SKE SYSTEM

Anatomy of the skeleton

The 206 bones of the skeletal system carry out six important anatomic and physiologic
functions:

They protect internal tissues and organs; for example, the 33 vertebrae surround and
protect the spinal cord, brain, and heart.
They stabilize and support the body.
They provide surfaces for muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment.
They move through lever action when contracted.
They produce red blood cells (RBCs) in the bone marrow (a process called
hematopoiesis, from the Greek haima, or blood, and poiesis, meaning making or
forming).

They store mineral salts; for example, approximately 99% of the body’s calcium.

Below is a list of key terms, along with the

correct way to pronounce them.

Calcaneus Kal-kay-nee-uhs
Coccyx Kok-siks
Hematopoiesis Hee-muh-toe-poy-ee-sis
Occipital Ok-sip-uh-tuhl
Periosteum Per-ee-os-tee-uhm
Xiphoid process Zeye-foyd Prah-sess
Bones-r-us
The skeleton is divided into two parts: the axial (from the Latin axis, meaning
axle or wheel) and appendicular (from the Latin appendare, meaning to add or
append). The axial skeleton forms the body’s vertical axis and contains 74
bones in the head and torso; it also includes 6 bones of the middle ear, for a total
of 80 bones. (See the body’s bones.)
 Anatomically speaking
The body’s
one
b s
The human skeleton contains 206 bones; 80 form the axial skeleton and 126 form the
appendicular skeleton. The illustrations below
show some of the major bones and bone groups.
 The appendicular skeleton contains 126 bones and

extremities

The axial skeleton

The axial skeleton forms the long axis of the body and
includes bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib
Fontanel,also spelled
cage.
fontanelle,derives from
French and meanslittle
The skull
fountain.It can also refer
The skull contains 28 irregular bones in two major
to any membrane-
areas:
covered area between
two bones.

includes the body’s appendages, or upper and lower the

brain case, or cranium (from the Greek kranion, meaning

upper part of the head), and the face. Eight bones form the

cranium, 14 bones make up the face, and the inner ears

contain 6 ossicles (from the Latin ossiculum, meaning

bone), or 3 small bones in each ear. The jaw bone, or

mandible (from the Latin mandibula, meaning jaw) is the

only movable bone in the skull. (See Bones of the skull.)

Getting it together
Sutures are immobile joints that hold the skull bones together.
The coronal suture unites the frontal bone and the two
parietal bones. In infants, this suture isn’t closed, leaving a
diamond-shaped area (called the anterior fontanel), which is
covered only by a membrane. This soft spot closes between
ages 10 and 18 months. At the back of the head of infants, the
posterior fontanel closes by age 2 months.

A real airhead
Sinuses are air-filled spaces within the skull that lessen the
bone weight, moisten incoming air, and act as resonating
chambers for the voice.

Up front
 The sinuses, the forehead, and the area directly behind it
are part of the frontal bone. This bone also forms the
orbits (eye sockets) and the front part of the cranial
floor.

Take it from the top

The main part of the skull consists of a number of bones
sutured together:

• The coronal suture connects the frontal bone with the parietal
bones.
• Two parietal bones crown the head, forming the roof and the
upper part of each side of the skull.
• The squamous suture connects the parietal bones with the
temporal bones.
• Temporal bones form the lower part of the sides of the skull
and part of its floor. They contain structures of the middle and
inner ear and the mastoid sinuses.
 Anatomically
speaking
Bones of the skull

