PRACTICAL MANUAL

CROP IMPROVEMENT – I (GPB-5.6)

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INDEX
EX. DATE TITLE PAGE NO. SIGNATURE
NO.
1. Breeding methods,
Emasculation and
hybridization techniques
2. Breeding for Rice
3. Breeding for pearl millet
4. Breeding for Sorghum
5. Breeding for Maize
6. Breeding for Pigeon pea
and Mungbean
7. Breeding for Castor
8. Breeding for Soybean,
groundnut and sesame
9. Breeding for Cotton
10. Breeding for Tobacco
11. Breeding for Okra
12. Breeding for Bottle gourd,
Bitter gourd, Ridge gourd,
Smooth gourd and
Cucumber
13. Visit to seed production
plots and AICRP plots of
different field crops and
submission of report.

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 PRACTICAL: 1

CROP IMPROVEMENT: SELFING AND CROSSING

Selfing and crossing are the essential procedures in crop improvement process.
The exact procedures used to ensure self or cross-pollination of specific plants will
depend on the floral structure and normal manner of pollination. Generally cross-
pollination in a self-pollinating species is more difficult because self-pollination
occurring inside the unopened flowers is cumbersome.

SELFING:

In the selfing of cross-pollinated species, it is essential that the flower are bagged
or otherwise protected to prevent natural cross-pollination. Selfing and crossing are
essential in crop breeding. It is important that the breeder, master these techniques in
order to manipulate the pollination according to his needs. The exact procedure that
he may use to ensure self or cross pollination of specific plants will depend on the
particular species with which he is working. The structure of the flowers in the
species determine manner of pollination. For these reasons, the breeder should
acquaint himself with the flowering habit of the crop.
In the case of wheat, rice, barely, groundnut etc., the plant is permitted to have
self pollination and the seeds are harvested. It is necessary to know the mode of
pollination. If the extent of natural cross pollination is more, then the flowers should
be protected by bagging. This will prevent the foreign pollen to reach the stigma.
Seed set is frequently reduced in ear heads enclosed in bags because of excessive
temperature and humidity inside the bags. In crops like cotton which have larger
flowers the petals may fold down the sexual organs and fasten, there by pollen and
pollen carrying insects may be excluded.
In certain legumes which are almost insect pollinated, the plants may be caged to
prevent the insect pollination. In maize, a paper bag is placed over the tassel to
collect pollen and the cob is bagged to protect from foreign pollen. The pollen
collected from the tassel is transferred to the cob.

EMASCULATION:
Removal of stamens or anthers or killing the pollen of a flower without the
female reproductive organ is known as emasculation. In bisexual flowers,
emasculation is essential to prevent of self-pollination. In monoecious plants, male
flowers are removed. (castor, coconut) or male inflorescence is removed (maize). In
species with large flowers e.g. (cotton, pulses) hand emasculation is accurate and it is
adequate.

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 Methods of Emasculation:
1. Hand Emasculation:
In species with large flowers, removal of anthers is possible with the help of
forceps. It is done before anther dehiscence. It is generally done between 4 and 6 PM
one day before anthers dehisce. It is always desirable to remove other young flowers
located close to the emasculated flower to avoid confusion. The corolla of the
selected flower is opened with the help of forceps and the anthers are carefully
removed with the help of forceps. Sometimes corolla may be totally removed along
with epipetalous stamens e.g. gingelly.

In cereals, one third of the empty glumes will be clipped off with scissors to
expose anthers. In wheat and oats, the florets are retained after removing the anthers
without damaging the spikelets. In all cases, gynoecium should not be injured. An
efficient emasculation technique should prevent self pollination and produce high
percentage of seed set on cross pollination.

2. Suction Method:
It is useful in species with small flowers. Emasculation is done in the morning
immediately after the flowers open. A thin rubber or a glass tube attached to a suction
hose is used to suck the anthers from the flowers. The amount of suction used is very
important which should be sufficient to suck the pollen and anthers but not
gynoecium. In this method considerable self-pollination, up to 10% is like to occur.
Washing the stigma with a jet of water may help in reducing self-pollination; however
self pollination cannot be eliminated in this method.

3. Hot Water Treatment:

Pollen grains are more sensitive than female reproductive organs to both genetic
and environmental factors. In case of hot water emasculation, the temperature of
water and duration of treatment vary from crop to crop. It is determined for every
species. For sorghum 42-48OC for 10 minutes is found to be suitable. In the case of
rice, 10 minutes treatments with 40-44OC is adequate. Treatment is given before the
anthers dehiscence and prior to the opening of the flower. Hot water is generally
carried in thermos flask and whole inflorescence is immersed in hot water.

4. Alcohol Treatment:
It is not commonly used. The method consists of immersing the inflorescence in
alcohol of suitable concentration for a brief period followed by rinsing with water. In
Lucerne the inflorescence immersed in 57% alcohol for10 second was highly
effective. It is better method of emasculation than suction method.

5. Cold Treatment:
Cold treatment like hot water treatment kills the pollen grains without damaging
gynoecium. In the case of rice, treatment with cold water 0.6OC kills the pollen
grains without affecting the gynoecium. This is less effective than hot water
treatment.

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6. Genetic Emasculation:

Genetic/ cytoplasmic male sterility may be used to eliminate the process of

emasculation. This is useful in the commercial production of hybrids in maize,
sorghum pearlmillet, onion, cotton, and rice, etc.,
In many species of self-incompatible cases, also emasculation is not necessary,
because self-fertilization will not take place. Protogyny will also facilitate crossing
without emasculation (e.g.) Cumbu.

7. Use of Gametocide:

Also known as chemical hybridizing agents (CHA) chemicals which selectively

kills the male gamete without affecting the female gamete. eg. Ethrel, Sodium methyl
arsenate, Zinc methyl arsenate in rice, Maleic hydrazide for cotton and wheat.
Bagging
Immediately after emasculation the flower or inflorescence enclosed with
suitable bags of appropriate size to prevent random cross-pollination.

Selfing Emasculation

Method of pollination in okra

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POLLINATION:

The pollen grains collected from a desired male parent should be transferred to
the emasculated flower. This is normally done in the morning hours during anthesis.
The flowers are bagged immediately after artificial crossing.

TAGGING:

The flowers are tagged just after bagging. They are attached to the inflorescence
or to the flower with the help of a thread. The following may be recorded on the tag
with pencil.

1. Date of emasculation
2. Date of pollination
3. Parentage
4. No. of flowers emasculate

SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS: (EXERCISE -1)

Q1 Give the reason of following
i. Selfing and crossing are essential techniques in crop breeding.
ii. Seed set is frequently reduced in ear heads enclosed in bags.
iii. The two operations namely, emasculation and pollination are most
important.
iv. Gametocides are used for emasculation.
v. Pollination is normally done in the morning hours during anthesis.
vi. Emasculation generally done between 4 and 6 PM.
Q 2. Difine or explain the following terms:
1. Selfing 4. Tessel 7. Bagging
2. Crossing 5. Cob 8. Tagging
3. Pollination 6. Emasculation
Q 3. Explain the various steps involved in hybridization or procedure of
hybridization.
Q 4. Write the factors for suitability to determine a use of particular
method for specific species.
Q 5. List out the different methods of emasculation.
Q 6. State the types of record required on the tag with pencil.
Q 7. Write short notes on following:
(a) Cross pollination
(b) Genetic emasculation
(c) Suction emasculation
(d) Choice of parents
***************
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 PRACTICAL: 2

RICE BREEDING

 Rice is a staple food of more than 60% of the world‟s population. Maximum area
under rice is in Asia. Among rice growing countries, India has the largest area of
about 40.2 million-hectare followed by China and Bangladesh.
 Rice is India's predominant crop and is the staple food for people of the eastern
and southern parts of India.

