SPE 184702 Cement Displacement Final
SPE 184702 Cement Displacement Final
SPE 184702 Cement Displacement Final
All manuscripts will be sent through an XML tagging process that will standardize
the look of the paper and create links for figures, equations, and references.
Figures and tables should be placed directly after the first paragraph they are
mentioned in. The XML tagging will not alter the technical content of the paper.
SPE-184702-MS
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
of the paper have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect
any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the
written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words;
illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.
Abstract
Cement job success is largely determined by fluid displacement efficiency. Optimum displacement
requires understanding of flow patterns, frictional pressure losses and mutual interactions of mud, spacers
and cement in annular spaces. Modeling this complex behavior is very difficult, but understanding it is
essential to guarantee displacement success. A state-of-the-art cement displacement study was carried out
using the very latest in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling techniques, to identify practical
guidelines and solutions to cement displacement challenges.
A state-of-the-art 3D “3-phase” (i.e. mud-spacer-cement phases) CFD model was created and
simulations were carried out, featuring tracking of fluid interfaces during displacement, calculation of
frictional pressure drops, and characterization of complex flow profiles. These simulations accounted for
the effects of such complexities as non-Newtonian rheological behavior of all fluids involved, eccentric /
narrow annuli, and pipe movement / rotation. The integrated study clearly identifies the root cause(s) of
cement displacement failures and highlights comprehensive practical solutions, which are proposed for
implementation in field operations.
There are many causes for cement displacement problems and failures, including poor borehole
conditioning, inappropriate displacement flow rates, insufficient casing centralization, viscosity contrast
mismatches between mud-spacer-cement leading to interface instabilities, etc. Our high-resolution finite
element study quantifies the effects of many of these causes and highlights parameters that can improve
displacement, such as avoiding high shear strength in non-Newtonian mud and cement rheology, reducing
pipe eccentricity and applying pipe rotation during displacement. The modeling approach is used to
identify optimum parameters values, and studies interdependencies between factors, for instance
determining optimum rheology, flow rate and pipe rotation speeds when pipe is placed eccentrically in
the hole, in order to maximize the probability of displacement success in the field. Particularly revealing
are the non-intuitive results obtained while modeling mud, spacer and cement as non-Newtonian yield
power law (YPL) fluids, which has never been done before.
This paper presents: (1) a new, state-of-the-art 3D CFD model; (2) advanced numerical analysis of
cement displacement, taking into account complexities such as non-Newtonian rheology, borehole
enlargement, pipe eccentricity, and pipe movement during displacement; (3) practical guidelines derived
from the modeling results that can be used for improved cement job pre-planning and field application.
2 SPE-184702-MS
Introduction
General
Successfully displacing drilling fluid while placing cementitious material in casing annuli is crucial to
establishing zonal isolation, which in turn is essential to the success of subsequent completion, stimulation
and production operations. Displacement mistakes made during primary cementing operations can have
profound safety and cost implications, including the necessity of costly secondary remediation, severe
well control issues, compromised hydrocarbon production, and the loss of the well in its entirety. With
ever-growing well complexity, associated with (ultra) deepwater drilling in narrow drilling-margin
environments, extended reach drilling (ERD), high-pressure / high temperature (HPHT) drilling etc., the
displacement challenge is continuously increasing in magnitude. This challenge is best met with an
integrated approach that involves appropriate mud, spacer and cement material selection, laboratory
testing, job simulation, executing the cement job as planned, and appropriate data-simulation to verify
actual vs. planned results. This papers primary aim is to improve simulation capabilities.