The skull is a complex bony structure. It’s formed by two sets of

bones, the cranial bones and the facial bones

• The lambdoid suture connects the parietal bones to

the occipital bone. jogger
• The occipital bone forms the rear portion and the As a way to
base of the skull and forms a movable joint with the remember
first cervical vertebra. the bones of the
skull, use your head
• A large opening at the base of the occipital bone, and think “part of
called the foramen magnum (meaning large hole), man”:
allows the spinal cord to pass from the encephalon PARietal
into the spine.
 Frontal
MAlar
A bat in the belfry
Nasal.
The sphenoid bone looks like a bat with outstretched
wings and legs extended to the back. Located in the cranial
floor, this bone is an anchor for the frontal, parietal,
occipital, and ethmoid bones. It also supports part of the eye
sockets and forms the lateral walls of the skull. The
sphenoid sinuses are large air-filled spaces within the
sphenoid bone.
Jointsbetween
the vertebrae
Facial bones allow forward,
backward, and
The bones of the face include: sideways
movement.
• two maxillary bones that form the upper jaw, nose, orbits, and roof of theNot
all at once,
mouth as well as the maxillary sinuses • the cheekbones, called zygomatic
though! or
malar bones, that attach to chewing muscles
• two nasal bones that form the upper part of the bridge of the nose (cartilage
forms the lower part)
• the mandible that forms the lower jaw
• two lacrymal bones that contain the lacrymal bag (part of the conduit through
which tears drain in the nasal cannula)
• the vomer that’s part of the nasal septum
• two palatine bones that form the posterior portion of the hard palate, lateral
side of the nasal cavity, and small part of the orbit.

The spinal column

The flexible spinal column contains 24 vertebrae (plural of
vertebra), the sacrum, and the coccyx. (See Some thorny
words of the spine.)
Joints between the vertebrae allow forward, backward,
and sideways movement. The spinal column supports the
head while suspending the ribs and organs in
 Spine comes from the Latin word spina, which means thorn,
and is related to spike as well. Latin writers likened the
thorn to the prickly bones in animals and fish and, thus, the
word also be- came the designation for the vertebral column.

Also from Latin, vertebra derives from a verb meaning to turn.

Therefore, it formerly connoted any joint—not just those of the

spine. A Greek word, spondylos, has the same meaning as
verte- bra. It shows up in words like spondylitis, which is an
inflammation of the vertebrae.
Sacrum and coccyx bringing up the rear

The sacrum was formerly known as the os sacrum, literally

the holy bone, so called because it was thought to be a
particularly choice bit and so was offered to the gods in
sacrifice. The coc- cyx derives its name from the Greek
word for the cuckoo, kokkyx. The Greek anatomist Galen

thought this triangular bone resembled the shape of the bird’s bill.

front. It also anchors the pelvic girdle and provides

attachment points for many important muscles. The
spinal column contains:

• seven cervical (neck) vertebrae, which support the

skull and rotate
• twelve thoracic (chest) vertebrae, which attach to
the ribs
• five lumbar (lower back) vertebrae, which support
the small of the back
• the sacrum, a single bone that results from the
fusion of five vertebrae and attaches to the pelvic girdle
• the coccyx, or tailbone, which is located at the
bottom tip of the spinal column and is a single bone
formed from the fusion of four or five vertebrae.
The spinal column is curved to increase its strength and
make balance possible in an upright position. The
vertebrae are cushioned by intervertebral disks composed
of cartilage.
The 33 vertebrae of the spinal column
surround and protect thespinal cord. They’re
divided into five sections: cervical vertebrae,
thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae,
sacrum, and coccyx. Yep. I have 33
vertebrae----and
they’re all perfect
specimens, if I do say
so myself
 Sternum
Located in the center of the chest, the sternum is a flat, sword-shaped bone
that’s attached to the clavicles (collar- bones) and the innermost part of the
first two pairs of ribs.
Caged in
The sternum, ribs, and thoracic vertebrae form a protective enclosure
around the vital organs. Known as the thoracic cage, or thorax, this
flexible structure protects the heart and lungs and allows the lungs to
expand during respiration.

Ribs
The flat, curved bones attached to the thoracic portion

of the spinal column are calledribs.

Ribs—true or false?

The termcostal refers to ribs. The first seven pairs of

ribs are attached to the sternum bycostal cartilage; The ulna and the
they’re called true ribs.The remaining five pairs of
radius articulate
ribs are called false ribs because they aren’t attached
directly to the sternum. All ribs are independently with the
attached to thespinal column. humerus to form
the elbow joint
Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton includes the upper and lower
extremities.