1. Name of Crop : Rice

2. Botanical Name : Oryza sativa L.
3. Family : Poaceae
4. Chromosome No . : 2n = 24
5. Centre of Origin : Orissa and South-East Asia
6. Mode of pollination : Self pollination
7. Out crossing % : 0 - 3 % with an average 0.5 %
8. Isolation distance : 3 m for breeder & foundation seed

RELATED SPECIES:

Sr. Species Chro. No. Remarks

No. (2n)
1. Oryza sativa 2n=2x=24 Cultivated
2. Oryza glaberrima 2n=2x=24 Cultivated
3. Oryza rufipogon 2n=2x=24 Wild
4. Oryza nivara 2n=2x=24 Wild
5. Oryza latifolia 2n=2x=48 Wild
6. Oryza alata 2n=2x=48 Wild

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 Cultivated Species of Rice:

(A) Asian Rice: (Oryza sativa L.)

It is predominant species which has spread to different part of word.

(B) African Rice: (Oryza glaberrima L.)

It is still confined to tropical Africa.

The Asian rice grouped into three ecological forms based on morphological
and physiological characteristics and geographical adaptation:

1. Indica: Grown in Tropical climate: India, Sri- Lanka, China, Thailand, Malaysia,
Taiwan
2. Japonica: Temperate climate: Japan, Korea
3. Javanica: Intermediate between Indica and Japonica
Distinguishing characteristics of three ecological forms of rice
Character Indica Japonica Javanica
1 Tillering Profuse Moderate to fewer Low
tillering
2 Leaves Broad, Light, Narrow, deep Broad,stiff
Green, droopy green (unblended), light
(Bended) leaves green
3 Photoperiod Sensitive Often-sensitive Insensitive
response
4 Seed dormancy Present Absent Absent
5 Response to N2 Rarely responsive Responsive Moderately
fertilizers responsive
6 Seed Shattering Present Absent Absent
7 Grain Thin, narrow, flat Short, roundish Broad, thick
8 Awn Awn less Awn less to long Long awn
awn
9 Hairs on glumes Thin and short Dense & long Long

Type of cultivation in rice:

1. Upland rice
2. Irrigated flooded rice
3. Rainfed or low land rice
4. Deep water and floating rice
5. Vegetatively propagated rice

Floral biology:

1. The rice inflorescence is a panicle that bears single flowered spikelets, having 6
stamens instead of 3 in other cereals.

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2. The flower is surrounded by the lemma, palea and glumes.
3. The blooming of rice normally occurs between 8.00 am to 11.00 pm. The flowers
in a single panicle bloom over a period of 7-10 days, but most of the flowers bloom
between 2nd and 4th days after emergence of the panicle from boot leaf. Blooming
of the spikelet starts at the top of the panicle and proceeds downwards.

4. Pollen shedding begins at the time of flower opens with blooming of the spikelet.
5. High day temperature, high solar radiation and low night temperature promote
panicle production.
Fig. Rice panicle showing its branching pattern & attachment of spikelets

Fig. Rice opened spikelet

Fig. Rice closed spikelet and opened spikelet

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 Spikelets: The spikelets are single-flowered, each with a short stalk.
 Glumes: There are two small glumes at the base of each spikelet.
 Floret: The floret consists of the lemma, the palea, two lodicules, the androecium
and the gynoecium.
 Lemma: The lemma is large and hairy. It is awned 5-nerved structure.
 Palea: The palea is hairy, smaller than the lemma and is present opposite to it. It is
three-nerved structure. After maturity, the lemma, the palea and the glumes remain
attached on the seed as a cover called husk.
 Flower: The flower is bisexual, zygomorphic and bracteate. Main axisSecondary
branch Spikelets Tertiary branch

Androecium:
• The androecium consists of six stamens arranged in two whorls whose filaments
are short in earlier stage.
• The filament elongates immediately after floret opening and brings anther to the
level of stigma.
• The total number of pollen grains per anther is reported to be directly correlated
with anther size.
• Normally 2-3 pollen grains are required per stigma to fertilize one egg cell.

Gynoecium:
• The gynoecium is monocarpellary and has a superior ovary, with two feathery
stigmas on a style.

• Receptivity of stigma is maximum during the first 3 days after opening of spikelet
and then is gradually lost after 7 days.
• Stigma exertion, large stigmatic area and its receptivity, all play a major role in
determining high seed set in CMS parent.

Anthesis and Mode of Pollination:

The flower may open from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m., depending upon the season. Most of
the flowers start opening at the apex and the flowering proceed downward in the
panicle, but in the branches, it is not strictly so.
In rice three types of pollination are possible:
• The usual process is that the anther burst as they emerge and pollinate the stigma
(leading to self-pollination).
• The anthers burst open and pollination takes place before blossoming, generally at
high temperature and under low humidity (leading to self-pollination).

• Under certain temperature and humidity conditions, the anthers may emerge from
the flower without bursting and such flower is generally cross pollinated.

Emasculation:
Several methods have been used for emasculating rice:

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(a) Standard method:
• This is most widely used method of emasculation in rice.
• Remove all the immature and mature spikelets from the panicle.
• Separate the glumes with the help of a pair of forceps and gently remove all the six
stamens.
• To speed up the emasculation, suction may be used.
• Emasculation is generally performed in the evening and the pollination is done
next morning.
• After emasculation, cover the female with butter paper bags. Tagging is also done.

(b) Hot water treatment:

This method of emasculation is commonly used in Japan. The immature spikelets
are cut off. The panicles are dipped in hot water containing constant temperature of
42-44 0C for 5-10 min.
Pollination:
• Collect the pollens just before anther dehiscence.
• To apply pollens, the anthers from the derived male parents are shaken over the
emasculated florets.
• If pollens are not available in plenty then repeat the above process.
• After pollination, bagged and labeled it.
• If two panicles on the same plant are to be pollinated by the same male parent, they
are brought together by wrapping the two clums and are tied with a clip. The other
bag is also placed over both panicles.

Crossing technique:
Hot water is also used to open the florets of rice before crossing. Panicles in the
2nd and 3rd days of blooming are selected for emasculation. Open and immature
florets are removed. Then this panicle is immersed in water having temperature 42-
44 °C for 5-10 minutes. Pollinate the emasculated panicle and then bagged and
labeled it.

HYBRID RICE

 Heterosis in rice was reported by Jones in USA as early in 1926 and Ramaiah in
1933.
 But the research work on hybrid rice was initiated in 1964, in China by Yuan Long
Ping (Father of hybrid Rice).
 The identification of „Wild Abortive‟ or „WA‟ type cytoplasmic male sterility in
1970 was a breakthrough in hybrid rice breeding.
 In 1971 China accepted Hybrid Rice Research as a national cooperative project
and in the year 1976, hybrid rice became a reality in China, for the first time in
world, by the release of commercial rice hybrids.
 Since then many commercial rice hybrids were released in countries like Vietnam,
Korea; besides these countries, research on hybrid rice is progressing in countries
like Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, United States, Egypt, Colombia
and Brazil.

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 Although research on the commercial utilization of heterosis in rice has made
tremendous gains during the last 20 years, it is still in its infancy stage because the
high yield potential of hybrid rice has not been fully tapped yet and hence various
approaches are adopted in major rice growing countries of the world to maximize
the yield potential advancements of hybrid rice production.