Computer simulation to model mud displacement / cement placement is an important tool in both the
planning of cement jobs as well real-time monitoring (see e.g. Creel et al., 2006). Its application and use
has increased significantly in recent years, helping to facilitate complex cementing operations in variable
environments. Simulation allows for many important displacement parameters to be studied and optimized
prior - and increasingly during – cementing operations. Such parameters including:
• Pump/flow rates;
• Fluid volumes and contact times;
• Frictional annular pressure loss, determining equivalent circulating density (ECD) in relation to the
formation fracture gradient;
• Optimum density contrasts, viscosity contrasts, polarity contrasts, and interface stability between
mud, spacer and cement;
• Simulation of non-Newtonian rheologies;
• The intricate role of wellbore caliper/quality, casing eccentricity, casing movement (rotation and
reciprocation) etc. on displacement efficiency.
Software tools have become more sophisticated in recent years, being capable of modeling the above
parameters in fully three-dimensional (3D) models without making extensive simplifying assumptions. In
2006, Nelson and Guillot (2006) already stated: “Three-dimensional models allow a good understanding
of the various phenomena but, owing to their complexity, they remain research tools today. As available
computational power continues to increase, such tools will eventually enter the mainstream”. This
prediction, made over a decade ago, is coming true. Although the work presented here is not (yet)
mainstream, it does represent what is currently possible in fluid displacement modeling using state-of-the-
art software and readily available computational power. The overall intent of the work is also to make
sophisticated displacement modeling more accessible in order to improve planning and executing
displacements in the field, with the overall goal to reduce cement failures (a prime cause of well blowouts)
and to help guarantee zonal isolation.
Prior Work
A large volume of relevant prior work, including modeling studies supported by extensive laboratory work
and field validation, has revealed the intricacies of the displacement behavior of drilling, spacer and
cementing fluids. Serving as an introduction to our own modeling studies, a brief summary is given below
of some of the common knowledge and best practices regarding annular fluid displacement, while
highlighting published work dedicated to its more complex aspects, such as the effects of casing
eccentricity, pipe rotation, non-Newtonian rheology, etc.
SPE-184702-MS 3
Theoretical
Governing Equations
We concentrate on 3D flow modeling of Newtonian and Yield Power Law (YPL) fluids through concentric
and eccentric annuli, where the inner pipe/casing can be either stationary or rotating about its axis. Use is
made of the finite volume method (a cell-centered numerical method) of the computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) model ANSYS Fluent 17.0 for numerically solving the Navier-Stokes equations. To perform CFD
simulations, both the mass conservation (or continuity) equation and the momentum conservation equation
need to be solved. The general form of the mass conservation/continuity equation is given in Eq. 1, which
is valid for both incompressible and compressible fluids:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
+ ∇. (𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣⃗) = 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 (1)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
where 𝜌𝜌 is density, 𝑣𝑣⃗ is the fluid velocity vector, and 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 is the source term added to the continuous
phase from the element boundaries or from any dispersed phase inside the continuous phase. For
incompressible fluids, Eq.1 reduces to:
∇. (𝑣𝑣⃗) = 0 (2)
i.e. zero divergence of fluid velocity. Eq.3 describes the conservation of momentum:
�⃗
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣
+ ∇. (𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣⃗𝑣𝑣⃗) = −∇𝑝𝑝 + ∇. (𝜏𝜏̿) + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔⃗ + 𝐹𝐹⃗ (3)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
where 𝑝𝑝 is fluid pressure, 𝜏𝜏̿ is the stress tensor given below in Eq.4, 𝑔𝑔⃗ is the acceleration of gravity (i.e.
gravitational body load), and 𝐹𝐹⃗ represents any other external body load (e.g. created by an external
magnetic field). The second term on the left hand side of Eq.3 is the convection term, and the second term
on the right hand side is the diffusion term. The stress tensor 𝜏𝜏̿ in this diffusion term is given by:
2
𝜏𝜏̿ = 𝜇𝜇 �(∇𝑣𝑣⃗ + ∇𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑇𝑇 ) − 3
∇𝑣𝑣⃗𝐼𝐼� (4)
In the following, we will mainly concentrate on laminar flow of incompressible fluids in a first set of
results that serves the purpose of demonstrating the capabilities of our modeling approach. Note that these
conditions are used for convenience only, and are not inherent limitations of the modeling approach itself
(i.e. the approach can also be used to model turbulent flow behavior, compressible fluids, etc.).
𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝛼𝛼𝑝𝑝 = 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (5A)
𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉𝑞𝑞
𝛼𝛼𝑞𝑞 = 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (5B)
Figure 1 – The VOF method yields reliable results when the computational grid size remains
smaller than the interface length.
SPE-184702-MS 7
Property Value
Inlet Velocity 0.05 (m/s)
Reynolds Number 95 (laminar flow)
Dynamic Viscosity 0.001 (Pa.s)
Fluid Mass Density 1000 (kg/m3) – 1.0 SG
Outlet Pressure 0 Pa Table 1 – Boundary conditions and fluid properties for
Pipe OD / ID 0.375 / 0.3 (in) validation model 1.
Figure 3 – Pressure
convergence plot for a
Newtonian fluid flowing in
a concentric annulus.
The shear stress at the wall was also calculated and compared with the analytical value given by Eq. 7:
𝜋𝜋(𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂2 −𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼2 )
𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜋𝜋(𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼)𝐿𝐿 = 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (7)
4
where 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦 is the shear stress at the wall, 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is the inlet pressure, and OD, ID and L are the outer
diameter, inner diameter and length of the pipe section respectively. With a maximum shear stress of 0.325
Pa developed at the boundary, the left hand side of Eq. 7 gives a shear force of 0.0159 N and the right
hand side amounts to 0.0149 N. The error between the numerical and the closed form analytical force
balance is therefore 6.3% when using the aforementioned 378K nodes. This result shows that a finer mesh
is required to study wall shear force. With a finer mesh count of 850K elements, the error reduces to 0.5%.
where 𝜏𝜏0 is the yield strength, n is the flow behavior index (note that for n = 1, the fluid behavior is
that of a Bingham Plastic) , and 𝐾𝐾 is the consistency index. Figure 4 shows the comparison of the velocity
profile between the analytical and numerical solution for this case. The difference in the velocity profile
calculation is only 0.4%
Property Value
Inlet Pressure 1.414 x 104 (Pa)
Outlet Pressure 0 (Pa)
Pipe Section Length 1 (m)
Pipe Radius 0.005 (m)
Flow Behavior Index n 1
Yield Strength 𝜏𝜏0 15 (Pa)
Consistency index 𝐾𝐾 0.05 (Pa.s)
Table 2 – YPL fluid properties, boundary conditions, and pipe
Fluid Mass Density 1000 (kg/m3) geometry data for validation model 2.
SPE-184702-MS 9
Property Value
Density of Fluid 1 / 2 1000 / 1000 (kg/m3)
Viscosity of Fluid 1 / 2 0.001 / 0.002 (Pa.s)
Simulation Time 6 hours
Time Steps / number 0.0005 (s) / 4000
Maximum iterations 20 / timestep Table 3 – Fluid properties for two-phase immiscible Newtonian
Pipe OD / ID 2 / 1 (in) fluid displacement in validation model 3. Note that fluid 1 is
displaced by fluid 2.
Figure 5 – (a) Stable fluid pressure profile; (b) velocity vector plot; (c) phase separation contour of displaced fluid 1 (blue) by
displacing fluid 2 (red).
10 SPE-184702-MS
The relative computational ease of this model makes it well-suited for evaluating the effects of pipe
eccentricity and pipe rotation. The pipe geometry is shown in Fig. 6 for an eccentricity of 0.75. The same
fluids as given in Table 3 are used, with an inlet velocity of 0.1 m/s, outlet pressure of 0 Pa, simulated
pipe length of 0.5 m, and 350K total simulation elements. Fig. 7 shows the displacement pattern 2.76 sec.
into the simulation: a clear mud channel is forming on the narrow side of the annulus where displaced
fluid 1 (shown in red) is clearly lagging behind the advancing fluid front of displacing fluid 2 (shown in
blue) on the wider side of the annulus. When pipe rotation is introduced (here simulated at the high rotation
rate of 100 RPM), it is seen that the mud channel disappears and that fluid displacement becomes
homogenous around the entire pipe.