The upper extremities

The clavicles, or collarbones, are two flat bones at-
tached to the sternum on their anterior side and to the
scapulae (shoulder blades) laterally. This forms the
sternoclavicular joint.
The scapulae are a pair of large, triangular bones that
are located at the back of the thorax. These bones, plus
the clavicles, form the shoulder girdles.
Armed and dangerous
The humerus, or upper arm bone, is a long bone with a
shaft and two bulbous ends. The two long bones of the
lower arm are theulna, located on the little finger side
of the humerus, and theradius, on the thumb side.
These
Anatomically speaking

Bones of the hand

A view of the right hand, illustrating the positions of the

carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.
 bones articulate with the humerus to form the elbow
joint. The wrists are composed of eight small, irregular
carpal bones aligned in two rows. Ligaments bind the
carpals together.

A handful of terms

The bones of the hand are comprised of metacarpal bones

and phalanges. (See Bones of the hand.) The way these
bones come together enables move- ment of the hand
• Five small long metacarpal bones attach to the carpals
and form the palm of the hand. Phalangesis the plural
Phalanges, or finger bones, are miniature long bones. of the Greek word
pha-
Each finger has three phalanges, while the thumb has lange,orphalanx. The
latter term was applied
two. • The thumb metacarpal has a freely movable joint, to Greek and Roman
allow- ing a wide range of movement between the thumb
meta- carpal and the trapezium, the carpal at the base of noted for their closely
the thumb. joined and unified ma-
neuvers.

Lower extremities
The lower extremities contain bones of the hip, thigh, leg,
It sayshere that
ankle, and foot. the word patella,
for kneecap, is a
Girdle words Latin word that
Three pairs of bones fuse during childhood to form the pelvic girdle, means a small, flat
the broadest bone in the body. This bone supports the dish—just what
trunk, protects the abdominal organs within its basin, the kneecap looks
like
and attaches the lower extremities to the body. The three
pairs of fused bones include the ilium, which is the
largest and uppermost of the three; the ischium, the
lower and strongest set of bones; and the pubis, a pair of
anterior bones that meet at the symphysis pubis—a car
- tilaginous joint.
Give ’em a leg up

The two femurs, or upper leg bones, are the longest and
heaviest bones in the body. They connect at the proximal
end with the hip, articulating with the acetabulum, or
hip socket. The femurs connect with the tibia at the dis-
 tal end. The kneecap, or patella, is a small, flat bone that protects the knee joint
and overlaps the distal end of the femur and the proximal end of the tibia.

Below the knee

The tibia, sometimes called the shinbone, is the largest and strongest of the
lower leg bones. It articulates with the femur at the proximal end and meets the
fibula and the talus at the distal end. The fibula connects with the tibia at its
proximal and distal ends. The fibula’s distal end also articulates with the talus.
The articulation of the fibula, tibia, and talus bones creates the bony prominence
on the outside of the ankle, called the lateral malleolus.
Now, fleetly, to the foot
The foot bones form a strong, stable arch with lengthwise
and crosswise support. Strong ligaments and tendons of the
leg muscles help the foot bones maintain their arched
position:
• Seven short tarsal bones structurally resemble the
wrist, and they articulate with the tibia and fibula: –
The talus bone (astragalus) forms part of the ankle
joint.
– The heel, called the calcaneus, is the largest tarsal
bone.
– The scaphoid bone is also called the navicular
because of its boat shape.
– The cuneiforms (the lateral, intermediate, and
medial) are three wedge-shaped bones that form the arch
of the foot.
– The cuboid bone articulates in the front with the
metatarsal bones.
• Five metatarsal bones form the foot and articulate with the tarsal bone and
the phalanges.
• The fourteen phalanges (toes) are similar to fingers, with
three bones in each toe except the great toe, which, like the
Words will
thumb, contains only two bones.
never hurt
me. But let’s
Anatomy of bones keep sticks
out of it!