Breeding techniques for developing hybrid rice involve the following:

(a) Three -line method or CGMS system:

 This system involving three lines viz., cytoplasmic, genic male sterile line (A),
maintainer line (B) and restorer line (R) is the most commonly used method in
China and outside.
 CMS system like –WA, GA (Gambiaca), Di (Disi), DA (Dwarf wild rice), BTC
(Chinsurah Boro II) and IP (Ido Paddy 6) has been identified.
 Long experience had undoubtfully proved that the CGMS system involving
sporophytic and gametophytic male sterility is an effective way of developing
hybrid rices and will continue to play an important role in the next decade.
 However, there are some constraints and problems in such a system. The most
serious is that yields of existing hybrid rice varieties including newly developed
ones have stagnated (Yuan, 1994). They have already reached their yield plateau,
and are unable to increase the yield potential through this approach and hence new
methods and materials were adopted.
 In this regard, two-line hybrids are promising ones, to raise the yield ceiling in
hybrid rice.

(b) Two-line method of rice breeding:

 Two-line hybrids can be evolved through

(1) Mechanical means
(2) Application of gametocides
(3) Use of CMS
(4) Use of GMS
(5) Use of environmentally induced genic male sterility (EGMS)

 EGMS lines are made use of viz., PGMS (Photosensitive Genic Male Sterility) and
TGMS (Thermosensitive Genic Male Sterility) which had been developed
successfully in China. In rice EGMS system is commonly used.
Developing hybrid rice varieties with these system has the following
advantages over the classical CMS system,
- Maintainer lines are not needed.
- The choice of parents for developing heterotic hybrids is greatly broadened.
- No negative effect due to sterile cytoplasm
 In 1991, China had released hybrid combinations using this approach, and some of
these combinations out yielded the best existing hybrids by 10-20%

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 Work is progressing in India and International Rice Research Institute, in
Philippines to identify best suited rice hybrids through this approach, for
commercial exploitation.
 TGMS system is considered useful in tropical and subtropical regions where as
PGMS system is useful in temperate regions.
 Other possible approaches to develop two-line hybrid breeding system includes
identification of a genic male sterility system which would revert to male fertility,
in response to application of growth regulators and also the chemical induction of
male sterility.

(c) One -line method of rice breeding:

Rice hybrids can be developed and popularized through the following concepts
- Vegetative propagation
- Micro propagation
- Anther culture hybrids
- Apomictic lines
Among the above, apomictic lines and anther cultured materials will be economical
for large scale cultivation.
Tissue culture, particularly Anther culture has been utilized in rice improvement by
China and also developed several varieties.

Practical Achievement:
Several semi dwarf and high yielding varieties has been developed by IRRI. The
Dee Geo-woo-gen has been used as source of dwarfing gene in evolving semi
dwarf rice varieties.

Improved varieties: GR-3, GR-4, GR-5, GR-103, GR-6, GR-7, Ambica, Gurjari
and Jaya
Hybrid varieties: APHR1, APHR 2, COHR 1, KRH 1, KRH 2, DRRH 1,
CNHR 3, PHB 71, MPH 516, MPH 517, MPH 518, PRS 101
and VRH 4

Research stations:
A. International:
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los banos, Laguna,
Philippines

B. National:
Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI), Cuttack, Orissa
DRR: Directorate of Rice Research Hyderabad. (A.P)

C. State level:
Main Rice Research Station, AAU, Navagam (Kheda), Gujarat
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 PRACTICAL: 3

PEARL MILLET BREEDING

 Pearl millet, popularly known as bajara, is the 4th most extensively cultivated
cereal after rice, wheat, and sorghum.
 It is robust, quick growing, rainy season cereal grass with large stems, leaves
and heads, being tall and vigorous, with exceptional grain and fodder yielding
potential.
 Pearl millet is an important food crop of semi arid tropics. It is also grown as
fodder crop
 It is also grown in arid and semi-arid region of our country with limited
rainfall.
 It is one of the most dual-purpose crops.
 The main pearl Millet growing countries are Africa, India, Pakistan and East
Asia. In USA, Australia and Europe it is primarily grown as forage crop.
 In India, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana and Utter Pradesh are the
leading states of pearl millet.
 The nutritive value of grains of pearl millet is fairly high and used for human
consumption.
 It contains protein (9 to 15%), fat (5%) and mineral matters (2 to 7%).
 It is also rich in vitamin-A and B, thiamin and riboflavin contents and imparts
substantial energy to the body with easy digestibility.

1. Name of Crop : Bajara, Cattail millet, Spiked millet,

bulrush millet
2. Botanical Name : Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.
3. Family : Poaceae
4. Chromosome No. : 2n = 14
5. Centre of Origin : West Africa
6. Mode of pollination : Cross pollination
7. Percent cross pollination : 80 % (Protogynous condition)
8. Related wild species : (1)Pennisetum pupureum
(2) Pennisetum squamulatum

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 Floral biology:
 The inflorescence is a cylindrical spike tapering towards the end.
 Each spikelet contain two types of flowers, staminate and bisexual protected by
glumes
and a whorl of bristles.
 Pattern of emergence of stigma is from top to bottom.

 Stigma begins to appear 2-3 days after emergence of spike, attain full length after
36-
48 hrs and remain receptive for 1-2 days.
 The anthers emerges after the stigma dry up, thus it is protogynous in nature
which
induce cross pollination even though bisexual flower.

Anthesis:
 The stigmas begin to appear two to three days after emergence of the spike.
 Stigma attains full length after 36 to 48 hours and remains receptive for one to
two days.
 The anthers emerge after stigmas dry up.

 The anthers of the bisexual flowers appear two to three days before those of the
staminate flowers.
 Style divides in two branches in its upper part and possesses stigmatic hairs to
admit pollen grains.
 Stigma takes 12 to 24 hours to protrude and open out, and remains receptive for
one to two days.

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Fig.: Various stages of spike initiation to ear development

Fig. Boot leaf / Penicle initiation stage

Fig. Penicle emergence stage

Fig.Fig.
7.3: Different
Spikelets, parts
Florests andof pearl millet flower
Stemens

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Fig: Earhead of pearl millet Fig: Emergence of receptive stigma
from bajara flower

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 Emasculation:
 Emasculation is not required in pearl millet due to its protogynous nature
 The head is covered with glassine bag before style appears.
 The exerted style can be watched through the glassine bag.

 When styles are exerted then pollination is performed with desired male parent.
 However, the emergence of the stigmas before emergence of the anthers is used
for artificial cross-pollination.

Pollination:

Self Pollination:
 Bag the spikes before the emergence of stigma.
 Length of bag must be such that lower most spikelets, which will be emerging
later, could be covered.
 Alternate way is that two spikes from the same plant may be enclosed within the
same bag.
 These spikes are such that the older one sheds Pollen when the stigma emerges in
the second spike.
 Label it with lead pencil.

Cross-Pollination:
 Crossing can be done without the necessity of emasculation with the advantage
of protogynous condition of bajra.
 Being sure that anthers of a spike will not ripen at the time of stigma receptivity
we can select a spike
 About four-fifth of the upper spikelets of the inflorescence are removed.
 The remaining spike of spikelets is enclosed in a bag before the stigma
emergence. Upper spikelets bloom a day prior to lower spikelets.
 Bag the spikes to be used as pollen parents and collect the shedding pollen dust.
 In the morning dust the pollen grains on the stigmas.
 Bag the spike after gross pollination has taken place.
 Label the necessary information.

Other methods:

 Use of male sterility:

 Male sterility (CGMS) may be incorporated for genetic emasculation of bajra:
 The male sterility conditioned by recessive genes is introduced in to plants to be
used as females by back crossing and the genetic emasculation is completed.