Property Value
Density of Fluid 1 / 2 1000 / 1000 (kg/m3)
Viscosity of Fluid 1 0.001 (Pa.s)
Consistency index 𝐾𝐾 – Fluid 2 0.2145 (Pa.s)
Flow Behavior Index n - Fluid 2 0.5748
Yield Strength 𝜏𝜏0 - Fluid 2 2.383 (Pa)
Outlet Pressure 0 (Pa)
Simulation Time 11 hours Table 4 – Fluid properties, boundary conditions, and pipe
Time Steps / number 0.0001 (s) / 200,000 geometry data for validation model 4, involving a YPL fluid
Maximum iterations 20 / timestep (displaced fluid) and a Newtonian fluid (displacing fluid).
Pipe OD / ID 2 / 1 (in)
Figure 9 – Unstable YPL / Newtonian two-phase displacement at a velocity of 0.5 m/s, with (a) cross-section plot; (b) view on the
pipe wall, and (c) pressure gradient (in Pa). The YPL fluid (in blue) is being displaced by a Newtonian fluid (in red) at a fluid velocity
of 0.5 m/s.
Contamination effects can be minimized / avoided either by pumping the Newtonian fluid at a faster
rate (e.g. in turbulence) and/or increasing the volume and contact time of this fluid. Another way is to
reduce the yield strength of the YPL fluid. This is shown in Fig. 10 below, where the yield strength was
reduced from 2.383 Pa to 1 Pa; moreover, the displacement velocity was reduced from 0.5 m/s to 0.1 m/s
for this simulation. Fig.10 shows the stable time evolution of the two phase interface tracking contour plot
and the onset of local interface instability. The latter, however, only occurs at the leading edge of the
displacement and immediately disappears, leading to a relatively stable interface with limited intermixing
/ contamination. Clearly, thinning a YPL drilling fluid aids in the displacement, as expected.
12 SPE-184702-MS
(a)
Figure 10 – Time evolution of the two-phase YPL / Newtonian fluid interface, with (a) contour plot; (b) enlargement showing (limited)
interface instability at the leading edge of the displacement, which disappears quickly.
Figure 11 – (a) Pipe geometry with eccentricity; (b) pipe cross section
SPE-184702-MS 13
Figure 12 – Three instances at sequential times of interface locations and conditions in a two-phase immiscible YPL fluid
displacement.
Figure 13 – Graphical display of problem description for a 13 5/8” deepwater casing string in 16.5” hole: (a) two immiscible YPL
fluid phases (mud + spacer, spacer + cement, mud + cement) at t = 0 sec; (b) problem geometry and meshing; (c) simulation of
fluid displacement in pipe; (d) cross-sections to study cement displacement efficiency; (e) evaluation of cement displacement
through cross sections of the pipe; (f) improved displacement using the effects of pipe rotation.
SPE-184702-MS 15
Variables
Fluid Properties
Newtonian 𝜌𝜌 = 1900 kg/m3; 𝜇𝜇 = 0.05 Pa/s;
YPL (thin) 𝜌𝜌 = 1850 kg/m3; 𝐾𝐾 = 0.6 Pa/s; n = 0.54; 𝜏𝜏0 = 1.2 Pa; critical shear rate = 10-5 (s-1-)
YPL (thick) 𝜌𝜌 = 1800 kg/m3; 𝐾𝐾 = 0.55 Pa/s; n = 0.57; 𝜏𝜏0 = 1.5 Pa; critical shear rate = 10-5 (s-1-)
Displacement Cases
I Newtonian rheology used exclusively
II YPL (thin) is displacing YPL (thick)
III YPL (thick) is displacing YPL (thin)
Pipe Eccentricity
Case 1 / 2 / 3 e = 1 / 0.5 / 0.95
Pipe Rotation
Case A / B / C 0 / 10 / 20 RPM
Flow Rate
Case a / b / c Q = 1 / 3 / 6 bpm
Casing Section Length Simulated
Case i / ii / iii L=1/2/5m
Table 5 – Variables used for 13 5/8” casing displacement simulation.
