ´ 103 /0.7 ´ 4 ´ 220 ´ 84 = 6.4mm

Use 8 mm CFW × 100 mm long weld to RHS box

Shear links between end of straps and end of box, and beyond end of box for 1 effective
depth.
Main bar in the bottom of beam 2 no. H20 (from Example 10.7)
d = 350 - cover 30 - links 10 - 20 /2 = 300 mm
z = 0.9 ´ 300 = 270 mm and take cotq = 2.5
Asw = 210 ´ 103 /270 ´ 0.87 ´ 500 ´ 2.5 = 0.715 mm2 /mm = 358 mm2 /m per leg
Use H10 links at 210 mm centres (373 mm 2 /m)
10.4 COLUMN FOUNDATION CONNECTIONS
Connections to foundations, such as pad footings, pile caps, retaining walls, ground beams
etc. are made in one of the following three ways:
• Base plate, Figures 10.4 and 10.50. The size of the plate is either greater than the size
of the column (‘extended plate’, see Figure 10.4) or equal to the column (‘flush plate’,
see Figure 10.50)
• Grouted pocket, Figures 10.5 and 10.51
• Grouted sleeves, Figures 10.6 and 10.52.
Although the base plate method is the most expensive of the three options, it has the
advantage that the column may be immediately stabilised and plumbed vertical by adjust-
ing the level of the nuts to the holding down bolts. This is particularly important when
working in soft ground conditions where temporary propping may not provide adequate
stability alone.
All column–foundation connections may be designed either as pinned or moment resist-
ing – the designer has the choice depending on the overall stability requirements of the
frame. However, the normal grouted pocket method has inherent strength and stiffness
providing a moment-resisting connection de facto. The attitudes towards the choice in using
base plates rather than pockets tend to be based more on production rather than on struc-
tural decisions.
Four corner pockets

Base plate equal in with anchor bars
size, or less than welded to base plate
column size
Alternative detail
Precast column
Levelling shim
Base plate
Approx
Nut and washer

40
In situ concrete
or mortar
Tapered sleeve
1.5 h
Holding down bolt
Holding down plate

200
typically 100 × 100 × 6 mm
In situ concrete
foundation
Figure 10.50 Column base plate connection detail.
NEd
MEd
Precast column
h In situ concrete or
Submerged part of grout (sometimes
column surface using expanding
roughened agent)
F
1.5 h min
Z
F
Base of column
Approx.
sometimes tapered
40
to aid grout run

300 min
Usually
Levelling
shims
In situ concrete
foundation
Temporary tapered Minimum recommended

wedges driven into pocket clearances
gap on all sides 50 mm at bottom 75 mm
at top
Figure 10.51 Column-to-foundation pocket detail.
Vent holes for pressure

grouting (if required)
Structural floor Large diameter sleeves in

level precast column
Levelling allowance 50 mm
Projecting starter bars cast

into in situ foundation
Figure 10.52 Column-to-foundation grouted sleeve detail.
10.4.1 Columns on base plates

A moment-resisting connection requires a sufficiently large lever arm z, as shown in
Figure 10.53, between the holding down bolts and the centroid of the compression zone.
To achieve this, the base plate is usually (but not always) larger than the size of the column,
projecting over two, three or four faces as necessary.
To fabricate the base plate reinforcing, ‘starter’ bars are fitted through holes in the
plate and fillet welded at both sides, Figure 10.54. Although high tensile ribbed bars are
used in order to reduce the compression bond length, the yield strength is taken as (mild
steel stress due to welding) f yk = 250 N/mm 2 . (Note, when calculating the second-order
bending moments at base plates M 2 = N Ed e 2 (see Equations 6.30 through 6.32), do not
use f yk = 250 N/mm 2 in the calculation for 1/r and use M 2 from the column design). Links,
typically two or three H10 or H12 bars, are provided close to the plate at 50–75 mm spac-
ing. The maximum projection L of the plate is, therefore, usually restricted to 100 mm,
irrespective of the size. A length of 100 mm is also a minimum practical limit for detail-
ing and site erection purposes.
Holding down bolts of grade 4.6 or 8.8 are used as appropriate according to Table 2.15,
where f ybk = 240 and 640 N/mm 2 for grades 4.6 and 8.8, respectively. The design value to
BS EN 1993 Part 1-8 (BS EN 1993-1-8 2005) is pybd = f ybk /γM2(γM2 = 1.25). Thus, pybd = 192
NEd
MEd
Main column
reinforcement
P L = 100 typically
Holding down
bolt force FEd
t
0.482 fck´
grout
xd xd
m 2 2
z
d´
50 min
Compressive region
at ultimate
Figure 10.53 Column-to-foundation base plate detail.
Figure 10.54 Column steel base plate with starter bars.
or 512 N/mm 2 for grade 4.6 or 8.8 (note these were 195 and 450 N/mm 2 in BS 5950). These
values should be adopted as characteristic values in design calculations. The net tensile
stress area of metric bolts is 157, 246, 353 and 561 mm 2 for diameters of 16, 20, 24 and
30 mm, respectively. The edge distance to holes is usually d′ = 50 mm.
The length of the anchor bolt is typically 375–450 mm for 20–32 mm diameter bolts.
The bearing area of the bolt head is increased by using a plate of nominally 100 × 100
× 8 mm. The bottom of the bolt is a minimum of 100 mm above the reinforcement in
the bottom of the footing. Confinement reinforcement (in the form of links) around the
bolts is usually required, particularly where narrow beams and/or walls are used and
where the edge distance is less than about 200 mm. The steel is designed on the principle
of shear friction but should not be less than 4 no. H8 links at 75 mm centres placed near
to the top of the bolts. Anchor loops are usually provided around the bolts in order to
achieve the full strength of the bolt if the horizontal edge distance is less than about
200 mm. The gap between the plate and foundation is filled using in situ concrete or
mortar of grade C30/37 to C40/50 depending on the design – although fcki = 30 N/mm 2
is normally specified.
The design method considers the equilibrium of vertical forces and overturning moments.
Two methods are used depending on whether the bolts achieve tension or not. An ultimate
flexural bearing stress of αccfcdi = 0.85fcdi = 0.482fcki (see Table 9.1) is used for the infill grout
in the narrow gap beneath the plate and over the full width of the base plate. Because of
confinement, this is a conservative stress limit and allows for the possible lack of filling at
the very centre of the plate.
Referring to Figure 10.53 and resolving vertically, if the holding down bolt force F>0,
F + N Ed = 0.482fckibXd (10.64)
where Xd is the compressive stress block depth (note here, X is the dimensionless stress
block depth ratio). Taking moments about the centre line of the compressive stress block,
MEd = F(d - d ¢ - 0.5Xd) + N Ed (0.5d - 0.5Xd) (10.65)
also M Ed = N Ede, such that
N Ed ( e + 0.5d - d ¢ ) æ d¢ ö
2
= X ç 1 - ÷ - 0.5 X 2 (10.66)
0.482 fcki bd è dø
from which X and F may be calculated.

An alternative method to determine X is using a stress factor K
M¢ N Ed ( e + 0.5d - d ¢ )
K= 2
= (10.67)
fcki bd fcki bd 2
so that
æ d¢ ö 3K
X 2 - 2X ç1 - ÷ + =0 (10.68)
è d ø 0.852
If X > N Ed /0.482fckibd, then F is positive.

The size of the base plate is optimised with respect to obtaining a minimum value for d
when a solution exists for Equation 10.66 as follows:
2 N Ed ( e + 0.5d - d ¢ ) æ d¢ ö
2
= ç1 - ÷ (10.69)
0.482 fcki bd 2 è dø
Letting x = N Ed /0.482fckib, the solution to Equation 10.69 is
(0.5x + d¢)
2
dmin = 0.5x + d ¢ + - d ¢2 + 2x(e - d ¢) (10.70)
Substituting d min from Equation 10.70 into Equation 10.66 gives (the inevitable answer)
Xd = (d–d′), that is the pressure zone extends to a point in line with the force in the hold-
ing down bolts. Equation 10.64 is used to determine F = 0.482fckibXd−N Ed . However, it
is likely that under these conditions, the force F will be very large and the resulting plate
thickness is unacceptable. If this is the case, increase b( = decrease x) until a reasonable
plate thickness is achieved, noting that the minimum b is equal to the column breadth
and that the projected length (overhang) L should not be less than about 80 to 100 mm.
L is given as
(d min - h)
L= (10.71)
2
and the distance m from the holding down bolts to the starter bars is
m = L - d ¢ + d2 (10.72)
where d2 is the axis distance to starter bars.
If F is positive, assume N number of bolts each with a root area Ab and ultimate strength
f ybk to be providing the force F, then
Ab = F /N(fybk /g M 2 ) (10.73)
For grade 4.6 bolts, use f ybk = 240 N/mm 2 , and for grade 8.8 bolts, f ybk = 640 N/mm 2 , with
γM2 = 1.25.
The thickness of the base plate is the larger for
t = 0.964 fcki L2 / f y ( based on compressionside ) (10.74)
or
t = 4Fm / bf y ( based on tensionside ) (10.75)
where
L is the overhang of the plate beyond the column face
m is the distance from the centre of bolts to the centre of bars in the column
f y is the yield strength of the plate = 275 N/mm 2 (γM = 1) for mild steel grade S275
If X < N Ed /0.482fckibd, then F is negative and the above Equations 10.64 and 10.65 are not
valid. The analysis simplifies to the following:
X = 1 - 2 e /d (10.76)
and
N Ed = fcibXd (10.77)
because the infill grout is not fully stressed to 0.482fcki. Equation 10.75 is modified to
t = 2 fci L2 / f y (10.78)
Pin-jointed footings can be designed by decreasing the in-plane lever arm. Base plates using
two bolts on one centre line or four bolts closely spaced also give the desired effect.
Base plates equal to or smaller than the column are used where a projection around the
foot of the column is structurally or architecturally unacceptable. The holding down bolt
group is located in line with the main column reinforcement. The base plate is set flush
with the bottom of the precast column and small pockets, typically 100 mm cube (for
access purposes), and leave the plate exposed at each corner or on opposite faces as shown
in Figure 10.55.
Non-symmetrical base plates are used in situations where the overhang of the plate is not
possible on one or two sides, as shown in Figure 10.56. The plate overhang must allow at
least three holding down bolts to be positioned. The force(s) in the bolt(s) create a couple
with the compression under the plate. The design analysis proceeds in a similar manner to
that of columns centralised on symmetrical plates, except that now an additional eccen-
tricity exists for the axial load. Referring to Figure 10.56a for the three-sided plate with a
Figure 10.55 Column-to-foundation or column-column splices using flush base plates.
clockwise moment M Ed = N Ede, the equilibrium of moments is, by taking moments about the
centre line of the compression stress block, given as
N Ed e = 2F(d - d¢0.5Xd) + N Ed (0.5h - 0.5Xd) (10.79)
Substituting 2F = 0.482fckibXd–N Ed and simplifying gives (a modified version of

Equation 10.64)
N Ed (e + d - d ¢ - 0.5h) æ d¢ ö
2
= X ç 1 - ÷ - 0.5X 2 (10.80)
0.482fcki bd è dø
from which X and F may be calculated.

If the moment is anti-clockwise, then referring to Figure 10.56b, the equilibrium is given as
N Ed e = F(d - d¢0.5Xd) + N Ed (d - 0.5h - 0.5Xd) (10.81)
and
N Ed (e + 0.5h - d¢) æ d¢ ö
2d
= X ç 1 - ÷ - 0.5X 2 (10.82)
0.482fckibd è dø
h
d΄
Plate flush
3 no. (possibly
5 no.) holding
down bolts
Plate extended
NEd NEd
MEd MEd
0.5h
2FE L FEd
0.482 fcki
Xd
(a) (b)
Figure 10.56 Non-symmetrical extended base plates (a) clockwise moment causing tension in two bolts,
and (b) anti-clockwise moment causing tension in one bolt.
Example 10.10: Base plate design

A 400 mm deep × 300 mm wide column is subjected to an ultimate axial force of N Ed =
2000 kN and a moment about its major axis of M Ed = 300 kNm. Design an extended base
plate if the projection length is 100 mm and the distance from the edge of the plate to the
holding down bolts is 50 mm. Use fcki = 30 N/mm 2 , f y = 275 N/mm 2 .
Solution
b = 300 + 100 + 100 = 500 mm
d = 400 + 100 + 100 = 600 mm
e = 300 ´ 106 /2000 ´ 103 = 150 mm
1 - (d¢/d) = 1 - 50 /600 = 0.916
2000 ´ 103 (150 + 300 - 50)

Equation 10.66 = 0.307 = 0.916X - 0.5X 2
0.482 ´ 30 ´ 500 ´ 6002
X = 0.442
X < N /0.482fcki bd = 2000 ´ 103 /0.482 ´ 30 ´ 500 ´ 600 = 0.461
∴ F is negative
Set F = 0
2 ´ 150
Equation 10.76 X =1- = 0.5
600
2000 ´ 103
Equation 10.77 fci = = 13.33 N/mm 2
500 ´ 0.5 ´ 600
2 ´ 13.33 ´ 1002
Equation 10.78 t= = 31.1 mm
275
Example 10.11: Base plate design

Repeat Example 10.10 with N Ed = 600 kN using grade 8.8 bolts and the centroidal dis-
tance to starter bars from the edge of the column = 50 mm
Solution
e = 300 ´ 106 /600 ´ 103 = 500 mm
600 ´ 103 (500 + 300 - 50)

Equation 10.66 = 0.173 = 0.916X - 0.5X 2
0.482 ´ 30 ´ 500 ´ 6002
X = 0.214
X > 600 ´ 103 /0.482 ´ 30 ´ 500 ´ 600 = 0.138
\ F is positive
Equation 10.64 F = 0.482 ´ 30 ´ 500 ´ 0.214 ´ 600 ´ 103 - 600 = 328.3 kN
Table 2.15 pybd = 640 /1.25 = 512 N/mm 2
Equation 10.73 Ab > 328.3 ´ 103 /512 = 641 mm2
Use 2 no. M24 grade 8.8 holding down bolts (706)

Plate thickness
0.964 ´ 30 ´ 1002
Equation 10.73 t > = 32.4 mm
275
4 ´ 328.3 ´ 103(50 + 50)

Equation 10.74 t> = 30.9 mm
500 ´ 275
Use 600 × 500 × 32 mm (say OK) base plate grade 275
Example 10.12: Optimised base plate depth

A base plate is used to support a 400 mm deep × 300 mm wide column subjected to an
ultimate axial force of N Ed = 1500 kN and an ultimate moment about the manor axis
of M Ed = 300 kNm. Optimise the size of the base plate with respect to the depth for
the minimum possible breadth and determine the magnitude of the force in the holding
down bolts. Calculate the thickness of the base plate, stating whether this is an economi-
cal solution.
Use fcki = 30 N/mm 2 , f y = 275 N/mm 2 . Centroidal cover distance to bars in the column =
50 mm. Edge distance to holding down bolts = 50 mm.
Solution
Start with the minimum breadth of plate = 300 mm
e = 300 ´ 106 /1500 ´ 103 = 200 mm
x = 1500 ´ 103 /0.482 ´ 30 ´ 300 = 346 mm
Equation 10.70 d = 173 + 50 + 2232 - 502 + 103, 734 = 611 mm
Xd = 611 - 50 = 561 mm
Equation 10.64 F = 0.482 ´ 30 ´ 300 ´ 561 ´ 10-3 - 1500 = 935.2 kN
Plate overhang L = (611–400)/2 = 106 mm
m = (106 - 50) + 50 = 106 mm
Plate thickness
0.964 ´ 30 ´ 1062
Equation 10.74 t= = 34.3 mm
275
4 ´ 935.2 ´ 103 ´ 106

Equation 10.75 t= = 69.2 mm!
300 ´ 275
Clearly, this is not an economical solution.

Repeat the exercise using larger values for b until t, based on the tension side, is equal
to 35 mm. Try b = 466 mm, then x = 223 mm, d = 462 mm, F = 1275 kN, m = 31 mm
and t = 35 mm. But notice that L is only 31 mm such that the holding down bolts are
positioned to the sides of the column rather than to the front and rear.
10.4.2 Columns in pockets

This is the most economical solution from a precasting point of view, but its use is restricted
to situations where fairly large in situ concrete pad footings can easily be constructed.
The precast column requires only additional links to resist bursting pressures generated
by end bearing forces, and a chemical retarding agent to enable scabbling to expose the
aggregate in the region of the pocket. In cases where the column reinforcement is in tension,
the bars extending into the pocket must be fully anchored by the bond (BS EN 1992-1-1,
8.3.4). In order to reduce the depth of the pocket to a manageable size, these bars may need
to be hooked at their ends.
The in situ concrete foundation is cast using a tapered box shutter to form the pocket. The
gap between the pocket and the column should be at least 75 mm at the top of the pocket.
The pocket is usually tapered 5° to the vertical to ease the placement of the grout in the
annulus. This gives rise to a wedge force equal to N tan 5°, where N is the ultimate axial
load in the column. The precast column requires only additional links to resist bursting
pressures generated by end bearing forces using ζ = 0.075, the notional minimum value for
ζ (defined in Section 9.3.2).
Vertical loads are transmitted to the foundation by a combination of skin friction (between
column and in situ infill) and end bearing. If the inner surface is roughened to expose the
coarse aggregate, or castellated with a shear key as shown in Figures 10.57 and 10.58, the
vertical force, and bending moments if the foundation is suitable, is transferred successively
by shear friction at the interface using a coefficient of friction which varies from µ = 0.3–0.9
depending on the roughness of the surfaces. The profile of shear keys should conform to
Figure 5.39, but in practice, the indentations are much deeper than required in design. It
is not instructive to know the proportion of the load transmitted by either of these mecha-
nisms, only that the total load is transferred to the foundation. To increase the skin friction,
shear keys may be formed in the sides of the pocket or on the sides of the column to transfer
axial load by the action of shear wedging.
If overturning moments are present, half of the skin friction is conservatively ignored due to
possible cracking in all of the faces of the precast/in situ boundary. Bending moments and shear
forces are transferred to the foundation by forces on opposite faces of the pocket to provide a
couple, together with skin friction. Figure 10.59 shows a structural model where the column
NEd
MEd
Column bar in
tension face
h
s
FEd
F1
lbd
Insitu infill Profile see

F3 Fig. 10.58
s
F2 1:1 to 2:1 slope
Figure 10.57 Pocket foundation model with keyed joint.
Figure 10.58 Precast concrete pocket with shear keys on inner faces.
NEd
e
Column h × b
bp
FEd
0.1l
0.2l F1
In situ infill
µF1
l 0.8l
µF2 A
F2 0.2l µF3
0.1l
l to bottom of column
F3
Figure 10.59 Pocket foundation model with smooth or roughened (not keyed) surfaces.
and pocket surfaces are smooth or roughened. If the surfaces are cast from steel or timber
formwork, a conservative value of the skin friction μ = 0.3 is used (BS EN 1992-1-1, clause
10.9.6.3(2)) due to possible cracking in all of the faces of the precast/in situ boundary.
Ultimate load design considers vertical load transfer by end bearing based on the strength of
the gross cross-sectional area of the rc and equal area of a non-shrinkable sand/cement grout.
The design strength of the expansive infill grout is usually fcki = 30 N/mm2. The failure mode
may be by diagonal – tension shear across the corner of the pocket in which case links are
provided around the top half of the pocket. Another mode of failure is crushing of the in situ
concrete in the annulus. This is guarded against by using an ultimate stress of 0.482fcki work-
ing over a width equal to the precast column only, that is ignoring the presence of the third
dimension.
The depth of the pocket l is related to the ratio of the moment M Ed and the axial force N Ed
as follows (Bruggeling and Huyghe 1991):
If e = MEd /N Ed < 0.15h, then l > 1.2h

(10.83)
If e = MEd /N Ed > 2.00h, then l > 2.0
0h
Referring to Figure 10.59, the positions of the compressive reactions F 1 and F 2 between
the column and foundation are assumed to be 0.1l from the top and bottom of the pocket,
respectively. The depth of the compressive stress areas is therefore 0.2l, and, based on the
limiting bearing stress of the infill grout 0.482fcki, the design fails when the line pressure
0.482fckib is exceeded. The coefficient of friction μ = 0.3.
Resolving horizontally for the ultimate horizontal force FEd
FEd = F1 - F2 - mF3 (10.84)
Resolving vertically
F3 = N Ed - mF1 + mF2 (10.85)
Combining Equations 10.84 and 10.85
F3 = (N Ed - mFEd )/1 + m 2 (10.86)
Check the grout strength that the resultant
Ö (F32 + mF32 ) £ 0.482fckibh (10.87)
Taking moments about the resultant at F 2 at point A,
N Ed (e + 0.5h) + 0.9FEd l - F3(0.5h + m0.1l) = F1(0.8l + mh) (10.88)
from which F 1>F2 may be calculated. The required compressive strength of the infill grout is
fcki ³ F1 /0.2l ´ 0.482b, where b is the column breadth (10.89)
The compression area at the interface of the infill grout and the in situ foundation is simi-
larly checked using the bearing breadth of the infill at the top bp = b + 2 × annulus, typically
75–100 mm. The required compressive strength of the foundation is unlikely to be critical, but is
fcki ³ F1 /0.2l ´ 0.482bp (10.90)
The area of the links at the top of the pocket is
Ash = F1 /0.87fyk (10.91)
The compressive strut through the side walls Fc = √2F 1. If the total breadth of the in situ
concrete side walls is t, the width of the compressive strut, idealized as prismatic, is
w = Ö 2F1 /0.482fckit £ 0.5l (10.92)
The horizontal projection of w down the side wall should not exceed half the depth of the
pocket w ≤ 0.5l.
If the pocket is tapered at an angle θ to the vertical, lateral force F 1θ = N Ed tanθ will act
on the foundation (not the grouted annulus) on either side over the depth of the pocket. The
true extent of this diminishing force down the pocket is not known, and so it is assumed to
act over the top half. This will generate a frictional resistance μN Ed tanθ by acting on both
sides of the foundation. Thus, the vertical equilibrium is
F3 = (N Ed - 2mN Ed tan q -mFEd )/(1 + m 2 ) (10.93)
Moment equilibrium is unaffected because μN Ed tanθ is symmetrical. However, the area of

the rebars across the top of the pocket will become
Ash = (F1 + N Ed tan q)/0.87fyk (10.94)
The size of the pad foundation is governed by two main factors:
• Bearing pressures at service conditions

• Edge distance at top of pocket
The first is checked using any statistical method in order to avoid uplifting grouting
pressures. The second is based on half the horizontal force in the top 0.5F 1 acting over
the concrete on the same stress depth at the top of the pocket. If the effective depth from
the pocket to the edge of the foundation is df, then the condition is satisfied if
0.5F1 £ vRd 0.2ldf (10.95)
where vRd is the shear stress of concrete ≤ 0.5 × 0.6(1–fck /250)fck /1.5, where fck is for the
foundation typically C20/25 or C25/30.
The analysis is for uniaxial bending only. There is no method for dealing with biaxial
bending, although the method for dealing with biaxial bending in columns may be adopted
here, that is an increased moment in the critical direction is considered as uniaxial moment.
The total depth of the foundation is equal to the pocket depth plus the plinth depth. There
is no analysis to determine the plinth depth because when the annulus is filled, the design of
the foundation is based on the total depth, not the plinth depth. There is no punching shear
because compression is transferred directly to the foundation. However, punching shear
is present prior to the hardening of the infill, that is in the temporary construction phase.
To this end, the plinth depth is made nominally equal to the dimension of the column up to
a maximum depth of 400 mm. As an approximate guide, the total depth should be such that
θ = 45°−60° load distribution line can be drawn from the edge of the column to the bottom
corner of the foundation. The angle depends on the stiffness of the sub-strata, a steeper
angle is found where the foundation modulus is lower than average. Thus, if θ = 45° and the
depth of the foundation is H and column h, the depth of the foundation should be approxi-
mately (H−h)/2. The design of the foundation itself is according to the standard rc practise.
Example 10.13: Column pocket foundation

Design a column-to-pocket foundation connection required to support a 300 × 300 mm col-
umn subjected to an ultimate axial force of NEd = 1000 kN and a moment M Ed = 100 kNm.
The pocket has a 5° taper. Use fck = 40 N/mm2 (precast column), fcki = 30 N/mm2 (in situ infill),
and fck = 20 N/mm2 (foundation), fyk = 500 N/mm2. Cover to column reinforcement = 35 mm
and cover to foundation reinforcement = 50 mm. The horizontal shear force FEd may be
neglected.
Solution
e = 100 ´ 103 /1000 = 100 mm = h /3,
Hence, tension will develop in the column reinforcement.

Assume 16 mm main bars and 10 mm links.
d2 = 35 + 10 + 16/2 = 53 mm. d = 300 - 53 = 247 mm
Column design
d /h = 247/300 = 0.823,
use specially prepared design chart in Figure 10.60.
N Ed /bhfck = 1000 ´ 103 /300 ´ 300 ´ 40 = 0.278
MEd /bh2 fck = 100 ´ 106 /300 ´ 3002 ´ 40 = 0.093
\ As = 0.1bhfck /fyk = 720 mm2
Use 4 no. H16 (804 mm 2) with H8 links at 175 mm centres.

Anchorage bond length for bars in tension.
Actual stress in bars = (720/804) × 0.87 × 500 = 389.6 N/mm 2
BS EN 1992-1-1, Figure 8.2. h>250 mm. Casting conditions for top bars in horizon-
tally cast column = poor
fbd = 0.7 ´ 3.68 = 2.58 N/mm 2
clause 8.4.4., Table 8.2. α1 = 1 and α2 = 1–0.15 × (45−16)/16 = 0.728
1.5
d/h = 0.823
1.4
Kr = 0.1 d
1.3
1.2 0.2
b
1.1 0.3 As fyk/bh fck
1.0 0.4 h
0.9 As = total steel area
0.5
N/fck bh
0.8 1.0
0.7 0.6
0.8
0.6 0.6 0.7
0.4
0.5 0.8
0.2
0.4
0.9
0.3
0.2 1.0
0.1
0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
M/fck bh2
Figure 10.60 Column design chart used in Exercise 10.13.
lbd = 0.25 ´ 389.6 ´ 16 ´ 0.728/2.58 = 440 mm
Hence, l = 50 + 440 + 35 cover = 525 mm.
m = 0.3, h = 0.3 m, e = 0 .1 m
Equation 10.86 F3 = 1000 /1.09 = 917.4 kN
Equation 10.87 Resultant = Ö 917.42 + 275.22 = 957.8 kN
fcki ³ 957.8 ´ 103 /(3002 ´ 0.482) = 22.1 < 30 N/mm2 provided .
N Ed (e + 0.5h) + 0.9FEd l - F3(0.5h + m0.1l) = F1(0.8l + mh)
Equation 10.88 F1 = [1000 ´ (0.1 + 0.5 ´ 0.300) + 0 - 917.4 ´ 0.1658]/(0.8 ´ 0.525
+ 0.3 ´ 0.3
300) = 97.9/0.51 = 191.9 kN
Equation 10.90 fcki ³ 191.9 ´ 103 /(0.2 ´ 525 ´ 0.482 ´ 300) = 12.6 < 30 N/mm2
provided.
Column confinement steel
Fbst = 0.075 ´ 1000 = 75.0 kN
Abst = 75.0 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 500 = 172 mm2 /2 legs
Pocket size at 300 × 300

top = 500 × 500
300 min 50 cover
3-H12-links-100
525
3-H10-300 hangers
50
Pocket size at bottom =
400 × 400 with 5° draw
Figure 10.61 Reinforcement details to Exercise 10.13.
Use 2 no. H8 (200 mm 2) links at 50 mm centres.