 Hot water treatment:

 Dip the spike in hot water having a desired temperature of 45-50oC for 1 to 10
minutes depending up on the variety.
 The hybrid pearl- millet seed is produced by utilizing cytoplasmic genetic male
sterility.

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 The various steps involved in the production of hybrid pearl-millet seed are:
maintenance of parental lines namely:
 Male sterile lines (A-lines).
 Maintainer lines (B-lines).

 Restorer lines (R-lines).

 The maintenance of parental lines is referred to as foundation seed production,
whereas the hybrid seed production is known as certified seed production.

 Maintenance of Male sterile lines:

 It is maintained by crossing male sterile line (Line A) with a male fertile, non-
pollen restoring maintainer (Line B) in an isolated plot.
 This B line is a sister strain of line A and is essentially similar to line A in
genetic constitution except that it carries fertile pollen.
 In a crossing field, the usual planting ratio of line A and Line B is 4:2. In
addition 4-8 border rows are planted with line B around the field.
 The seed harvested from line A would be male sterile and is used for hybrid seed
production.
 The field for producing the foundation seed of male sterile line A must be
isolated by 1000 m from other pearl-millet fields.

Maintenance of maintainer line:

 The seed of maintainer line is produced by sowing B lines in isolated plot or B
lines sown in the field for production of A-seed can be harvested separately to
get B-seed.

Maintenance of restorer line:

 The seeds of restorer line (Line R) are produced by multiplying the seed in an
isolated plot having a distance of 1,000 m from nearby pearl-millet.
 Production of Hybrid seed using CGMS: (HHB-67)
 The hybrid seed is produced by crossing male sterile line (Line A) with a specific
restorer line (Line R) in an isolated plot.
 Isolation distance are 200 m from fields of other varieties.
 The hybrid seed is produced by growing 6 rows of male sterile line A alternated
by 2 rows of restorer line (Line R).
 The 2:6 proportion of male rows (Line R) and female rows (Line A) can be
increased safely to 2:10 depending upon the pollinating vigour of the restorer
parent.
 The seed harvested from the female rows (A-lines) is the hybrid seed.

Production of Hybrid seed using CGMS: (HHB-67)

 The hybrid seed is produced by crossing male sterile line (Line A) with a
specific restorer line (Line R) in an isolated plot.
 The isolation distance for foundation seed and certified seed production
are 200 and 400m, respectively.
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 Fig.: Schematic diagram of Production of Hybrid seed using CGMS:

 The hybrid seed is produced by crossing male sterile line (Line A) with a
specific restorer line (Line R) in an isolated plot.
 The isolation distance for foundation seed and certified seed production
are 200 and 400m, respectively.
 The hybrid seed is produced by growing 6 rows of male sterile line A
alternated by 2 rows of restorer line (Line R).
 The 2:6 proportion of male rows (Line R) and female rows (Line A) can
be increased safely to 2:10 depending upon the pollinating vigour of the
restorer parent.
 The seed harvested from the female rows (A-lines) is the hybrid seed.

 The hybrid seed is produced by growing 6 rows of male sterile line A

alternated by 2 rows of restorer line (Line R).
 The 2:6 proportion of male rows (Line R) and female rows (Line A) can
be increased safely to 2:10 depending upon the pollinating vigour of the
restorer parent.
 The seed harvested from the female rows (A-lines) is the hybrid seed.
*****************
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 PRACTICAL: 4

SORGHUM BREEDING

 Sorghum is one of the most important cereal crop in the world with
significant acreage in Africa, South Asia, and Central America.
 It is grown as an animal feed in the USA and Australia.
 Sorghum is widely used as a staple food in rural areas and is fed as fodder to
the cattle.
 Sorghum is C4 plant and, therefore has high photosynthetic efficiency.
 It can tolerate heat, drought, salt and aluminum toxicity. It can be easily
grown on soil with low fertility.

1. Name of Crop : Sorghum

2. Botanical Name : Sorghum bicolor L.
3. Family : Poaceae
4. Chromosome No. : 2n = 2x = 20
5. Centre of Origin : Tropical Africa
6. Mode of pollination : Often cross pollinated
7. Out crossing percentage : 5 – 47%
8. Related wild species : As per below Table

20
 Table: List of wild relatives of sorghum along with chromosome number

Sr. Scientific Chromo Remarks

No. Name some
number
1 S. 2n=2x=20 Wild
arundinaceum
2 S. propinquum 2n=2x =20 Wild
3 S. halepense 2n=4x =40 Cross between S. arundinaceum x
S. propinquum and is commonly
known as Johanson grass.
4 S. almum 2n=4x=40 Cross between S. bicolor x S.
halepense and is commonly
known as Columbus grass.

Types of sorghum:

The commercial types of sorghum are as under:

1. Grain sorghum
2. Sweet or Sorgos sorghum
3. Grass sorghum:
(i) Sudan grass (annual)
(ii) Johnson (perennial) grass.
4. Special purpose sorghum:
Broom corn, waxy sorghum, pop sorghum.
Inflorescence:
The inflorescence is a panicle (called arrow) with a central rachis from which primary
branches arise. They give rise to secondary and some times tertiary branches which
carry the racemes of spikelets.
Panicle:
The central axis of panicle the rachis may be striated and it may be hairy or glabrous.
Raceme:
A raceme always consists of one or several spikelet. Raceme may vary in length
according to number of nodes and length of internodes.
The spikelet generally occurs in pairs, one being sessile which is bisexual perfect and
fertile, the second born on short pedicel which may be sterile or staminate.
Flower:
 Perfect flower consist of two glumes, one hairy lemma, a small palea, small
awn, three stamens, two lodicules and one pistil.
 Ovary has two styles with feathery stigmas.

21
 Sorghum is short day plant and flowering is hastened by short day length and
higher temperature.
Anthesis:
 The sorghum flowers bloom just prior to sunrise.
 Blooming starts from apex and moves downward.
 Anthers and stigma pushed out as the glumes open.
 Pollen remain viable for 3-6 hrs. while stigma remain receptive for 7 days but are
most receptive up to 3 days after emergence.
Mode of Pollination:
Sorghum is an often cross pollinated crop like pigeonpea and cotton.
The extent of out crossing ranges from 5-47 per cent, on account of the exposure
of the stigma before the dehiscence of the anthers.

Fig. Emergence of stigmas and dehiscence of anthers from sorghum florets

Emasculation:
Hand Emasculation:
Remove all the open spikelets with fine blade scissors. Remove all the three
stamens with the help of forceps. Care must be taken that there is no injury to
stigma.

Hot water treatment:

The panicle is inserted for about 10 min. in 480C hot water.

Male Sterility:

 Genetic (GMS) and cytogenetic male sterlity (CMS) are available in sorghum.
 These types of male sterility may be used for the production of hybrid seed on a
large scale.
22
 MSCK 60 (male sterile combine Kafir 60) is a male sterile variety of sorghum.
It contains the Kafir chromosomes and Milo cytoplasm.
 One phenomenon which has been observed by the seed producer is the
occurrence of female sterility in male sterile parent resulting in poor seed set.
Mainly observed in K 60A, 2071 A and 2219 A verities.

Pollination:
 For pollination, the pollen is collected in the morning from the desired male
parent panicle which is flowering.
 Dust the pollen on the emasculated spikelet and cover is again with pollinated
bag.

Fruit:
 Fruit of sorghum is caryopsis (Kernel), it may be naked or covered.
 The individual grains are small- about 3-4 mm in diameter.
 They vary in colour from pale yellow through reddish brown to dark brown
depending on the cultivar.