Simulations were run for all 15 cases shown in Table 6. Pressure gradients were calculated for each
case, and the displacement efficiency at the end of the simulation was captured using a Cement
Displacement Efficiency (CDE) as follows:
where the non-displaced volume fraction is the volume fraction (in the range 0 -1) of any non-displaced
fluid left behind the casing. The results are compiled in Table 7. The following observations are made:
• Casing section length has a large effect on simulation time (which, for the more involved cases, can
take up to 2-4 days on an Intel i-7 processor with 4 cores). From the results obtained from Newtonian
displacement cases 1, 2 and 3 and YPL displacement cases 5 and 6, it is concluded that simulating a
casing length of 2 m gives an acceptable error on the order of only 1-5%.
• Eccentricity without pipe rotation strongly reduces the displacement efficiency, as shown by
comparable displacement cases 6 (no rotation) with only 88.6% efficiency and 7 (20 RPM rotation)
with 99.2% efficiency for an eccentricity e = 0.5 for both cases.
16 SPE-184702-MS
• Eccentricity by itself leads to a lower frictional pressure drop in the annulus, as shown by comparing
case 12 (no eccentricity, e = 0) with 492 Pa/m pressure drop, case 8 (e = 0.5) with 474 Pa/m pressure
drop and case 6 (e = 0.95) with 329 Pa/m pressure drop. Note that associated with this drop in pressure
there is, of course, also a noticeable deterioration in displacement efficiency.
• Pipe rotation at relatively low rotation speeds (several tens of RPM) leads to a modest reduction in
frictional pressure drop in the annulus for both concentric and eccentric casing strings, as shown by
comparing concentric case 14 (no pipe rotation) with 456 Pa/m pressure drop with case 15 (20 RPM
rotation) with 450 Pa/m, comparing eccentric (e = 0.5) case 10 (no rotation) with 446 Pa/m pressure
drop with case 11 (20 RPM rotation) with 443 Pa/m pressure drop, and comparing eccentric (e = 0.95)
case 6 (no rotation) with 329 Pa/m pressure drop with case 7 (20 RPM rotation) with 322 Pa/m pressure
drop. This effect is also visualized in Fig. 14. Note that this results shed light on the long-standing
issue of the effect of rotation on pressure drop noted in the “Prior Work” section above: our simulations
show that frictional pressures are reduced at low rotational speeds (e.g. < 30 RPM used for most casing
rotations), but will increase at higher rotational speeds.
• All cases, with the exception of case 6 for a highly eccentric casing scenario, show relatively high
displacement efficiencies, which is a direct consequence of using relatively high displacement rates (6
bpm for all cases) for the simulations. However, only case 15 achieves 100% efficiency for the case
of a thin YPL fluid displaced by a thick YPL fluid when casing is perfectly centralized and the pipe is
rotated. Note that without pipe rotation (case 14), however, it is already possible to get a near-perfect
displacement (99.7%) in this case, i.e. pipe rotation is less essential when pipe is centralized.
• How important pipe rotation is for cement displacement when casing is placed eccentrically in the
hole is emphasized in Fig. 15. Pipe rotation has the ability to drag fluid/cement around the pipe to the
narrow side of the annulus, thereby contributing strongly to better displacement efficiency. As shown
by Fig 16, our simulations indicate that the effect works more efficiently at higher eccentricity values.