Reinforcement around foundation pocket
Bars to be placed in the upper half of the pocket, that is to a depth of 250 mm.
Horizontal force induced by taper θ
F1q = 1000 tan 5° = 87.5 kN
plus F1 = 191.9 kN from above. Total F1 = 279.4 kN
Equation 10.94 Ash = 279.4 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 500 = 642 mm2
Use 3 no. H12 (678 mm 2) links at 100 mm centres around the top of the pocket.
Also provide nominal vertical hanger bars to support confinement links, 3 no. H10 bars.
Distance from the top of the pocket to the edge of foundation
Equation 10.95 vRd = 0.5 ´ 0.6(1 - 20 /250) ´ 20 /1.5 = 3.68 N/mm 2
d f ³ 0.5 ´ 191.9 ´ 103 /(0.2 ´ 525 ´ 3.68) = 248 mm
Total edge distance t = 248 + 50 cover = 298 mm

Size of foundation ≥ 2 × 298 + 500 pocket = 1096 say 1100 mm (of course, the founda-
tion/soil design has to be carried out to determine the final size)
Compressive strut Fc = √2 × 191.9 = 271.4 kN
Strut width w = 271.4 × 103/(2 × 298 × 0.482 × 20) = 48 mm ≪ 525 mm pocket depth.
See Figure 10.61 for final details.
Example 10.14: Concrete pad foundation

Determine the size of the in situ concrete pad foundation to support a 300 × 300 mm
column subjected to a service axial force of N = 800 kN (dead) and 500 kN (live) and a
service moment M = 40 kNm (dead), 20 kNm (live) and 15 kNm (wind). The 500 mm deep
pocket has a 5° taper. Calculate the reinforcement in the foundation. Use fck = 40 N/mm 2
(precast column) and fck = 20 N/mm 2 (foundation), f yk = 500 N/mm 2 . Cover to foundation

reinforcement = 50 mm. Ground bearing pressure = 50 kN/m 2 . Use ψ0 = 0.7 and 0.5 for
live and wind load.
Solution
Refer to Table 3.3 for ultimate load factors (below in italics)
Axial loads N and NEd Moments M and MEd

Service 6.10[a] 6.10[b] Service 6.10[a] 6.10[b] 6.10[b]
Dead 1.35 1.25 1.35 1.25 1.25
800 1080 1000 40 54.0 50.0 50.0
Live 1.05 1.50 1.05 1.50 0
500 525 750 25 26.25 37.5 0
Wind 0.75 0.75 1.5
15 11.25 11.25 22.5
Total 1300 1605 1750 80 91.5 98.75 72.5
Service. N = 1300 kN and M = 80.0 kNm

Critical at ultimate for Exp. 6.11. N Ed = 1750 kN and M Ed = 98.75 kNm
Try depth of foundation of 1.0 m of breadth B and width H
Net bearing pressure = 500 – 25 × 1.0 = 475 kN/m 2
N /BH + M /BH 2 /6 £ 475 kN/m2
Let B = H because M is small
1300 /B2 + 6 ´ 80 /B3 £ 475 kN/m2
then
B ³ 1.814 m use B = 1.850 m
Bearing pressures = 379.8 ± 75.8 = +455.6 and +304.0 kN/m 2

Depth of foundation for 45° load spread from the edge of the column = (1850 −
300)/2 = 775 mm < 1.0 m assumed
Plinth depth = 775 – 500 − 50 levelling allowance = 225 mm < column dimension of
300 mm, then increase the depth of foundation to 775 + 75 = 850 mm
Use foundation 1850 × 1850 × 850 mm with 300 mm plinth beneath column bearing
Ultimate bearing pressure = 1750/1.8502 ± 6 × 98.75/1.8503 = 511.3 ± 93.6 = +604.9
and +417.7 kN/m 2 (gradient = 1872/1.850 = 101.2 kN/m 2 per m)
Pressure at the face of the column = 604.9 – 0.775 × 101.1 = 604.9 – 78.4 = 526.5 kN/m2
Moment about the face of the column (per m width)
MEd = 526.5 ´ 0.7752 /2 + 78.4/2 ´ 0.775 ´ 0.517 = 173.8 kNm/m width
Try two rows H12 bars with an axis distance to the second row = 50 + 12 + 12/2 = 68 mm
d = 850 - 68 = 782 mm
K = 173.8 ´ 106 /20 ´ 1000 ´ 7822 = 0.0142 , then z /d = 0.95
As = 173.8 ´ 106 /0.95 ´ 782 ´ 0.87 ´ 500 = 537 mm2 /m
Use H12 (565) at 200 centres
10.4.3 Columns on grouted sleeves

One of the most popular (and easily the most economical) column foundation details is
the grouted sleeve, see Figures 10.6, 10.62 and 10.63. Starter (or waiting) bars projecting
from the foundation pass into openings, usually circular sleeves, in the column. The annu-
lus around the bars is afterwards filled with (gravity or pressurised) an expansive flowable
Figure 10.62 Column-to-foundation or column-column splice using grouted steel sleeves.
Figure 10.63 Splice sleeves positioned in the rebar cage (top view of same in Figure 10.61).
grout of strength equal to that of the column, but not usually less than fck = 40 N/mm 2 .
The annulus must be 6 mm nominal. If the annulus around the bar is quite large, say
25 mm, the sleeve can be gravity fed; otherwise, pressure grouting must be used. The
corrugated pressed sheet sleeves shown in Figure 10.62 are large enough to enable gravity
filling. The thickness of the material is around 1 mm. The corrugations increase the bond
strength (by wedging action) and may be left inside the column. If the sleeve is smooth, it
should be withdrawn. Figure 10.63 shows the manufacture of columns using sleeves. The
upper ends of the sleeves are open and flush to the face of the column (the white plugs
prevent concrete ingress during pouring).
The column is positioned onto packing shims which provide a fixing tolerance of around
40 mm. The gap at the bottom of the column is site filled using mortar (or concrete contain-
ing a small aggregate) of compressive strength equal to that of the column. The joint pos-
sesses most of the advantages (confinement of concrete, thin dry packed joint, continuity of
high tensile reinforcement, easy to manufacture and fix) and few of the disadvantages (fully
compacted grout in the sleeves) associated with precast construction methods. The columns
in Figure 10.3 (later a 10-storeyed structure) were founded in this manner. The column must
remain propped until the grout has hardened. However, props usually remain in position
until the first floor beams and slabs have been placed.
The design procedure is the same as for prismatic reinforced concrete columns. The
assumption is that a full bond is provided to the starter bars enabling their full strength to
be developed. The starter bars are placed in the corners of the column to maximise the effec-
tive depth. However, this means that the main reinforcement in the column must be placed
inside the starter bars, and this becomes the critical design situation. Attempts are made to
position the main reinforcement at the edge of the column with respect to the major axis of
the column and further from the edge with respect to the minor axis. The effective depth to
the reinforcement in the minor axis is therefore
d = h − cover − column link − column bar − space say 10 − radius of sleeve
This is typically h–110 mm.
Example 10.15: Grouted sleeve foundation connection

A precast concrete column 400 mm deep × 300 mm wide carries NEd = 1500 kN and a major
M Ed = 300 kNm. The column is to be founded on pressure grouted sleeves using withdrawn
sleeves. Determine the starter bars required for this connection. Use fck = 40 N/mm2 for a
column and a grout, fyk = 500 N/mm2, cover to 10 mm links in the column = 30 mm.
Solution
Guess the diameter of the starter bar = 32 mm.
Diameter of sleeve = 32 + 6 + 6 = 44 mm, use 50 mm internal diameter.
Effective depth to starter bars to major axis
d = 400 - 30 - 10 - 50 /2 = 365 mm.
N Ed /bhfck = 0.313
MEd /bh2 fck = 0.156
d /h = 365/400 = 0.91
Use Figure 6.27b column design chart with d/h = 0.9
As = 0.29 ´ 300 ´ 400 ´ 40 /500 = 2784 mm2
Use 4 no. H32 bars (3216)

Original guess for size of bars OK.
10.4.4 Columns on steel shoes

Where column sizes and hence projecting base plates become large, say 600 × 600 mm or
more, or where the precast frame erector chooses to reap the benefit of the immediate fixity
afforded by mechanical connectors, prefabricated steel shoes are a popular option, as shown
in Figures 10.64 through 10.66. They are so called because the ‘shoe’ fits into the corners
(toes) of the column, usually four per column, but they can also be made at mid-width for
upper storey splices as shown in Figure 10.65. Modified versions of the standard shoe are
5 Column links
≤100
Lo
Anchorage lengths according

to structural design
Lb
3 Confinement links
1 Steel plate shroud
1
Main bars according to
structural design
(a) (b)
Figure 10.64 Column shoe details (a) general arrangement for rectangular columns and (b) manufacturing
information. (Courtesy of Peikko, Lahti, Finland.)
Figure 10.65 Demonstration of column shoe and steel splice plates at Sao Paulo Concrete Show 2014.
Figure 10.66 Column shoe in precast column construction.
Table 10.1 Dimensions and ultimate tensile capacity of steel column shoes
Shoe size Plate thickness Hole diameter Total lengtha Axial tensile
Ref (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) capacity (kN)
HPKM 16 75 15 27 740 65.4
HPKM 20 80 20 30 835 102.0
HPKM 24 85 30 35 1040 147.0
HPKM 30 90 45 40 1310 233.7
PPKM 36 105 40 50 1890 476.6
PPKM 45 123 50 60 2230 761.8
PPKM 52 131 60 70 2560 1025.5
Note: Based on Peikko data.
a Length from the bottom of the plate to the end of starter bars.
HPKM include two starter bars with a backing bar (Figure 10.64b), whilst PPKM have four starter
bars with a backing bar.
possible for non-rectangular columns, for example 6 no. in a hexagonal column. The con-
nectors are expensive in terms of materials and manufacture but compensate for this by
providing a very rapid and structurally safe fixing on site, accommodating large tolerances.
Positioning errors of up to 10 mm are possible by the use of cleverly designed eccentric-hole
plate washers.
For typical use in precast columns, each shoe consists of a thick (grade 50) steel plate,
typically 12–40 mm thick and 100–150 mm square, joined to a thin plate metal shroud
forming a 80–100 mm (approx.) open box cube, with three weld-connected rebars in a
triangular formation. The bars, which are typically 16–40 mm in diameter, provide the
bond force to the concrete column. The base plate has a punched hole at its centre which
receives the threaded coupler bars from the adjoining column (similar to the welded plate
splice detail).
The tensile capacity of these connectors is always governed by the shroud welds or the
strength of the threaded portion of the coupler bar and never by the bond strength of the rebars.
For typical sizes of grade C40/50 precast columns in precast frames, where the shoe size is
about 100 mm square with M30 bolts, the static tensile strength is in the order of 300 kN per
shoe. Proprietary design software (e.g. PeikCol from Peikko) and standard information are
available for the detailing of shoes ranging from about T Ed= 65–1025 kN tensile capacity, for
example as shown in Table 10.1. The anchorage bond strength for the rebars is based on BS
EN 1992-1-1, clause 8.4.3 but is modified (by about ½) to allow for the eccentricity between
the centre of the hole and alignment of the bars, for example with 2 no. starter bars of say
1000 mm length, if TEd = 175 kN, As ≥ 175 × 103/2 × 0.87 × 500 = 201 mm2 , using 16 mm
bars f bd = 175 × 103/2π × 16 × 1000 = 1.74 N/mm2<3.68 N/mm2.
If the bottom of the shoe is level with the bottom of the column, the design of the shoe is simi-
lar to that of flush base plates, for example Equations 10.64 through 10.66 and 10.73 and 10.74,
but where the overhang L is zero, and bearing stresses cover both the shoes and the concrete
between them. Sometimes, the shoe is positioned proud of the concrete, by the thickness of the
plate, and therefore during construction, only the plate is loaded. After grouting, the situation
returns to the previous case. Confinement is a key to the design, and the area of confinement
rebars or steel straps is according to BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 9.5.3. Most manufacturers use at
least 8 or 10 mm bars, two or four in number (single/pairs at 50 mm centres), for the confine-
ment links (no. 3 in Figure 10.64b) and sometimes approx. 50 × 6 mm plate straps welded at the
corners, together with H8 U bars (no. 1) on the inside of the shrouds. Lapping of main bars with
the starter bars in the shoe is according to BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 8.7.4.1.
REFERENCES
Bruggeling, A. S. G. and Huyghe, G. F. 1991. Prefabrication with Concrete, Balkema, Rotterdam,

the Netherlands, 380pp.
BS EN 1993-1-8. 2005. Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. Design of joints, BSI, London, UK.
Canha, R. M. F., El Debs, A. L. H. and El Debs, M. K. 2007. Design model for socket base connec-
tions adjusted from experimental results, structural concrete, Journal of fib, 8(1), 3–10.
Elliott, K. S. and Jolly, C. K. 2013. Multi-Storey Precast Concrete Framed Structures, 2nd ed., John
Wiley, London, UK, 750pp.
FIB. 2008. Bulletin 43, Structural Connections for Precast Concrete Buildings, Guide to Good
Practice, Fédération Internationale du Béton, Lausanne, Switzerland, 370pp.
FIB. 2011. Bulletin 61, Worked Examples for Strut and Tie Models, Guide to Good Practice,
Fédération Internationale du Béton, February 2008, Lausanne, Switzerland, 230pp.
Goodchild, C. H., Morrison, J. and Vollum, R. 2014. How to Design Concrete Structures Using
Eurocode 2, Strut and Tie Models, The Concrete Centre, Camberley, UK, 69pp.
ISE. 1978. Structural Joints in Precast Concrete, Institution of Structural Engineers, London,
UK, 56pp.
PD 6687. 2010. Background paper to the UK National Annexes to BS EN 1992-1 and BS EN 1992-3,
BSI, London, UK.
Chapter 11
Ties in precast concrete structures
11.1 TIES IN PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURES
It is often said that the two greatest problems with precast concrete skeletal structures are
1. The avoidance of joints in critical locations

2. How to design the structure to prevent progressive collapse
The first has been thoroughly dealt with in Chapters 9 and 10. This chapter deals with
the second problem. It focuses on a method of placing continuous steel-reinforcing ties,
known as ‘stability ties’ to resist the effects of accidental loading or damage, and to prevent
progressive collapse. It examines why ties are needed and explains the resulting structural
mechanisms in the event of accidental loading. There is probably no need to explain what
‘progressive collapse’ is, this is clearly shown in Figures 11.1 and 11.2, with the latter occur-
ring during construction.
The need for stability ties is therefore obvious. No structural element, whether it is made of
precast concrete, masonry, steel, aluminium, or timber, should be designed and constructed
such that a loss of bearing, stability or load capacity would cause total failure of that ele-
ment, and more importantly extensive damage and failure of the entire structure. If the latter
causes damage which is disproportionate to the cause (e.g. a gas explosion at the 18th floor
in Figure 11.1, or the loss of bearing in a half-slab due to overloading when site casting the
topping, Figure 11.2) in such a manner that the failure of one element leads to the progressive
failure of others, for example a vehicle damages a column and this in turn causes the beams
and floor slabs to fall, this is termed ‘progressive collapse’. Structures which are not able to
avoid this are not ‘robust’. Following some rather dramatic failures of concrete structures in
the 1960s and 1970s, for example Ronan Point (Figure 11.1), high-alumina cement concrete
beams, etc., the British codes for concrete structures CP110:1972 and BS 8110:1985 gave
prominence to this by specifying the need for structural stability ties in all buildings …
Robustness. Structures should be planned and designed so that they are not unreason-
ably susceptible to the effects of accidents. In particular, situations should be avoided
where damage to small areas of a structure or failure of a single element may lead to
collapse of major parts of a structure.
The message to designers of elemental precast concrete structures is clear – ensure that the
failure of an element does not cause failure of its neighbour, and its neighbour in turn. In
pin-jointed structures, where there is no moment continuity at the connections, structural
continuity must in some way be designed into the structure. Note that this is not for ultimate
limit strength and, therefore, does not apply to Chapters 3 through 10. Structural continuity
599
Figure 11.1 Progressive collapse of precast wall frame at Ronan Point, UK, in 1968.
Figure 11.2 Progressive collapse of slabs and edge beams during erection of a car park in Atlantic City,
New Jersey, USA, in 2003. (Courtesy of CTL Group, Skokie, IL.)
Ties in precast concrete structures 601
may be achieved in the elements and connections themselves, for example by the dowel
connecting the beam to the column in Figure 10.11 or by additional site-placed means. The
problem with the former is that if the structure containing the dowel is subjected to acci-
dental loading, the dowel may fail due to a large horizontal shear force, and the structural
continuity would be lost. If the latter method is used, and steel ties are placed continuously
across the connection, as shown in Figure 9.46, then as long as the skeletal elements are
anchored to the ties isolated failure cannot progress.
The forces causing this type of failure are known as accidental actions Ad. Latest provi-
sions for the assessment and design methodology for accidental actions are given in Part 1–7
of BS EN 1991 (BS EN 1991-1-7 2006) relating to
1. Impact forces from vehicles (road, rail, sea and air)

2. Forces resulting from explosions
3. Actions due to the local failure of elements from unspecified causes, for example, during
erection of the building, damage during refurbishment or changes to parts of the buildings.
BS EN 1991-1-7 is used for all building mediums and materials, and is compatible with
other parts of BS EN 1990 and the material codes BS EN 1992, BS EN 1993, etc. Structures
are designed for the relevant design situations given in BS EN 1990, clause 3.2(2), that is
dead and imposed gravity loads, ψ2 load factors, temporary loads, wind pressure, effects of
fire and temperature, seismic effects and accidental actions.
BS EN 1991-1-7, Section 3 has a dual approach to deal with accidental loading and its
consequences. The strategy in clauses 3.2 and 3.3 is to identify the actions and then to limit
the extent of localised failure as shown in Figure 11.3. The strategies are summarised in
Figure 11.4, reproduced from BS EN 1991-1-7, Figure 3.2.
BS EN 1991-1-7, clause 3.2.(3) states that measures should be taken to mitigate the risk
of accidental actions either by (1) prevention (eliminating the cause), (2) protection (e.g. bar-
riers, bollards) or (3) a structural solution by using one or more of the following strategies:
1. Designing certain elements of the structure upon which stability depends as ‘key ele-
ments’ to increase the likelihood of the structure’s survival following an accidental event
2. Designing structural elements, and selecting materials, to have sufficient ductility
capable of absorbing significant strain energy without rupture
3. Incorporating sufficient redundancy in the structure to facilitate the transfer of actions
to alternative load paths following an accidental event
(A)
(B) (B)
(a) (b)
Figure 11.3 Recommended limit of admissible damage from BS EN 1991-1-7, Annex A. (a) Plan and (b) section
(A) local damage not exceeding 15% of floor area in each two adjacent storeys and (B) notional
column to be removed. (Courtesy of British Standards Institute, London.)
Accidental design situations
Strategies
Identify the Limiting the extent of

accidental actions localized failure
(Figure 11.3)
Methodologies
Options
Minimum level Design to

of robustness sustain actions Key elements and Redundancy,
connections e.g. alternative
Preventing or reducing (Ad = 34 kPa) load path
the action, e.g.
protection, bollards
Prescriptive rules (ties,
continuity, ductility, Figure 11.5)
Figure 11.4 Strategies for accidental design situations adopted from BS EN 1991-1-7.
BS EN 1991-1-7, clause 3.3 is more specific in limiting the effect of accidental actions by
adopting one or more of the following:
1. Key elements: To sustain the effects of an accidental action Ad , recommended as a

uniformly distributed load is 34 kN/m 2 applicable in any direction to the key element
and any attached components (e.g. claddings, etc), the fixing brackets to a 3 m × 3 m
facade panel designed for blast load are designed for 34 × 3.0 × 3.0/4 = 76.5 kN and
this in turn transferred to supporting beam connections.
2. Alternative load path or bridging: Designing the structure so that in the event of a
localised failure (e.g. failure of a single element) the stability of the whole structure or
of a significant part of it would not be endangered. The indicative limit (Figure 11.3)
is 100 m 2 (note UK Document A states 70 m 2) or 15% of the floor area, whichever
is less, on two adjacent floors caused by the removal of any supporting column, pier
or wall. This is likely to provide the structure with sufficient robustness regardless of
whether an identified accidental action has been taken into account. Trying to achieve
these limits is probably not a practical course of action.
3. Stability ties: Applying prescriptive design/detailing rules that provide acceptable
robustness for the structure (e.g. three-dimensional tying for additional integrity, and/
or a minimum level of ductility of structural elements subject to impact).
Quantitative data on stability tie forces are given elsewhere in the code, and later in this
chapter. However, the principles of how robustness is satisfied must first be addressed.
11.2 DESIGN FOR ROBUSTNESS AND AVOIDANCE

OF PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE
The term ‘progressive collapse’ was first used following the partial collapse of a precast
concrete wall frame at Ronan Point, London in 1968. See Figure 11.1. The collapse is well
documented (e.g. Griffiths et al. 1968, UK Ministry of Housing 1968). A gas explosion in
a corner room at the 18th floor level caused the connection between the floor and wall to
fail locally. The corner wall peeled away from the floor slab, leaving the slabs supported on
two inner adjacent edges. Falling debris and a loss of bearing resulted in a portion of every
floor being damaged. Site investigations found deficiencies in the manner in which the
precast elements were tied to one another. Poor detailing and unsatisfactory workmanship
were blamed for the disproportionate amount of damage. However, another most crucial
factor was that there was no suitable design information to guide the designer towards a
robust solution, and in the absence of such guidance engineers did not question the effect
of a gas explosion, even though at the time some 400 gas explosions per year had caused
structural damage.
Tests demonstrated that the connection was capable of resisting wind suction for which
the wall panels have been designed. However, the connections lacked the strength and duc-
tility to resist the blast force for sufficient time to enable venting to occur through doors and
windows. Tests were also carried out to estimate the pressure at which failure at Ronan Point
may have taken place, and as a result the fifth amendment to the UK Building Regulations
directed designers initially to BS 8110:1985 and now to the UK Building Regulations 2000
Approved Document A, Section A3 (Building Regulations 2006) for England and Wales,
(Scottish Building Standards 2013a,b) for Scotland, and BS EN 1991-1-7, clause 3.3.(2) to a
recommended design pressure of 34 kN/m 2 .
Not only should a wall be designed for this pressure, but the connections from the wall
to the floor slab, and the diaphragm forces in the floor too, particularly as the blast pressure
is localised. This clearly had severe implications for using hollow core floor units as floor
diaphragms without a structural topping where the provision of coupling bars became very
onerous. The outcome of this was that key elements are infrequently designed. Some special-
ised structures and isolated facade elements requiring resistance against bomb damage have
been designed in this manner, but generally whole structures are not.
The ‘bridging’ method, or so called alternative load path method specifies walls,
beams and columns, or parts thereof, which are deemed to have failed. The remaining
structure is analysed for the removal of each element. The elements in the remaining
structure are called ‘bridging elements’. At each floor level in turn (including basement
floors), every vertical-load-bearing member, except for key elements, is sacrificed and
the design should be such that collapse of a significant part of the structure does not
result. BS EN 1991-1-7 quantifies a ‘significant part of the structure’ in Figure 11.3. The
method is not widely used because of the implicit necessity to provide additional rein-
forcement, most of which is designed to act in catenary, and which is permitted in the
third option, the ‘fully tied’ method.
In the tied method, BS EN 1991-1-7, Annex A5 sets out the requirements as to when and
how stability ties should be used, and this de facto avoids using key and bridging elements.
Structural continuity between elements is obtained by the use of horizontal floor and verti-
cal column and wall ties positioned as shown in Figure 11.5. These are as follows:
• Horizontal internal and peripheral ties, which must also be anchored to vertical-load-
bearing elements
• Vertical ties
Horizontal ties are further divided into floor and beam ties as shown in Figure 11.6 as
• Floor ties, to provide continuity between floor slabs, or between floor slabs and beams
• Internal and peripheral beam ties, to provide continuity between main support beams
• Gable peripheral beam ties, to provide continuity between lines of main support beams
5 1
11
10 6
2 9 4
3 7
8
Figure 11.5 Definitions and locations of ties in precast skeletal structures. 1, Internal floor ties; 2, peripheral
floor ties; 3, gable peripheral floor ties; 4, floor to wall ties; 5, internal beam ties; 6, peripheral
beam ties; 7, gable peripheral beam ties; 8, corner column ties; 9, edges column ties; 10, vertical
column ties; 11, vertical wall ties.
Floor ties either uniformly

distributed or collected
at columns
Continuous
perimeter
gable tie
Internal ties Continuity tie
Ties anchored into

columns where
continuity cannot
be provided
Perimeter floor Continuous Ties

ties (everywhere) perimeter perpendicular
tie(s) to floor slab
Columns
Beams
Figure 11.6 Details and location of horizontal floor ties in a precast floor.
The best way of providing stability floor ties is to provide a continuous ring of reinforcement
around each bay of floor slabs bounded by beams. Floor ties must span over supporting
beams either directly as a single bar as shown in Figure 11.7 or if the slots in slabs are
not coincident, lapped to beam ties as L-shape bars. Floor ties may be provided by using
steel mesh in a structural topping. The mesh must be continuous throughout the floor and
Figure 11.7 Horizontal floor ties in precast hollow core floor slabs. (Courtesy of FIP, Thomas Telford, London.)
Figure 11.8 Horizontal floor ties at corner columns.
structurally lapped with tie bars in edge and gable end beams. Beam ties must span past
columns either through sleeves or pass on either side of the column. Beam ties at corner
columns must also be continuous – Figure 11.8 shows a possible solution where ties rest on
ledges made into the corners of floor slabs, Figure 11.9, in order to achieve the correct bend
radius of about 400–500 mm.
Figure 11.9 500 × 500 mm recess in hollow core units to allow the correct placement of floor ties around
corners.
The approach to ensure continuity and ductility between precast elements and their non-
isolated connections has formed the basis of the FIB bulletin Design of Precast Concrete
Structures Against Accidental Actions (FIB 2012) and a substantial Unified Facilities Criteria
document (UFC 2009). The FIB document describes the tied system paraphrased as follows:
In a three-dimensional precast concrete slab field, tie forces may act in two mutu-
ally perpendicular directions, a ‘beam ties’ and along the slabs as ‘floor ties’. The
floor ties will only act in the vicinity of the beam where the bearing is lost, which
could be estimated as 50% of the span from the ends. … The precast floor beams,
supported previously by the removed column, will normally remain rigid and keep
their original shape. Depending on the design assumptions and the actual details,
either the connection of the beam above the remaining supports will act in full
restraint, or the connection will behave as a hinge, plastic or not, depending on
where the bars are located, and open up a gap between the beam and column as
shown in Figure 11.10. In this situation the primary load transfer to the surround-
ing structure is assured by the floor beams alone, without major intervention of the
transverse tie reinforcement in the floor slab (or structural topping mesh if present).
Because the floor-beam connections are in the upper part of the floors, during the
downward movement of the beams, the floor units are likely to slip from the beam
ledge and remain suspended through the tie bars. The same is valid in the transverse
direction. Consequently, the deformations during the transition to a catenary system
will concentrate in the joints between the floor units mutually, and between the floor
units and the supporting beams.
As the length of the deformed floor support (C-D Figure 11.10) is greater than A-B,
the slabs will split apart, and will be subjected to torsion. Longitudinal joints here
will show larger openings than the other joints. With hollow core floors, the connect-
ing reinforcement between floor units and beams should be positioned in top opened
cores (as shown in Figure 11.7) and not in the longitudinal floor joints since these
A B
Large cracks in the floor

Structural topping is detached from
units due to torsion
the slabs, mainly in the floor part near
to the edge beams
Figure 11.10 Possible scenario of the structural behaviour of a precast concrete frame structure after sud-
den column loss due to accidental actions, Figure 26 in Fédération Internationale du Béton
Bulletin 63. (Courtesy of Arnold van Acker, Belgium.)
will open during the deflection. The length of the deformed structure B-D is greater
than at AB, assuming that the column at D will not move inwards. The latter could
happen when all the upper floors deform in the same way. During the collapse, any
structural topping will most probably be detached from the floor units in the vicinity
of C-D, unless the reinforcement in the topping is effectively anchored to the hollow
core units through projecting links in the opened cores, as those in the longitudinal
joints between the floor units will be ineffective because of the splitting apart of the
units. As a consequence, in the most unfavourable scenario, the full gravity load will be
taken by the peripheral tie bars anchored to the floor beams, and the deformations in
the transition to a catenary system will concentrate in the joints between these beams
and the supporting columns.
A similar scenario exists as shown in Figure 11.11 (FIB 2012) where a corner column at D is
lost and the floor beams F–E–D and slabs A–D develop cantilever catenary action.
11.3 CATEGORIZATION OF BUILDINGS
Building regulations classify a minimum level of protection against accidental actions in terms
of possible consequences classes, depending on the height and the function of a building, as
• Class 1: Low (limited consequences)

• Class 2a: Medium, lower
• Class 2b: Medium, upper
• Class 3: High consequences
Wide cracks at lines AB and BE
Large cracks
between slab units C
and floor beams B
A
F
E
Large cracks in the floor
units due to torsion
D
Cantilever action of the floor beam
Figure 11.11 Possible scenario of the structural behaviour of a precast frame structure after sudden cor-
ner column loss due to accidental actions, Figure 33 in Fédération Internationale du Béton
Bulletin 63. (Courtesy of Arnold van Acker, Belgium.)
Eurocode EN 1991-1-7, Annex A and recommends consequences classes for different types
and occupancies of buildings. Table 11.1 lists these together with recommended design strat-
egies in the UK Building Regulations 2000 Approved Document A (Building Regulations
2006). The type of approach and the recommended level of resistance to accidental actions
are based on the potential consequences of the event. The most onerous class should be
adopted for buildings with varying numbers of storeys, mixed use buildings or those
constructed with basements, which fall into more than one class. However, if the building is
large in plan area and divided into separate structures to control movements, then the lower
areas could be classed in a lower building class. For example, two storeys of apartments over
retail premises exceeding 2000 m 2 would require Class 2B for the retail floor but 2A for the
apartments. The basement storey may be omitted from the total building storeys provided
they meet Class 2B ‘Upper risk group’ robustness requirements.
11.4 THE FULLY TIED SOLUTION
In addition to the aforementioned clauses, specific requirements relating to ties in precast

concrete structures are given in BS EN 1991-1-7, clause A.5.1. However, if ties are being
provided as the means of resisting the effect of loss of support or accidental loading the
structure is therefore not directly designed to withstand accidental actions, and so BS EN
1992-1-1, Clause 9.10.1 is referred: ‘Structures shall have a suitable tying system, to prevent
progressive collapse by providing alternative load paths after local damage’.
These are satisfied by using either individual continuous ties provided explicitly for this
purpose in in situ concrete strips or ties partly in the in situ concrete and partly in the precast
elements. Reinforcement provided for other purposes in columns, walls, beams and floors
may be regarded as providing part of or the whole of these ties, that is ties are intended as a
minimum and not as an additional reinforcement to that required by structural analysis, for
example peripheral floor diaphragm ties are not additive to stability ties.
The structural model is as follows. In the event of the complete loss of a supporting col-
umn or beam at a particular floor level, the floor plate at this level and the next level up
Table 11.1 Categorisation of consequences classes and design strategies
Type of building and occupancy Design strategies
Class 1 Single occupancy houses ≤4 storeys. Agricultural buildings. Provided a building has been designed in accordance with the
Buildings into which people rarely go, provided no part of the rules given in national or international standards for satisfying
building is closer to another building, or areas where people stability in normal use, no further specific consideration is
do go, than a distance of 1½ times the building height. necessary with regard to accidental actions from unidentified
causes.
Class 2a Low-Risk Group Five-storey (only) single occupancy houses. Buildings should be designed in accordance with the
Hotels, flats, apartments, other residential buildings and requirements of the indirect approach (i.e. ties).
offices ≤4. Effective horizontal peripheral and internal ties should be
Industrial buildings ≤3. provided, respectively for framed and load-bearing wall
Retailing premises ≤3 and of ≤1000 m2 floor area in each construction.
storey. Vertical ties are not strictly required but always recommended.
Single-storey educational buildings.
All buildings ≤2 to which the public are admitted and which
contain floor areas ≤2000 m2 at each storey.
Class 2b Upper-Risk Group Hotels, flats, apartments, other residential buildings and offices Horizontal and vertical ties in all columns and walls should be
>4 but ≤15 storeys. provided.
Educational buildings >1 but ≤15. As an alternative, the building should be designed in accordance
Retailing premises >3 but ≤15. with the requirements of the alternative load path approach,
Hospitals ≤3. that is the building should be checked to ensure that upon the
Car parking ≤6. notional removal of each supporting column and each beam
Buildings to which the public are admitted and which contain supporting a column, or any nominal section of a load-bearing
floor areas >2000 m2 but ≤5000 m² at each storey. wall, the building remains stable and that any local damage
does not exceed a certain limit, see Figure 11.3.
Where the notional removal of such columns and sections of
walls would result in an extent of damage in excess of the
agreed limit, then such elements should be designed in
accordance with the specific load resistance method.
In the case of wall frame buildings, the notional removal of
Ties in precast concrete structures
sections of wall, one at a time, is likely to be the most practical

strategy to adopt.
(Continued)
609
Table 11.1 (Continued) Categorisation of consequences classes and design strategies
610
Type of building and occupancy Design strategies