Hybrid seed production in Sorghum:

 For any large-scale seed production of hybrid sorghum, cytoplasmic male sterile
lines are required.
 Cytoplsmic male sterile lines like CK-60, MSCK-60A, MS-2219, MS-2077A,
PMS-1063A etc. are available which can also be introduced into the local
varieties through repeated backcrossing.
 In sorghum, Stephen and Holland (1954) discovered cytoplasmic male sterility
(CMS) designated as milo cytoplasm in the progenies of a cross between two
cultivars, milo and combine kafir, with milo as the female and kafir as the male.

A line X B line Maintainance of A line:

Male sterile Male fertile Male sterile line A is crossed
with B line. Seed produced
A line from A line is a male sterile
and it is used for hybrid seed
production.

A line X R line Hybrid seed production:

Male sterile Restorer A line is crossed with Restorer
gene
line (R line). Seed produced
from male sterile A line is a
F1 (Hybrid hybrid Seed and used for
Seed) commercial cultivation as
hybrid seed.

**************
23
 PRACTICAL: 5

MAIZE BREEDING

• Maize is the important crop next to rice and wheat with regard to total area and
production.
• It is studied to a much wider range of climatical conditions than rice and wheat,
because of its greater adoptability.
• Corn is most important grain crop in the United States which produces nearly
one-half of the total world production.
• The next largest corn-producing countries are China and Brazil.
• The important maize growing states are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.
• It has worldwide significance as human food, animal feed and as a raw material
for the manufactures of hundreds of industrial products.
• Floral biology:
Maize bears monoecious flowers.
Staminate flowers are produced in tassel and
Pistillate flowers are on the shoot in the axil of leaf.
 Staminate flower (tassel):
• The main stem of the maize plant terminates in a tassel, bearing two flowered
staminate spikelets.
• Each staminate flower having lemma, palea and three stamens.
• As the tassel flower opens, the anthers are pushed-out by the elongating
filaments and pollen grains are come out from the extruded anthers.
24
• Pollen shedding usually brings 1-3 days before the silk have emerged from the
shoots of the same plant (protandry nature) and usually continues for a period of
3-4 days after the silks on the plants are ready to be pollinated.

25
  Pistillate flowers (silk / spadix):
• The shoots arise as branches from nodes about mid-way of the stalk. Each shoot
is composed of a shank from which the husk arises and terminates in the ear on
which the pistillate flowers are borne .

• The spikelets are borne in pairs. Each spikelet normally contains one fertile and
one sterile ovule. This results in an even number of rows of kernels on the ear.

• Fresh silks functions both as a stigma and style, being receptive to fresh pollen
throughout their entire length

• Fertilization of the ovule usually occurs within 12-28 hours after the silk have
been pollinated.

 Selfing technique:
1. Select the plant that silk will emerge within 1-2 days
2. The ears should cut about 1" below the tip of husk in evening and
covered with butter paper bag.
3. The tassel of the same plant is also covered with a brown paper bag for
collection of pollen dust.
4. By the following 1-2 days equal size of the silk (1 - 1.5") will grow.
Pollen collected in the tassel bag will be dusted on silk in the morning.
Bag the silk quickly to avoid contamination with foreign pollens. Label
the ear shoot.
 Crossing technique:
As the maize is a monoecious plant, detesseling of male inflorescence
from plant ensure the process of emasculation and desire pollen from
selected inbred line is dusted on female inflorescence previously
protected with paper bags.

 Why TMS source of cytoplasm not used for hybrid seed production?
o The Texas cytoplasm of maize carries two cytoplasmically inherited
traits, male sterility and disease susceptibility.
o The two traits are inseparable and are associated with an unusual
mitochondrial gene, T-urf13, which encodes a 13-kilodalton
polypeptide (URF13).
o An interaction between fungal toxins and URF13, which results in
permeabilization of the inner mitochondrial membrane, accounts for the
specific susceptibility to the fungal pathogens, Southern Leaf Corn
Blight.

26
  XENIA EFFECT:
 Effect of pollen grains on the phenotypic development of seeds:

XENIA CAN BE DEFINED as the effect of the genes from the male
parent on the development of the fruit or the seeds.
Effect of pollen grains on the phenotypic development of seeds.

 HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION IN MAIZE:

 Steps for the maize hybrid seed production

1. Development of inbreds
2. Evaluation of inbreds
• Phenotypic evaluation
• Top-cross tests for GCA
• Production of single cross hybrids
• Predication the performance of double cross hybrids
3.Hybrid seed production
(A) SINGLE CROSS HYBRID:
A single cross is the progeny produced by making cross between two
different inbred lines.
The inbred lines that are found to be superior in top-cross combinations are
crossed in all possible combinations.
A X B - F1 Single cross hybrid.
The possible number of single crosses = [n(n-1)] /2

27
 Where, n= number of inbred lines
• Female: male row ratios of 3 : 1 is to be maintained in seed production plot.The
female parents are detasseled or male sterile lines are to be used.
• Double cross hybrids are superior to Single cross hybrids because they are more
uniform and more productive. It is more vigorous than parents.

(B) DOUBLE CROSS HYBRIDS:

 A double cross is the progeny produced by making cross between two
single crosses. e.g. (A x B) F1 x (C x D) F1.
 The possible number of double crosses =[n (n-1)(n-2)(n-3)] / 8
Where, n= number of inbred lines.
 5(5-1)(5-2)(5-3)/8 = 5(4X3X2)/8 =120/8 = 15 double crosses.
 In maize double cross seed is generally produced because
a. Seeds are uniform in size and appearance
b. More seeds per hectare can be produced as compared to single cross
c. Due to more seed production double cross hybrid seed is cheap.

 Research stations:
A. International:
The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center
(CIMMIT),Maxico
B. National:
All India Co-ordinated Maize Improvement Project (AICMIP), IARI, New
Delhi.
C. State level:
Main Maize Research Station, AAU, Godhara.

 Improved varieties :
Guj. Maize -1, Guj. Maize -2, Guj. Maize -3, Guj. Maize -4, Guj. Maize -6
Hybrid varieties :
Ganga safed-2, Ganga-5, Ganga-9, Ganga-11, Deccan, Deccan-103 and
Sartaj.
Synthetic and Composite varieties :
Protina, Shakti, Ratan, Vijay, Kisan, Vikram, Tarun, Prabhat, Navjot,
Mansar, Arun, Renuka, Kiran and Surya.

28
 PRACTICAL: 6
BREEDING FOR PIGEONPEA AND MUNGBEAN
PIGEONPEA / REDGRAM BREEDING

 Pigeon pea / Red gram is an important pulse crop next to chickpea in India.
 The major pigeonpea growing countries are India, Uganda, Kenya, West Indies,
Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic in the Caribbean region and Burma.
 India is a largest producer i.e. 90% of the world‟s production. It is grown in
kharif season.
 In India it is mainly cultivated in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

1. Name of Crop : Pigeonpea, Redgram, Arhar

2. Botanical Name : Cajanus cajan L.
3. Family : Fabaceae
4. Chromosome Number : 2n = 22
5. Center of Origin : India
6. Mode of pollination : Often cross pollination
7. Percent cross pollination : 5 - 48 %
8. Related wild species : C. acutifolius, C. albicans, C.
cajanifolius, C. conferiflorus, C.
scarabaeoides

Floral structure:

Inflorescence:
The flowers are borne on short axially or terminal racemes and are vary in
colors.

29
 Pigeonpea has typical papilionaceous, bracteate bracteolate flowers consisting of
5 sepals (gamosepalous), 5 pleats (polypetalous) and one carpel with the style
born laterally on the ovary.

