3.

2 FORCED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

General characteristic of oscillation processes. Harmonic

oscillations

Motion or processes, which possess one or another degree of repetition in time,

are called oscillations.
Some functional procedures (pendulum, oscillatory circuit, the oscillator and
others), based on oscillation processes, may be fulfilled in technology devices.
Oscillations may appear as the inevitable manifestation of physical properties
(vibration of machines and mechanisms, instability and oscillating flows with the
motion of bodies in liquids and gases, etc).
Oscillations are called periodic if the system through the specific uniform time
intervals, called the oscillation period, passes the same states. Such vibrations are
described by periodic functions
x(t)=x(t+T),
where x is displacement (deviation from the equilibrium position) at time t, T is the

Fig. 1

oscillation period, equal to the time of the one full oscillation.

Rectangular, saw-tooth and harmonic oscillations are examples of periodic
oscillations – Fig .1.
A harmonic oscillation, which displacement time dependence is described by
the harmonic law plays a significant role in physics.
x=Acos(0t+0) (1.1)
or
x=Asin(0t+0) (1.2)
 A is an amplitude of oscillations, i.e. maximum of the module displacement
from the equilibrium position;  – angular frequency of oscillations which equal
to the number of full oscillations, accomplished in time of 2 seconds.
It is also convenient to characterize periodic oscillations by the frequency ,
which is equal to the number of full oscillations accomplished in 1 s.
n
ν= t ,
where n - number of oscillations, t - time of oscillations.
The unit of linear frequency 1 Hertz (Hz) is the frequency of such a oscillation
motion, in which one full oscillation is accomplished for 1 s.
Related to the frequency is the period T of the motion, which is the time for
one complete oscillation (or cycle); that is,
t 1
T= n = ν =(s)
Equations (1.1) and (1.2) (0t+0) – argument of trigonometric function called
the phase of the motion, and the constant φ0 is called the phase constant (or phase
angle). The value of φ0 depends on the displacement and velocity of the particle at
time t = 0.
On the basis of (12.1), it is possible to obtain expressions for the speed and
accelerations in case of harmonic oscillation:

(1.3)

The equation of harmonic oscillation in differential form follows from (1.3):

(1.4)
.

Oscillation of the spring pendulum

Let us attach body with the mass m to

the end of the spring, which may be
moved without dumping along the
axis x (Fig. 2).
When displacement of body from the
position of equilibrium is x, the elastic
force that attempts to return body to
equilibrium position, appears: Fig. 2

F=-kx. (1.5)
When we ease the body it will begin to move under the action of this force.
Second Newton’s law can be used to determine the equation of motion:

(1.6)
.
Comparing (1.6) and (1.4), we may observe that the spring pendulum performs
harmonic oscillations with the frequency

(1.7)
.
The spring pendulum oscillation period will be

(1.8)
.
It is worth to note that there are many forces, which are not elastic by their
nature, but also satisfy the relationship (1.5). Such forces are united under the
general name of quasi-elastic forces. Quasi-elastic force is proportional to the
displacement from the equilibrium position and it is always directed to the position
of equilibrium. In this case the parameter k in (1.5) is called quasi-elastic constant.

The summation of the harmonic oscillations of identical direction

The problem of summation of several oscillations of identical direction may be

solved by depiction the oscillations graphically in the form of vectors on the plane.
Diagram, obtained in such a way, is called vector diagram.
Starting from point O, taken on axis X, let us draw the vector which forms
the angle 0 with axis X (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
The vector projection on axis x is equal to

.
 Let us assume now that the vector uniformly rotates with the angular
velocity 0. Then in time t it passes the angle 0t, and new projection of this vector
on the axis x will become:

The vector projection to the axis x will perform harmonic oscillations with
the amplitude, equal to the length of vector , with the frequency, equal to the
angular velocity of vector rotation, and with the phase constant, equal to the angle
between vector and axis x at the initial moment of time. Considering the above
mentioned, it follows that the harmonic oscillation can be described with the aid of
the vector, whose length is equal to the amplitude of oscillation and direction
relatively axis x determines its phase constant.

Fig. 4

Let us examine the summation of two harmonic oscillations of identical

direction and same frequency:

;
x2  A2 cos  t  2  .

Vibrations, presented with the vectors and that form angles 1 and 2
with the axis X, are depicted in Fig. 4
Let us draw the resulting vector according to vector sum rule. It is easy to
see that the projection of this vector to the axis x is equal to the sum:

Vector rotates with the same angular velocity as vectors and .. Thus
resulting motion will be harmonic oscillation with frequency 0, amplitude and
phase constant :

.
 Let us find now resulting amplitude from the vector diagram. According to the
law of cosines we have:

. (1.9)

Damped oscillations

Under the actual conditions in the vibrating systems, resisting forces are always
presented. As a result, system energy dissipates to the work against damping forces
and amplitude of oscillations decays.

Fig. 5

Let us examine the case, when the vibrating body is located in the viscous liquid,
and its speed is small – Fig. 5.
Then the damping force that applied to the body is equal

, (1.10)

here is drag constant, depending on the body form and viscosity of liquid.
The damping force, which applied to the body, is equal to the sum of quasi-
elastic force and damping force:
.
Now we can write equations of motion using second Newton’s law:

Taking into account, that , we have:

.
Last expression is a differential equation of damped oscillations that can
represented in the following form:
 (1.11)
,

where is the damping factor and is an angular frequency of

characteristic oscillations of same system with  = 0.
In the case when damping is negligible (i.e.  = 0), equation (1.11) converts to
the harmonic oscillations equation (1.4), solution of which have next form
, where .
In case of lightly damped system, when 0 but not large ( ), solution of
(1.11) may be written as:
(1.12)

Here  is an angular frequency of the damped oscillations, which connected

with undamped angular frequency by relation:

(1.13)
.
Amplitude of damped oscillations decay exponentially with time:

. (1.14)

Time dependences and are presented on Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

The greater -factor of oscillatory system, the longer oscillations remain. The
expression of a -factor at low values of logarithmic decrement will be .