Class 3 All buildings defined earlier as Class 2 Lower and Upper Distinction is made between buildings with normal occupancy
Consequences Class that exceed the limits on area and and buildings with a high occupancy or significant consequence
number of storeys. of an accidental action.
All buildings to which members of the public are admitted in (1) Buildings exceeding the limits of Class 2a and 2b. This
significant numbers. category of building should be either:
Stadia > 5000 spectators. (a) Designed in accordance with the requirements of the
Buildings deemed to be high-risk targets. alternative load path approach as specified in Section 11.1.
Buildings containing hazardous substances and/or processes. (b) A systematic qualitative risk assessment of the building
should be performed and the required improvements
based on this assessment implemented.
Precast Concrete Structures
(2) Buildings with high occupancy and stadia with a capacity of

more than 5000 persons. For this category of building, the
consequences of accidental actions can be significant and a
systematic risk assessment of the building should be
undertaken and the required improvements based on this
assessment implemented.
(3) Buildings deemed to be high risk or buildings containing
dangerous substances, or where dangerous processes are
carried out.
For this category of building, a systematic risk assessment of
the building should be undertaken and the required
improvements based on this assessment implemented.
(4) The limit of admissible local failure may be different for each
type of building. The recommended value is 15% of the floor,
or 100 m2, whichever is smaller, in each of two adjacent
storeys.
Sources: BS EN 1991-1-7, General actions – Accidental actions, BSI, London, UK, 2006; Building Regulations, The Building Regulations 2000 Approved Document A: Structure, Office of the
Deputy Prime Minister, London, UK, 2006, 47pp. (for England and Wales, see refs for Scotland).
Note 1: For buildings of more than one type of use the ‘consequences class’ should be that relating to the most onerous type.
Note 2: In determining the number of storeys, basement storeys may be excluded provided such basement storeys fulfil the requirements of ‘Consequences Class 2b Upper-Risk Group’.
Note 3: Consequences class for building types not specifically covered should be taken as the closest similar type.
Continuous
Floor tie in floor
Beam
Mechanical
connection
Tie force Tie force
Tie between
beam and slab
Figure 11.12 Catenary action between precast elements.
must resist total collapse by acting in catenary (chain link action) as shown in Figure 11.12
and in the sequence in Figure 11.13 (FIB 2012). At the moment the accident occurs an
alternative load path for the floor beams which were previously supported by the damaged
element may not be immediately available. If a column is removed the tie forces over the
beams must be mobilised. The column that is directly above the damaged unit carries the
beam end reactions of the beams at this level as a tie in vertical suspension. If a beam sup-
port is lost, the floor ties act in catenary. With increasing deformation, a new equilibrium
state will develop as shown in Figure 11.12 and at point C in Figure 11.13, where the
deflection reaches a critical value Δcrit (or aC). If the deflection exceeds Δcrit , the tie steel will
either fracture or debond in the adjacent spans. This behaviour is applicable to uniformly
distributed loads in the beam at the floor level under consideration and to point loads from
the column above this level.
If the sagging deflected shape of the beam is deduced from uniformly distributed loading
(udl), and the tie steel is elastic-perfect-plastic, it can be shown that for a characteristic udl
w (note Figure 11.13 uses p) acting on a beam of length 2L (two spans L affected by the loss
of an internal column) the catenary force T Ed is given as
æ 0.208L 0.25 D crit ö

TEd = 2wL ç + ÷ (11.1)
è D crit L ø
and for a point load P acting at mid span of a beam of length 2L
2
æ L ö
TEd = 0.5P ç ÷ +1 (11.2)
è D crit ø
p p
H0 = 0
L L
V0 = pL/2
(0)
p p
HA > 0
VA > pL/2
(a)
p p
HB = pL2/2a aB
VB = pL
(b)
p p
HC > pL2/2a
aC
VC > pL
(c)
Figure 11.13 Two simply supported precast beams on three columns; (a) the interior support is removed, an
alternative catenary resistant system develops and the middle point starts to move downwards;
(b) situation of static equilibrium; (c) after the vertical displacement exceeds the point of equilib-
rium the velocity reduces up to zero just when the deformation energy balances the initial potential
energy. (From FIB, Bulletin 63, Design of Precast Concrete Structures Against Accidental Actions, Guide to
Good Practice, Fédération Internationale du Béton, Lausanne, Switzerland, 2012, 72pp.; Figure 39).
In this equation, P is the characteristic axial force in the column from the storey above, that
is w(L/2 + L/2) because catenary action is taking place at all subsequent floors above the
level under consideration.
In a three-dimensional precast concrete orthogonal slab field, the tie forces above will act in
two mutually perpendicular directions, namely, along the beam as a ‘beam tie’ and along the
slabs as ‘floor ties’ (Figure 11.10). The floor ties will only act in the vicinity of the beam where
the bearing is lost, which could be estimated as L/2 from the ends. Δcrit is related to the strain
in the tie steel, which is a function of the type of reinforcement and detailing, and can only be
obtained by testing. Test results show that just prior to failure Δcrit ≈ 0.2L, typically 1.2–1.5
m. An alternative, dynamic approach to the same problem is given by Engstrőm (1990).
The aforementioned equations may be used to determine catenary tie forces and assist in
understanding the derivation of the stability tie forces that are given in BS EN 1991-1-7 and
BS EN 1992-1-1.
Horizontal tie bars are either high-tensile deformed bar using a design strength of
500 N/mm2 (γm = 1.0), steel mesh in toppings or helical prestressing strand using a design
strength of fp0.1k = 0.9fpk = 0.9 × 1770 = 1593 N/mm2 in order to increase the ductility factor
as elongation ≤ 3.5% or εuk = 35 × 10−3 (see Section 2.3.4). In fact, the ratio is nearer to 0.85
for the common strands used (9.3 and 12.5 mm) and so this figure could be reduced further.
As εuk for strand is less than that of high-tensile rebar (50–75 × 10 −3), a possibility to overcome
the lower ductility is to debond the strands over a certain length above the supports, for exam-
ple by putting a plastic tube over the strands. The ties may consist of a combination of these, for
example rebar for floor ties and strand for beam ties. Strand is laid unstressed, but stretched
tightly. A popular size is 9.3 mm diameter (tensile capacity T Rd = 52 × 1593 × 10−3 = 82.8 kN)
because it is easy to handle and bend around corners. Otherwise, 12.5 mm diameter is used
(T Rd = 148 kN). Vertical ties are high-tensile bars, made continuous throughout columns and
walls by lapping, or mechanically connected (e.g. couplers) with the main bars.
Ties are considered continuous if they are correctly lapped. The lap length, based on BS EN
1992-1-1, clause 8.7.3, for deformed bar and steel mesh is 46Φ for fck = 25 N/mm2. This can be
pro-rata if not fully stressed to fyk, although it is not practical to keep changing the lengths in
different situations. The lap length for strand is based on the transmission length given in BS EN
1992-1-1, clause 8.10.2.2. Using fck = 25 N/mm2 (in place of fck(t)) and ηp1 = 3.2 and α2 = 0.19
for 7-wire strand, a length lpt = 0.19 × 1580Φ/3.84 = 78Φ, where fbpt = 3.2 fctd = 3.84 N/mm2,
where fctd = 0.7 × 0.3 × 252/3/1.5 = 1.20 N/mm2 (69Φfor fck = 30). This does not agree with some
bond tests carried out on 12.5 mm diameter helical strand and therefore a lap length of at least
1200 mm is used (96Φ). The FIB Bulletin (FIB 2012) recommends that the lap length for 9.3 and
12.5 mm strand should be increased to 1200–1600 mm (128 Φ) in the case of accidental loading.
The position of the laps must staggered and in any case should not lie in joints nor in places likely
to be destroyed by accidental action. Mechanical coupling is recommended.
The tie of diameter Φ must be embedded in in situ concrete at least 2(Φ + hagg + 5 mm)
wide. In most instances, this means that the in situ concrete must be at least 60 mm wide to
accommodate the space occupied by aggregate and bars.
A problem occurs at re-entrant corners, shown in Figure 11.14a. The resultant force from
the perimeter tie steel is pulling outwards into unconfined space. One cannot rely on the
shear capacity of the column to restrain this force. Two alternatives are possible, as follows:
1. The tie steel continues through or past the side of the column as though it were an edge
column as shown in Figure 11.14b. Cast-in couplers (or similar) may be used to anchor
the tie steel to the walls.
2. A structural screed containing a steel mesh may be used in this localised area. To avoid
increasing the overall depth of the floor, a shallower precast floor unit can often be used.
Tied into
floor slab
Floor
slab
Tied to internal beam
Perimeter ties
(a) (b)
Figure 11.14 Ties at re-entrant corners. (a) Resultant force and (b) solution for continuity.
Example 11.1: Estimation of tie forces (not BS EN 1991-1-7 or BS EN 1992-1-1 values)

An internal column carries a symmetrical arrangement of two beams, which in turn
carry a symmetrical arrangement of floor slabs. The column grid is 6 × 6 m. The char-
acteristic floor loading is gk = 6.0 kN/m 2 and qk = 5.0 kN/m 2 . If the central column was
to be removed in an accident, calculate the magnitude of the beam and slab tie force
required to establish a new equilibrium sagging position.
Solution
w = 11.0 ´ (6.0 /2 + 6.0 /2) = 66.0 kN/m
L = 6.0 m
D crit = 0.2 ´ 6.0 = 1.2 m
Equation 11.1 TEd = 2 ´ 66.0 ´ 6 ´ (1.04 + 0.05) = 863.3 kN
P = 66.0 ´ (6.0 /2 + 6.0 /2) = 396.0 kN
Equation 11.2 TEd = 0.5 ´ 396.0 ´ 5.099 = 1009.6 kN
Total tie force, TEd = 1872.9 kN .

Consider that the tie force may be distributed equally between the beam tie and the
floor ties owing to the rectangular grid dimensions.
Beam tie = 1872.9/2 = 936.5 kN
Floor ties = 1872.9/2 = 936.5 kN distributed over 6 m wide floor = 156.1 kN/m run.
Area of tie steel A s = 156.1 × 103/500 = 312 mm 2 /m run (γs = 1.0), for example H10
at 250 mm spacing (314) or A393 mesh (393). (Note these values are without partial
safety factors, reduced accidental live load ψ2 , etc. and may be tentatively compared
by the reader with the tie forces given in Section 11.5.). If the live load is multiplied
by 0.3 (see Section 11.5.2), then all ties are × ratio = (6.0 + 0.3 × 5.0)/1.0 = 0.682.
Then A s = 212 mm 2 /m, H10 at 370 mm spacing or A252 mesh.
11.5 TIE FORCES
11.5.1 Tie forces in codes and the National Annex

Structures that not deliberately designed to withstand accidental actions should nonethe-
less have a tying system to ensure some degree of structural continuity, particularly to
safeguard isolated elements in case of large deformations due to accidents, overloading, etc.
The perimeter and internal floor tie forces q1 and q3 according to BS EN 1992-1-1, clauses
9.10.2.2(2) and 9.10.2.3(4) are q1 = 10 kN/m and q3 = 20 kN/m. Therefore the floor ties,
the perimeter ties and internal ties (EC2 notation) are respectively
Ftie = 20s kN (11.3)
Ftie, per = max {L1 ´ 10; 70} kN or same as {L1/2 ´ 20; 70} kN (11.4)
Ftie,int = max{(L1 + L2 )/2 ´ 20; 70} kN (11.5)
where
s is the spacing of floor ties
L1 and L 2 are the floor spans carried by the beams containing the ties
Note that 70 kN is the minimum perimeter and internal tie force. However, the values are
replaced in the UK NA to BS EN 1992-1-1 as given later, which are also the values used for
designing against accidental actions and progressive collapse.
The basic horizontal floor tie force Ft is given in both BS EN 1991-1-7 and the NA to
BS EN 1992-1-1, but as previously explained, the latter is relevant where ties are prescribed.
However, for completeness and comparison Ft given in BS EN 1991-1-7, clause A.5.1 may
be back calculated from code Exp. A.1 and A.2 as
Ti
Exp A.1 Ft = = (gk + y 2qk )0.8L kN/m (11.6)
s
Tp
Exp A.2 Ft = = (gk + y 2qk )0.4L kN/m (11.7)
s
where
Ti and Tp are the internal and perimeter tie forces, respectively, with a minimum value
of 75 kN
gk and qk are the characteristic dead and live floor loads (kN/m 2)
s is the spacing of ties, which for a precast floor slab, such as 1.2 m wide hollow core units,
without a steel mesh in the structural topping is s = 1.2 m. L is the span of the floor tie.
For example, if gk = 6.0 and qk = 5.0 kN/m 2 , ψ2 = 0.3 and L = 7.2 m, Ft = (6.0 + 0.3 × 5.0) ×
0.8 × 7.2 = 43.2 kN/m and the internal tie force per 1.2 m wide units Ti = 1.2 × 43.2 =
51.8 kN. Then A s = 51.8 × 103/500 = 104 mm 2 , provide one H12 (113) per 1.2 m wide unit,
quite a small amount (three H10 (236) would be expected, or 1.2 × 212 = 254 mm 2 in the
previous example).
Ft according to NA to BS EN 1992-1-1, clauses 9.10.2.2(2) and 9.10.2.3(4) is the lesser of
Ft = (20 + 4no ) kN/m or 60 kN/m width (11.8)
(note there is an error q1 = (20 + 4no)l1 in the NA document)

where no is the number of storeys including basements. Ft is considered as an ultimate
value and is not subjected to the further partial safety factor of γs = 1.15.
If the distances lr between the columns or walls in the direction of the tie is greater than
5.0 m, and/or the total characteristic floor load (gk + qk) is greater than 7.5 kN/m 2 , the force
Ft is modified as Ft′ the greater of
Ft¢ = Ft (lr /5.0)(gk + qk )/7.5 (11.9)
or
Ft¢ = 1.0 Ft (11.10)
Note that ψ2 is not used here. For example, if lr = 7.2 m and using the values above gk + qk =
11.0 kN/m 2 for no = say five storeys, Ft ′ = 40 × (7.2/5) × (11.0/7.5) = 84.5 kN/m, clearly
greater than 43.2 kN/m (BS EN 1991-1-7) and 20 kN/m (BS EN 1992-1-1). Then A s = 1.2 ×
84.5 × 103/500 = 203 mm 2 per 1.2 m wide unit, provide 3 no. H10 (236).
11.5.2 Non-linear static analysis

The tie forces defined in Section 11.5.1 are based on an equivalent static system that is in
equilibrium with the structure’s response following the sudden loss of a primary load-bearing
element, which is both dynamic and inelastic. In this analysis, the accidental load pd = gk + ψ2 qk,
where dead load includes walls, faces, beams, etc. The analysis is taken from FIB (2012).
Consider two simply supported precast beams, with equal spans L, simply supported
on three columns (Figure 11.13). If the central column is removed suddenly and, due to tie
bars along the two beams, an alternative catenary resistant mechanism develops as shown
in Figure 11.13a and b. After the removal of the support the system is not in equilibrium. It
starts a downward movement and the vertical and horizontal support reactions will increase
rapidly (Figure 11.15). The movement is accelerated up to the point where static equilibrium
is reached (Figure 11.15b). After this point the velocity of the vertical movement decreases
because the vertical reaction is greater than the applied load.
If the system exhibits elastic behaviour, and damping is negligible, the reactions, the
forces in the ties and the vertical displacement increase up to twice the value corresponding
to the static equilibrium position (point B′ in Figure 11.15), and the system will fluctuate at
the point of static equilibrium at B. If yielding of the tie bars is attained at a force less than
twice the equilibrium value, the displacements increase with nonlinearity towards point C
(Figure 11.15c). At this point the velocity of the movement is zero and the system starts an
upward movement, to point D. The displacement will fluctuate between points E and C,
until a new static equilibrium position is reached at point D where the vertical deflection at
the missing support is a.
Adopting an energy balance for the ties and loads, and for the plastic stress–strain dia-
gram for steel (horizontal branch Figure 2.25a), the deformation energy in the tie is
Wint = DLT (11.11)
Vu
B
C
Vy
B
VB D
V0 0 E
aB aC a
Figure 11.15 Evolution of the vertical reaction at the end supports the vertical displacement. (From FIB,
Bulletin 63, Design of Precast Concrete Structures Against Accidental Actions, Guide to Good Practice,
Fédération Internationale du Béton, Lausanne, Switzerland, 2012, 72pp.; Figure 40.)
where
T = As fyk and DL = e sL (11.12)
and the external work is
pd La
Wext = (11.13)
2
where
a = éë(DL + L)2 - L2 ùû (11.14)
Equating Equations 11.11 and 11.12 gives
pd La
T= (11.15)
2DL
Note that the tie force T is not distributed between the in-plane action of the beam and the
out-of-plane resistance from the floor slab. If this occurs then T may be divided by, say, 2 if
the floor span and beam span are similar.
FIB (2012) also gives a solution for T based on the idealised (inclined) stress–strain
branch in Figure 2.25a, but the result is only about 5% less, for example for Class C rebars
(see Section 2.3.1) if k = f tk /f yk = 1.15, then
pd La
T= (11.16)
2.15DL - 1.15DLy
where ΔLy = Lεy = Lf yk /E s. See Example 11.2
Example 11.2: Catenary tie force versus code requirement

Calculate the internal beam horizontal tie requirements according to (a) non-linear static
analysis of catenary forces (i) plastic and (ii) idealised stress–strain for rebars, (b) BS
1991-1-7 and (c) NA to BS EN 1992-1-1 requirements for a 10-storey structure. The floor
span = 6.0 m and beam span (column-to-column) L = 7.2 m. The characteristic floor
loads are gk = 6.0 kN/m 2 and qk = 5.0 kN/m 2 . The self-weight of the beam = 5.0 kN/m.
Use high-tensile bar of ductility class C500 where f yk = 500 N/mm 2 and εukL = 75 × 10 −3.
Floor usage is offices ψ2 = 0.3.
Solution
Beam load, Gk = (6.0 ´ 6.0) + 5.0 = 41.0 kN/m
Qk = 0.3 ´ 5.0 ´ 6.0 = 9.0 kN/m
(a) Non-linear static analysis

The design load combination pd = Gk + ψ2 Qk = 50.0 kN/m
εuk = 75 × 10 −3 for rebar ductility class C500
If εs = εuk then ΔL = εukL = 75 × 10 −3 × 7.2 = 0.540 m
Equation 11.14 a = é(0.54 + 7.2)2 - 7.22 ù = 2.84 m

ë û
Equation 11.15 T = 50.0 ´ 7.200 ´ 2.84/(2 ´ 0.54) = 946.7 kN
T
As = = 946.7 ´ 103 /500 = 1893 mm2
fyk
Equation 11.16 T = 50.0 ´ 7.200 ´ 2.84/(2.15 ´ 0.540 - 1.15 ´ 0.018) = 896.6 kN
where ΔLy = 7.200 × 500/200,000 = 0.018 m
T
As = = 896.6 ´ 103 /500 = 1793 mm2
fyk
(b) BS 1991-1-7
Equation 11.3 Ti = 7.5 ´ 0.8 ´ 7.2 ´ 6.0 = 259.0 kN < 947 kN
(c) NA to BS EN 1992-1-1
Equation 11.8 Ft = 20 + 4 ´ 10 = 60 kN/m floor tie
Equation 11.9 Ft¢ = 60 ´ (7.2 / 5) ´ (11.0 /7.5) = 126.7 kN/m
Equation 11.18 Ft ,beam = 126.7 ´ 6.0 = 760.2 kN (reasonable agreement with

T = 896.6 kN although if lower ductility rebar is used, for example class B
e uk = 50 ´ 10-3, the agreement is more than 50%)
Ft ,beam
As = = 760.2 ´ 103 /500 = 1521 mm2
fyk
As,max = 1893 or 1793 mm2 (depending on which stress–strain diagram is used)
Use four C25 bars (1963)
11.5.3 Horizontal floor and beam ties

Horizontal ties should be provided around the perimeter of each floor and roof level and
internally in two right angle directions to tie the column and wall elements securely to the
structure of the building. The ties should be continuous and be arranged as closely as prac-
ticable to the edges of floors and lines of columns and walls. At least 30% of the ties should
be located within the close ‘vicinity’ of the grid lines of the columns and the walls. The code
does not specify close vicinity.
Internal floor ties parallel with the span of the flooring are either distributed evenly using
short lengths of tie steel anchored by bond into the opened cores of the hollow core floor
units or grouped in full-depth in situ strips at positions coincident with columns. This relies
on an adequate pull-out force generated by tie steel cast into in situ concreted hollow cores
(see Section 9.5). A typical configuration is to use 10 or 12 mm diameter high-tensile bar at
400 or 600 mm centres, that is two or three bars per 1200 mm wide slab. For greater quan-
tities, it is better to decrease the bar spacing rather than to increase the size or number of
bars. At no time should two bars be placed in one core unless the core width is in the order
of 140 mm where two bars may be placed, for example Figure 4.22.
Ties along gable edge beams are placed into the broken out cores of slabs at intervals
varying between 1.2 and 2.0 m as shown in Figure 11.16. The success of the ties relies on
adequate anchorage of small loops cast into in situ concrete which itself is locked into the
bottom of the hollow core. Generous openings (say 300 mm long) should be made in the
floor slabs to ensure that any projecting tie steel in the beam may be lapped without damage
to the slab or tie bar. An option to fix ties between slabs, and slabs or other precast units
such as landings is shown in Figure 11.17.
Figure 11.16 Gable edge beam ties to the edges of hollow core units executed by cut outs into the first two
hollow cores, which are blocked off prior to in situ concrete infill.
Figure 11.17 Floor slab-to-slab ties (or in stairs and landings).
The magnitude of the tie forces Ft ′ between precast hollow core slabs is as given by
Equation 11.8 or 11.9. The area of steel (mm 2 /m run) is
Ft¢
As = (11.17)
fyk
If steel mesh is present in the topping, then As = Ft ′/fyk (mm2/m) with selected mesh sizes A98,
A142, A252 and A393, with a lap length between sheets of mesh and with projecting bars
from edge beams based on BS EN 1992-1-1 clause 8.4.3, for example, 46Φ but with a nominal
minimum lap length of 300 mm, for example, A142 = 6 mm bars × 46 = 276 mm use 300 mm.
Continuity between beams is provided across the line of columns by calculating the
magnitude of the internal and peripheral tie force Ft ′ according to Equations 11.8 or 11.9.
According to clause 9.10.2.3(4), in floors without screeds where ties cannot be perpendicu-
lar to the span direction, the ties may be grouped along the beam lines as shown in Figures
11.18 and 11.19. The tie force in the beam Ft′,beam is the summation of all the internal tie
forces across the span L of the floor the beam is supporting
Ft¢,beam = Ft¢L (11.18)
In situ concrete C25 min

Tie steel Tie steel
Precast slab Projecting links

from beam
Precast beam
Figure 11.18 Horizontal floor and internal beam ties.
In situ concrete
Continuous tie bar

‘L’ shape tie steel
Projecting
loops
Precast slab
Precast beam
Figure 11.19 Horizontal floor and edge beam ties.
If the spans of the floor slabs on either side of the beam are different, L1 and L2, the summation
of half of each span, that is 0.5(L1 + L2), is used to replace L in Equation 11.18. In an edge beam,
L2 = 0. Where the floor slabs to one side of the beam are spanning parallel with the beam, and
on the other side are spanning on to the beam with a span L1, the beam tie force is taken as
Ft¢,beam = 1.0Ft¢ + 0.5L1Ft¢ (11.19)
Where the floor slabs are spanning parallel with the span of an edge beam, a nominal tie
force 1.0 Ft′ need only be provided. A s is calculated according to Equation 11.17 using f yk or
f p0.1k for rebar and strand, respectively.
The internal tie bars should be distributed equally either side of the centre line of the beam,
be separated by a distance of at least 15 mm to ensure adequate bond (assuming 10 mm size
aggregate), and be positioned underneath projecting loops from the beam. Peripheral tie bars
should be similarly positioned, and according to BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 9.10.2.2(1) located
within 1.2 m of the edge of the building. This includes internal edges, for example, at atriums,
courtyards. This is not usually a problem except in the case of cantilevers where there is no
beam nearer than 1.2 m from the end of the cantilever. In this case, the tie must be located in
a special edge beam, which is cast for the sole purpose of providing the peripheral tie.
The success of the tie beams depends largely on detailing. Figure 11.18 illustrates the
concept; two tie bars are fixed on site and pass underneath the projecting reinforcement
loops. The hooked bars, which must pass underneath A, are fully anchored into the hol-
low cores of the slab. Finally bars ‘A’ pass through small sleeves preformed in the columns
or pass by the side of the column. Figure 11.19 shows how continuity may be satisfied at
external positions. The tie bars may either be cast into the beam and left projecting to be
positioned into the cores on site – but this requires the exact position of top opened cores
to be known, or else the ties can be site placed as L-shape bars into projecting loops in the
beams (this option is shown in Figure 11.19). The tie bar does not have to wrap around
the loops at exactly the same place in all of the ties, giving site fixers some tolerance. If the
force per individual tie is F ti = Ft ′s, where s is the spacing, then the area of the projecting
loops, design in shear is A s = Fti /0.6f yk, assuming full anchorage in to the beam of course.
For example, if Ft′ = 80 kN/m and two ties are provided per metre, then the loops A s = 40
× 103/0.6 × 500 = 133 mm 2 , that is use two H10 loops in pairs (157). If possible, try to use
a single loop say H12 (113), but H16 have tight bend problems.
11.5.4 Horizontal ties to columns

BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 9.10.2.4 specifies that external columns (internal column ties are
not required) should be tied horizontally in a direction into the structure at each floor and
roof level with ties capable of developing a force Ft,col according to NA to BS EN 1992-1-1
equal to the greater of
the lesser of 2.0Ft or Ft ls / 2.5 (11.20)
where ls is the floor to ceiling (not suspended) height in metres, or
0.03N Ed (11.21)
that is 3% of the vertical ultimate axial force carried by the column at that level using γG
and γQ = 1.0.
Corner columns should be tied in to the structure in two mutually perpendicular directions
with the above force. Ties in a direction parallel with beams may be provided at columns in one
of two ways. If there is no positive tie force between the beam and column, loose tie steel should
be placed on site and be fully anchored. The net cross section of any threaded bar (to the root of
the thread) is used in calculating the area of the tie bar. Resin-anchored reinforcement may also
be used, but this involves the use of proprietary materials and techniques. The manufacturer’s
specification with regard to the size of hole and insertion of the resin should be followed.
The second method is to design the beam-to-connector so that the horizontal shear capac-
ity may be used to provide the necessary tie force from the column to the beam. This imposes
additional axial forces in the beam which must be dealt with as explained in Sections 10.2.1.
and 10.3. There must be a positive no-slip horizontal connection between the beam and column.
This is achieved by surrounding any mechanical connectors, such as bolts or dowels, with in situ
concrete. The site workmanship should be especially supervised in these situations because evi-
dence of poor compaction can easily be covered over.
Ties in a direction perpendicular to edge beams do not have to be connected directly to col-
umns. The tie force may be distributed to the edge floor ties that lie within 1.2 m of the column.
This is explained in Figure 11.20. The assumption is that if the floor slab is acting as a horizontal
diaphragm, then the edge column cannot be displaced outwards without mobilising the floor
plate. If the floor is tied to the edge beams, and this in turn is tied to the column as given in the
earlier text, the column tie must be secured. The floor tie force in this locality must therefore be
Ft ,col F
Ft = = t ,col (kN/m) (11.22)
2 ´ 1.2 2 .4
This replaces the floor tie force Ft ′ obtained from Equation 11.8.
N Floor slab acts as

horizontal diaphragm
Edge beam
Column misalignment
Column to
be tied at A
A
0.03N to be
distributed into
Perimeter edge
1.2 m
edge beam and

beam tie
floor edge ties
Floor edge ties

within 1.2 m from
column
Plan at A
Elevation
Figure 11.20 Indirect provision of column-to-floor ties via column–beam and beam–floor ties.
11.5.5 Vertical ties

BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 9.10.2.5 calls for continuous vertical ties in all buildings capable
of resisting the tensile force from the summation of the ultimate beam reactions N Ed1 only
at the floor level immediately above where the tie is designed, not the total load from every
floor above the tie. The loading on the floor may be taken as gk + ψ2 qk. Column reinforce-
ment should be
N Ed1
As ³ (11.23)
fyk
The tensile capacity of any column splice should also be able to resist N Ed1. In the case
of grouted sleeve splices the anchorage bond length for the reinforcement may be cal-
culated without γm of 1.5. The weld lengths in the welded splice are also determined
without γM .
BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 9.10.2.5(3) required that where a column or wall is supported at
its lowest level by an element other than a foundation (e.g. beam or flat slab) the accidental
loss of this element should be considered and a suitable alternative load path should be pro-
vided. Note that the clause does not allow ties in this situation.
Example 11.3: Stability ties in precast structures