Petals and Sepals:

The petals are large and brightly colored and 5 in number, comprised of one
standard, two wings and two keels.

Sepals are also 5 in number.

Papilionaceous. Five free petals are unequal in size (Zygomorphic) and arranged
in butterfly like manner - one large posterior bilobed petal called standard (or
vexillum) which over-laps two small lateral petals called wings (or alae). The
wings further overlap the two innermost smallest and fused petals forming a
boat, called Keel (or carina). Examples - plants of family Papilionaceae or
Fabaceae (Pea, chickpea, pigeonpea etc.).

30
 Bracteate:
Flowers having bracts.

Bracteole : A secondary bract at the base of an individual flower.

Bracteolate : Flower having bracteoles.

Stamen:
It consists of a slender stalk or filament, which supports an anther. These are 10
in number, 9 fused to form a staminal column and one is free i.e. are in
diadelphous condition.

Pistil:
The ovary is unicarpellary, unilocular, superior, sub-sessile with 2-9 ovules; style
long, filiform, much upcurved; stigma capitate and glandular papillate.

Anthesis and Mode of pollination:

• Pigeonpea flowers can be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated.

• Self-pollination occurs in bud before the flower opens.
• Although the stigma is completely covered with the pollen of its own flower,
considerable outcrossing occurs in pigeonpea.
• The foreign pollen has an advantage over native pollen in affecting fertilization.
• It has been proven by pollinating the flower buds by foreign pollen. It was
observed that the percentage of „self‟ was negligible when flower buds were
pollinated with foreign pollen without emasculation.
• It is due to delayed germination and slow pollen tube growth of the native
pollen. Such mechanism provides sufficient gap for foreign pollen to be
introduced into the stigma and thus it favours cross-pollination.
• Among the insects involved in cross-pollination are Apis florea, Apis dorseta and
Megachile spp.
• Anthesis normally occurs between 8.00 a.m. and 5.00 p.m. and flowers may
remain open for 6 to 48 h.
• Flowering period is influenced by weather conditions.

Emasculation and Pollination:

• Flowers are generally emasculated in the evening and pollinated in the next
morning.
• For emasculation, flowers that will open one or two days later are selected, and
the rest of the flowers and the buds in a branch are removed.

31
 • The stamens of the selected buds are removed with a pair of a fine forceps by
gently pushing the keels apart. The emasculated floral branch is then bagged.

Self pollination:

•To ensure selfing the flowers need to be bagged. This is because insects may
sometimes carry pollen to the stigma and bring about cross-pollination.

Seed Production:

•Seed production is done in isolation using dhencha as a border crop to protect

the seed crop from contamination through foreign pollen.
•CMS lines are also available and are under test for use in seed production
programmes.

Classification of Pigeonpea:

1. On the basis of flowering pattern: It is classified into two habit groups.

Determinate type: Flowering duration is short and flowers are borne more or
less at the same level. e.g. GT-100.

Indeterminate type: Flowering duration is longer and flowers borne at several

point along the branches. e. g. BDN-2.

2. On the basis of maturity: It is classified in to five groups as under.

Sr Types Maturity s Name of variety
1 Extra early 100 to 120 ICPL-88039, APK-1, CO-5
2 Early 120 to 150 GT-100, UPAS-120, GTH-1 (Hybrid),GT-105
3 Medium 150 to 175 BDN-2, GT-1, BSMR-736, ICPL-87119,
GT-104, GNP-2,
4 Medium late 175 to 200 Bahar, JA-3, GJP-1, AGT-2, GT-103
5 Late Above 200 Type-7, Type-17, T-15-15

 Breeding objectives:
1. High yield
2. Shattering resistant
3. Early and synchronous maturity
4. High harvest index
5. Adaptation
6. Efficient nitrogen fixing ability
7. Resistant to drought
32
 8. Resistant to disease and pest
9. Breeding for quality:
(i) Grain colour (ii) Grain shape (iii) Grain size (iv) Protein content

 RESEARCH STATIONS:

A. International:
International Crop Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT),
Patancheru, Hydarabad

B. National:
Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR), Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

C. State level:
Main Pulses Research Station, SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar

Improved varieties:
T-15-15, GT-1(Vegetaable), BDN-2, GT-100, GT-101, GT-102, GT-103, GT-
104, GT-105, GNP-2 (Dual purpose) , GJP-1, AGT-2, AVPP-1, BSMR-856,
BSMR-736, ICPL-87119, ICPL-87

Hybrid varieties:
World first GMS based hybrid, ICPH-8 = MS Prabhat DT x ICPL 161
(ICRISAT, Hyderabad), World first CGMS based hybrid, GTH-1 = GT 288A x
GTR-11 (GAU, Sardarkrushinagar)
***************

GREENGRAM / MUNGBEAN

Greengram, popularly known as mungbean, is primarily grown in India,

Pakistan, Bangaladesh, Sri Lanka, the Phillipines, Taiwan, Thailand, Nepal and
other Southeast Asian countries.
It is consumed mainly as a food legume.
It is the third important pulse crop after chickpea and pigeonpea in India.
33
 The states accounting for the major area under cultivation are Rajasthan,
Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.
The green gram forms a very nutritious diet.
It is consumed in the form of whole dried seeds and in the form of dal prepared
by splitting the seeds in a mill.
The sprouted mung beans are a highly nutritious food. There is an amazing
increase in nutrients in sprouted beans when compared to their dried embryo.

1. Name of crop : Mungbean, Moong, Green gram, Chikasaw

pea, Oregon pea

2. Botanical name : Vigna radiata L. Wilczek

3. Family : Fabaceae
4. Chromosome number : 2n = 22

5. Center of origin : India

6. Mode of pollination Self pollination
7. Out crossing : 0.5% (2.8 to 3.0 per cent cross pollination
percentage reported)
8. Related wild species : Vigna angularis

Mungbean flower Single flower Open flower

Mungbean pod Mungbean seeds

34
 Breeding objectives:
1. High yield
2. Maturity:
(i) Early, 60-70 days (ii) Mid-late, 90 days (iii) Late, 90-120 days
3. Adaptation
4. Resistance to shattering
5. Insects pests and diseases resistance
6. Breeding for quality: Cooking quality and nutritional value, seed size, seed
colour etc.
 Breeding Methods:
1. Introduction - Pusa baisaki
2. Pure line selection - Co1
3. Hybridisation and selection
Inter Varietal :
Inter specific - To transfer high methionine content from black gram to
green gram.
V. radiata x V.umbellata rice bean to transfer resistance to bean fly crossing
with
V.radiata var. sublobata resistance to bruchids
5. Mutation breeding
Co4 - mutant of Co1
6. Embryo culture :
Green gram x Black gram
Ideal plant type
• 60 - 65 days duration with determinate habit for irrigated conditions
• 80 days duration with indeterminate type for dry land condition
• Plants with more pods and seeds, increased branches poding from base of
main stem
• synchronised maturity non - shattering habit.