Bones are classified according to their shape:

• Long bones are the main bones of the limbs, except the
patella, and those of the wrists and ankles. • Short bones
are the bones of the wrists and ankles.
 • Flat bones include the sternum, scapulae, and cranium, among others.
• Irregular bones include the vertebrae and hip bones.
Boning up on bone material
All bones consist of two types of bone material: an outer layer of dense, smooth
compact bone and an inner layer

of spongy, cancellous (porous) bone. Compact bone is

found especially in the shaft of long bones and in the outer
layers of short, flat, and irregular bones. Cancellous bone
fills the central regions of the epiphysis (the end of a long
bone where bone formation takes place) and the inner
portions of short, flat, and irregular bones.

Osteon,Greek forbone,provides a key word-forming root for medical terms relatingoste- to bones,
orosteo-.Osteoblastis a
com- pound ofosteo-and-blast;the latter is another common medical root derived from a Greek word bud thatormeans
a a
shoot of adeveloping organism.
Anosteoblast is thusa cell that buds forth new bone tissue.
The Greek wordclast,on the
other hand, means to breakorfragment.Therefore, anosteoclastisa cell that breaks down bone.

The Romans had a name for it

Another very common root for forming words is the Latin
os,orword
oss-,also meaning
bone. This root is contained in words like

ossify,meaningto changeorto become bone,

andossification,
the process of becoming bone.

As osteoblasts add new tissue to the outside of a bone, large

phagocytic cells called osteoclasts eat away bony tissue in the
medullary cavity to keep the bone from becoming too thick. A
healthy bone is constantly broken down, resorbed, and repaired
long after it stops growing in size. During adulthood, bone
formation (or ossifica- tion) and bone resorption balance one
another so that each bone remains a constant size. During childhood
and adolescence, ossification is faster than resorption and bones
grow larger.

Cartilage
Bones and joints need support as well as shock
absorp- tion. Cartilage is a dense connective tissue
 that has these capabilities. It consists of fibers
embedded in a strong, gel-like substance. Unlike
rigid bone, cartilage has the flexibility of firm plastic.

Cartilage supports and shapes various structures, such

as the auditory canal and the intervertebral disks. It
also cushions and absorbs shock. Cartilage has no
blood or nerve supply.

Types of cartilage
Cartilage may be fibrous, hyaline, or elastic:

• Fibrous cartilage forms at the meniscus and

the inter- vertebral disks.
• Hyaline cartilage covers articular bone
surfaces (where one or more bones meet at a joint),
connects the ribs and sternum, and appears in the
trachea, bronchi, and nasal septum.
• Elastic cartilage is located in the auditory
canal, ex- ternal ear, and epiglottis.

Bone movement
Bones are rigid structures that can’t bend without being
damaged, so individual bones move at joint sites, or
Articulations. Every bone in the body except the hyoid bone,
which anchors the tongue, is connected to another bone by
flexible connective tissue.
How does it move?
Classifying joints
Joints can be classified by the type of movement they al- low and by their structure.

The three classes of joints identified by the range of movement they allow are:
• synarthrosis—immovable • amphiarthrosis—slightly movable • diarthrosis—
freely movable.
Our joints are
What is it made of? jumpin’! It must
By structure, a joint may be classified as fibrous, carti- be that
laginous, or synovial. In fibrous joints, the articular sur- diarthrosis
faces of the two bones are bound closely by fibrous con- nective tissue and little
movement is possible. The cranial sutures are examples of fibrous joints.
In cartilaginous joints, cartilage connects one bone to another; these joints
allow slight movement. An example is the symphysis pubis (the junction of the pelvic
bones).
Body surfaces in the synovial joints are covered by articular cartilage and joined
by ligaments (dense, strong, flexible bands of fibrous connective tissue that bind
bones to other bones) lined with synovial mem- brane. Freely movable, synovial
joints include most joints of the arms and legs. Synovial joints also include an ar-
ticular capsule—a saclike envelope, whose outer layer