Design the stability ties in the form of high-tensile rebar and/or helical strand for the
five-storey structure for which a floor plan is shown in Figure 11.21. The storey height is
3.5m. The characteristic floor loads gk + qk are 10.0 kN/m 2 in Block A and 12.0 kN/m 2
in Block B (due to deeper floor slab). There is no structural topping on the floor slabs.
2 × 6.0 m
Block B Void
Hollow core
3 × 6.0 m bays
floor units
11
10
3 4 × 6.0 m bays 7 12 6.0 m
13
Hollow core Void
9.0 m
5 1
floor units 9 9.60 m
7
Void
In situ strip
for tie 13
6 8 6
7.2 m
Void
2
7.68 m
4 6 × 6.0 m bays
Block A
Figure 11.21 Detail to Example 11.3.
The beam-to-column connectors are not able to carry stability tie forces. The maximum
ultimate axial forces in the various main columns at first floor level are
• Internal column in Block A = 3000 kN
• Edge column in Block A = 2000 kN and Block B = 3000 kN
• Corner column in Block A = 1500 kN
Use f p0.1k = 0.9 × 1750 = 1593 N/mm 2 for strand and f yk = 500 N/mm 2 for floor rebar,
fcki = 25 N/mm 2 for infill concrete, γm = 1.0.
Solution (the numbers refer to Figure 11.21)
Equation 11.8 Ft = 20 + 4 × 5 = 40 kN/m run
Block A
1. Floor ties for 9.0 m span floors
Equation 11.9 Ft¢ = 40 ´ (9.0/5) ´ (10.0/7.5) = 96.0 kN/m
Equation 11.17 As = 96.0 ´ 103 /500 = 192 mm2 /m run ´ 1.2 = 231 mm2 per 1.2 m
wide floor unit
Use three H10 bars at 400 mm centres (235)
Anchorage length = 46 × 10 = 460 mm
Provide 500 mm long milled slot into hollow cores
Tie force in each bar Fti = 0.4 × 96.0 = 38.4 kN. Size of projecting bar is given by
As (loop) = 38.4 ´ 103 /0.6 ´ 500 = 128 mm2 /location.
Use pairs of H10 loops (157) projecting from edge beams

2. Floor ties for 7.2 m span floor
Pro-rata 7.2÷9.0 × previous case = 185 mm 2 per 1.2 m wide unit
Use same as for 9 m floor
3. Perimeter tie to edge beam 6.0 m span supporting 9.0 m long floors
Equation 11.9 Ft¢ = 40 ´ (6.0/5) ´ (10.0/7.5) = 64.0 kN/m
Supported floor length = 9.0/2 = 4.5 m span
Equation 11.18 Ft ,beam = 64.0 ´ 4.5 = 288.0 kN
Equation 11.17 As = 288.0 ´ 103 /1593 = 181 mm2
Use two 12.5 mm diameter helical strand (2 × 93 = 186 mm 2)

4. Ditto perimeter tie to 7.2 m long floors
5. Gable end tie to 9.0 m and 7.2 m long beam
Equation 11.9 Ft¢ = 96.0 kN/m ´ 1.0 m nominal = 96.0 kN
Equation 11.17 As = 96.0 ´ 103 /1593 = 60 mm2
Use one 12.5 mm strand (93) and also to 6.0 m end beams in other blocks
Transverse tie force between gable edge beams and cut outs in hollow core units
(Figure 11.16)
Ft ′ = 40 × 1.0 = 40.0 kN/m run irrespective of span, and A s = 80 mm 2 /m
Use H10 ties at 1.0 m centres (78)
Tie force in each bar Fti = 40.0 kN, and A sloop = 133 mm 2
Use pairs of H10 loops (157) projecting from edge beams
6. Internal tie to main spine beam 6.0 m span
Equation 11.9 Ft¢ = 40 ´ (6.0/5) ´ (10.0/7.5) = 64.0 kN/m
Supported floor length = (9.0 + 7.2)/2 = 8.1 m
Equation 11.17 As = 518.4 ´ 103 /1593 = 325 mm2
Use four 12.5 mm strands (372) two on each side of grid line
Lap length to all strand = 1600 mm (FIB 2012) where strands meet bars from gable beams.
Bar bending radius for 12.5 mm diameter strand Fbt = 1593 × 93 = 148.1 × 103 N
ab = 25 mm cover or gap between pairs, and fck = 25 N/mm 2
Equation 10.51 ri = 148.1 ´ 103[(1/ 25) + (1/ 25)]/(2 ´ 25 /1.5) = 355 mm
Use 400 mm radius

Prepare corners of hcu with 500 × 500 mm triangular recess as per Figure 11.8.
Checking with the energy equilibrium for internal tie 6, and taking pd = 5.0 + 0.3
× 5.0 = 6.50 kN/m 2 × 8.1 = 52.65 kN/m, DL = e ukL = 35 ´ 10-3 ´ 6.0 = 0.210 m,
a = éë(0.21 + 6.0)2 - 6.02 ùû = 1.60 m . Then T = 52.65 × 6.0 × 1.60/(2 × 0.210) =
1203 kN > Ft,beam = 518.4 kN.
7. Internal tie along front of central core area
Ties at side of voids. End of tie cannot be continuous at columns at corner of voids.
Therefore, use HT bar passing through sleeve in column and secured by plate washer.
As tie 5. Equation 11.17 A s = 96.0 × 103/500 = 192 mm 2
Use one H20 bar threaded to M20 (246) passing through the column at corner of void.
8. Tie along spine beam supporting 7.2/2 = 3.6 m floor slab
Equation 11.17 As = 230.4 ´ 103 /1593 = 145 mm2
Use two 12.5 mm diameter helical strand (2 × 93 = 186 mm 2) taking the two strands
from the side of ties no. 6.
9. Perimeter tie to edge beam 9.60 m span supporting 4.5 m average long floors
Equation 11.9 Ft¢ = 40 ´ (9.60 / 5) ´ (10.0 / 7.5) = 102.4 kN/m
Supported floor length = 4.5/2 = 2.25 m span
Equation 11.18 Ft ,beam = 102.4 ´ 2.25 = 230.4 kN = same as 8 .
Same as tie 8.
Block B
10. Floor ties for 12.0 m span floor
Equation 11.9 Ft¢ = 40 ´ (12.0/5) ´ (12.0/ 7.5) = 153.6 kN/m
Equation 11.17 As = 153.6 ´ 103 /500 = 307 mm2 /m run ´ 1.2 = 369 mm2 per 1.2 m
wide floor unit
Use four H12 bars at 300 mm centres (452)

Anchorage length = 46 × 12 = 552 mmProvide 600 mm long milled slot into hollow cores
11. Perimeter tie to edge beam 6.0 m span supporting 12.0 m long floors
Equation 11.9 Ft¢ = 64.0 kN/m
Equation 11.17 As = 384.0 ´ 103 /1593 = 241 mm2
Use three 12.5 mm diameter helical strand (279)

12. Internal tie to internal beam 6.0 m span between Block A and B
Equation 11.9 Ft¢max = 40 ´ (6.0/5) ´ (12.0/ 7.5) = 76.8 kN/m
Supported floor width = 1.0 + 9.0/2 = 5.5 m
Equation 11.17 As = 422.4 ´ 103 /1593 = 265 mm2
Use three 12.5 mm strands (279) one on the side of Block B and 2 on the side of Block A.
13. Perimeter tie to edge beam at column junction of Block A and B
Either use (i) HT bar passing through sleeve in column and secured by plate washer
Tie force as tie 11. A s = 384.0 × 103/500 = 768 mm 2 . Two H25 threaded to M24 =
706 mm 2 , thereby, needing H32 to M30 thread
or (ii) continue tie 11 at side of column and provide 1600 mm long into anchorage into
a wide in situ strip (say 300 mm) between the hollow core slabs
Use three 12.5 mm diameter helical strand (279)
Column ties
Edge column N Ed max = 3000 kN
Equation 11.20 Ft ,col max = 2.0 ´ 40 = 80 kN
Equation 11.21 = 40 ´ 3.5/2.5 = 56.0 kN
Equation 11.21 = 0.03 ´ 3000 = 90.0 kN
In the direction of the beam A s = 90.0 × 103/1593 = 56 mm 2 < area of at least 1 strand
(93) provided earlier.
In the direction perpendicular to the beam
Equation 11.22 As = 90.0 ´ 103 /500 ´ 2.4 = 75 mm2 /m run < 235 mm2 provided earlier
by H10 at 400 c/c.
Corner column N Ed = 1500 kN

As mentioned earlier = 80 kN and 56 kN except
Equation 11.21 Ft ,col = 0.03 ´ 1500 = 45.0 kN
In the direction of the beams A s = 80 × 103/1593 = 50 mm 2 < area of at least 1 strand (93)
Internal column – has no requirement.
REFERENCES
BS EN 1991-1-7. 2006. General actions – Accidental actions, BSI, London, UK.

Building Regulations. 2006. The Building Regulations 2000 Approved Document A: Structure,
Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, London, UK, 47pp.
Engstrőm, B. 1990. Connections between precast components, Nordisk Betong, Journal of the
Nordic Concrete Federation, 2–3, 53–56.
FIB. 2012. Bulletin 63, Design of Precast Concrete Structures Against Accidental Actions, Guide to
Good Practice, Fédération Internationale du Béton, Lausanne, Switzerland, 72pp.
Griffiths, H., Pugsley, A. G. and Saunders, O. 1968. Report of the inquiry into the collapse of flats at
Ronan Point, Canning Town. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, UK.
Scottish Building Standards. 2013a. Technical Handbook – Domestic, The Stationery Office,
Edinburgh, UK.
Scottish Building Standards. 2013b. Technical Handbook – Non-Domestic, The Stationery Office,
Edinburgh, UK.
UFC, United Facilities Criteria UFC 4-023-03. 2009. Design of Buildings to Resist Progressive
Collapse, US Department of Defence, Updated 2013, 245pp.
UK Ministry of Housing. 1968. UK Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Standards to
Avoid Progressive Collapse – Large Panel Construction, London.
Chapter 12
Design exercise for 10-storey

precast skeletal frame
12.1 DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT
12.1.1 Feasibility study information

The exercise is a feasibility study for the design a 10-storey retail and office building using
a total precast solution of beams, columns, slabs, staircases, walls and external facade
panels to harmonise with the one shown in Figure 12.1. The layout of the proposed build-
ing is shown in plan in Figure 12.2 and in cross section in Figure 12.3. The roof has a
clear span over the width of the building and is not to be included in the design.
Plan dimensions shown in Figure 12.2 are to grid lines. The internal arrangement,
such as extra columns and beams, has been omitted to enable alternative schemes for
spans, etc. Structural shear walls are only permitted in the staircase and lift shaft areas
marked A, B and C. Area A is for a 4 m wide lift and service shaft, and 4 m wide
main staircase. The beams crossing the service route (shown in Figure 12.2) should be
shallow, that is, not more than 200 mm downstand beneath the soffit of the floor slab.
Areas B and C are 5.0 m × 4.0 m staircases and landings. The wall to the service zone
at Area C cannot be a structural wall. There is a 2.0 m radius semicircular cantilever
balcony at the South end at first to ninth floor (not ground level). Storey heights are
shown in Figure 12.3. The column to foundation connection is pin-jointed to pile caps.
The maximum structural depth allowed internally is 700 mm. The maximum depth
of edge beams is 900 mm but with a maximum boot (beneath the soffit of the slab) of
400 mm. The maximum column size at ground floor is 500 mm, but the dimensions
of the column may be reduced at upper floors to not less than 300 mm. The thickness
of the insulated facade panels is 250 mm, including 100 mm thickness of insulation,
manufactured using lightweight aggregate concrete. The area of windows may be taken
as 25% of the surface area.
At 10-storeys the stability tie forces in a solely precast floor slab will be very large, for
example, it will be shown in the solution that a large number of strands/rebars will be
required for the beam ties, leading to considerable congestion at corners and T-junctions.
For this reason a structural topping, of thickness t at mid-span, power floated to give a fin-
ished floor, will be used.
The design graphs given in Figures 12.4 through 12.12 for the floor slabs, beams, columns
and walls, respectively, may be used to assist in the initial sizing and self-weight of compo-
nents, as well as in the final design of the columns and shear walls.
629
Figure 12.1 Suggested architectural features based on a similar seven-storey building.
18.0 Service area and service

voids in side of stair wall
N
6.0
Area C. 5.0 × 4.0
4.0 staircase
North wing
60.0
Area B. 5.0 × 4.0

staircase
Area A. 8.0 × 4.0 lift shafts,
staircase and services 4.0 6.0
Use shallow beams East wing 18.0

in the service route
18.0 2.0 radius cantilever

60.0
All dimensions in m
Figure 12.2 Plan.
Design exercise for 10-storey precast skeletal frame 631
Steelwork roof by others
3.6
9
4 Precast column, beam and slab frame,

with precast façade panels
35.0 Internal layout to be determined 3
8 × 3.3 =
26.4 2
1
1
5.0
Ground beams and slab by others Moment resisting
1.5 foundation
18.0
Figure 12.3 Cross-sectional elevation drawn to twice the plan scale.
10.0
Imposed load (kN/m2) includes topping 2.04 kN/m2
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
150 200 250 300 350 400 mm deep hcu

3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0
Clear span (m)
Self-weight of precast units in kN/m2 including infill into longitudinal joints

Depth 150 200 250 300 350 400
Self-weight 2.63 3.27 3.63 4.13 4.53 4.93
Figure 12.4 Composite hollow core slabs designed with a 75 mm topping. Graph already includes self-weight
of the topping = 75 + 10 mm camber = 85 mm depth. No finishes included. 100 mm bearing length. Span
limited to 55 × depth of precast unit.
10.0
Imposed load (kN/m2 ) including 1.8 kN/m2 topping
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
Precast = 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
4.0 + 75 topping
Total = 375
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0
Clear span (m)
Self-weight of composite double-tee units in kN/m2

Depth including Topping 375 475 575 675 775 875
Self-weight including topping 5.18 5.54 5.90 6.26 6.62 7.00
Figure 12.5 Composite double-tee slabs, with 100 mm top flange, including 75 mm topping propped during
construction. Graph includes self-weight of the topping. 150 mm bearing length.
200
175
Total ultimate dead + live load (kN/m)
150
125
400 500 600 700 mm deep

100
75
50
25
0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Clear span between column faces (m)
Self-weight of beam in kN/m

Depth 400 500 600 700
Self-weight 4.75 6.25 7.75 9.25
Figure 12.6 Load versus span graph for composite prestressed inverted-tee beams. 600 mm wide at soffit
with 350 × 200 mm upstand to suit 200 mm depth of precast floor unit.
200
175
Ultimate dead + live load (kN/m)
150
125
100
75 1000 mm deep
900
800
700
50 600
500
25
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Depth 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Self-weight 3.0 3.7 4.5 5.2 6.0 6.7
Figure 12.7 L-shape beams − 300 mm wide at soffit. Upstand breadth = 175 mm and depth to suit depth of floor slab.
200
175
150
Ultimate dead + live load (kN/m)
125
700
100
600
500
75 400
300
50
25
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Depth 300 400 500 600 700
Self-weight 2.25 3.00 3.75 4.50 5.25
Figure 12.8 Rectangular shape beams −300 mm wide.
1.4
d2 /h = 0.15
1.3 Kr = 0.1
d2
1.2
0.2
1.1
0.3 b
1.0
0.4 As fyk /bh fck
0.9 h
0.5 As= total steel area
0.8
1.0
NEd /fck bh
0.7 0.8 0.6
0.6 0.6
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.2 0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
1.0
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
MEd /fck bh2
Figure 12.9 Design graphs for reinforced concrete column. d2/h = 0.15, d2 is the axis distance to centroid of
bars, h is the depth of column and b is the breadth of column.
1.4
d2 /h = 0.20
1.3 Kr = 0.1 d2
1.2
0.2
1.1 b
0.3
1.0
As fyk /bh fck
0.4 h
0.9
As = total steel area
0.8 0.5
NEd /fck bh
1.0
0.7 0.6
0.8
0.6 0.6
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.2 0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
1.0
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
MEd /fck bh2
Figure 12.10 Design graphs for reinforced concrete column. d2/h = 0.20, d2 is the axis distance to centroid
of bars, h is the depth of column and b is the breadth of column.
1600
1500
1400
Ultimate horizontal shear capacity (kN)
1300
1200
1100
1000 Thickness = 250 mm
900 225
800 200
700 175
600 150
Concrete grade C50
500 Clear height of wall = 4.6 m
400
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
Clear length of wall (m)
Figure 12.11 Ultimate horizontal capacity of precast concrete infill shear walls for 4.6 m high ground floor
walls (assume first floor beam depth is 400 mm). The cutoff is where effective diagonal (corner–
corner) height/thickness >25.
800
Thickness = 250 mm
700
Ultimate horizontal shear capacity (kN)
225
600
200
500
175
400
150
300
Concrete grade C50
Clear height of wall = 2.9 m
200
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
Clear length of wall (m)
Figure 12.12 Ultimate horizontal capacity of precast concrete infill shear walls for 2.9 m high upper floor
walls (assume floor beam depth is 400 mm). The cutoff is where effective diagonal (corner–
corner) height/thickness > 25 m.
12.1.2 Imposed characteristic loads, densities

and partial load factors
Structural topping, allowing 20 mm cambera (t + 10) × 25 × 10−3kN/m2

Services and ceiling 0.60 kN/m2
Partitions 1.00 kN/m2
Live 4.00 kN/m2
Roof dead load allow 1.25 kN/m2
Roof live load 0.75 kN/m2
Finishes to staircases 0.25 kN/m2
Windows 0.20 kN/m2
Internal plastering to facade panels and walls 0.30 kN/m2
Lightweight aggregate concrete 18.0 kN/m3
a Mean depth of topping = t + 0.5 × 20 density of 25 kN/m3.
Characteristic wind pressure 0.6 kN/m2

Ultimate live load combination factor ψ0 0.7
Quasi-permanent load factor ψ2 0.3
Creep factor for long-term deflection φ(∞,to) 2.0
Finishes are brittle partitions such that deflection after finishes = span/500.
12.1.3 Bearings and production and construction data
Cover to reinforcing bars, including links 30 mm

Bearing length for slabs supported on beams 100 mm
Bearing length for beams onto column corbels 150 mm
Clear gap between end of beam and face of column 20 mm
Construction tolerance for beam to column position ±15 mm
Maximum length of component 20.0 m
Maximum weight of component 20 tonnes
12.1.4 Materials
Concrete Prestressed concrete beams and slabs fck = 45 N/mm2 (55 cube)
Transfer strength at 20 hours detensioning fck(t) = 30 N/mm2
Columns and walls fck = 50 N/mm2
Reinforced concrete beams, slab, staircase fck = 32 N/mm2
In situ infill fcki = 25 N/mm2
Steel Rebar (grade B) fyk = 500 N/mm2
Shear stirrups in beams and links in column fywk = 500 N/mm2
Prestressing tendons fpk = 1770 N/mm2
12.2 ULTIMATE LOAD COMBINATIONS
Gravity and wind according to BS EN 1990:
Case 1. Equation 6.10 1.35Gk + 1.5ψ0Qk with 0.75Wk

Case 2. Equation 6.10b1 1.25Gk + 1.5Qk with 0.75Wk
Case 3. Equation 6.10b2 1.25Gk with 1.5Wk
12.3 SOLUTION
12.3.1 Introduction
The exercise is a feasibility study for the design of a 10-storey precast concrete skeletal
frame for a retail and office building using a solution of beams, columns, slabs, staircases,
shear walls and external facade panels. The building is L-shape in plan, with two wings, the
North and East wings, each 60 m long × 18 m in width. There is a 2.0 m radius cantilever
balcony on the front facade. The building is 35 m high, comprising a 5.0 m ground floor
retail podium, eight floors of offices of 3.3 m storey height and a 3.6 m high steel Mansard
roof. The total precast column height to the ninth floor = 32.9 m.
The building is on good ground with a high bearing pressure, so the foundations do
not need to be considered. There are restrictions in the position of the crane on the West
and South sides, where there are main roads, so the erection sequence has to be consid-
ered. The contractor has allowed a 30-week period to erect the superstructure. As the
total area of the building is 16,600 m 2 this equates to 553 m 2 per week or a bay length
of 31 m per week.
The first design issue is structural stability. Clearly the building is too high to be
unbraced, and it is not possible to erect full height columns, so pin-jointed splices are
needed. Therefore, the frame is braced using shear walls or cores. The best positions for
these are around the central lift and stair area A, and the stairs at B and C. The three core
areas are well spaced and in good positions for this, as shown in Figure 12.13, in terms of
the centroids of external wind pressure, the mass of the building and the position of the
centre of the shear wall system.
12.3.2 Frame stability

Referring to Figure 12.14, the total horizontal force H = ultimate wind pressure + sway due
to imperfection θi × N.
Refer to BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 5.2(5) and (8) and Exp. 5.1
Height of bracing system above ground beams = 35.0 m
ì 2ü
a h = max í2 /Ö 35 = 0.338; ý = 0.667. a m = Ö 0.5(1 + 1/60) = 0.713
î 3þ
where m is the estimated number of columns contributing to the total effect = 60
qi = 0.005 ´ 0.667 ´ 0.713 = 0.0024
18.0
4.0
5.0
North wing
Centre of
shear system
60.0
4.0 4.0
4.0 4.0 4.0
30.0
20.8 5.0
Centre of
gravity mass
21.4 18.0
Centre of wind
30.0 pressure
60.0
Figure 12.13 Stability features showing the centroids of external forces, building mass and shear system
positions of shear walls.
N is the ultimate axial load for the whole building to be estimated from the load versus span
graphs as follows:
Floor slab: The main decision is the function of stability ties and floor diaphragm in a floor
slab with or without a structural topping. For 10 storeys the basic tie force Ft = 60 kN/m.
Assuming the self-weight of the floor slab and finishes = 5.0 kN/m2 plus the imposed load =
4.0 + 1.0 + 0.6 = 5.6 kN/m2 , and the maximum column centres = 18.0/2 = 9.0 m, the design tie
force Ft′ = 60 × (10.6/7.5) × (9.0/5) = 152.6 kN/m. Without a structural topping, the internal
beam tie Ft,int = 152.6 × 9.0 = 1373 kN. Using strand stressed at 90% × 1770 = 1593 N/mm2
requires As,tie = 861 mm2 (10 no. 12.5 mm or 7 no. 15.2 mm dia.) clearly an impossible choice.
Therefore, a structural topping (with a steel mesh fyk = 500 N/mm2) is required where As,tie =
152.6 × 103/500 = 306 mm2/m. Use A393 mesh with 10 mm bars. Where three sheets of mesh
lap the total depth of nested bars = 4 × 10 = 40 mm. Allowing 20 mm top cover and 15 mm
cover to the top of precast, total topping depth = 75 mm.
Axial column loads, horizontal sway

and wind loads per 8 m bay length
218
6.5 0.9
664 1169
6.4
12.4
664 1169
6.4
11.9
664 1169
6.4
11.9
664 1169
6.4
11.9
35 m
θ1 = 0.0024 rad
NEd3
Hi3
WEd3
NEd2
Hi2
WEd2
NEd1 3.3 m
Hi1
WEd1
5.0 m
1.5 m
9.0 m 5.0 m 4.0 m
at lifts
Figure 12.14 Gravity, wind and sway loads in typical 8.0 m span bay length.
There are three options for floor spans – three bays of 6.0 m, two bays of 9.0 m, or single
span of 18.0 m.
Using the double-tee slabs load versus span graphs (imposed load = 5.6 kN/m 2)
18.0 m is not possible within the 700 mm construction zone. The depth for 9.0 m
span is 400 + 75 = 475 mm requiring half-joints at beams to achieve 700 mm total
depth. From the hollow core units load versus span graphs 18.0 m span is not possible
using 400 + 75 mm topping. For 6.0 m span 150 + 75 mm is possible, but this requires
two lines of beams and columns. For 9.0 m span 200 + 75 mm offers the best option.
Allowing for 20 mm upward camber of the hollow core unit, the self-weight of the
topping will be based on 85 mm depth, and the depth of the topping at the supporting
beams will be about 95 mm.
Assume the stair and lift areas are of the same weight per square metres as the floors.
The following Ultimate floor load table shows that BS EN 1990 Exp. 6.10b governs
Dead loads Exp. 6.10a γG Ultimate Exp. 6.10b γG Ultimate

Floor self-weight 3.27
Structural topping 2.13
Services 0.60
Total 6.00 1.35 8.09 1.25 7.49
Live loads Equation 6.10 γQ Ultimate Equation 6.11 γQ Ultimate
Partitions 1.00
Imposed live 4.00
Total 5.00 1.05 5.25 1.5 7.50
Grand total 13.34 14.99
Using dead load γG = 1.25; live load γQ = 1.5. Ultimate floor load = 14.99 kN/m 2 .
Total floor load per floor = 1,842 × 14.99 = 27,623 kN.
Edge beams per floor linearage = 240 m. (Self-weight of r.c. = 25 kN/m3). Maximum
allowable depth of 900 × 175 upstand with 400 × 300 mm downstand below the slab = 5.19 ×
1.25 = 6.48 kN/m × 240 = 1556 kN.
Internal inverted-tee beams per floor linearage = 120 m. Use 600 wide × maximum depth
of 700 − 95 topping = 605 mm, rounded to 50 mm increment of 600 mm = 7.75 × 1.25 =
9.69 kN/m × 120 = 1162.5 kN. Extra 400 × 300 mm rectangular beams around stairs total-
ling 64 m = 240 kN.
Columns: Assume average of 400 mm square = 4.0 kN/m. Approximate number of
columns = length beams/8.0 m = 53. Length of column per storey = 53 × 3.3 m = 173 m.
Self-weight = 4.0 × 1.25 = 5.0 kN/m × 173 = 866 kN.
Cladding: Self-weight outer leaf (3.3 m high) = 3.34 + inner leaf (2.4 m high) 2.43 + windows
0.12 + plaster 0.54 = 6.43 kN/m. Ultimate self-weight = 6.43 × 1.25 = 8.04 kN/m × 240 =
1929 kN.
Shear walls: Walls can be located on two sides of stair B and three sides of C and around
three sides of the lift well at A over a total length of 35.8 m. Wall thickness has to be esti-
mated because the horizontal force is not yet known. The thickness of walls is also a function
of height when lifting in the factory. As height of ground floor walls is 4600 m (assuming 400
deep beams above walls), using a height/d = say 25. Then d > 4600/25 = 184 mm + cover
30 > 214 mm. Use 225 mm thick walls. Plastering (two layers) to shear walls around stairs =
1.72 kN/m.
Self-weight 225 mm plus plastering = 18.1 × 1.25 = 22.6 kN/m × 35.8 = 808 kN
Total ultimate load per floor. Case 2 (all loads) = 34,163 kN; Case 3 (dead) = 20,376
kN per floor
For the roof. Case 2 allow 1.25 kN/m 2 × area = 4951 kN; Case 3 = 2879 kN
Average axial load at foundation per floor area. Case 2 = 169.7 kN/m 2 and Case 3 =
101.1 kN/m 2 .
12.3.3 Sway due to imperfection at foundation

BS EN 1992-1-1, Exp. 5.4. Hi = θi(Nb − Na) = θiN where N is the axial load at each floor in turn.
Case 2. Dead + live + wind
Hi per first floor = 0.0024 × 34,193 = 81.3 kN
Hi per second to ninth floor = 0.0024 × 34,193 = 81.3 kN
Hi per 10th floor = 0.0024 × 4951 = 11.8 kN
Total Hi = 743.5 kN
Case 3. Dead + wind only

Hi per first floor = 0.0024 × 20,376 = 48.4 kN
Hi per 10th floor = 0.0024 × 2879 = 6.8 kN
Total Hi = 442.9 kN
This is to be added to the wind pressure of 0.6 kN/m 2 over an elevation of 60 m length ×

height of 35 m. Characteristic wind force Wk = 0.6 × 35 × 60 = 1260 kN.
Ultimate wind force WEd. Case 1 = 0.75 × 1260 = 945 kN; Case 2 = 1.5 × 1260 = 1890 kN.
Maximum horizontal force WEd + HEd = 743.5 + 945 = 1688.5 kN
WEd + H Ed = 442.9 = 1890 = 2332.9 kN is for Case 3.
12.3.3.1 Frame stability in NS direction

The sway due to imperfection is split into two areas: for the main block = 60 × 18 m + 2.0
m semicircle = 1086 m 2 , and the North wing = 18 × 42 = 756 m 2 .
Main block ΣN = 1,086 × 101.1 = 109,828 kN
Hi = 0.0024 ´ 109,828 = 261.1 kN
plus wind load = 1890 = 2151 kN over building length of 60 m = 35.85 kN/m
North wing ΣN = 756 × 101.1 = 76,435.1 kN
Hi = 0.0024 ´ 76,435.1 = 181.7 kN over building length of 18 m = 10.10 kN/m
Centroid of pressure = 28.36 m from left edge.

Total length of wall available = grid centres minus column size, taken as 400 mm.
3.600 m (stair C) + 2 × 3.600 m (at lift) + 2 × 4.600 m (sides of stair B) = 20.00 m.
Horizontal force carried by each wall is equal to the thickness × length3 according to
the position of each wall in the system. A trial thickness is first required. For wall height =
4600 mm wall panel thickness > 214 mm. Try wt = 0.3 × 0.3 × 25 = 2.25 kN/m. The dis-
tribution of wind pressure and notional sway forces are given in Table 12.1 and shown for
each direction in Figure 12.15.
Table 12.1 Horizontal floor stiffness and force distribution analysis and reactions in the EW direction
Wall ref Thickness (m) Length (m) Distance xi (m) EIi (kNm2) EIxi (kNm3) ai (m)
C1 0.225 3.6 18.0 32.6 587.0 −19.8
A1 0.225 3.6 18.0 32.6 587.0 −19.8
A2 0.225 3.6 18.0 32.6 587.0 −19.8
B1 0.225 4.6 50.0 68.0 3401.7 12.2
B2 0.225 4.6 54.0 68.0 3673.8 16.2
Sum 233.9 8836.5
Wall ref EIai2 (kNm4) EIai (kNm3) EIi/ΣEIi eEIai/ΣEia2 Coefficient total WEd + HEd (kN)
C1 12,758 −645.0 0.139 0.092 0.231 538.8
A1 12,758 −645.0 0.139 0.092 0.231 538.8
A2 12,758 −645.0 0.139 0.092 0.231 538.8
B1 10,161 831.4 0.291 −0.118 0.173 403.3
B2 17,901 1103.6 0.291 −0.157 0.134 313.2
Sum 66,335 1.000 2332.9
Shear centre x = 8836.5/233.9 = 37.78 m from left edge.