35
 Flower biology:
 Flowers are in an axillary or terminal receme, peduncle up to 13 cm in
length with clusters of 10 to 20 flowers.
 Corolla is yellow in colour and papilionaceous, sometimes curved 5-10 cm
long. Small flowers are borne in capitates clusters on the end of long hairy
peduncles.
 Petals are five in numbers, three kinds of petals, 1 standard, 2 wings and 2
keels.
 Androecium: male reproductive part stamen has got two parts anther and
filament.
 Gynoecium : Female reproductive part made up of stigma, style and ovary.
Gynoecium is monocarpellary with a superior unilocular ovary.
 The stigma is hairy and placentation is marginal.
 Keel encloses reproductive organs, 10 stamens and one gynoecium.
 Anthesis and pollination:
 Pollination occurs a night prior to opening of the flowers.
 Anthers start dehiscing from 9 a.m. and complexly dehisced by 3 a.m.
 A stigma is by then receptive and is thoroughly covered with pollen.
 Flower open between 6 a.m. and 8 a.m. and remain open till 11 a.m. later
they close between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m.
 Pollen shedding takes place long before the petals open.
 Cleistogamy occurs to an extent of 40 %.
 Pollination is effected in the bud stage on the night previous to the
opening of the flower.
 Shivashankar’s Methods:
 Followed in pulse crop
 On the evening previous to the day of pollen shedding, transverse cut is
made in flower bud.
 Facilitates removal of upper portion of the corolla like a cap without
causing injury to the gynoecium.
 Anthers are clipped off automatically and remains inside the corolla cap
which is removed.
 The stigma is then pollinated with desired pollen on the next morning.
 Research Stations:
36
A. National:
Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR), Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
B. State level:
Main Pulses Research Station, SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar
 Improved varieties:
Gujarat Mungbean-1, Gujarat Mungbean-2, Gujarat Mungbean-3, Gujarat
Mungbean-4, K-851, Gujarat Mungbean-5, Gujarat Mungbean-6, Gujarat
Mungbean-7, Meha
*********
PRACTICAL-7

CASTOR BREEDING

 Castor is a non-edible oil-yielding crop, it requires warm climate, grown in

tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions.
 Crop is widely grown in India, Brazil, China, Thailand, USSR and USA. India,
Brazil and China contribute about 90 % of world production.
 India is the largest producer and exporter of castor oil in the world.
 Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa, are the major castor growing states in India.
 There is a wide range of uses of castor oil. It is mainly used as lubricant, in
industry or as a medicinal purpose.
 It is also used in the adhesives, plastics, soaps, printing ink, waxes, rubber
substitutes, drying oil for enamels, paints, varnishes and cosmetics.
 Large quantity of castor oil is used in paints and varnish industry.
 The plant is used as a source of pulp for cellulose, cardboards and newsprint.
The oil cake is used as manure.
 The viscosity of oil changes very little with temperature, hence it is considered to
be one of the best lubricants for high-speed engines like aeroplane.

37
  Castor is monotypic because all varieties of castor from giant perennials to short
internode dwarf have the same chromosome number.
1. Name of crop : Castor
2. Botanical name : Ricinus communis L.
3. Family : Euphorbiaceae
4. Chromosome number : 2n = 4x = 20
5. Center of origin : Abyssinia (Ethiopia)
6. Mode of pollination Cross polination
7. Out crossing percentage : 5-46 %
8. Related wild species : R. perciens, R. chinesis, R. maxicanus

Types of dehiscence of capsules in castor:

•Non-dehiscent type: Capsule is difficult to open

•Dehiscent type: Capsules open but the seeds are not shed
•Popper type: The capsule burst with force and the seeds are thrown at a
considerable distance

38
Types of blooming (waxy coat):

1. Zero bloom: White powder is not observed on stem and leaf.

2. Single Bloom: The white powdery coat on the stem and petiole of leaves.
3. Double bloom: The white powdery coat on stem + lower side of leaves.
4. Triple bloom: The white powdery coat on stem + both sides of leaves.

Floral biology:

• Flower inflorescence (raceme) is terminal on branch or main shoot.

• This species is clearly monoecious with separate male and female flowers on
the same individual.
• About 30-50 per cent female flowers in the upper portion of raceme and 50-70
per cent male flowers at the bottom (lower part).
• The percentage of staminate and pistillate flowers varies and can be altered by
selection procedure.

 Flowering pattern:

There are four types of flowering pattern in castor

• Racemes with pistillate and staminate flowers inter-spread through out
inflorescence
• Raceme with 70-90 per cent pistillate flowers
• Raceme with 100 percent pistillate flowering
• Racemes with a few hermaphrodite (bisexual) flowers

39
 Female Flower:

• Famle flowers are conical shaped having three-carpalled ovary, short style and
feathery, bifurcated red stigma.
• The pistillate flowers starts opening at 11.00 a.m. but peak opening period is
from 4.30 to 5.00 p.m.
• The pistillate flowers are mature and become receptive even 2 hrs before
opening of the flowers and remain receptive for 2-3 days.

Male flowers (staminate flower):

• Male flowers are greenish, splitting to 3-5 valvate segments with many
stamens.
• It opens at 5.00 a.m. and pollen remains viable for about 60 hours.

Anthesis and Mode of Pollination:

• Castor is a cross pollinating plant but unlike other cross pollinating plant, it is
inclined towards some amount of self-pollination.
• The female flowers open before the male flowers and hence there is large
degree of cross-pollination.
• The flowering period of one flower lasts for one to two days. The period of
opening of male flower is longer than that of female flower.
• The pollen of castor retains its viability for a long time i.e. for about 60 hrs. The
viability of fresh collected pollen is around 80 %; within two days of storage
under room condition & it is lowered to 75 %; within five days it is 50 % and
after 20 days it becomes 25%.

 Crossing technique:
• Select the desire healthy plants and removes all the male flowers either by
rubbing the fingers/thumb or by using forceps
• 100 per cent pistillate line can also be used to avoid the emasculation
• Cover the emasculated inflorescence by cloth/paper bag.
• On the next day, during anthesis, collect pollen grains and apply it on the
receptive stigmas of female inflorescence with hair brush or may be dusted.
• The raceme is covered with a bag immediately after pollen is applied and labeled
it. If the exceptionally hot or wet weather not follows pollination, the seed set
should be nearly 100%.
• When the capsule setting is complete, remove the bag.

40
 Breeding objectives
1. Higher yield
2. Higher Oil content
3. Early and medium duration varieties.
4. Dwarf and medium tall plant types
5. Disease and insect resistance
• Semi looper, jassid. Hopper burn - serious in dry land varieties.
• Wilt. GCH-7 is resistance
• Triple bloom - TMV 5. - Triple bloom condition gives resistance.
6. Breeding varieties suitable for mechanical and efficient harvesting.
7. Breeding varieties with low ricin content
8. Breeding non shattering, spineless varieties
• Baker variety of USA Non - Shattering.
 Breeding methodology
1. Introduction: TSP-10R
2. Selection:
• Mass selection: Kavkazskaya from NVIIMK, IAC-38 from Brazil,
CP-1 from interbreeding of different lines viz., JI 35, HC-6, HC-8.
3. Mutation breeding: e.g., Aruna. SA 2 is short duration types identified as
spontaneous mutant from TMV-1
4. Population improvement: Recurrent selection method.
5. Hybridization and selection
• Pedigree method of selection; method generally used to improve
polygenic trait, long duration and tall plant type variety e.g., HC 8,
Junagadh-1, MC 1 developed.
• TMV-1 to TMV-5 series was developed at Tindivanam centre.
6. Heterosis breeding: For developing hybrid pistilate and inbred lines are used

 Research stations:
A. National: Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research (IIOR), Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad.
B. State level: Castor-Mustard Research Station, SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar,
Gujarat.

 Improved varieties: GAUC-1, GC-2 and GC-3

41
 Table :- Hybrids developed by Gujarat Agricultural University

Character GAUCH 1 GCH 2 GCH 4 GCH 5 GCH 6 GCH 7

Parents VP 1xVI 9 VP 1 x VP1x48- Geeta x JP65xJI96 SKP84xSKI215

JI 35 1 SH72

Year of 1973 1985 1986 1996 1997 2007

released

Stem Mahogany Green Light Mahogany Red Mahogany

colour red
Bloom Triple Triple Triple Double Double Triple

GCH-8 by SDAU for all India

GCH-9 by JAU for irrigated areas in Gujarat

Emasculation is not necessary for hybrid seed production of castor.