Forced oscillations

Under the actual conditions oscillations are damped because oscillatory system
gradually loses energy needed to overcome the action of friction forces. To
compensate energy dissipation, i.e. to bring the system to the condition of
undamped oscillation, more energy should be brought into the system.
 Let us assume that the external (driving) force, which is changed under the
harmonic law, acts upon an oscillatory system:

where  – an angular frequency,  – maximum driving force (amplitude).

Resulting force is determined by the sum:

where is the damping force, is the quasi-elastic force. So

According to the second Newton’s law and taking into account that ,

, we have

or

(1.15)
,

where is a damping factor, is the angular frequency of

undamped (free) ocillations.
Expression (1.15) is a differential equation of forced oscillations. Solution of
this equation will be given by the expression:

,
i.e. we suppose that system motion can be described by harmonic oscillations with
frequency equal to the frequency of external force.
Amplitude of forced

(1.16)

As it is follows from the (1.16) an amplitude of forced oscillations is function of

external periodic force frequency. At 0 , but if , then
 . When amplitude of forced oscillations reaches a maximum value
(see Fig. 7).

Fig. 7

The phenomenon of sharply increase in the amplitude of the oscillations, when

angular frequency of driving force reaches resonance value, is called resonance.
The angular frequency , at which begins the resonance, is called resonant
frequency.
(1.17)
.
It is evident from (1.17) that the resonance frequency less than the natural
frequency of a system.
The resonance amplitude will get if we substitute (1.17) into (1.16):
F0
A R= (1.18)
2 mβ √ ω0− β
2 2

Note that since the amplitude grows as the damping decreases, taking this to
the limit where there is no damping (β = 0), the amplitude becomes infinite.
1.4 Characteristics of oscillating system.

If the action of an external periodic force is

stopped, then the oscillations will become
damped, i.e. the amplitude of the oscillations will
decrease with time. The rate of decrease in
amplitude is characterized by the damping factor
β. β grows so larger as faster the damping
decreases. For the experimental determination of
the damping factor - do like this. Multiply by 0.7
the magnitude of resonance amplitude , and at a
height equal to 0.7AR, draw a straight parallel to

Fig. 8
the frequency line (Fig. 8). The distance between the points of the cross section of
this straight line with the resonance curve is equal to the width of this curve. It can
be shown that the damping factor is related to the width of the resonance curve by
a simple relation:
β=(ω2-ω1)
or
β=2π(ν2-ν1) (1.19)
Another important characteristic of oscillations is closely related to the
damping factor - the logarithmic decrement of damping, which is defined as the
logarithm of the ratio of amplitudes taken over a period of time equal to the period
of damped oscillations:

(1.20)
It can be shown that the logarithmic decrement and the damping factor are
related to the relation:
2 πβ
λ= √ ω + β
2
R
2 (1.21)
or
2 πβ
λ= √( 2 π ν 2
) + β2
R
(1.22)
The Q- factor is defined as the ratio of the energy of the oscillatory system W
(t) to the energy loss during the oscillatory period:

(1.23)
where T - is the period of oscillation.
For small values of the logarithmic decrement

(1.24)
The higher the Q - factor of the system, the slower its energy decreases and,
therefore, the greater the number of oscillations the system has time to make before
they are completely stopped.
2. EQUIPMENT NEEDED
1. З - mirror
2. S is the light source
3. Пл - plate
4. Л - lens
5. E - screen
6. Шк – scale

Fig.9
 The scheme of the experimental setup is shown оn Fig. . The emitting from
the light source passes through the collecting lens Л and obtains in the form of a
divergent beam. On the path of the light beam is put steel plate Пл which can do
forced oscillations. The oscillatory motion of the plate is excited by an
electromagnetic vibrator powered by the sound of the generator (not shown on the
figure).

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Do the measurements to obtain two resonance curves - with very small
attenuation factor (plate oscillates in air) and with a little more attenuation
coefficient (plate immersed in oil to a depth of 1 mm).
According to the task of the head make measurements of the amplitude of
oscillations for set frequencies. The measurement results are recorded in data
table 1.
DATA TABLE 1
Frequency 1st damding 2nd damding
№
ν Ar Al Aavg Ar Al Aavg
1
2
…
10
νres1 = Ares1= νres2 = Ares2=
For each attenuation must be as accurately determined as possible the value of
the resonant frequency. Smoothly rotate the "Frequency" knob find the maximum
value of the amplitude of the forced oscillations. The received values of νres and
Ares are recorded in Data table 1.

4. THE PROCESSING OF MEASUREMENT RESULTS

1. According to the Data table 1 construct two resonance curves.

2. By formulas (1.19), (1.22) and (1.24) we find the parameters of the
oscillatory system β, λ and Q.
The results of the calculations enter in Data table 2.
DATA TABLE 2
Characteristics of
1st damding 2nd damding
oscillations
νres
ν1
ν2
β
λ
 Q

5. CONTROL QUESTIONS
1. Give a general characteristic of the oscillations.
2. Using the method of vector diagrams, find the resulting amplitude when
adding two harmonic oscillations of the same direction and the same frequency, if
the difference of phase is
3. Derive the differential equation of forced oscillations and find the
dependence of the amplitude of such oscillations on the frequency.
4. What is called the logarithmic decrement, Q-factor? How can you
experimentally determine these parameters?