X = 28.25 m. ex = −9.53 m to left of shear centre.
H at Wall C1 = 0.231 × 2332.9 = 538.8 kN. From graph use t = 225 mm thick wall
H at Wall A1 = 0.231 × 2332.9 = 538.8 kN. From graph use t = 225 mm*
H at Wall A2 = 0.231 × 2332.9 = 538.8 kN. From graph use t = 225 mm*
H at Wall 1 B1 = 0.173 × 2332.9 = 403.3 kN. From graph use t = 225 mm
H at Wall B2 = 0.134 × 2332.9 = 313.2 kN. From graph use t = 225 mm
12.3.3.2 Frame stability in EW direction
Main block ΣN = 1,086 × 101.1 = 109,828.2 kN

Hi = 0.0024 × 109,828.2 = 261.1 kN
plus wind load = 1953 = 2214 kN over building length of 62 m = 35.71 kN/m
East wing ΣN = 756 × 101.1 = 76,435.1 kN
Hi = 0.0024 ´ 76,435.1 = 181.7 kN over building length of 18 m = 10.10 kN/m
Centroid of pressure = 32.52 m from left edge

From the floor plans only one wall is available at stair C. Total length of wall available =
4.600 m (one side of stair C) + 2 × 3.600 m (at lift A) + 3.600 m (stair B) = 15.40 m. The
distribution of wind pressure and notional sway forces are given in Table 12.2.
Shear centre y = 4956.0 / 176.7 = 28.04 m from left edge.
Y = 32.63 m. ey = 4.58 m below shear centre.
H at Wall C3 = 0.239 × 2332.9 = 571.8 kN. From graph use t = 225 mm†
* Design at first floor requires 225 mm thickness.

† Design at first floor requires 250 mm thickness.
Figure 12.15 Wall reactions due to wind and sway loads.
H at Wall A3 = 0.231 × 2332.9 = 552.9 kN. From graph use t = 225 mm†

H at Wall A4 = 0.265 × 2332.9 = 635.6 kN. From graph use t = 225 mm†
H at Wall B3 = 0.265 × 2332.9 = 635.6 kN. From graph use t = 225 mm†
Wall self-weight: Maximum self-weight of ground floor walls = 11.90 tonnes < 20 tonnes
allowed, however, the contractor may wish to split the wall into two pieces as the weight of
this unit is clearly much greater than others in the building.
Table 12.2 Horizontal floor stiffness and force distribution analysis and reactions in the EW direction
Wall ref Thickness (m) Length (m) Distance xi (m) EIi (kNm2) EIxi (kNm3) ai (m)
C3 0.225 4.6 10.0 68.0 680.3 −18.0
A3 0.250 3.6 34.0 36.2 1232.0 6.0
A4 0.250 3.6 42.0 36.2 1521.8 14.0
B3 0.250 3.6 42.0 36.2 1521.8 14.0
Sum 176.7 4956.0
Wall ref EIai2 (kNm4) EIai (kNm3) EIi/ΣEIi eEIai/ΣEia2 Coefficient total WEd + HEd (kN)
C3 22,145 −1227.4 0.385 −0.146 0.239 571.8
A3 1,286 215.9 0.205 0.026 0.231 552.9
A4 7,060 505.8 0.205 0.060 0.265 635.6
B3 7,060 505.8 0.205 0.060 0.265 635.6
Sum 37,551 1.000 2395.9
12.3.4 Sway due to imperfection at first to second floor

BS EN 1992-1-1, Exp. 5.4. Hi = θi(Nb − Na) = θiN where N is the axial load at each floor in turn.
Case 2. Dead + live + wind
Hi per 10th floor = 0.0024 × 4951 = 11.8 kN
Total Hi = 662.2 kN
Case 3. Dead + wind only

Hi per 10th floor = 0.0024 × 2879 = 6.8 kN
Total Hi = 394.4 kN
This is to be added to the wind pressure = 0.6 kN/m 2 × 60 m length × height of 30 m.
Wk = 0.6 ´ 30 ´ 60 = 1080 kN
Ultimate wind force WEd. Case 2 = 0.75 × 1080 = 810 kN; Case 3 = 1.5 × 1080 = 1620 kN
Maximum horizontal force WEd + H Ed = 2014.4 kN is for Case 3.
12.3.4.1 Frame stability in the NS direction

For wall height = 2900 mm wall panel thickness > 146 mm
H at Wall C1 = 0.231 × 2014.4 = 465.3 kN. From graph use t = 225 mm
H at Wall A1 = 0.231 × 2014.4 = 465.3 kN. From graph use t = 225 mm
12.3.4.2 Frame stability in the EW direction


By inspection use same wall thickness from second to third floor.
12.3.5 Sway due to imperfection above the third floor

Case 2. Dead + live + wind. Fourth to 10th floors Hi = 499.6 kN
Case 3. Dead + wind only. Fourth to 10th floors Hi = 297.5 kN
This is to be added to the wind pressure = 0.6 kN/m 2 × 60 m length × height 23.4 m
Wk = 0.6 ´ 23.4 ´ 60 = 842.4 kN
Ultimate wind force W Ed. Case 2 = 0.75 × 842.4 = 631.8 kN; Case 3 = 1.5 × 842.4 =
1263.6 kN
Maximum horizontal force = 1561.1 kN is for Case 3.
For wall height (see the earlier text) = 2900 mm wall panel thickness > 146 mm
For lifting purposes, longest dimension = 4600 mm. Using length/d = 30, d > 153 and
t > 153 + 30 + say 6 =189 mm. Use t = 200 mm minimum
12.3.5.1 Frame stability in the NS direction

Critical walls only:
12.3.5.2 Frame stability in the EW direction
12.3.6 Precast hollow core floor diaphragm

Refer to Figure 12.16a and b for the parts of the frame considered to be contributing to the
floor diaphragm (shaded) in each direction.
Consider first floor diaphragm which has greater storey heights and column axial loads
above and below it. Storey heights = 5.0 and 3.3 m, then average = 4.15 m
Wind pressure at first floor. Case 2 critical wEd = 0.75 ´ 0.6 ´ 4.15 = 1.87 kN/m
BS EN 1992-1-1, Exp. 5.5. Hi = θ1(Nb + Na)/2
Number of contributing columns (take half of total estimate of 60) = 30

ì 2ü
a h = max í2/Ö 4.15 = 0.982; ý = 0.982. a m = Ö 0.5(1 + 1/30) = 0.719
î 3þ
q1 = 0.005 ´ 0.719 ´ 0.982 = 0.00353 for h = 4.150 m storey height

Na = roof 4951 + 8 × floors 34,193 = 278,497 kN. Equates to 151 kN/m 2
Nb = roof 4951 + 9 × floors 34,193 = 312,690 kN. Equates to 170 kN/m 2
Figure 12.16 (a) Floor diaphragm action in NS direction (spanning EW). (Continued)
Figure 12.16 (Continued) (b) Floor diaphragm action in EW direction (spanning NS).
12.3.6.1 NS direction with diaphragm spanning EW

Horizontal reaction due to imperfection in NS direction acting on South elevation from a
contributing area = 60 × 18 + 2 m semicircle = 1086 m 2
N a = 1,086 ´ 151 = 164,213 kN. Nb = 1,086 ´ 170 = 184,374 kN
Hi = 0.00353 ´ (164,213 + 184,374)/2 = 615 kN
to be distributed along the elevation of the building = 615/60 = 10.25 kN/m. Total horizon-
tal line load = 1.87 + 10.25 = 12.12 kN/m
Refer to Figure 12.16a for the wall reactions and shear force diagram. The coefficients for
the reactions in each wall are the same as those for the stability analysis given in Table 12.1.
Bending moment at A = 12.12 × 18.02 /2 = 1963 kNm
Maximum moment between A and B at point of zero shear, occurs at 38.71 m from left end
MEdh,max = 635.8 kNm
Maximum M Edh = 1963 kNm
Lever arm z = 0.75 × breadth of floor = 0.75 × 18 = 13.5 m
Using mesh of strength = 500 N/mm 2
Mesh A sh = 1,963 × 106/(13,500 × 0.87 × 500) = 334 mm 2
Use A393 mesh (393 mm 2 /m)
Maximum shear force to right of A and C, V Edh,max = 251.0 kN
Shear stress vEdh = 251.0 × 103/(18,000 × 75) = 0.19 N/mm 2
BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 6.2.2(1) <vRdh = 0.49 N/mm 2
12.3.6.2 EW direction with diaphragm spanning NS

Hi is to be distributed along the elevation of the building (including the 2 m radius also
considered in the wind pressure) = 615.0/62 = 9.92 kN/m. Total horizontal line load = 1.87 +
9.92 = 11.79 kN/m.
Refer to Figure 12.16b for the wall reactions and shear force diagram. The coefficients for
the reactions in each wall are the same as those for the stability analysis given in Table 12.2.
Bending moment at B = 11.79 × 20.02 /2 = 2357 kNm
Maximum moment between C3 and A3 at point of zero shear, occurs at 17.87 m from left end
MEdh,max = -224.2 kNm
Maximum M Edh = 2357 kNm
Mesh A sh = 2,357 × 106/(13,500 × 0.87 × 500) = 402 mm 2>393 say OK (based on
conservative estimate of lever arm)
Maximum shear force to right of B, V Edh,max = 235.7 kN
vEdh = 235.7 ´ 103 /(18,000 ´ 75) = 0.17 N/mm 2 < 0.49 N/mm 2
12.4 FLOOR SLAB DESIGN
See Figure 12.17a for grid layout of slabs and beams.
12.4.1. Hollow core floors

Iteration is required to design the floor slab because the effective span leff of the floor
depends on the width of the bearing beams and floor depth, that is, clear span ln is the
column centres − sum of 1/2 breadth of supporting beams. Referring to BS EN 1992-1-1,
Figure 12.17 (a) Proposed plan layout of slabs, beams, columns and walls. (b) Proposed elevation and cross section.
Exp. 5.8, leff = ln + min{h/2;Lb1/2} + min{h/2;Lb2 /2} where h is the depth of slab (including
topping) and Lb2 and Lb1 are the bearing lengths at either end.
Assume internal beam = 600 mm wide and external beam = 300 mm wide. Lb = 100 mm
ln = 9000 - 300 - 150 = 8550 mm
Try 200 + 75 = 275 mm depth.
Self-weight topping, allowing for 20 mm camber = (75 + 20/2) × 25 × 10−3 = 2.13 kN/m2
Exp 5.8 Effective span leff = 8550 + min{100;275} = 8650 mm
Stage 1 loads Service Ultimate (Exp. 6.10b) (kN/m2)

Self-weight of hollow core unit, including grouted joints 3.27
Self-weight of topping 2.13
Total 5.40 6.74
Stage 2 loads
Services, partitions and live load 5.60 8.25
Total 11.00 14.99
Use the model calculation given in Section 4.3.1 for the cross section as shown in Figure 12.18.
Try 1200 × 200 deep unit pre-tensioned using 6 no. × 12.5 mm + 4 no. × 9.3 mm strands
at 35 mm cover. fck = 45 N/mm2 , f pk = 1770 N/mm2 , Ap = 6 × 93 + 4 × 52 = 766 mm2 ,
ys = 40.8 mm, yb = 99 mm.
Initial Ppi = 0.7 × 1770 × 766 = 949.1 kN. Losses = 25.1%. Final Ppo = 710.85 kN at
zcp = 58.1 mm
Final stress. Bottom f b = + 11.11 N/mm 2 . Top f t = −1.4 N/mm 2
Section Zb = 7.244 and Zb,c (composite) = 12.196 × 106 mm3
Section Zt = 6.919 and Zt,c (composite) = 31.653 × 106 mm3
Figure 12.18 Cross section of 1200 × 200 mm deep hollow core unit used in this exercise. Strands repre-
sented by solid dots (9.3 mm dia.) and open dots (12.5 mm dia.)
Service stress limit state

Stage 1. Ms1 = 1.2 × 5.40 × 8.652/8 = 60.55 kNm per unit/Zb = 60.55/7.244 =
−8.36 N/mm2
Stage 2. Ms2 = 1.2 × 5.60 × 8.652/8 = 62.85 kNm per unit/Zb,c = 62.85/12.196 =
−5.15 N/mm2
Net stress fb 8.36 5.15 11.11 2.40 N/mm2 fctm 0.3fck2 / 3 3.80 OK
Stage 2 at top. M s2,q-p = 0.3 × 62.85 = 18.86 kNm per unit/Zb,t = 18.86 / 31.653 =
+0.60 N/mm 2
Net stress f t = 8.75 + 0.60 + −1.40 = 7.95 N/mm 2 < 0.45 fck = 20.25 OK
Ultimate flexure
MEd = 1.2 ´ 14.99 ´ 8.652 /8 = 168.28 kNm per unit
d 275 40.8 234.2 mm. X 80.5 mm 75 (hft )30 105 mm.
z 202 mm. fp 1429.4 N/mm 2
MRd 766 1429.4 202 221.2 kNm 168.3 OK
Ultimate shear
Shear span lv = 8550 − 2 × 99 = 8352 mm
VEd = 1.2 ´ 14.99 ´ 8.352/2 = 75.1 kN. VEd Stage 1 = 33.8 kN and vEd1 = 0.76 N/mm 2
Section Ixx,c = 1761 × 106 mm4, Sxx,c = 8.817 × 106 mm3, bw = 303 mm
l l x /l pt 2 (100 99)/737 0.27, fctd 1.77 N/mm 2 , cp 4.20 N/mm2
VRd ,c (1761 303 / 8.817) (1.77 2 0.27 4.20 1.77) 0.76 10 3

33.8
125.0 kN 75.1 OK
Camber and deflection

Camber at transfer = −9.3 mm, at installation = −15.1 mm, after casting topping =
−7.3 mm
Final long term = 3.9 < 1/250 = 34.6 mm. After installation = 8.3 < 1/500 = 17.3 mm
Natural frequency = 6.1 Hz for elastic deflection = 8.6 mm
Use 200 mm deep hollow core unit with 75 mm topping

End reactions to beams: dead = 6.00 × 9.0/2 = 26.98 kN/m and live = 5.00 × 9.0/2 =
22.5 kN/m.
12.4.2 Floor slab at cantilever

The curved shape of the units is difficult to achieve with the dry mix used in hollow
core units. Therefore, use a solid prestressed slab 200 mm depth with 75 mm in situ
topping. Design 4 no. special units × 1.0 m nominal width. b = 997 mm wide (bottom) and
955 mm wide at top. Try 7 no. 12.5 mm strands in bottom at 35 mm cover and 4 no. 5 mm
wires in top at 25 mm cover.
Stage 1 loads Service Ultimate (Exp. 6.10b) (kN/m)

Self-weight of precast slab 4.90
Self-weight of toppinga 2.00
Total 6.90 8.63
Stage 2 loads
Services, partitions and live load 5.60 8.25
Total UDL 12.50 16.88
Cladding at end of cantilever 6.43 8.04 (kN)
a Allow average of 5 mm camber at installation as shown in the following text.
Top steel. Stage 1 ultimate design for precast alone at cantilever support
M Ed1 max at 2.0 m radius = 8.63 × 2.002 /2 = −17.25 kNm
b = 997 mm, d1 = 200 - cover 25 - bar rad. 2.5 = 172.5 mm
K1 = 17.25 ´ 106 /(32 ´ 1000 ´ 172.52 ) = 0.018
z1 /d1 0 .5 0.25 0.018 / 1.133 min 0.95, z1 163.9 mm
x1 = (172.5 - 163.9)/0.4 = 21.6 mm (cannot be used in Stage 2)
As1 = 17.25 ´ 106 /(163.9 ´ 0.87 ´ 1770) = 68 mm2 /m
Use top wires 4 no. 5 dia. (79) at 25 mm cover in prestressed unit
Stage 2 design for precast with topping
MEd2 = 8.25 ´ 2.002 /2 + 8.04 ´ 2.00 = -32.58 kNm
b = 1000 mm, d2 = 275 - cover 30 - 5 - (x1 used in Stage 1)216 = 218.4 mm
K2 = 32.58 ´ 106 /(32 ´ 1000 ´ 218.42 ) = 0.021
z2 / d 2 0 .5 0.25 0.021 / 1.133 min 0.95, z2 207.5 mm
As2 = 32.58 ´ 106 /(207.5 ´ 0.87 ´ 500) = 361 mm2 /m width
Use A393 mesh at 30 mm cover

Bottom steel. Stage 1 services stress for precast alone
Using the model calculation given in Section 4.3.1
fck = 45 N/mm 2 , fpk = 1770 N/mm2 , Ap = 730 mm2 , ys = 55.4 mm
zcp = 43.7 mm
Final stress. Bottom f b = 9.01 N/mm 2 . Top f t = −1.23 N/mm 2
Section Zb = 6.669 and Zb,c = 12.247 × 106 mm3
Section Zt = 6.456 and Zt,c = 24.405 × 106 mm3
Stage 1. M s1 = 59.14 kNm per unit/Zb = 59.14/6.67 = −8.87 N/mm 2
Stage 2. M s2 = 45.86 kNm per unit/Zb,c = 45.86/12.25 = −3.74 N/mm2
Stage 2 at top. M s2,q-p = 0.3 × 45.86 = 13.76 kNm per unit/Zb,t = 13.76/24.405 =
+0.56 N/mm 2
Ultimate flexure
Ap in bottom = 7 × 93 = 651 mm 2
MEd1(Stage 1) = 74.0 kNm, K1 = 0.068, z1 = 148 mm and Ap1 = 329 mm2
Aps2 = 651 - 329 = 322 mm2 , d = 233.8 mm, X = 43.3 mm. z = 216.4 mm.
Then fp = 1516.5 N/mm 2
MRd = 322 ´ 1516.5 ´ 216.4 ´ 10-6 + 74.0 = 179.8 kNm > 139.5 OK
MEd (Stage 1 and 2) 139.5 kNm 179.8 kNm
The full bending moment and resistance diagrams are shown in Figure 12.19.
Ultimate shear
VEd = 75.0 kN, VEd1 = 37.2 kN, vEd1 = 0.30 N/mm2
Section Ixx,c = 1631 × 106 mm4, Sxx,c = 8.969 × 106 mm3, bw = 934 mm
al = l x /l pt 2 = 199 / 835 = 0.24, fctd = 1.77 and scp = 3.38 N/mm 2
VRd ,c (1631 934 / 8.969) (1.77 2 0.24 3.38 1.77) 0.30 10 3 + 37.2
349.2 kN 75.0 OK
Camber at transfer = −0.2 mm, at installation = −4.2 mm, after casting topping = 2.6 mm
Final long term = 13.7 < 1/250 =35 mm. After installation = 6.8 < 1/500 = 25 mm
200
Ultimate MRd
180
160
Ultimate MEd
140
120 Service Msr

100
Moment (kNm)
80
Service Ms
60
40
20
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
–20
Distance from left hand support (m)
–40
–60
Figure 12.19 Bending moment diagrams for prestressed concrete floor slab with 2.0 m cantilever.
Natural frequency = 6.1 Hz for elastic deflection = 8.4 mm
End reaction (left end) to internal beam for max–min load combination. Dead = 34.12
kN/m. Live = 15.66 kN/m.
End reaction (right end) to beam beneath cantilever for max–max load combination.
Dead = 64.37 kN/m. Live = 27.34 kN/m.
12.5 EDGE BEAMS
The span of edge beams depends on (1) the architect’s preference for a modular grid of
windows, services, room sizes, etc., (2) limitation on depth, set as 900 mm and (3) slender-
ness of upstand in edge beams, particularly during construction.
Self-weight of beam, cladding and floor loads = 5.19 + 6.43 + 26.98 + 22.50 = 61.1 kN/m.
Total ultimate edge beam loads = 82.0 kN/m. From the load versus span graph, maxi-
mum clear span ≤ 11.0 m, then column centres ≤ 11.0 + 0.3 = 11.3 m >9.0 m required.
Use depth = 900 mm, downstand = (limited to) 400 mm, upstand = 900 − 400 = 500 mm.
Beam breadth = 300 mm, bearing length for slab = 100 mm, gap = 25 mm, upstand =
300 − 125 = 175 mm.
Then effective length l0t = 70 × 175/((500/175)1/3)10−3 = 8.63 m. If column size =
300 mm, and bearing centres (see in the following text) 2 × 70 mm, then column centres
≤ 9.07 m OK.
Use maximum column centres = 9.0 m (at SW corner of building)
On the East elevation between stairs C and A, column grid distance = 24 m/3 bays = 8.0 m
Use 900 × 300 deep L beam with 400 deep boot and 500 × 175 mm upstand.
12.5.1 Edge beam design for column centres = 9.0 m

Using the model calculation given in Section 5.2 as shown in Figure 12.20
Service Ultimate (Exp. 6.10b) (kN/m)

Floor slab dead load 26.98 33.72
Self-weight of beam 5.19 6.48
Precast facade 6.43 8.04
Floor slab live load 22.50 33.75
Total 61.10 82.00
300 or 400
column
175
75 topping (approx. 90 at supports)
Tie steel to lap with mesh
200 hollow core floor

900
Access
pocket
400
150 × 150 RHS in pocket
M24 threaded dowel
250
300
(a)
VEd
50
μVEd
332 366
Strut and tie

109
34 to centre
of links
300
(b)
Figure 12.20 (a) Cross section of 900 × 300 mm deep edge beam. (b) Design of links in downstand of edge
beams.
Column depth = 300 mm, gap = 20 mm, half bearing length = 100/2 = 50 mm
Nominal distance to centre of bearing = 20 + 50 = 70 mm
Effective span leff = 9000−300−2 × 70 = 8560 mm
Depth h = 900 mm, cover = 30 mm, estimate link 8 mm and main bars 32 mm
d = 900 - 30 - 8 - 16 = 846 mm, b = 175 mm
Flexural design
MEd = 82.00 ´ 8.5602 /8 = 751.0 kNm
K = 751.0 ´ 106 /(32 ´ 175 ´ 8462 ) = 0.187 < 0.206 under reinforced
z /d 0.5 (0.25 0.187 / 1.133) 0.79. z 669.1 mm
As = 751.0 ´ 106 /(669.1 ´ 0.87 ´ 500) = 2582 mm2
Use 2 no. H32 + H25 bars (2590). Spacing = 37 mm

Top steel 0.2% = 0.002 × 175 × 900 = 315 mm 2
Use 2 no. H12 in top of upstand and 2 no. H12 in top of boot (452)
l /d check. ro = 0.0057, r = As /bd = 0.0174, ro /r = 0.32
l /d basic = (7 / 8.56) ´ (11 + (1.5 ´ Ö 32 ´ 0.32) = 11.25
l /d = 11.25 ´ (2590 / 2582) = 11.28
d > 758.6 < 846 OK
Design of links in downstand (‘boot’)

Refer to Figure 12.20b.
Ultimate floor slab load V Ed = 33.72 + 33.75 = 67.47 kN/m run
μVEd due to Stage 1 = 0.7 × 33.72 = 23.60 kN/m (Stage 2 resisted by beam–slab tie steel)
H Ed in top of link = 23.6 × 366/332 = 26.02 kN/m
H Ed due to load = V Ed cot θ = 67.47 × 109/332 = 22.15 kN/m
Total H Ed = 26.02 + 22.15 = 48.17 kN/m
Ash = 48.17 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 500 = 111 mm2 /m
Use H8 boot links at 300 mm c/c (166)

Suspension tie force in link on inside face of upstand T Ed = 67.47 + 23.60 × 34/109 =
72.45 kN/m
Asw = 72.45 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 500 = 166 mm2 /m (carried forward to shear stirrup design)
Shear design
See edge beam–column connection design for steel billet details (Section 12.7.5)
Height to bearing = steel billet depth 150 + cover and shims 60 = 210 mm
Shear plane distance = 50 + 900 − 210 = 740 mm
Shear span lw = 8560−2 × 740 = 7080 mm
VEd = 82.00 ´ 7.080/2 = 290.3 kN
v1 = 0.6 ´ (1 - 32/250) = 0.523; z = 0.9 ´ 846 = 761 mm
q = 0.5 sin-1(290, 263 / (0.5 ´ 0.523 ´ 175 ´ 761 ´ 21.3) = 0.196 rad = 11.3° < 22.5°
Then cot θ = 2.5

Asw /s = 290, 263 / (761 ´ 0.87 ´ 500 ´ 2.5) = 0.351
A sw = 175 mm 2 /m per leg + 166 mm 2 /m suspension links = 341 mm 2 /m
Max spacing = 0.75 × 846 = 635 mm
Use H8 at 140 mm c/c (357)

Provide these links for 740 + d = 1586 mm, or 12 × 140 = 1680 mm from centre of
support where next lw = 8560 − 2 × 1680 = 5200 mm
VEd = 82.00 ´ 5.200 / 2 = 213.2 kN
Asw /s = 213, 200 /(761 ´ 0.87 ´ 500 ´ 2.5) = 0.257 mm2 /m
Asw = 129 + 166 = 295 mm2 /m
Use H8 at 160 mm c/c (312)

Provide for 7 × 160 = 1120 mm where V Ed = 82.00 × 2.960/2 = 121.4 kN
Asw = 74 + 166 = 240 mm2 /m
Asw /s min = 0.08 Ö 32 ´ 175 / 500 = 0.158 mm2 /m = 79 mm2 /m < 166 mm2 /m
Use H8 at 200 mm c/c (250) beyond

End reactions to column. Dead = 38.6 × 9.0/2 = 173.7 kN, live = 22.5 × 9.0/2 =
101.2 kN. Ultimate (Exp. 6.10b) V Ed,max = 368.9 kN, V Ed,min = 173.7 kN.
12.5.2 Edge beam design for column centres = 8.0 m

Loading, depth and breadth same as mentioned earlier. Span 1.0 m less. leff = 7560 mm
MEd = 82.00 ´ 7.5602 /8 = 585.8 kNm
K = 585.8 ´ 106 /(32 ´ 175 ´ 8462 ) = 0.146 < 0.206
z /d 0 .5 (0.25 0.146/1.133) 0.85; z 717.3 mm
As = 585.8 ´ 106 / (717.3 ´ 0.87 ´ 500) = 1878 mm2
Use 3 no. H32 bars (2413). Spacing = 64 mm

Top steel as mentioned earlier
l /d = (7 / 7.56) ´ (11 + (1.5 ´ Ö 32 ´ 0.45) ´ (2413/1878) = 17.58. d > 430 < 846 OK
Shear design
Shear plane distance as given in the earlier text = 740 mm. lw = 7560−2 × 740 = 6080 mm
VEd = 82.00 ´ 6.080 / 2 = 249.3 kN
v1 = 0.6 ´ (1 - 32/250) = 0.523, z = 0.9 ´ 846 = 761 mm
q = 0.5 sin-1(249, 266/(0.5 ´ 0.523 ´ 175 ´ 761 ´ 21.3) = 0.168 rad = 9.6° < 22.5°
Asw /s = 249, 266/(761 ´ 0.87 ´ 500 ´ 2.5) = 0.301
A sw = 151 mm 2 /m per leg + 166 mm 2 /m suspension link = 317 mm 2 /m
Use H8 at 150 mm c/c (333)

Continue increasing link spacing to 200 mm as before.
End reactions to column. Dead = 38.6 × 8.0/2 = 154.4 kN, live = 22.5 × 8.0/2 =90.0 kN.
12.5.3 Gable edge beam design for column centres = 9.0 m

Minimum depth of beam = 400 mm downstand + 275 mm floor slab = 675 mm.

Floor slab dead load (nom. 1 m wide) 6.00 7.49
Self-weight of beam (675 deep) 4.20 5.25
Precast facade 6.43 8.04
Floor slab live load (nom. 1 m wide) 5.00 7.50
Total 21.63 28.29
leff = 9000 - 300 - 2 ´ 70 = 8560 mm
h = 675 mm, cover = 30 mm, estimate link 8 mm and main bars 25 mm
d = 675 - 30 - 8 - 12.5 = 625 mm, b = 175 mm
Flexural design
MEd = 28.29 ´ 8.5602 /8 = 259.1 kNm
K = 259.1 ´ 106 /(32 ´ 175 ´ 624.52 ) = 0.119 < 0.206
z /d 0 .5 (0.25 0.119 /1.133) 0.88. z 550.3 mm
As = 259.1 ´ 106 /(550.3 ´ 0.87 ´ 500) = 1083 mm2
Use 3 no. H25 bars (1473). Spacing = 75 mm

Top steel 0.2% = 0.002 × 175 × 675 = 236 mm 2
Use 2 no. H10 in top of upstand and 2 no. H10 in top of boot (314)
l /d = (7/8.56) ´ (11 + (1.5 ´ Ö 32 ´ 0.57) ´ (1473/1083) = 17.62. d > 486 < 625 mm
Design of links in downstand (‘boot’)

VEd = 7.49 + 7.5 = 14.99 kN/m run
Pro-rata Asw¢ = 166 ´ 14.99/67.47 = 37 mm2 /m
Shear design
Shear plane distance = 50 + 675 − 210 = 515 mm. lw = 8560−2 × 515 = 7530 mm
VEd = 28.29 ´ 7.530 /2 = 106.5 kN
v1 = 0.523, z = 0.9 ´ 624.5 = 562 mm
q = 0.5 sin-1(106, 499/(0.5 ´ 0.523 ´ 175 ´ 562 ´ 21.3) = 0.097 rad = 5.6° < 22.5°
Asw /s = 106, 499/(562 ´ 0.87 ´ 500 ´ 2.5) = 0.174
A sw = 87 + 37 = 124 mm 2 /m per leg. Max spacing = 0.75 × 624.5 = 468 mm
Use H8 at 300 mm c/c (168) and at 150 mm c/c for 600 mm at ends
End reactions to column. Dead = 16.6 × 9.0/2 = 74.8 kN. Live = 5.0 × 9.0/2 = 22.5 kN.
12.6 INTERNAL BEAMS
The span of internal beams and, hence, column positions should be the same (or as close as
possible) to the positions of the edge columns = 9.0 m maximum and 8.0 m generally. This
is to avoid twisting of the hollow core units due to different level bearings.
Maximum depth of beam, allowing 95 mm for the depth of the topping (75 + 20 mm cam-
ber of hollow core slabs) at the position of the beams = 700 − 95 = 610 mm. Select 600 mm
deep beam with 200 mm deep upstand to suit the precast hollow core units.
Main spine beams with 9.0 m span floor slab on either side

Floor slab dead load 53.96 67.44
Self-weight of beam (see the following text) 7.75 9.69
Floor slab live load 45.00 67.50
Total 106.71 144.63
Total ultimate internal beam loads = 144.63 kN/m. From the load versus span graph for
600 mm deep beam maximum clear span ≤ 8.6 m. Allowing 400 mm column depth, col-
umn centres ≤ 9.0 m. OK.
Beams adjacent to stairs at A: Column grid centres = 9.0 m. Total ultimate internal beam
loads on one side only (see later) = 73.41 kN/m. From the load versus span graph for 400 mm
deep beam maximum clear span ≤ 9.1 m, then column centres ≤ 9.5 m. OK.
Internal beams at stairs

Using 300 mm wide rectangular beams for short spans. Adjacent to stair A, column
centres = 5.0 m, clear span between column faces = 5.0 − 0.400/2 − 0.300/2 = 4.650 m. Total
ultimate load on internal beam supporting floor slab on only one side = 33.72 + 33.75 + self
3.75 = 71.22 kN/m. From the load versus span graph, depth = 400 mm < 700 − 275 = 425 mm
available. Other beams are less critical, use the same.
12.6.1 Internal beam design for column centres = 9.0 m

Try reinforced beam. 600 wide with 125 bearing ledge.
Upstand. b = 600 − 2 × 125 = 350 mm × 200 mm depth (depth of hollow core unit
allowing topping over top of beam)
Column depth = 400 mm, gap = 20 mm, half bearing length = 100/2 = 50 mm
leff = 9000 - 400 - 2 ´ 70 = 8460 mm
Depth = 675 mm, cover = 30 mm, estimate link 8 mm and main bars 32 mm
d = 675 - 30 - 8 - 16 = 621 mm
Length of top opened slots in hollow core units, bi = 600 mm.