• Note that all of these observations are in very good qualitative agreement with field experience and
the studies mentioned in the section on “Prior Work”.
Figure 14 – Frictional pressure drop (pressure gradient in Pa/m) shown as a function of eccentricity in the absence of pipe rotation
and presence of pipe rotation (20 RPM), for cases specified in Tables 6 and 7.
Figure 15 – Impact of pipe rotation on cement displacement efficiency for two-phase YPL displacement (eccentricity = 0.95, models
6 (0 RPM) and 7 (20 RPM)). Shown is the change of the non-displaced fluid volume fraction (e.g. bypassed mud) as a function of
time for the two models. Insert shows the principle of pipe rotation dragging the displacing fluid around the casing.
18 SPE-184702-MS
Figure 16 – Impact of casing rotation on CDE as a function of eccentricity, for cases as specified in Tables 6 & 7.
Conclusions
This paper documents the development of an advanced CFD model for cement displacement, which
has been used to simulate 3D laminar flow and displacement of Newtonian and YPL fluids in concentric
annuli without making limiting simplifying assumptions to numerically solve the Navier-Stokes
equations. The model was verified using various simple validation cases and applied in a preliminary
study on the displacement of a 13 5/8” deepwater intermediate casing string. Its results emphasize the
highly beneficial effect of casing rotation in improving cement displacement efficiency and slightly
lowering displacement pressures. The beneficial effect of rotation extends to the point where it can almost
completely compensate for the negative effects of casing eccentricity, of evident importance for field
cementing in deepwater tight clearance casing schemes (but also for other displacement operations, such
as cementing long horizontal casing string in unconventional shale wells). The key behind the CFD model
development is that cement displacement complexities such as non-Newtonian rheologies, casing
eccentricity and rotation, etc., can now be quantitatively modeled and readily be studied to aid in cement
displacement planning using software that is more readily available. It thereby will help improve
cementing success, which is expected to result in turn in better zonal isolation, longer productive well life,
and improved rig safety.
Acknowledgment
This work was carried with financial assistance from the Offshore Energy Safety Institute (OESI), which
is committed to improving safety in offshore well construction. The support by OESI is gratefully
acknowledged.
SPE-184702-MS 19
Nomenclature
𝐴𝐴 = area
𝛼𝛼𝑝𝑝 = volume fraction of the dispersed phase
𝛼𝛼𝑞𝑞 = volume fraction of the continuous phase
𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 = total volume of in a mixture containing different phases
𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 = volume of the dispersed phase in a mixture
𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉𝑞𝑞 = volume of the continuous phase in a mixture
e = pipe/casing eccentricity
𝐹𝐹⃗ = external body load vector
𝑔𝑔⃗ = gravitational acceleration
ID/OD = pipe/casing inner / outer diameter
𝐼𝐼 = identity tensor
𝐾𝐾 = consistency index
𝐿𝐿 = pipe/casing length
𝜇𝜇 = fluid molecular viscosity
n = flow behavior index
𝑝𝑝 = fluid pressure
𝜌𝜌 = fluid constant density
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = source term added to the continuous phase
𝜏𝜏̿ = shear stress tensor
𝜏𝜏0 = yield strength
𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦 = shear stress at the wall
𝑣𝑣⃗ = fluid velocity vector
Glossary
2D/3D = 2-dimensional/3-dimensional
CDE = cement displacement efficiency
CFD = computational fluid dynamics
ECD = equivalent circulating density
ERD = extended reach drilling
HPHT = high pressure / high temperature
ROP = rate of penetration
RPM = rotation per minute
VOF = volume of fluid
YPL = yield power law
References
Aranha, P. E., Miranda, C., Cardoso, W., Campos, G., Martins, A., Gomes, F. C., Carvalho, M. (2012, December 1). A Comprehensive
Theoretical and Experimental Study on Fluid Displacement for Oilwell-Cementing Operations. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
doi:10.2118/150276-PA
Barton, S., Herrington, D., Gaines, M., Morrison, R., Stroud, D., & Lines, L. (2013, March 5). New Technology Enhances Rotary Steerable
System performance and Provides Superior Borehole Quality and Reduces Vibration in Rotary Steerable Applications. Society of
Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/163562-MS
Bittleston, S., and Hassenger, O. Flow of Viscoplastic Fluids in a Rotating Concentric Annulus, Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics
(March 1992) 42, No.1-2, p. 19-36
Brady, S. D., Drecq, P. P., Baker, K. C., & Guillot, D. J. (1992, January 1). Recent Technological Advances Help Solve Cement Placement
Problems in the Gulf of Mexico. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/23927-MS
Chen, D. C.-K., Gaynor, T., & Comeaux, B. (2002, January 1). Hole Quality: Why It Matters. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
doi:10.2118/74403-MS
Chen, Z., Chaudhary, S., & Shine, J. (2014, March 4). Intermixing of Cementing Fluids: Understanding Mud Displacement and Cement
Placement. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/167922-MS
Clark, C. R., & Carter, G. L. (1973, July 1). Mud Displacement with Cement Slurries. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/4090-
PA
20 SPE-184702-MS
Creel, P. G., McKenzie, D. D., Briney, M. R., & Pipes, H. (2006, January 1). Real-Time Cementing Designs vs. Actual Jobs in Progress.
Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/98079-MS
Crook, R. J., Keller, S. R., & Wilson, M. A. (1987, August 1). Deviated Wellbore Cementing: Part 2 Solutions. Society of Petroleum
Engineers. doi:10.2118/14198-PA
Cunningham, E. B. (2000, January 1). Applications for RAB Large Borehole Caliper in Deepwater Cementing. Offshore Technology
Conference. doi:10.4043/11883-MS
Flumerfelt, R. W. (1975, April 1). Laminar Displacement of Non-Newtonian Fluids in Parallel Plate and Narrow Gap Annular Geometries.
Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/4486-PA
Haut, R. C., & Crook, R. J. (1979, January 1). Primary Cementing: The Mud Displacement Process. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
doi:10.2118/8253-MS
Haut, R. C., & Crook, R. J. (1982, August 1). Laboratory Investigation of Lightweight, Low-Viscosity Cementing Spacer Fluids. Society of
Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/10305-PA
Hirt, C.W.; Nichols, B.D. (1981). "Volume of fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundaries". Journal of Computational Physics.
39 (1): 201–225. doi:10.1016/0021-9991(81)90145-5.
Howard, G.C., and Clark, J.B. Factors to be Considered in Obtaining Proper Cementing of Casing. DPP API 1948 (1948), p.257-272
Jakobsen, J., Sterri, N., Saasen, A., Aas, B., Kjosnes, I., & Vigen, A. (1991, January 1). Displacements in Eccentric Annuli during Primary
Cementing in Deviated Wells. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/21686-MS
Jones, P.H., and Berdine, D. Oil Well Cementing: Factors Influencing Bond between Cement and Formation, API Drilling and Production
Practices, Washington, DC, USA, American Petroleum Institute (March 1940), 45-63
Karbasforoushan, H., Ozbayoglu, E. M., Miska, S. Z., Yu, M., & Takach, N. (2016, September 14). On the Instability of Cement-Fluid
Interface and Fluid Mixing. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/180322-MS
Keller, S. R., Crook, R. J., Haut, R. C., & Kulakofaky, D. S. (1987, August 1). Deviated-Wellbore Cementing: Part 1 - Problems. Society of
Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/11979-PA
Kelessidis, V. C., Guillot, D. J., Rafferty, R., Borriello, G., & Merlo, A. (1996, May 1). Field Data Demonstrate Improved Mud Removal
Techniques Lead to Successful Cement Jobs. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/26982-PA
Kettl, F. C., Edwards, M. G., & Covington, R. L. (1993, January 1). Practical Horizontal Cementing Today. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
doi:10.2118/25546-MS
Lockyear, C. F., Ryan, D. F., & Gunningham, M. M. (1990, September 1). Cement Channeling: How To Predict and Prevent. Society of
Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/19865-PA
Luo, Y., & Peden, J. M. (1990, February 1). Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids Through Eccentric Annuli. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
doi:10.2118/16692-PA
Marken, C. D., He, X., & Saasen, A. (1992, January 1). The Influence of Drilling Conditions on Annular Pressure Losses. Society of
Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/24598-MS
Mason, C. J., & Chen, D. C.-K. (2006, January 1). The Wellbore Quality Scorecard (WQS). Society of Petroleum Engineers.