Breadth of in situ infill = (fcki /fck)bi (25/32) × 1200 = 938 mm
Total breadth of top flange beff = 938 + 350 = 1288 mm
Flexural design
MEd = 144.63 ´ 8.4602 /8 = 1293.9 kNm
K = 1293.9 ´ 106 /(25 ´ 1288 ´ 6212 ) = 0.104 < 0.206. z /d = 0.90. z = 557 mm
As = 1293.9 ´ 106 /(557 ´ 0.87 ´ 500) = 5340 mm2
Use 7 no. H32 bars. Possible, but clearly not an economic option compared to a prestressed
with the option for composite action with the floor slab and topping.
12.6.2 Composite prestressed concrete beam

for column centres = 9.0 m
Use 2 no. props at 1/3 span during erecting of precast floor units and casting of in situ infill
at ends of hollow core units and structural topping.
Using the model calculation given in Section 5.5 as shown in Figure 12.21.
Stage 1 loads Service Ultimate (Exp. 6.10b) (kN/m)

Floor slab and topping dead load 48.56 60.69
Self-weight of beam 7.75 9.69
Stage 1 total 56.31
Stage 2. Floor slab services and live 50.40 74.25
Total 106.71 144.63
Try 600 × 600 deep inverted-tee beam pre-tensioned using 20 no. × 12.5 mm strands
8 no. at 50; 6 no. at 100; 2 no. at 150; 2 no. at 350 and 2 no. at 550 mm axis distance
from bottom.
400 column
75 topping (approx. 90 at supports)

Projecting links and bars from beam
350
200 hollow core floor
400
200 × 200 RHS in pocket
M24 threaded dowel
300
600
Figure 12.21 Cross section of 600 × 600 mm inverted-tee beam.
Self-weight, Ac = 310,000 mm 2 × 25 kN/m3 = 7.75 kN/m
fck = 45 N/mm 2 , fpk = 1770 N/mm2 , Ap = 1860 mm2 , ys = 175 mm
zcp = 112.7 mm
Final stress. Bottom f b = 12.08 N/mm 2 . Top f t = −2.26 N/mm 2
Section modulus based on compound values including transformed area of strands
Section Zb = 32.52 and Zb,c = 66.57 × 106mm3 (composite)
Section Zt = 25.70 and Zt,c = 200.60 × 106mm3

Stage 1. Ms1 = 56.31 × 8.462/8 = 503.73−424.7 = 79.0 kNm/Zb = 78.99/32.52 =
−2.43 N/mm2
where moment due to 2 props at 1/3 span = (11/90) × 48.56 × 8.462 = −424.7 kNm
Stage 2. Ms2 = 50.40 × 8.462/8 = 450.90 + 424.7 = 875.6 kNm/Zb,c = 875.6/66.57 =
−13.15 N/mm2
Stage 2 at top. M s2,q-p = 0.3 × 450.90 + 424.7 = 560.0 kNm/Zb,t = 560.0/200.60 =
+2.79 N/mm 2
Ultimate flexure
MEd = 144.63 ´ 8.462 /8 = 1293.9 kNm

After solution of equilibrium and strain compatibility, h = 675 mm, d = 563.9 mm, ApT
= 1674 mm 2 , X = 50.3 mm, z = 535.7 mm, f p = 1516 N/mm 2
MRd 1674 1516 535.7 1360.0 kNm 1293.9 OK
Ultimate shear
See edge beam–column connection design for steel billet details
Shear plane distance to first shear plane, lx = 50 + 600−260 = 390 mm
lw = 8460 - 2 ´ 390 = 7680 mm
VEd = 144.63 ´ 7.680 /2 = 555.4 kN
Section Ixx,c = 29,070 × 106 mm4, Sxx,c = 61.4 × 106 mm3 and bw = 350 mm
al = l x /l pt 2 = 390 /820 = 0.48, fctd = 1.77 N/mm 2 , scp = 5.11 N/mm 2
VRd ,c,c = (29070 ´ 350 / 61.4) ´ Ö (1.77 ´ 0.48 ´ 5.11 ´ 1.77) = 452.5 kN < 555.4
Design of links in downstand (‘boot’) and suspension stirrups

Loading and geometry are the same as for edge beam downstand.
Use H8 boot links at 300 mm c/c (166)
Suspension stirrups, A sw = 166 mm 2 /m
Asw /s min = 0.08 Ö 45 ´ 350 /500 = 0.376 mm2 /m; Asw = 188 mm2 /m/leg > 166
Use H8 at 260 mm spacing (193) and at 150 mm c/c for 600 from ends
VRd , s = (2 ´ 50/260) ´ 471 ´ 0.87 ´ 500 ´ 2.5 /1000 = 197.8 kN
VRd ,c,c + VRd , s = 650.3 kN > 555.4 OK
Interface shear at edge of upstand
V Ed,2 = 314 kN; interface ‘width’ (2 × upstand) = 400 mm
Shear stress vEdi = 1.64 N/mm 2 >vRdi = 0.24 N/mm 2
Area interface bars = 533 mm 2 /m.
Use H8 at 70 mm spacing × 320 long bars

Camber at transfer = −6 mm, at installation = −10 mm, after casting topping = −9.9 mm
Final long term = −1.5 < l/250 = 33.8 mm. After installation = 5.3 < l/500 = 16.9 mm
Use Composite prestressed inverted-tee 600 mm × 600 mm wide with 200 × 350 wide
upstand, 20 no. 12.5 mm strands and H8 links at 260 mm c/c.
End reactions to column. Dead = 61.71 × 9.0/2 = 277.7 kN, live = 45.0 × 9.0/2 = 202.5 kN.
Ultimate (Exp. 6.10b) V Ed,max = 650.9 kN, V Ed,min = 277.7 kN.

The designer can show that the aforementioned beam is designed using 16 no. × 12.5 mm strands
6 no. at 50; 4 no. at 100; 2 no. at 150; 2 no. at 350 and 2 no. at 550 mm axis distance
from the bottom.
Net stress, f b = −1.91 + −10.51 + 9.13 = −3.29 N/mm 2 > −3.80 OK
MRd = 1038.4 kNm > 1005.6 kNm
VRd ,c,c + VRd , s = 426.2 + 197.8 kN > 493.3 kN
End reactions to column. Dead = 61.71 × 8.0/2 = 246.8 kN, live = 45.0 × 8.0/2 = 180.0 kN.
Ultimate (Exp. 6.10b) V Ed,max = 578.5 kN, V Ed,min = 246.8 kN.

Floor loads from one side only Service Ultimate (Exp. 6.10b) (kN/m)
Stage 1. Floor slab and topping dead load 24.28 30.35
Self-weight of beam (600 × 400) 4.75 5.94
Stage 1 total 29.03
Stage 2. Floor slab services and live 25.20 37.13
Total 54.23 73.41
Try 600 × 400 deep inverted-tee beam pre-tensioned using 15 no. × 12.5 mm strands
6 no. at 50; 5 no. at 100; 2 no. at 150; 2 no. at 350 mm axis distance from the bottom
fck = 45 N/mm 2 , fpk = 1770 N/mm2 , Ap = 1395 mm2 , ys = 120 mm,

yb = 173.7 mm
Ppi = 0.7 ´ 1770 ´ 1395 = 1728.4 kN . Losses = 24.2%. Ppo = 1309.4 kN at

zcp = 53.7 mm
Final stress. Bottom f b = 11.97 N/mm 2 . Top f t = 0.27 N/mm 2
Section Zb = 14.39 and Zb,c = 35.69 × 106 mm3
Section Zt = 10.86 and Zt,c = 133.57 × 106 mm3

Stage 1. M s1 = 29.03 × 8.462/8 = 259.69−212.4 = 47.3 kNm/Zb = 47.32/14.39 =
−3.29 N/mm2
where moment due to 2 props at 1/3 span = (11/90) × 24.28 × 8.462 = −212.4 kNm
Stage 2. Ms2 = 25.20 × 8.462/8 = 225.45 + 212.4 = 437.8 kNm/Zb,c = 437.8/35.69 =
−12.27 N/mm2
fb 3.29 12.27 11.97 3.59 N/mm 2 3.80 OK
Stage 2 at top. M s2,q-p = 0.3 × 225.45 + 212.4 = 280.0 kNm/Zb,t = 280.0/133.57 =

+2.10 N/mm 2
ft = 4.36 + 2.10 + 0.27 = 6.73 N/mm 2 < 20.25 OK
Ultimate flexure
MEd = 73.41 ´ 8.462 /8 = 656.8 kNm
h = 475 mm, d = 390.4 mm, ApT = 1209 mm2 , X = 36.3 mm,
z = 370.9 mm, fp = 1516 N/mm 2
MRd 1209 1516 370.9 689.1 kNm 656.8 OK
Ultimate shear
l x = 50 + 400 - 260 = 190 mm, lw = 8460 - 2 ´ 190 = 8080 mm
VEd = 73.41 ´ 8.080 /2 = 296.6 kN
Section Ixx,c = 28032 × 106 mm4, Sxx,c = 28.5 × 106 mm3 and bw = 350 mm
al = l x /l pt 2 = 190 /819 = 0.23, fctd = 1.77 N/mm 2 , scp = 6.20 N/mm2
VRd ,c,c = (28032 ´ 350 / 28.5) ´ Ö (1.77 ´ 0.23 ´ 6.20 ´ 1.77) = 321.1 kN > 296.6 OK
Minimum links = 0.38 mm 2 /m; A sw = 188 mm 2 /m/leg > 166 mm 2 /m suspension

stirrups
Use H8 at 260 mm spacing (193) and at 150 mm for 600 from ends
Interface shear at edge of upstand
V Ed,2 = 157 kN; Interface ‘width’ (2 × upstand) = 400 mm

Shear stress vEdi = 1.16 N/mm 2 > vRdi = 0.24 N/mm 2
Area interface bars = 533.5 mm 2 /m.
Use H8 at 110 mm spacing × 320 long bars

Camber at transfer = −5.7 mm, at installation = −9.5 mm, after casting topping =
−9.4 mm
Final long-term = 2.9 < l/250 = 33.2 mm. After installation = 8.0 < l/500 = 16.6 mm
Composite prestressed inverted-tee 400 mm × 600 mm wide with 200 × 350 wide upstand,
15 no. 12.5 mm strands, H8 links at 260 mm c/c
12.7 COLUMN DESIGN
12.7.1 General information

Columns to be designed for ultimate axial load N Ed and moment at the beam–column con-
nection M Ed plus imperfection N Edei, where ei = l 0/400, and second-order M 2 = N Ede 2 if the
column is slender, or minimum moment M min = NEdeo where eccentricy eo = max{20 mm; h/30}
(BS EN 1992-1-1, clause 6.1(4)).
Two load cases are considered: Case 1 for patch loading (defined in Section 6.2.3) where
the maximum load (γGGk + γQQk) is applied in the span at one side of the column and the
minimum load (1.0Gk) at the other side. This gives rise to a minimum value of NEd/fckbh
when used in the N–M design graph in the expectation that this might be less than the
balanced load as defined in Section 6.2.4. Case 2 is for maximum load on all spans.
Columns to be founded either on extended base plates or in pockets on isolated moment-
resisting bases. Column moments at foundations will be small but are required to limit the
effective length of the ground to first floor columns.
Columns to be erected to a practical height from the ground. Column splices to be made
at approximately 15 m above foundation level, and 6.6 m (two-storey) for the subsequent
lifts. External columns are therefore spliced at 1.5 m above third, fifth and seventh floors.
Internal columns are spliced at one floor level below and above, at second, fourth and
sixth floors.
12.7.2 Slenderness checks

The slenderness ratio λ requires the designed area As of column main steel in addition to the rota-
tional stiffness k of the beam–column connection for the effective length l0. k may be determined
by moment-rotation analysis or may be conservative taken as 10. Slenderness checks are carried
out for each column design in the determination of second-order deflections and moments.
12.7.3 Edge column at 9.0 m centres: fifth to

seventh and seventh to ninth floors
Try b = 300 × h = 300 mm. Axial load is for the roof + three floors
BS EN 1991-1 National Annex NA.2.6. Live load reduction factor for three floors αn = 0.8
(not roof)
Column axial loads. Using BS EN 1990, Exp 6.10b (γG = 1.25 “+” γQ = 1.5)
Number Column Case 1 Case 2

Dead load (kN/m) Live load (kN/m) of storeys centres (m) NEd (kN ) NEd (kN )
Steel frame 1.25 × 18.0/2 = 11.25 0.75 × 18.0/2 = 6.75 1 9.00 59.5 17.7
Floor beams 38.60 22.50 3 9.00 1536.9 2031.6
(Section 12.5.2)
Column self-weight 2.25 3 3.30a 27.8 27.8
Total at fifth floor 1724.2 2277.2
a Storey height. Self wt = 0.3 × 0.3 × 25 = 2.25 kN/m
Note BS EN 1990 Exp 6.10a with ψ0 = 0.7 gives Case 2 N Ed = 2147.4 kN < 2277.2 kN
For example, Case 1 N Ed for floor beams = 3 × (1.25 × 38.60 + 0.80 × 1.5 × 22.50 +
38.60) × 4.5 = 1536.9 kN
Case 1 N Ed = 1724.5 kN and Case 2 N Ed = 2277.2 kN
Bending moments
Refer to Figure 12.22. Eccentricity of beam reaction = 1/2 column + 1/2 bearing + gap ±
tolerance
For Vmaxe1 = 0.5 × 300 + 0.5 × 100 + 20 + 15 = 235 mm
For Vmin e 2 = 0.5 × 300 + 0.5 × 100 + 20−15 = 205 mm
Vmax = (1.25 ´ 38.60 + 1.5 ´ 22.5) ´ 4.5 = 369.0 kN. Vmin = 38.60 ´ 4.5 = 173.7 kN
Mnode = 369.0 ´ 0.235 - 173.7 ´ 0.205 = 51.1 kNm and Case 2 = 11.1 kNm
Imperfection, ei = 3300/400 = 8.25 mm
Mei = 1724.5 ´ 0.00825 = 14.2 kNm and Case 2 Mei = 18.8 kNm
Mmin = 1724.5 ´ max{20; 300 /30 = 10.0} ´ 10-3 = 34.5 kNm and Case 2
Mmin = 45.5 kNm
100 × 100 × 10 angle with

M20 bolts (or welded plates)
275
M24 threaded rod
slab
in 50 dia. hole 900
150 × 150 RHS

× 640 long 400
210
C40 infill mortar

400 × 400 20
300 edge beam
Position of hollow core floor units
Figure 12.22 Plan and elevation at beam–column connection for external columns (for the case of 400 ×
400 column).
At each floor level the node moment is distributed equally above and below the node, giving
M Ed = 0.5Mnode
Case 1. M Ed = max{0.5 × 51.1 + 14.2;34.5} = 39.8 kNm
Case 2. M Ed = max{0.5 × 11.1 + 18.8;45.5} = 45.5 kNm
Slenderness. Calculations based on Case 2 (critical). Trial 4 no. H20 bars = 1256 mm 2
20ABC
l lim =
n
A = 1/(1 + 0.2 × 1) = 0.83 where creep factor φef = 1
B = √(1 + 2 × 0.18) = 1.17
where ω = 1256 × 0.87 × 500/(300 × 300 × 50/1.5) = 0.18
C = 1.7−1 = 0.7 for single curvature due to patch loading
Ö n = Ö [2277.2 ´ 103 /(300 ´ 300 ´ 50 / 1.5)] = 0.87 and Case 1 Ö n = 0.76
l lim = 20 ´ 0.83 ´ 1.17 ´ 0.7/0.87 = 15.6 and Case 1 l lim = 18.0
Effective length at upper storey

k1 = 10, k2 = 10. Then l0 /l = 0.978
l = 3300 - 900 = 2400 mm. l0 = 0.978 ´ 2400 = 2348 mm, i = 300 / Ö 12 = 86.6 mm
l = 2348/86.6 = 27.1 . Column is slender
Second-order M 2
Kj = 1 + [0.35 + 50 /200 - 27.1/150] ´ 1 = 1.42
Kr = (1.18 - 0.76)/(1.18 - 0.4) = 0.54
1/r = 1.42 ´ 0.54 ´ [(0.87 ´ 500)/200, 000]/(0.45 ´ 252) = 14.7 ´ 10-6 mm -1
e2 = 14.7 ´ 10-6 ´ 23482 /10 = 8.1 mm
M2 = 2277.2 ´ 8.1 ´ 10-3 = 18.5 kNm and Case 1 M2 = 17.1 kNm

Using column design graph: fck = 50 N/mm 2 and f yk = 500 N/mm 2
d2 = Cover + link + bar radius = 30 + 8 + 10 = 48 mm
d2 /h = 48/300 = 0.160. Use graph with d2 /h = 0.2
Case 1 Case 2
NEd/bhfck = 0.38 NEd/bhfck = 0.51
MEd = 56.8 kNm MEd = 64.0 kNm
MEd/bh2fck = 0.042 MEd/bh2fck = 0.047
From the graph, A sf yk /bh fckmax = 0.10
As = 0.10 ´ 300 ´ 300 ´ 50 /500 = 900 mm2
A s,min = max{0.002Ac = 180; 0.1N Ed /f yd = 523; vertical tie* = 1126 mm 2
As max = 1126 mm2
Use 300 × 300 with 4 no. H20 bars (1256) with R8 links at 300 centres
12.7.4 Edge column at 9.0 m centres: Foundation

to third floor and third to fifth floors
Try b = 400 × h = 400 mm. Axial load is for the roof + 9 floors αn = 0.6
Column axial loads. Case 1 N Ed = 4645.2 kN and Case 2 N Ed = 5914.3 kN
* See Stability ties Section 12.8.3.
Bending moments
Mnode = 369.0 ´ 0.285 - 173.7 ´ 0.255 = 60.9 kNm and Case 2 = 11.1 kNm
Imperfection ei = 6500/400 = 16.25 mm
Mmin = 4645.2 ´ max{20; 400 /30 = 13.3} ´ 10-3 = 92.9 kNm and Case 2 Mmin
= 118.3 kNm
At first floor level the node moment is distributed according to column stiffness, that is,
1/length at the node, giving MEd,below = (1/6.500)/(1/6.500 + 1/3.300) = 0.337Mnode
Case 1. M Ed = max{0.337 × 60.9 + 75.5;92.9} = 96.0 kNm
Case 2. M Ed = max{0.337 × 11.1 + 96.1;118.3} = 118.3 kNm
Slenderness. Calculations based on Case 2 (critical). Try eight H32 bars = 6432 mm 2
20ABC
l lim =
n
A = 1/(1 + 0.2 × 1) = 0.83 where creep factor φef = 1
B = √(1 + 2 × 0.52) = 1.43
where ω = 6432 × 0.87 × 500/(400 × 400 × 50/1.5) = 0.52
C = 1.7−(−0.5) = 2.2 for double curvature due moment-resisting foundation with 50%
carry over
Ö n = Ö [5914.3 ´ 103 /(400 ´ 400 ´ 50 /1.5)] = 1.05 and Case 1 Ö n = 0.93
Slenderness limit λlim = 20 × 0.83 × 1.43 × 2.2/1.05 = 49.8 and Case 1 λlim = 56.2
Effective length at foundation
k1 = 0.1, k2 = 10. Then l0 /l = 0.760
l = 6500 - 900 = 5600 mm. l0 = 0.760 ´ 5600 = 4258 mm, i = 400 / Ö 12 = 115.5 mm
l = 4258/115.5 = 36.9 < 49.8. Column short
Using column design graph.
d2 = 30 + 8 + 16 = 54 mm. d2 /h = 0.135. Use graph with d2 /h = 0.15
Case 1 Case 2
MEd = 96.0 kNm MEd = 118.3 kNm
From the graph, A sf yk /bh fckmax = 0.34
As = 0.34 ´ 400 ´ 400 ´ 50 /500 = 5440 mm2
{
As,min = max 0.002Ac = 320; 0.1N Ed /fyd = 1360; vertical tie = 1126 mm2 }
As max = 5440 mm2
Use 400 × 400 with 8 no. H32 bars (6432) with R8 links at 300* centres
The designer can show that the third to fifth floor design gives b = 400 × h = 400 with
4 no. H20 bars with R8 links at 300 centres.
12.7.5 Design of double-sided steel billet at

edge beam–column connection
Beam breadth = 300 mm allows up to 150 mm steel billet breadth. Try 150 × 150 RHS.
Critical bearing stresses will occur in the smallest column, 300 × 300 mm.
Length of RHS projection from face of column = 100 mm bearing length + 20 mm gap
between beam and column = 120 mm. Fixing tolerance = 15 mm. Distance to centre of bear-
ing from face of column = 20 + 100/2 + 15 = 85 mm. L1 = 85 + cover 30 = 115 mm.
Case A. Patch load. V Ed,max = 368.9 kN and V Ed,min = 173.7 kN
e from centre line of column = (368.9 × 235 − 173.7 × 205)/542.6 = 94.1 mm
e′ from edge of pressure zone = 300/2–cover 30–94.1 = 25.9 mm
Iteration for pressure beneath insert gives Sq = 1.516 as follows:

Line pressure p = 0.567 × 1.516 × 50 × 150 = 6443 N/mm
L2 542.6 103 /6443 84.2 mm 25.9 then equilibrium zone L3 exists
Mz - z = 542.6 ´ (84.2/2 - 25.9) ´ 10-3 = 8,810, 119 Nmm
Length of embedded insert L 4 = 300–2 × 30 = 240 mm
Solving M z−z = pL 3(L 4 –L 2 –L 3), gives L 3 = 9.3 mm
Pressure length L 2 + L 3 = 93.5 mm, and check L 2 + 2L 3<L 4 OK
Then Sq = √(150 + 60)(93.5 + 60)/(150 × 93.5) = 1.516 OK
Bursting forces and confinement links

Force beneath insert and bursting steel = 6443 × 93.5 = 602,731 N
Bursting coefficient ζ = 0.25(150/300) = 0.125
Fbst = 75,341 N. Abst1below = 75,341/0.87 × 500 = 173 mm 2 , all across face of column.
Abst2above = 60,174/0.87 × 500 = 17 mm 2
* The code allows 400 mm link spacing but manufacturers prefer a maximum of 300 mm to improve cage stabil-
ity during flat handling.
Check Case B before specifying reinforcement

Case B. Maximum load. V Ed,max = 368.9 kN on each side
e from centre line of column = 368.9 × (235 − 205)/737.8 = 15.0 mm, e′ = 105.0 mm
Sq = 1.450 as follows: p = 0.567 ´ 1.450 ´ 50 ´ 150 = 6163 N/mm
L2 = 737.8 ´ 103 /6163 = 119.7 mm
Mz - z = 737.8 ´ (119.7/2 - 105) ´ 10-3 = -33,304,265 Nmm. L3 is zero and the pressures are
not in equilibrium. Then L2 = 2 e¢ = 210.0 mm and p¢ = 737.8 ´ 103 /210.0 = 3513 N/mm
Then Sq = √(150 + 60)(210 + 60)/(150 × 210) = 1.342 < 1.45 OK
Limiting p′ = 0.567 × 1.342 × 50 × 150 = 5702 N/mm > 3513 OK

Force beneath insert and bursting steel = 3513 × 210.0 = 737,716 N
Fbst = 0.125 × 737,716 = 92,214 N. Abst1below = 92,214/0.87 × 500 = 212 mm 2 but
pressure zone + cover = 240 mm > h/2 therefore 50% of Abst1 is positioned across face
of column = 106 mm 2 < 185 mm 2 from Case A.
Provide four H8 links at 50 c/c below insert, and set the link above the insert to 50 mm.
Design of steel RHS
M max occurs at zero shear force at x = 210.0/2 = 105.0 mm. Eccentricity einsert = L1 +
x/2 = 115 + 105/2 = 167.5 mm
Mmax = 368.9 ´ 0.1675 = 61.78 kNm
Using grade S275, f y = 275 N/mm 2 , Wpl ≥ 61.78 × 106/275 = 224,668 mm3
Shear area 2dt ≥ 368.9 × 103/(0.6 × 275) = 2236 mm 2
Use 150 × 150 × 8 RHS (240,000 mm 3; 2,400 mm2)
12.7.6 Internal column between 9.0 and 8.0 m

centres: Fourth to sixth floors
The design of the beam–column connection for a maximum total beam end reaction (see
Section 12.7.8 Case B) of 1229.4 kN will require a deeper column than the edge columns. As
a quick check, for a 300 mm deep column, e = (650.9 × 235–246.8 × 205)/897.7 = 114 mm
and e′ = 150–30–114 = 6 mm giving length of pressure zone = 2e′ = 12 mm only. Therefore,
increase column depth to 400 mm.
Refer to Figure 12.23. Try b = 400 × h = 400 mm. Axial load is for five floors, αn = 0.6
Column axial loads. Case 1 with Vmax for 9.0 m span beam and Vmin for 8.0 m span
beam N Ed = 3963.3 kN and Case 2 N Ed = 5081.8 kN
Bending moments
For Vmaxe1 = 0.5 × 400 + 0.5 × 100 + 20 + 15 = 285 mm
For Vmin e 2 = 0.5 × 400 + 0.5 × 100 + 20 − 15 = 255 mm
M24 threaded rod 275

in 50 dia. hole slab 200
600
200 × 200 RHS
× 640 long 400
260
C40 infill mortar

400 × 400
20
600 350
beam
Position of hollow core floor units
Figure 12.23 Plan and elevation at beam–column connection for internal columns (for the case of 400 ×
400 column).
Case 1 Mnode = 650.9 × 0.285 − 246.8 × 0.255 = 122.6 kNm and Case 2 Mnode =
19.5 kNm
ei = 3300 /400 = 8.25 mm
Mmin = 3963.3 ´ max{20; 13.3} ´ 10-3 = 79.3 kNm and Case 2 Mmin = 101.6 kNm
At each floor level the node moment is distributed equally above and below the
node, giving M Ed = 0.5Mnode
Case 1. M Ed = max{0.5 × 122.6 + 32.7;79.3} = 94.0 kNm
Case 2. M Ed = max{0.5 × 19.5 + 41.9;101.6} = 101.6 kNm
Slenderness. Calculations based on Case 2 (critical). Trial 4 no. H40 (5024)

20ABC
l lim =
n
A = 1/(1 + 0.2 × 1) = 0.83 where φef = 1
B = √(1 + 2 × 0.41) = 1.35
where ω = 5024 × 0.87 × 500/(400 × 400 × 50/1.5) = 0.41
C = 1.7−1 = 0.7 for single curvature due to patch loading
Ö n = Ö [5081.8 ´ 103 /(400 ´ 400 ´ 50 /1.5)] = 0.98 and Case 1 Ö n = 0.86
Effective length at upper storey
k1 = 10, k2 = 10. Then l0 /l = 0.978
l = 3300 - 600 = 2700 mm. l0 = 0.978 ´ 2700 = 2642 mm, i = 400 / Ö 12 = 115.5 mm
l = 2642/115.5 = 22.9 > 18.3. Column slender
Second-order M 2
Kj = 1 + [0.35 + 50 /200 - 22.9/150] ´ 1 = 1.45
Kr = (1.41 - 0.95)/(1.41 - 0.4) = 0.45
1/r = 1.45 ´ 0.45 ´ [(0.87 ´ 500)/200, 000]/(0.45 ´ 340) = 9.3 ´ 10-6
e2 = 9.3 ´ 10-6 ´ 26422 /10 = 6.5 mm
Case 2 M 2 = 5081.8 × 6.5 × 10 −3 = 33.0 kNm and Case 1 M 2 = 32.2 kNm
Using column design graph
d2 = 30 + 10 + 20 = 60 mm . d2 /h = 0.15 Use graph for d2 /h = 0.15.
Case 1 Case 2
MEd = 126.2 kNm MEd = 134.7 kNm
From the graph, A sf yk /bhfckmax = 0.22
As = 0.22 ´ 400 ´ 400 ´ 50 /500 = 3520 mm2
{
Asmax = 3520 mm2
Use 400 × 400 with 4 no. H40 (5024) bars with R10 links at 300 centres (or 6 no. H32
(4824) with R8 links)
The designer can show that the sixth to ninth floor design gives b = 400 × h = 400 with 4 no.
H25 bars with R8 links at 300 centres.
12.7.7 Internal column between 9.0 and 8.0 m

centres: Foundation to second floor
Try b = 500 × h = 400 mm. Axial load is for nine floors αn = 0.6
Column axial loads, Case 1 N Ed = 7171.1 kN and Case 2 N Ed = 9184.4 kN
Bending moments
Case 1 Mnode = 650.9 × 0.285 − 246.8 × 0.255 = 122.6 kNm and Case 2 Mnode = 19.5 kNm
Imperfection, ei = 6500/400 = 16.25 mm
Mmin = 7171.1 ´ max{20; 13.3} ´ 10-3 = 143.4 kNm and Case 2 Mmin = 183.7 kNm
Case 1. M Ed = max{0.337 × 122.6 + 116.5;143.4} = 157.8 kNm
Case 2. M Ed = max{0.337 × 19.5 + 149.2;183.7} = 183.7 kNm
Slenderness. Calculations based on Case 2 (critical). Trial 10 no. H40 (12,560 mm 2)
20ABC
l lim =
n
A = 1/(1 + 0.2 × 1) = 0.83 where φef = 1
B = √(1 + 2 × 0.82) = 1.62
where ω = 12560 × 0.87 × 500/(500 × 400 × 50/1.5) = 0.82
C = 1.7 − −0.5 = 2.2
Ö n = Ö [9184 ´ 103 /(500 ´ 400 ´ 50 /1.5)] = 1.17 and Case 1 Ö n = 1.04
Effective length at foundation
k1 = 0.1, k2 = 10. Then l0 /l = 0.760
l = 6500 - 600 = 5900 mm. l0 = 0.760 ´ 5900 = 4486 mm, i = 400 / Ö 12 = 115.5 mm
l = 4486/115.5 = 38.9 < 50.8 . Column short
Using column design graph
d2 = 30 + 10 + 20 = 60 mm. d2 /h = 0.150. Use graph for d2 /h = 0.15.
Case 1 Case 2
MEd = 157.8 kNm MEd = 183.7 kNm
From the graph, A sf yk /bhfckmax = 0.59
As = 0.59 ´ 500 ´ 400 ´ 50 /500 = 11,800 mm2
{
Asmax = 11,800 mm2
Use 500 × 400 with 10 no. H40 bars (12,560) with R10 links at 300 centres
The designer can show that the second to fourth floor design gives b = 500 × h = 400 with
6 no. H40 bars with R10 links at 300 centres.
12.7.8 Design of double-sided steel billet at

internal beam–column connection
Column breadth = 400 mm allows 200 mm steel billet breadth. Try 200 ×200 RHS.
Service loads for 9.0 m span. Dead = 277.7 kN, live = 202.5 kN. Ultimate = 650.9 kN
Service loads for 8.0 m span. Dead = 246.8 kN, live = 180.0 kN. Ultimate = 578.5 kN
Case A. Patch load. V Ed,max = 650.9 kN and V Ed,min = 246.8 kN. Total = 897.7 kN
e = (650.9 ´ 285 - 246.8 ´ 255)/897.7 = 136.5 mm
e¢ = 400 /2 - 30 - 136.5 = 33.5 mm

Iteration gives Sq = 1.383 such that p = 0.567 × 1.383 × 50 × 200 = 7837 N/mm
L2 897.7 103 /7837 114.5 mm 33.5 then equilibrium zone L3 exists
Mz - z = 897.7 ´ (114.5/2 - 33.5) ´ 10-3 = 21,371,603 Nmm
L4 = 400 - 2 ´ 30 = 340 mm and L3 = 12.8 mm
L2 + L3 = 127.4 mm, and check L2 + 2L3 < L4 OK

Then, Sq = √(260 × 187.4)/(200 × 127.4) = 1.383 OK
Fc1 = 7,837 ´ 127.4 = 998,215 N. z = 0.25(200 /400) = 0.125. Fbst = 124,777 N
Abst1below = 124,777 / 0.87 ´ 500 = 287 mm2 and Abst 2above = 29 mm2
Check Case B before specifying reinforcement

Case B. Maximum load both sides. VEd,max = 650.9 kN and 578.5 kN. Total = 1229.4 kN
e = (650.9 ´ 285 - 578.5 ´ 255)/1229.4 = 30.9 mm, e¢ = 139.1 mm
Sq = 1.334 as follows: p = 0.567 ´ 1.334 ´ 50 ´ 200 = 7559 N/mm
L2 = 1229.4 ´ 103 /7559 = 162.6 mm
Mz - z = 1,229.4 ´ (162.6/2 - 139.1) ´ 10-3 = -71,045,784 Nmm
L 3 is zero, then L 2 = 2e′ = 278.2 mm and p′ = 1229.4 × 103/ 278.2 = 4419 N/mm

Then, Sq = √(260 × 338.2)/(200 × 278.2) = 1.257 < 1.334 OK
And limiting p′ = 0.567 × 1.257 × 50 × 200 = 7124 N/mm > 4419 OK
Fc1 = 4,419 ´ 278.2 = 1,229,375 N. Fbst = 0.125 ´ 1,229,375 = 153,672 N
Abst1below = 153,672/0.87 × 500 = 353 mm 2 but zone = 30 + 278.2 = 308.2 mm > h/2
therefore 50% of Abst1 = 177 mm 2 < 287 mm 2 from Case A
Provide four H10 links at 50 c/c (314) below insert, and set the link above the insert to 50 mm.
Design of steel RHS
Mmax occurs at x = 650.9 ´ 103 /4419 = 147.3 mm. einsert = 115 + 147.3/2 = 188.6 mm
Mmax = 650.9 ´ 0.1886 = 122.78 kNm
Using grade S275, f y = 275 N/mm 2 , Wpl ≥ 122.78 × 106/275 = 446,493 mm3

Shear area 2dt ≥ 650.9 × 103/(0.6 × 275) = 3945 mm 2
Use 200 × 200 × 10 RHS (536,000 mm 3; 4,000 mm2)
12.8 STABILITY TIES
Class of the building according to the UK Building Regulations, Part A.

Building Class = 2B (>3 but <15) therefore use horizontal and vertical ties
12.8.1 Horizontal floor and beam ties

Basic tie force Ft = min{60;20 + 4 × 10} = 60 kN/m
Floor load gk + qk = 6.0 + 5.0 = 11.0 kN/m 2 and lr floor = 9.0 m and lr floor = 9.0 m
Modified tie force Ft′ = 60 × (11.0/7.5) × (9.0/5.0) = 158.3 kN/m
Internal beam Ft,beam = 158.3 × 9.000 = 1425.0 kN
Try unstressed strand beam ties A s = 1425.0 × 103/1770 = 805 mm 2
Requires 6 no. 15.2 mm dia. helical strands (828). This is not practical leading to
congestion at junctions. Therefore, use structural topping with mesh f yk = 500 N/mm 2
Floor ties A s = 158.3 × 103/500 = 317 mm 2 /m < A393 mesh provided for floor
diaphragm
12.8.2 Edge column ties

Average foundation to second-floor storey ceiling heights = (6.225 + 3.025)/2 = 4.625 m
Ft ,col = max{2 ´ 158.3;(4.63/2.5) ´ 158.3; 0.03 ´ 5914} = 316.7 kN
Column tie A s = 316.7 × 103/500 = 633 mm 2

Use 2 no. H20 dia. bars (628) through sleeve in column into gap between end of slab
and beam upstand × 1200 mm length either side of column
Area of mesh provided by 2.4 m length = 2.4 × 393 = 943 mm 2 > 633 mm 2 required
Tie bars from edge beam to topping = H10 at 240 mm min. spacing (or set out to
match positions of beam links). Area of beam edge tie bars = 327 > 317 mm 2 required
Internal beam ties. Provided by interface links between beam and slab.
12.8.3 Vertical ties to edge and internal columns

Edge column force per floor (service) = 563 kN
Vertical tie A s = 563 × 103/500 = 1126 mm 2 (carried forward to column design)
Internal column force per floor (service) = 870 kN
Vertical tie A s = 870 × 103/500 = 1740 mm 2 (carried forward to column design)
12.9 STAIRCASE
Design of staircase at B and C. See Figures 12.24 and 12.25.
12.9.1 Flight
Clear span = number of steps = 8 × going of 250 mm = 2250 mm
End bearing onto 120 × 120 × t =10 steel angle × 900 mm long
Eccentricity to centre of bearing of steel leg, e = (gap 20 + 120)/2 = 70 mm
leff = 2250 + 2 ´ 70 = 2390 mm
Waist h = 175 mm. d = 175 − (cover) 30 − (bar radius) 5 = 140 mm. Width b = 1340 mm
Loading Service Ultimate (Equation 6.11) (kN/m2)

Self-weight of steps 7.30 9.13
Finishes and services 0.25 0.31
Imposed live 4.00 6.00
Total 11.55 15.44
Additional edge beam at

1120 mm above floor level 900 long × 120 × 120 RSA
10 steps flight
Edge beam
1200 2250 1350

300
Net length 2210 Net = 1340 10 gap
1450 Double landing

4000 with four steps flight
Net width 20 gap

1340
5000
225 thickness shear wall with 150 wide nib

(dashed lines) for half landing support
Figure 12.24 Plan view of stairs at C. Stair B has shear walls to both sides of stairs. Staircase from ground
to first floor requires 30 rises (10 more than at upper floors). An additional landing-flight unit
of clear span = 10 × 250 + 1350 = 3850 mm × 1340 mm net width will be situated beneath
the floor landing.
50 screed
250 going
165 rise 20 1340 × 200
75 insitu 1320
topping
225 shear wall
175 waist
1200 × 200 2210
20 400 × 300 beam

5000
Figure 12.25 Elevation of landings and flights in staircases B and C.
Flexural design
MEd = 15.44 ´ 2.3902 /8 = 11.0 kNm
K = 11.0 ´ 106 /(32 ´ 1000 ´ 1402 ) = 0.018 < 0.206
z /d 0 .5 (0.25 0.018/1.133) 0.95. z 133.0 mm
As = 11.0 ´ 106 /(133.0 ´ 0.87 ´ 500) = 191 mm2
As,min = max{0.0013 ´ 1000 ´ 140; 0.26 ´ 3.02 ´ 1000 ´ 140 /500} = 220 mm2
where fctm = 0.3 × 322/3 = 3.02 N/mm 2

Use H10 at 250 mm spacing (314)
Service end reactions to landings. Dead = 11.38 kN, live = 6.03 kN.
Ultimate reaction FEd = 23.27 kN
l /d = [11 + (1.5 ´ Ö 32 ´ 3.60)] ´ (314/191) = 193.3. d > 12.4 < 140 OK
Design of steel angle

Allow 15 mm for ineffective length due to spalling
Eccentricity from root = e–t = (gap + spalling 35 + 120)/2–10 = 67.5 mm
MEd = 23.27 ´ 0.0675 m = 1.57 kNm
Section Wpl = 900 × 102 /4 = 22,500 mm3, A = 900 × 10 = 9000 mm 2

Bending stress = 69.8 + tension stress = 2.6 = 72.4 N/mm 2 < 275 mm
Shear stress = 2.6 N/mm 2 < 0.6 × 275 N/mm 2
Use 120 × 120 × 10 steel angle × 900 mm long × grade S275
12.9.2 Double landing-flight

Refer to Figure 12.24.
Clear span = 4000 – (½ beam)150 – (½ wall)112.5 – (wall nib)150 = 3588 mm
leff = 3588 + 100 = 3688 mm
Waist and landing depth h = 200 mm. d = 200 − 30 − 6 = 164 mm

Design widths
Distance to midpoint of flight reaction = 725 mm. Steel angle bearing width = 100 mm
Design width in landing = 1.2 ×(1 − x/leff)* = 1.2 × 725(1 − 725/3688) =799 mm
Effective width at mid-span = 0.3leff = 0.3 × 3688 = 1106 mm
* According to BS8110, not given in BS EN 1992-1-1.
Design width at mid-span beff = average{799;1106;799} = 901 mm
Loading at landing Service Ultimate (Exp. 6.10b) (kN/m2)

Self-weight of landing 5.00 6.25
Screed 50 mm (24 kN/m3) 1.20 1.50
Total UDL 10.45 14.06
Loading at landing Service Ultimate (Exp. 6.10b) (kN/m2)
Self-weight of steps 8.05 10.06
Total UDL 12.30 16.38
Service edge reaction from flights.

Start = 0.280 m and end = 1.180 from centre of support
Dead = 11.38/0.900 = 12.65 kN/m
Live = 6.03/0.900 = 6.70 kN/m
Proportion of UDL within the design widths
In landings = 0.799 × 14.06 = 11.24 kN/m
In steps = 0.901 × 16.38 = 14.76 kN/m
Flexural design at mid-span
MEd at mid-span = 39.0 kNm
K = 39.0 ´ 106 /(32 ´ 901 ´ 1642 ) = 0.050
z /d 0 .5 (0.25 0.050 /1.133) 0.95. z 155.8 mm
As = 39.0 ´ 106 /(155.8 ´ 0.87 ´ 500) = 575 mm2
As,min = max{0.0013 ´ 901 ´ 164; 0.26 ´ 3.02 ´ 901 ´ 164/500} = 232 mm2
A s per full 1340 mm width = 855 mm 2
l /d = [11 + (1.5 ´ Ö 32 ´ 1.45)] ´ (905/575) = 30.6. d > 120.6 mm < 164 OK
Flexural design at end of landing

M Ed at end of landing/bottom of steps = 37.4 kNm
K = 37.4 ´ 106 /(32 ´ 799 ´ 1642 ) = 0.054. z = 155.7 mm
As = 37.4 ´ 106 /(155.7 ´ 0.87 ´ 500) = 553 mm2

Shear design at supports
k = {min(2.00, 1 + Ö 200/164} = 2.00
As /bd = 905/(1340 ´ 164) = 0.0041
VRd ,c = 2.00 ´ 0.12 ´ (100 ´ 0.0041 ´ 32)1/ 3 ´ 1340 ´ 164/1000 = 124.6 kN
VRd ,c,min = 0.035 ´ 2.001.5 ´ 320.5 ´ 1340 ´ 164/1000 = 123.1 kN
V Ed for full width = 55.6 kN < 124.56 kN
12.9.3 Floor landing

Clear span = 4000 − beam 300 = 3700 mm
leff = 3700 + 100 = 3800 mm
Figure 12.25. Depth h = 200 mm. d = 200−30−6 = 164 mm
Design width at mid-span (as landing-flight) beff = 901 mm
Loading at landing Service Ultimate (Equation 6.11) (kN/m2)

Self-weight of landing 5.00 6.25
Screed 75 mm (24 kN/m3) 1.80 2.25
Total UDL 11.05 14.81
Loads from flights and proportion of UDL in design widths same as landing-flight unit
Flexural design at mid-span
MEd = 38.4 kNm
K = 38.4 ´ 106 /(32 ´ 901 ´ 1642 ) = 0.049. z = 155.8 mm
As = 38.4 ´ 106 /(155.8 ´ 0.87 ´ 500) = 566 mm2

l /d = [11 + (1.5 ´ Ö 32 ´ 1.48)] ´ (792/566) = 30.9. d > 122.8 mm < 164 OK
Shear design less critical than mentioned earlier.
Index
Accidental loading or action, 80, 599−602, prestressed beams, 252−283

607−616, 623 composite beams, 269−283, 659−665
Accompanying loads and load factors, see interface shear, 280−283
Dominant propping, 278−280
Actions, 1, 80−85, 103, 122, 233 serviceability, 255−262, 270−280
Adhesion, 463 tabulated resistances, 257
Admissible damage, 610 tests, 273
Admixtures, 51 ultimate flexure, 262−266
Aggregate interlock, 408−413 ultimate shear, 266−269
Aggregates, types, size and grading, 31, 50, 138, reinforced beams, L-beams, rectangular,
158, 318−319, 380, 491 inverted-tee, 222−252, 654−659
Alternative load path, 601−603, 608−613, 623 boot design, 236−239
Anchorage composite beams, 239−252
bars, 147, 166, 173, 207−208, 266, 414, deflection, 244−252
450, 540, 550, 563, 571, 585, flexure, 223−226
595−597, 613 reinforcement details, 222−223
development length (connections), shear, 226−232
507−508 end design, 524−525, 528−529, 556−574
Anchor bars and bolts, 140, 494, 597 deep recess, 556, 562−567
Architectural precast, 1, 8, 17−18, mechanisms, 556−560
314−315, 630 shallow recess, 556, 560−562, 567−570
ASSAP Manual, 167 shear box, 529, 556, 570−575
Axial load-moment (N-M) interaction, load vs. span charts, 632−633
332−335, 343, 390−394, 634 subframing, 90−92
Axial load ratio or stress ratio, 319, 339 types, 215−220, 274
Axis distance to bars for fire resistance, see Fire Beam-line, see Semi-rigid connections
resistance Beam to column connections, see Connections,
beam to column
Background document to National Bearing
Annex, 28 bedded, wet bedding, 435−437, 441
Balanced section (columns), 333, 335, 339 capacity, 178−181, 438−441
Bar bend radius, 439, 447−450, 479, compression, 435
549, 562 concentrated, 437−439, 444−455
Bar spacing eccentric, 452
column links, 318−320 load distribution, 448
flexural requirement, 207, 232−233 stress contours, 444−445
shear stirrups requirement, 230, 237 confined, 447, 449 (see also Confinement
Base plate, see Foundation, base plate factor)
Beam dry, 435−437
bar spacing, 109, 221, 225, 232−233, elastomeric, 61, 179, 435, 449, 460−462,
236, 281 486−487
deflections, 81−83, 108−111, 234, 236, extended, 5, 435
244−248, 251−252, 279 flexural bearing stress factor (αcc), 436−437,
design, 108−111, 223−283 441, 446−449, 456
683
684 Index
ledge, 215−217, 237−239, 545 Cast in fixings and sockets, 58−60, 475, 480,
length, 178−181, 438−451, 548 491, 521, 526, 530
excessive length, 443 Casting methods, 21−31, 126, 133−134,
net length, ineffective distances, 316−317
deviations, 178−181, 438−441, Categorization of buildings, 607−608
449−451 Categorization of consequences classes,
line, 439 609−610
loss of, 5 Catenary action
narrow, 130, 436−437 critical deflection, 611−612
pads, strips, 179, 460−462 forces, 603, 606−607, 611−612, 616−617
partially loaded, 435, 438, 446 non-linear static analysis, 616−617
plate, reinforced, 455−460 Cement, 21, 33, 49, 116, 152, 154, 156, 189
steel, plates, 435−437 Characteristic load, 57, 81−83, 149−150,
stress, 179−181, 378, 436−438, 441, 200, 636
446−449, 548, 558−561, 572, Chemical admixtures, 51
578, 587 Chlorides, 47, 50
types, 436−437 Chloroprene, see Neoprene
welded transverse bar, 450 Cladding panel, see Façade panels
wide, slab 178−180, 436−437, 531 Clear height or length (columns, walls),
width, breadth, 179, 441, 452 112−114, 331−332, 336, 344,
Bending moment diagrams, 144, 194, 280, 378−379, 390
331−332, 339 Clear span, 69, 84, 108, 141, 177−178,
Bending moment distribution, 331−332 204−205, 258, 648, 654, 660,
Biaxial bending (column), 340−341, 355, 588 677−681
Billet connector, see Connections, billet Cleat connector, see Connections, cleat
Blocks Coefficient of friction, 198, 213, 237, 243,
infiller, 134, 179, 202, 210, 213 281−282, 292, 378−379, 464, 587
masonry, 360, 375, 382−387 bearings, joints at slabs, 416, 455, 496
Bolted joint, 469, 473−475, 480, 491−494, Cohesion (shear resistance), 198, 243, 281−282,
500, 546 378−379, 463−466
Bolts, 59−60, 475, 480; see also High-strength bearings, 455
friction-grip Column
Bond; see also Anchorage bending moment diagrams, 112, 331−332,
length, 228, 242, 362, 412, 429, 478, 339, 342, 347
485−487, 492−493, 507, 540, biaxial moments, 340−341, 355
542−543, 561, 577 cantilever, 104, 346, 352
stress, 174, 207−208, 266, 297 curvature, 112−113, 329, 338−339, 347, 669,
Boot design (beam), 216−217, 236−239 673, 776
Braced structure, frame, column, 7, 88, 100, design, 111−115, 321−357, 655−675
104, 336, 360, 367 design charts, 116, 334, 343, 590
Bracing positions, 100−107, 366−371, haunch, 98, 489
398, 400 head, 484, 525−526
Breadth of webs, 127, 130−131, 149, 171, 176, effective length (or height) factor, 104−105,
189, 217, 221, 226, 232, 234 113, 336−337, 352, 390
Brickwork strength, 384−388 factory handling, 322−323
Bridging elements, 602−603 fire resistance, 318−321
Buildability, 14 first order end moments, 337−339, 666,
Building Regulations, 602−603, 676 669, 673
Buckling (rebar), 206 flexibilities, 336−337, 344
Bursting, 1; see also Lateral bursting foundations and base (see Foundations)
imperfection, 337−340, 665−669, 674
Calcium chloride, 31 insert, 16, 330
Camber, 154, 166−169, 181, 185−186, 195−196, moment distribution, 111, 331
252, 278−279 links, 115, 318−320
Cantilever span, 84, 629, 651−654 pitching (on site), 324−329
Cantilever core, 364, 366−367 reinforcement (main), 115, 318, 321, 327,
Cantilever wall, see Walls, cantilever 333−334, 345, 668, 670, 674
Carbonation, 47 second order moments, deflections, 337−340,
Castellated joint, 281, 467−469, 585−586 668, 673
Index 685
slenderness, 113, 336−340, 666−667, plain concrete (infill wall), 376

672−674 slabs and beams, 129−131, 149−152, 161,
splice, 98, 313, 318, 434, 492−493, 596 221, 225, 257
subframing, 92−94 wall, 376, 389
sway profile, 10, 336, 374 tensile strength, 30, 119, 149, 151−152
ties (see Ties, column) Confinement factor (bearing stress), 436−438,
types, geometry, 313−318 446, 449, 454−458, 531−535,
worked examples, 327−329, 333−335, 538−541, 559, 572
341−357, 665−675 Confinement links, 4, 449, 529, 587−588, 594
Combination load factor, 81−83, 149, 636 Connections
Compaction problems, 22 beam end (see Beam, end design)
Comparison of BS8110 and Eurocode beam to column, 16, 430, 432, 484−485,
reinforced concrete rectangular beam, 489, 498−509, 513−515, 519−574
108−111 billet, 330, 432, 499, 502−505, 508, 521,
reinforced concrete rectangular column, 529, 670−671, 675−676
111−116 insert design (in column), 530−543
prestressed concrete slab, 115−119 types, 530−531
Composite welded rebars, 538−543
beam and plank, plank (lattice) floor, cleat, 16, 521
133−134, 202−213, 241 corbel, 3, 95, 316, 330, 432, 489,
worked example, 209−212 504, 508
composite slab, floor, 133, 181−200, 202 shallow, 522, 544−554
prestressed beams, 263, 269−283 deep, 523, 554−555
reinforced beams, 239−252 mechanical connectors, 546−547
steelwork beams, 282 hidden, 519, 526
Compound section properties, 117, 157−158, narrow plate, 521−522, 543
166−168, 183−185, 195−196, 256, tests, 501, 504−505
262, 273, 276 types, 519−523
Compressibility, 61, 460−462 welded plate, 499−502, 505, 521
Compression, see Bearings, compression; Joints, column to column, splice, 434, 492−493, 596
compression column to foundation, 513−516, 575−597
Compression field, zones, 101, 431, 434, 445, base plate, 98, 489, 515−516, 575,
467, 502 577−584
Concentrated bearing load, see Bearings, non symmetrical, 580−582
concentrated optimized, 584
Concentrated load, see Line and point loads steel shoe (Peikko), 595−597
Concrete, 21−36 grouted sleeve, 516, 576, 593−595
bearing stress, 179−181, 237 pocket, 96, 98, 318, 322, 489, 576,
bond stress, 174, 208, 266 584−591
creep (see Creep) types, 575− 576
dry cast, 28, 152 definitions and types, 94, 98−99, 429−432
early strength, 23−24, 31−32, 151−152, 189 design philosophy, 94−97
fibre reinforced, 202 mechanisms, 431−435, 455
parameter (ρ 0, span/depth), 235−236, 656, moment resisting, 95−96, 430, 488−504
658−659, 679 floor to walls, 496−498
recycled, 21, 50−52 generic types, 488−496
self compacting, 24−26 bolted, 492, 494
self weight, 79−80, 83, 108, 113, 116, 129, grouted, 491−493
131, 153−155, 182−183, 192−195, 206, threaded bars, 493−495
238, 243, 249, 272, 278, 284, 292, welded, 495−496
324−325, 327, 383, 631−633, 640, column head, 488−490, 526
650, 680 partial strength, 99, 501,
shear stress, strength, 175, 191, 208 pinned jointed, 96, 482−488, 526−556
shrinkage, 32−36 beam to column, 484−485
strains, 21−23, 163 column head, 484, 525
strength, and compressive strength class, slab to beam or wall, 485−488
21, 23, 26 semi-rigid (see Semi-rigid connections)
column, 313, 318 slab to beam, 440, 443, 486−488
infill, 242, 244, 380, 412, 416, 492, 578 wall to column, 379−381
686 Index
Construction tolerance, 178−181, 330, 439 load reduction factor, slenderness,

Construction traffic load, 185, 209−210 291−292, 295
Contact area in compression, 434, nodes, 287−292
444−452 shear strength, 293, 305
Contact length (wall to frame), 375 strut and tie model, 285−287, 294, 299,
Continuity reinforcement, 203, 220, 309, 301−302, 304, 309−310
488−489, 498−499 types, 283−285
stability ties, 599−601, 604−605, 608, worked example, 293−298, 300−304,
611−613, 618−620, 623 306−308
Contraflexure, 72−76, 298, 308 Deep corbel, see Connection, corbel
Corbel, see Connections, corbel Deep horizontal beam (floor diaphragm), 101,
Cores (frame stability), see Cantilever core 395−397, 404−405
Corrugated pressed sheet sleeves, 594 Deep recess, see Beam, deep recess
COST C1 research project (connections), 124, Deflected tendons, 129
482, 510−511 Deflection
Cost effectiveness, relative costs, 15, 125, 181, differential movement (slabs), 138
221, 242, 318, 359 movement after installation, 166−170,
Coupled joint, 433−434, 493 194−196, 236
Coupling bars, 408−412 reinforced, prestressed beam (see Beam,
Cover deflection)
rebars, links, 48, 108, 112, 203, 208, 221, Deflection induced moments, see Second order
243, 293, 318−320, 346, 391, 434, moments
449, 479, 495, 501 Deformability in tension, 479
tendons, 115, 117, 129, 135, 144, 158, 201 Demoulding, 24, 31, 35, 221
Crack(s) Depth factor (shear), 175, 232
control (bar spacing), 232−233 Design concrete strength, 23, 163−165, 179,
floor diaphragm, 408, 414−415 230, 281, 288−292, 318, 337−339,
pre-crack (shear friction, dowel action), 376, 380, 436−441, 447−451,
463−465, 470 466, 472, 479, 484−487, 531, 550,
spacing and width, 111, 200−202 558−562, 578
width limits, 149, 200, 202, 233 Design exercise for 10 storey frame, 629−681
Cracking moment of resistance, 175, design charts
191, 234 beams and slabs, 631−633
Creep column and infill shear walls 634−635
definition, 32−36 design of connections
creep factor, coefficients, 110, 118, 154−155, beam to column, billet, 670−671,
167−169, 194−195, 234, 250 675−676
column, 339 design of elements
loss of prestress, 154−155, 159 beams
viscoelastic (deflections), 194−195 edge and gable, 654−659
Cross wall loads, see Line and point loads internal beams, 659−665
Curing, 24, 31, 35, 118, 126, 152, 155−156, columns, 655−675
248, 261 floor slab, 648−654
shear walls, 642−645
Dead load(s), 37, 80−82, 85, 114−115, 141, 155, feasibility, proposed plans and elevations,
166−169, 190−195, 197, 201, 233, 238, 629−631, 649
243, 636, 640 frame stability
Debonded tendons, 255 horizontal force, imperfections, 637−641
Decompression moment, point, 173 wind loads, 641−645, 648
Deep beam analogy, 395, distribution of horizontal force, 642−644
404−405 horizontal floor diaphragm, 645−648
Deep beam end recess, 526−528 loads, materials and other data, 636−637
Deep beams walls, 283−310 positions of shear walls, 629−630, 638
active height, 286−287 ties, 676−677
bottom loaded, 304−308 staircase, landings, 629−630, 677−681
cantilevers, 298−304 Design life, 48, 69, 108, 115,
continuous, 308−310 Design stress in tendons, 161−166,
effective width, 288−291, 298 262−264, 273
lateral bursting, 289−290 Development length, see Transmission length
Index 687
Deviations (site, manufacture), 88−89, 179−180, Effective coefficient (factor) of shear friction,
290, 330, 439 405, 454
Diagonal bracing Effective creep factor (column), 337
concrete strut, 364 Effective depth, 163−166, 188−190, 207−208,
steel, 365 223−225, 243−244, 273, 333, 390,
Diagonal strut theory (infill walls), 374−375, 549, 594
385−387 Effective length and height factors, 104−105,
Diaphragm (floor plate), see Horizontal floor, 113, 336−337, 352
diaphragm Effective second moment of area, 110, 245−252
Differential floor camber, 413 Effective span
Domestic housing, 3, 9, 12–13, 67−68 deep beam walls, 286
Dominant and accompanying loads and load slabs and beams, 84, 109
factors, 83 Effective stiffness, rigidity, 233−234,
Double boot beam, see Inverted-tee beam 244−246, 251
Double tee floor units (slabs) Effective width (deep beam wall), 288−291
bearing on beams, 179−181, 487 Elastic shortening, 118, 152−154, 256
comparison with hollow core, 131−132 Elastomeric bearing, see Bearings, elastomeric
design Electrodes (for welding), see Welding,
deflection, 166−169, 194−195 electrodes
serviceability, 147−157, 183−187 Elongation, 53, 56−57, 61, 122, 153, 414,
ultimate flexural, 161−166, 507, 613
188−189 Embedment of bars, dowels, 376, 379−380, 470
ultimate shear, 170−175, 190−191 Epoxy material, 60−61
worked example, 181 Erection speed, 14, 125, 365, 637
floor diaphragm, 101, 420−422 Execution deviations, possible deviations,
lateral load distribution, 140−141 see Deviations
load vs. span graph, 183, 632 Expanding agent, 529
production, 130 Expansion joint, 61
widths, depths, shapes, capacities, Exposure condition and classes (durability),
130−131 47−49, 108, 117, 157, 200, 221, 256
Doubly reinforced (beam), 225−226 Exposed steelwork, 57
Dowels Extended bearing, 435
action, 199, 380, 408, 413−414, 416, Extruded concrete, 29−31, 198
469−473, 499
in sleeves, 488, 496 Façade panels, 12−13
Drawn strand, see Strand Fabric, see Mesh
Drift (sway) criterion, 490 Favourable and unfavourable loads and load
Dry (building) envelope, 216 factors, 83−84
Dry bearings, 179 Felt bearing pad, 429, 458, 460
Dry packing, 50, 377, 435−438 Ferreira classification (semi-rigid), 506
Ductility, 96, 190, 286, 359, 411, 429, 489, Fibre reinforced concrete, 202
517−518, 601−606, 612−613, 617 Final prestress, 118, 156, 256, 650
Durability, see Exposure condition Fire resistance
axis distance to bars, 117
Early strength of concrete, 23−24, 31−32, 151, beams, 43−46, 108
154, 189, 221, 255, 322, columns, 37−42, 112−113
Eccentricity slabs, 46−47, 117, 178,
column (of load or sway), 318−319, summary of BS EN 1992−1−2, 122
330−331, 340, walls, 38, 42
column pocket, 586−587 First moment of area, 119, 171, 176, 190−191, 402
horizontal load, 369−373 Fixed end moments, 506−508
tendon (of prestress), 128, 151−158, 167−170, Fixity factor, see Semi-rigid connections, fixity
176−177, 195−196, 256 factor
vertical load, 290−291, 461 Flange thickness (of floors), 127−128, 131,
Edge beam, 215−220, 222−232 141, 177
Edge profiles (floors), 412 Flexural design, 109, 118−119, 161−166,
Effective area in tension, 201 189−191, 207, 223−226, 231−232,
Effective breadth, 178, 184, 188−191, 225, 243−244, 500, 502, 507, 656–657,
273−275 659, 679−681
688 Index
Flexural stiffness shear, shear key, 178, 464