doi:10.2118/98893-MS
Miranda, C. R., Carvalho, K. T., Vargas, A. A., Rodrigues, L. F., & Marchesini, F. H. (2007, January 1). Minimizing Fluid Contamination
During Oilwell Cementing Operations. Offshore Mediterranean Conference. Paper 2007-111.
Moroni, N., Ravi, K., Hemphill, T., & Sairam, P. (2009, January 1). Pipe Rotation Improves Hole Cleaning and Cement-Slurry Placement:
Mathematical Modeling and Field Validation. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/124726-MS
Nelson, E.B., Guillot, D. Well Cementing, second edition. Schlumberger, 2006
Parlar, M., Brady, M. E., Morris, L., Ali, S. A., Twynam, A., Newberry, P., Foxenberg, W. E. (2002, January 1). Filtercake Cleanup
Techniques for Openhole Water Injectors with Sand Control: Lessons From Laboratory Experiments and Recommendations for Field
Practices. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/77449-MS
Ravi, K., Biezen, E. N., Lightford, S. C., Hibbert, A., & Greaves, C. (1999, January 1). Deepwater Cementing Challenges. Society of
Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/56534-MS
Ryan, D. F., Kellingray, D. S., & Lockyear, C. F. (1992, January 1). Improved Cement Placement on North Sea Wells Using a Cement
Placement Simulator. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/24977-MS
Sauer, C. W. (1987, September 1). Mud Displacement During Cementing State of the Art. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
doi:10.2118/14197-PA
Sarap, G. D., Sivanandan, M., Patil, S. P., & Deshpande, A. (2009, January 1). The Use of High-Performance Spacers for Zonal Isolation in
High-Temperature High-Pressure Wells. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/124275-MS
Savery, M., Darbe, R., & Chin, W. (2007, January 1). Modeling Fluid Interfaces During Cementing Using a 3D Mud Displacement Simulator.
Offshore Technology Conference. doi:10.4043/18513-MS
Schlichting, H. Boundary Layer Theory. New York, USA, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. (1979)
Shadravan, A., Narvaez, G., Alegria, A., Carman, P., Perez, C., & Erger, R. (2015, March 16). Engineering the Mud-Spacer-Cement
Rheological Hierarchy Improves Wellbore Integrity. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/173534-MS
Siginer, D.A, Bakhtiyarov, S.A. Flow of drilling fluids in eccentric annuli. Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 78, 119-132. (1998)
Tehrani, A., Ferguson, J., & Bittleston, S. H. (1992, January 1). Laminar Displacement in Annuli: A Combined Experimental and Theoretical
Study. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/24569-MS
Walker, R. E., & Al-Rawi, O. (1970, January 1). Helical Flow of Bentonite Slurries. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/3108-MS
Wang, H., Su, Y., Bai, Y., Gao, Z., & Zhang, F. (2000, January 1). Experimental Study of Slimhole Annular Pressure Loss and Its Field
Applications. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/59265-MS
Zhou, Y., Zheng, D., Ashok, P., & van Oort, E. (2016, March 1). Improved Wellbore Quality Using a Novel Real-Time Tortuosity Index.
Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/178869-MS