connections, 505−509 sleeve (or hole), 293, 456, 478−479, 493
floors and beams, 166−170 ties, sleeve, 623
walls, 359, 361−362, 365, 370−371, 374 walls, sleeves, 379−380, 389
Floors; see also Composite beam and plank;
Double tee floor units; Half slab; Half-joint, 129−130
Hollow core floor units; Multi-rib Half slab, see Composite, plank floor
units; Plank floor Hardness, 460−462
composite (see Composite floors) Haunch (column), 70, 98, 330, 489, 519
definitions (units, slabs, field), 136 Heat curing, 31; see also Curing
design Helical strand, see Strand
bearing, 178−181 H-frame, 74
deflection, 166−170 Hidden connector, 519; see also Connections,
serviceability flexural, 148−161 beam to column
ultimate flexural, 161−166 High-strength friction-grip bolts,
ultimate shear, 170−178 474−475
diaphragm (see Horizontal floor, High tensile bar, 52−55
diaphragm) Hoisting, flat handling, 313, 323
production methods, 28−30 Holding down bolts, 577−578, 580, 597
ties, 101 (see also Ties) Holes in slabs, 141−144
types, 125−135 Hollow core floor units
Floor usage category, load factors, 82, 341 bearing on beams, 486−487
Flow table, 24, 26 in composite beams, 240−243, 248, 275
Folded plate roof, 69−71 depths, self weight, capacities, 129
Force path, 95−96, 434, 527 design
Foundations, 98 composite floors,
pad, 322, 588, 591−593 deflection, 194−196
wall foundation, 388 serviceability, 183−187
Frame analysis, 71−76 ultimate flexure, 188−190
Frequent load factor, 81−83, 149, 157, ultimate shear, 190−192
201, 318 deflection, 166−170
Friction, see Coefficient of friction serviceability, 147−161,
Friction force, 236−238, 292, 305, 557−558, 561 ultimate flexural, 161−166
Friction-grip bolts, 474 ultimate shear, 170−178
Frictionless bearings, 61 combined stress in webs, 175−177
Fully tied method, solution, 603, 608−614 discritization of floor slab, 141−147
floor diaphragm (see Horizontal floor,
Gable beam, 604 diaphragm)
Gable end ties, 603−605, 619 lateral load distribution, 136−140
Gas explosion, 599 production, 29−30, 126, 152
Grade of concrete, see Concrete, strength class propping, 192
Grandstands, 75−76 trimmer angles, 137, 142
Gravity load, 9, 65, 72−74, 85−90, 114, tests, 149, 172, 174,
166, 368 types, widths, shapes, profiles, 125−129,
Grout, grouted 158, 412
bearing, 429−430, 486, 514 worked examples, 157−161, 165−166,
connections, 478, 482, 484−480, 491−495, 169−170, 174−175, 177, 180,
500, 502, 507, 515, 520, 522, 185−187, 192–194, 196, 202, 623,
525−526, 529−530, 534, 547, 551, 564 648−654
definitions, 429 Hollow core wall, see Walls, hollow core
material, 49−50 Horizontal floor
connections, 94, 97−99 diaphragm, 11, 100−102, 367, 395−428
floor, 136, 138, 432 action, mechanism, 11, 397, 407−411
floor diaphragm, 389, 395, 416 bending moment, 398, 401−402, 404,
foundations 406, 416, 427
base plate, 577−580 chord, 395−397, 400−404, 408−409,
pocket, 516, 575−576, 585−588 411, 416
sleeve, 575−576, 593−594 complete design, 423−428
steel shoe, 546, 597 deep beam, 397, 404−405
Index 689
forces due to imperfection, 398−400 Joints

hollow core floors, 396, 404, 408−412, 423 bolted (see Bolted joint)
interface shear, 408, 411, 413, 426 castellated (see Castellated joint)
load reactions, 368−371 compression, 431, 434 (see also Bearings,
ring beam, 395–397 compression)
roof diaphragm, 399 coupled, 433−434
shear force, 398, 401−404, 406, 417−419, grouted dowel, bar, 293, 456, 478−479, 493,
424−426 575−576, 593−594
shear stiffness, 417−419 half joint (see Half-joint)
structural topping, 420−423 loops, 381
surface roughness, 413 shear, 197−198, 462−477
tests, 405, 408−409, 418 adhesion, bonding, 463
ties, tie force, 400, 404−405, 411−412, dowel action, 469−473
416−417, 608, 676−677 friction, 463−467
transverse shear force, 402−404 key, 404, 467−469
types and arrangements, 395−398 mechanical devices, 473−477
Virendeel truss, 397 mechanism, 462−463
distribution of horizontal load, 362, slab to beam, 440, 443, 486−488
365−374, 642−644 tension, 477−482
wind force or pressure, 365, 368−371 laps, 477−479, 488
Horizontal force due to imperfection, projecting loops, hooks,
see Imperfection 477−479
Horizontal stability, 72−75, 87−90, 100−108, welded bar (see Welded, connections,
359, 365−374; see also Horizontal reinforcement)
floor, diaphragm
Hot dipped galvanised steel, 57 Key elements, 601−603
Housing, see Domestic housing Keyed joint, see Shear, key
Kinking (of dowel), 408, 416, 470
Impact forces, actions, 601
Imperfection Labour rates, 13
geometric, 88−89, 114, 338 Lacer bars, 380−381, 477−478
horizontal force due to, 87, 89, 338, 368, Lack of fit, 517
376, 398−400 Lapped reinforcement, 222, 271, 318, 389,
inclination, 88, 338, 399 416, 428, 477−481, 488−489,
Imposed load, 9; see also Variable action 492−493, 501, 560, 597, 604−605,
Inaccuracies, 79, 429, 433 613, 620
Indented wire, 152, Lateral bursting or splitting, 1, 4, 12
Ineffective bearing length, 178−180, 438−439, coefficient, 289, 451−452, 485, 533,
444, 449−450, 486 560, 585
Infill wall, see Walls, infill reinforcement, 180, 290, 452, 485, 528, 533,
Informative Annexes in Eurocodes, 120, 122, 560, 563, 569
138, 147 stress ratios, 445
Initial crack width (diaphragm), 408, Lateral load factors, see Load, distribution
414−418 Lateral instability (beams), 215−216
Initial prestress, 117, 153, 158, 255, 259, 650, Lattice girders (steel), 203−213
652, 664 L-beams, see Beams
Instability limit state, 84 Leg length (weld), see Welding, size
Insulated wall element, 17−18 Levelling shim, 179, 435, 456, 484,
Interface shear, 196−200 495, 500−501, 563, 565,
reinforcement, 198−200, 204, 209, 213, 226, 575−576, 594
239−241, 243, 270−271, 281 L-frame, 76
distribution and spacing, 281−282 Lifting, factory handling, 59, 205−206, 313,
stress, 196−198, 200, 204, 213, 322−323,
270, 281 Limits of deflection, 167, 169, 248
Internal beams, 66, 78−79, 91, 98, 215, 239, Line, cross wall and point loads,
604, 613, 617, 620, 638, 659−661 137−147, 169,
Inverted-tee beam, see Beams Live load, 80−83, 87, 108, 115, 138, 141,
Isolated elements, 178 155, 166−170, 193−195, 233, 238,
Interface friction, 1, 198, 213, 243, 405, 413 243−244, 614, 636, 640
690 Index
Load connection, 94, 478, 480, 484, 507,

bearing walls, 9, 12−13, 66−69 525−484, 529, 575, 578, 594
combinations, 80−83, 85−86, 114−115, material, 49−50
249, 637 slab joints, 136, 408, 412
distribution, factors (in floors), 136−141 Moulds, 21−28, 101, 152, 198, 253,
factors (see Partial load factors) 313−318
load vs. span data, diagrams, 148, 178, 183, Movement gap, 106
258, 631−633 Multi-rib units (slabs), 131
reduction factors
deep beam walls, 283, 291−292, 295
number of storeys, 341, 666, 668, 671 Narrow plate (BSF connector), see Connection,
infill walls, 377−378 narrow plate
Localised failure, 601−603, 608−610 National Annex to UK Eurocodes, 65, 80−86,
Long line extrusion/slip forming, 29−31, 121−123, 153, 156, 200, 224, 289,
125, 198 321, 341, 376, 384, 389, 417, 439,
Longitudinal slip, 417−419, 464 615−618, 666
Long span beams, 17 National Structural Concrete Specification,
Loops, U-bars, 226, 239−243, 270−271, 292, 28−29
305, 379−383, 421, 439, 449−450, Neoprene, 61, 178, 181, 460−462, 486−488
456, 470, 477−480, 484−488, 528, Neutral axis, 163−166, 223−225, 246,
530, 578, 619−621 263−264, 333−335, 390
Losses of prestress, 117−118, 152−156, Nib, 3, 442, 523
260−262 Nodal point, 331−332, 527
Loss of bearing, 5 Nodes
column nodes, 287−292
Machine produced concrete, see Extruded; Long bearing stresses, 179, 446−449, 548, 562
line Non cementitious materials, 60−61
Market share, 12 Non isolated elements, 178
Material partial safety, see Partial safety factors, Non shrink grout, mortar, 492
material Non symmetrical base plate, see Connections,
Maturity of concrete, 151, 159, 248−250 base plate
Measurement of prestressing force, 153 Normal force, 378−379, 468−469
Mechanical shear joint, 473−477 No-sway frames, see Braced structure
Mesh reinforcement, 54, 181−182, 202, 207, Notional column removal, 601
289, 420−422, 428 Notional depth or thickness, 32,
Microwave curing, 31 152−155, 250
Minimum shear, 230, 657 Notional horizontal load, 368
Mix design, 32, 47−49
Mixed precast construction, 13−15 Overturning bending moment, 346−347, 352
Modular dimensions, 66
Modular ratio, 32, 109, 117, 184, 201, 234,
244−245, 276 Pad foundation, see Foundation, pad
Moment-axial load (M-N) interaction, see Axial Partial load factors (Ψ0 etc), 81−83, 86, 109,
load-moment; Column, design charts 157, 167, 201, 221, 330, 341, 592
Moment continuity, 73, 220, 488−489, 497; fire, 318
see also Connections, moment Partially braced structures or frame, 12, 73−75,
resisting 105, 352−355
Moment distribution factors (in columns), Partially cracked section, stiffness, 233,
111, 331 245−251γ
Moment of resistance, see Serviceability; Partial safety factors (γm etc)
Ultimate moment load, 83, 85−86, 114, 149, 166, 171,
Moment redistribution, 224 615, 621
Moment resisting material, 22, 161, 206, 475
columns, 69, 332−336, 346−352 Permanent formwork, 202
foundations, 69, 513, 584−593 Permanent loading, action, 80, 85−86
Mortar Permissible flexural tensile stress, 149, 151−152,
bearing, 178−179, 318, 429, 435−439, 460, 157, 184, 200, 256
478, 487, 594 Pinned joint, 73−75, 91−92; see also
brickwork, 384 Connections, pinned
Index 691
Pitching (columns), 313, 324−329 Reinforced concrete bearings, 454−459

Plain concrete Reinforcement
bearings, 431, 435, 438−444 buckling, slenderness, 206
walls, 376 dowels (see Dowels)
Plank floor (solid), 115, 132−135, 202, 243 mesh, 54, 181−182
Pocket foundation, 98, 120 maximum area, 318
depth, 576, 585−591 minimum area, 199, 207, 210,
Pocketed beam end, 524−525, 560−564 221, 232
Point loads, see Line and point loads deep beam wall, 289
Poisson’s ratio, 438, 444−445 shear stirrups, 230
Polyester resin mortar, 61 walls, 389
Polystyrene, 61 rebar, 52−54, 204, 221
Polystyrene blocks, 134, 202 specification, 53
Polysulphide sealant, 61 stainless steel bars, 55
Portal frame, 69−71, 76 starter bars, 577−578, 593
Precast framework, 7−11, 66−67, 70, 73−77, 98, tendons, strand, wire, 55−57,
104−105, 107, 316, 325−327, 360, 367, 204, 221
374, 396, 649 Relative flexibilities, see Column
Precast housing, see Domestic housing flexibilities
Precast vs. insitu concrete (stability), 365 Relative humidity, 32−36, 154−155
Preload torque in bolts, 475 Relative stiffness parameter (infill wall), 375
PRESSS program, 359 Relaxation of prestressing force, 117–118,
Pressure grouting, 478, 493 152−153, 156, 255
Prestressed concrete Restrained movement, 4
beam, 17, 252−283, 659−665 (see also Ribbed floors, 179−181
Beams, prestressed) Rigid joint, see Connections, moment
column, 317 resisting
plank, 133−135, 181−196, 202 Robustness, 599, 602−603, 608
rafter, 69−70 Rolled hollow steel section insert, 529−543,
slab, 115−119, 147−161, 183−196 (see also 570−575
Hollow core, double tee) Rolled steel sections, 365, 474−475, 480,
Prestressing tendons, 44−46, 55−57, 204, 221; 493−495, 503, 529−538, 558, 564,
see also Strand, wire 570−571, 661, 667, 670−676
Product Standards, 36, 46−47, 147, 176−177, Ronan Point, 599−600
190, 215 Rotation, 461, 501, 505, 507−508
Production methods, 25, 28−31, 125, 198, 253, Roughened surface, 413, 455, 585
316−317 Rubber bearing pad, see Bearings,
Profiled metal decking, 15 elastomeric
Progressive collapse, 599−607, 615
Propping Saw tooth model, 464
slabs and beams, 192−195, 207, 210−212, Sealants, 61
278−280 Second moment of area
columns and walls, 285, 325−326, 389 beams, slabs, sections, 110, 117, 171, 176,
Protection of structures, 601 190−191, 234, 245−251
PTFE, 61 bracing, cores, walls, 365, 370,
377, 402
Quasi-permanent load factor, 81−83, 149, 221, Second order moments, deflections, 9, 112,
318, 339, 615 332, 337−340, 577
Section modulus
elastic, 110, 117, 129, 131−132, 151−157,
Radial bursting stress, 479 162, 175, 183−187, 191−192, 234,
Rafter, 69−70 255−256, 273, 279
Rapid hardening Portland cement, 21, 31 plastic, 476, 534
Recessed beam end, 520−521. 527−530, 545, Self compacting concrete, 24−26
556−570 Self weight (floors)
Recycled concrete aggregate, 21, effect on design, 141, 154−155, 167−169,
50−51 182−183, 193−195, 201, 204, 215,
Recycled slurry and water, 52 235, 249, 272, 278
Reinforced bearing pad, 460−462 self weight itself 116, 125, 129, 131, 206
692 Index
Semi-rigid connections Skeletal structure, 7−11, 15, 18, 66−67, 74−75,

beam line, 96−99, 504−505 88, 98, 104−105, 316, 322, 325−327,
classification, 506 360, 363−365, 630−639, 649
COST C1 research project, 482 Slab to beam joint, see Joints, slab to beam
design method, 96−99 Slenderness, 113
fixity factor, 506 deep beam walls, 291−292, 295
moment-rotation behaviour, 99, 501, columns, 336−340,
504−509 infill walls, walls, 377−378, 390
tests, 220, 501 rebar (lattices), 206
Semi-rigid frame, columns, 8, 336 Sliding plate connector, 521, 524; see also
Serviceability limit state, 81−83, 117−118 Narrow plate connector
Serviceability moment of resistance, Slip formed concrete, 29−31
beams, 256−257, 273, 280 Spalling, 6, 290, 293−294, 436−439, 495
slabs, 118, 129, 131, 144, 157, 185, 192, Span, see Clear span; Effective span
194, 651, 654 Span/depth ratio
Shallow corbel, see Connection, corbel slabs and beams, 110−111, 202−203,
Shallow recess, see Beam, shallow recess 235−236, 244, 656, 658−659, 679−681
Shape factor (elastomeric bearing), 461 deep beam walls, 284
Shear Spandrel beam, 217−219
box (see Connections, shear box) Specific creep, 152
capacity (see Ultimate shear capacity) Splice, see Column, splice
capacity of walls, 377−383, 386−388 Spurious restraint, 6
centre (horizontal floor), 368 Squash load, 333−335, 391
core, 106, 364, 366−367, 377, 398 Stabilising methods, 97, 100−108, 359−362,
displacement, 417−419, 465 395−398
flow, 196 Stability ties, see Ties
friction, 379, 405, 413, 463−467 Stafford-Smith infill wall design, charts, 375,
interface, 196−200, 402−404, 409, 386−387
417−419, 464 Staircase, 629−630, 677−681
joint (see Joints, shear) Standard deviation of concrete strength, 21, 24
key, 198, 434, 467−469 Static coefficient of friction, 454
modulus, 419 Steam curing, 31, 35
reinforcement, stirrups, links, 109, 208−209, Steel
220, 228−232, 250, 547−548, 562 base plate (see Connections, column to
stiffness, 397, 411, 417−419 foundations)
strength bearing, 435−437, 455−460
column insert, 539 billet (see Billet)
deep beam walls, 293, 305 galvanised, 475
dowel, 470−472 moulds, 24−28, 317−318
slab, 129, 138, 171−178, 190−192 plate, 435−437, 473−476, 528, 555
beams, 228−232, 238, 267−269, reinforcement (see Reinforcement)
277−278, 282 shoe (see Connections, column to foundation)
stress, 175, 191, 228, 267, 465, 546, stainless, 475
555, 588 trimmer angles, 137, 142
stress or capacity distribution, Strains, 162−166, 190, 262−263, 333, 335
227−228, 268 Strand, 44−46, 54−57
studs (on steel beams), 282 drawn, 57
transfer mechanism, beams 407−411, 420, patterns, arrangements, 135, 148, 253−254,
464−465 259−260, 265
walls, 104−105, 400 (see Walls) slippage, 31
wedging, 405, 408, 411−417, 433−434 standard, helical, 54−57, 115, 135, 144, 253,
Shear compaction method, 29 409, 612−613
Shore hardness, 460, 462 super, 55, 57
Shrinkage, 32−36, 118 Strategies for accidental design situations, 602
between precast and topping or insitu, 187, Stress flow (deep beam wall), 285−288
245, 530 Stress history (prestressing tendons), 162
Shrinkage loss of prestress, 152, 155−156 Stress reduction factor (rebars), 206
Site cast precast concrete, 1−3 Stress vs. strain curve, 23, 53−54, 119, 162, 262
Size coefficient (for creep losses), 156 Structural stability, 73−76
Index 693
Structural steelwork, 14, 57−58 beam, 603−604, 612, 620−621

Structural topping, 141, 181−200, 203−213, column, 621−622
271−272, 395, 397, 420−423 mesh in topping, 613
Strut and tie, 237, 399−400, 433−434, 545, laps, 613
549−550, 557−558, 560−563 tie force, area, 614−622
deep beam walls (see Deep beam walls) vertical, 603, 622−623
Subframing, substructuring, 76−79, 90−94 worked example complete floor,
Summary of Eurocodes 623−627
BS EN 1992−1−1 (general rules), 120 Timber frame, 15
BS EN 1992−1−2 (fire), 122 Tolerances, 178−179
UK National Annex to BS EN Topping, see Structural topping
1992−1−1, 121 Torsion (horizontal floor), 370−371
UK National Annex to BS EN Transfer length, see Transmission length
1992−1−2, 122 Transfer strength, 31−32, 153−154,
PD 6687−1, 122−123 173, 255
Surface finish, texture, roughness, 27−28, 413, Transformed section, 110, 234
455, 466 Transmission length, 119, 154, 171, 174, 266
Sway column, and frame, 7, 10−12, 73−75, Transverse displacement, 417−418
104, 112, 329, 346−347; see also Trimmer angles, 137, 142
Unbraced Two dimensional framework, 72, 76
Sway (2nd order) deflection, 9−10, 12, 106, 112, Types of precast frames, 65, 71
114, 332, 337−340, 665, 668, 673
U-beams, 490−491
Temperature U-frame, 76
effects, 24, 35, 37−41, 44−45, 80, 122, 155, Ultimate limit state, 83
202, 262, 319, 396, 454, 601 axial load capacity
differential, 31 deep beam walls, 287−289
Temporary stability, 12−14, 316, 321, 324−326, columns, 329, 332−335
515, 520, 575 walls, 376−378, 386, 390−391
Ten storey frame, see Design exercise for 10 bearing capacity, 178−181, 438−441
storey frame horizontal shear stress, 197−198, 377−379,
Tendon, 55−57 464−466
Tensile strength moment of resistance, 119, 129, 131,
bolts, 60, 577 161−166, 189, 206, 264
concrete, 30, 119, 149, 151−152, 162, 171, columns, 330−335
174, 183−185, 192, 199−201 connections, 496, 498−504, 507−508
rebars, 52−55 design tables (rectangular sections), 165
steelwork, 58 shear capacity, 119, 170−175, 208−213
tendons, 55−57, 152, 204, 221 shear reinforcement
weld, 58, 476 stirrups, 109, 220, 229−231, 238, 254
Tension chord, see Horizontal floor, diaphragm, lattices, 203−205, 208−213
chord shear stress, 175, 208
Tension joint, see Joints, tension Unbraced structure, frame, column, 7, 10−11,
Tension stiffening, 162, 233, 320, 336
Thermal insulation, 12, 16−17, 42 Unidirectionally braced structure, 12
Thin plates, 500, 520, 531, 543, 597 Universal beams and columns, 57−58, 530
Threaded Unreinforced joints, 412
couplers, 99, 491, 597 Unrestrained movement, 4
rebars, dowels, 491, 493−494, 502, 520, Upstand, 216−220
530, 546
sockets, 480 Variable loading, action, 80, 85−86
Three line support (floors), 139 Variable strut inclination (VSI), 209,
Throat thickness, see Welding, size 226−232
Tie force (floor diaphragm), see Horizontal Vertical ties, see Ties, vertical
floor, ties Vintzēleou relationship–crack width, slip, shear
Ties (stability), 100−102, 599−627, stress, 465
676−677 Virendeel truss, see Horizontal floor,
horizontal, 603−607, 611 diaphragm
floor, 603−607, 612, 618−620 Viscoelastic (deflections), see Creep
694 Index
Visible connector, 513, 519, 522−523, 545 electrodes, 58, 141, 451, 475−476, 481, 496
Void ratio, 125−132 inserts (column billet), 538−543
Volume ratio of structural concrete, 7 mesh or fabric (see Mesh)
plate connector, 470
Walls double-tee slab, 140, 470−471
cantilever, 388−394 beams, 499−502, 505, 521
hollow core, 362, 391−394 reinforcement, 450−451, 480−481, 495
infill shear walls, 360−363, 374−388 size, throat thickness, 451, 475−476,
masonry, 363, 383−388 481, 496
mechanism, 374−375 specification, 58−59
precast concrete, 361, 376−383 strength, 58, 476
precast concrete, 360, 363, 367 Wet bedding, see Bearing, wet bedding
design charts, 635 Wide beam, 274
reactions, 368−374 Wind load, wind action, 9, 80, 85−86
ties, 603−604 Wind posts, 104
types, shapes, geometry, 359−362 Wind pressure on columns, 325, 328−329
wall frame, 9, 12−13, 66−69 Wire, 55−57, 204
Wall to floor connections, 496−498 Workability, 24
Wall to frame contact length, 375 Workmanship problems, 22
Water, 52
Water to cement ratio, 48−49 Yield strength, 52, 55, 57−58, 60
Web thickness, breadth, 125, 171, 190, 226, 235 Young’s modulus
Welding, welded concrete, 23, 31−32, 109, 117, 166, 168
connections, 470−473, 480, 495−496, long-tern, 233−234
499−502, 561, 597 steel, 53−54, 109, 117, 262

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Beam and column connections 561

Ah = VEd cot a/0.87fyk (10.45)

lw ³ Fh /2tw pywd + 2t run outs (10.46)

Asw1 = VEd /0.87fyk (10.47)

As¢ = VEd cot a/0.87fyk (10.48)

C2 = VEd / sin 45° (10.49)

with a limiting value of

CRd 2 = sRd ,maxb0.5d cos 45° (10.50)

The area of longitudinal steel in the bottom of the beam is

As = C2 cos 45° /0.87fyk = VEd /0.87fyk (10.51)

VEd = 0.87fywk Asw z /s (10.52)

s = 0.87fywk Asw z /VEd (10.53)

10.3.2 Deep recess

Ad = 0.5VEd / cos q 0.87fyk (10.54)

where θ is usually 40° to 45°.

Exp. 8.1 ri = Fbt[(1/ab) + (1/2Φ)]/2fcd (10.55)

Example 10.7: Recessed beam end reinforcement

50 mm dia. grout tube

300 × 300 135

Assume H10 links, H16 top and

a = 35gap + 50 to dowel = 85 mm. Bearing length = 2 × 50 = 100 mm.

Then, length of billet = 35 + 100 = 135 mm

Length of recess = 135 + 35 gap to billet – 35 gap to beam = 135 mm

Resistance length = 100 + 0 at end of beam + 100 = 200 mm

Equation 9.13 Sq = Ö 300 ´ 200 /100 ´ 100 = 2.45 < 3

Equation 9.12 fRdu = 0.567fck Sq = 55.5 N/mm 2

Required bl ³ 210 ´ 103 /100 ´ 55.5 = 38 mm

Allow 10 mm plate fixing tolerance as given plus Δa 2 + Δa3

bl ³ 38 + 10 + 12.3 = 60.3 mm < 100 mm

Effective plate bearing length bl = 100–22.3 = 77 mm

TEd = mVEd = 0.4 ´ 210 = 84.0 kN

Equation 10.39 Area of plate bl t = 84.0 ´ 103 /275 = 305 mm2 so

Equation 10.39 t ³ 210 ´ 103 /2 ´ 0.6 ´ 275 ´ 77 = 8.3 mm

Total t ≥ 3.1 + 8.3 = 11.4<12 mm preferred (if bl = 80 mm then t = 14 mm)

Use 100 × 100 × 12 plate

d = 500 - 50 cover - 150 - 10 shims = 290 mm

dh = 290 - 12 plate - 25/2 bars = 265 mm

= 0.5 ´ 0.6 ´ 0.84 ´ 40/1.5 = 6.72 N/mm 2

ae = 100 /2 + 35 gap + 30 cover + 10 /2 link = 120 mm

dh - d¢ = 265 - (30 + 10 + 16/2) = 217 mm

a = tan -1(217/120) = 61.1° to the horizontal

Equation 10.42 C1 = 210 /0.875 = 240.0 kN

Equation 10.49 C2 = 210 / sin 45°=

First and second compressive strut capacity OK

Fh = 199.9 kN and s s = 199.9 ´ 103 /982 = 203.6 N/mm 2

lw = 199.9 ´ 103 /4 ´ 6 ´ 220 = 38 mm + 2 ´ 6 = 12 mm run outs = 50 mm

Equation 9.22 z = 0.25(300 - 100)/300 = 0.167 for bp /b = 100/300 = 0.3

Equation 10.41 Abst = 35.0 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 500 = 81 mm2

Equation 10.47 Asw1 = 210 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 500 = 483 mm2

ae - lb /2 = 120 - 50 = 70 mm < 0.75 ´ 265

Try 2 no. H16 bars. σs = 115.9 × 103/402 = 289 N/mm 2

lbd = 0.25 ´ 289 ´ 16 ´ 0.775/0.7 ´ 3.68 = 21.7F = 347 mm

Equation 10.51 As = 210 ´ 103 /0.87 ´ 500 = 482 mm2

Use 3 no. H16 (603) with a full-hooked end at end of beam.

Example 10.8: Full width recessed beam end reinforcement

ae = 100/2 + 35 gap + 78 + 10 /2 link = 168 mm

dh - d¢ = 190 - (30 + 10 + 16/2) = 142 mm

a = tan -1(142/168) = 40.2° to the horizontal

Using 50% reaction V Ed = 0.5 × 210 = 105.0 kN