Because in castor hybrid seed production, generally 100% pistillate line is used as
female. So, there is no need to do emasculation.

**********

42
 PRACTICAL-8
Breeding for Soybean, groundnut and sesame
SOYBEAN BREEDING

Soybean, a “Golden Nugget of the Orient”, is recognized worldwide as a

miracle crop, which experienced phenomenal expansion.
It is an efficient producer of the two scarcest items in the world food
economy, i.e., high quality protein and oil.
The whole bean contains about 40 per cent protein, 20 per cent oil, 22 per
cent carbohydrate, 5 per cent crude fiber, 4 per cent ash and 9 per cent
moisture.
This versatile plant serves as a natural soil fertilizer by fixing 50 kg nitrogen
per hectare.
Soybean is also an excellent source of good quality unsaturated oil.
The five most important soybean based foods are miso (soy paste), shoyu
(soy sauce), tofu (soy curd), soy milk (fluid extracted from soybeans) and
tem peh (a fermented, cake-like product).
Soybean cultivation originated in the North China Plain and spreading
through East and Southeast Asia, reached to the United States of America,
which is the leading country in soybean production.
1. Name of Crop : Soybean
2. Botanical Name : Glycine max L. Merr.
3. Family : Fabaceae
4. Chromosome Number : 2n = 40
5. Center of Origin : China
6. Mode of pollination : Self pollination
7. Out crossing percentage : < 1%
8. Related wild species: G. soja, G. albicans, G. arenaria, G. argyrea,
G. canescens, G. clandestine, G. curvata, G. cyrtoloba,
G. falcate,G. hirticaulis
43
Breeding objectives:
1. High yield
2. Early maturity
3. Suitability for different agro-climatic zones
4. Resistance to lodging and shattering
5. High germinability and longivity
6. Tolerance to abiotic stresses
7. Resistance/tolerance to diseases and insect pests
8. Seed quality
9. Breeding for vegetables or for culinary purpose
10. Protein and oil quantity and quality

44
45
46
Research stations:
A. National:
Directorate of Soybean Research (DSR), Indore, M.P.
B. State:
Oilseed Research Station, JAU, Amreli

Improved varieties :
Gujarat Soybean-1,
Gujarat Soybean-2,
Gujarat Soybean-3

Groundnut Breeding

Groundnut is a herbaceous either a perennial or an annual unpredictable

legume. It is one of theprincipal edible oilseed crop of the world, ranking 13th among
the food crops. Groundnut occupies 45 per cent of the total oilseeds area and
contributes about 55 per cent of the total oilseeds production. Eighty per cent
47
groundnut are and 84 per cent production confined to the fin=ve states viz., Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

Peanut is having 46-55 per cent oil and 25-30 per cent protein. Out of the
total groundnut production, 12 per cent used for seed purpose, 6 per cent for for
domestic purpose, 81 per cent for oil extraction and 1 per cent is exported to other
countries. Plant is used as a fodder and the oilcake as feed for cattle or as a manure.

1. Name of crop : Groundnut, pea nut, monkey nut, goose nut,

Manila nut, Jack nut, Earth nut
2. Botanical name : Arachis hypogaea L.
3. Family : Fabaceae
4. Chromosome number : 2n = 40
5. Center of origin : South America (Bolivia) and Brazil
6. Mode of pollination Self pollination
7. Out crossing : <1%
percentage
8. Related wild species : A.monticola, A. glabrata, A. villosa,
A. pusilla,A.duranensis, A. batizocoi,
A. cardenasii

The genetical reasons for low productivity in groundnut

1. Success in hybridization is very less due to small and complex flower

structure, low flower to pod ratio (7 : 1) few seeds per pod etc.
2. Transferring desirable traits like disease, pest, drought resistance, etc., from
wild species is very difficult.
3. Flowering is not synchronous, which is essential for maximum pod filling.
4. Absence of seed dormancy in bunch and prolonged dormancy in spreading
types.
5. Poor response to high dose of fertilizers and number of irrigations.
6. Weak peg attachment, which causes maximum pod losses during harvesting.
7. Linkage map of genes not available.

48
General constraints for low productivity in groundnut:
1. Periodic droughts (early season, mid season and late season drought).
2. Occurrence of petsts and diseases.
3. Difficulties in implementing the recommended moisture conservation
practices.
4. Poor economic status of the farmers.
5. Lack of drought tolerant cultivars.
6. Inadequate and untimely supply of inputs.
7. Poor response to high dose of fertilizers.

Groundnut has basically indeterminate growth habits.

Three types viz., bunch, semi-spreading and spreading are recognized in varietal
classification.

•In spreading form, the main axis is very short and erect and the primary
branches spread horizontally along the ground.
• In the bunch types, the main axis is long and erect and the primary branches
are oblique to the main axis.
The indeterminate forms between these two types are classified as semi-spreading

Types of groundnut

The cultivated Arachis hypogaea have two-sub species, hypogaea (Virginia types)
and fastigiata (Spanish and Valencia types).

 Sub-species hypogaea, var. hypogaea includes both Virginia bunch (semi-

spreading) and Virginia runner (spreading) types
 Sub-species fastigiata var. fastigiata (Valencia) and var. vulgaris (Spanish)
commonly known as bunch-types.
 Difference between bunch and spreding types of groundnut:

Sr. Character Bunch Spreading

No.
1. Botanical group Spanish and Valencia Virginia
2. Plant growth habit Erect Spreading
3. Branching pattern Sequential Alternate
4. Lateral branches Reproductive Always vegetative
49
 5. Flowers on main stem Present Absent
6. Foliage colour Light green Dark green
7. Leaflet size Large and oblong Smaller and
pointed
8. Pod arrangement Cluster in base of the plant Scattered along
with branches
9. Pod size Small to medium Medium to bold
10. Seed size Smaller Large and heavier
11. Seed dormancy Usually absent Present
12. Maturity Early Late
13. Growing season Kharif and summer Kharif
14. Oil per sent Less (42-46%) Higher (48-55%)
Origin of cultivated groundnut

Arachis villosa X Arachia lignosa

2n=20 2n=20

2n=20, Chromosome Doubling

2n=40 Allptetraploid
Arachis hypogaea

 Floral biology
The flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves, mostly near the
base of the plant.
Sepals are 5 and form a green colored tube
Petals are 5 and yellow in color, one standard, two wings and two keels.
The stamens are 10 monoadelphous with the staminal column surrounding
the ovary. Two of them are usually sterile.
Long style, club shaped stigma with hairy end, which is enclosed in keel.
Stalk of the ovary elongate to form a peg and curves towards soil.
Flowers open between 6.00 to 8.00 am. Anthers dehisce about 1-2 hrs before
opening of the flowers and fertilization completes before mid-day (6 hours
after pollination)
50
Though flowers are above ground level in groundnut, peg formation take place
below ground level.

51
 Because after fertilization, in response to auxin formation, ovary stalk
elongates and shows positive geotropic movement towards the soil, subsequent to
penetration of the peg in the soil, pod development takes place due to darkness,
mechanical stimulus and Ca than nutrients uptake by the developing pod.

Selfing technique

The whole plant is covered with muslin cloth bag to ensure the cent percent self-
pollination.

Crossing technique

 Select a bud of the female parent, which is fully matured and very nearer to
the soil during 1.30 - 6.00 p.m. (mature bud is pink or light purple in color)
 Except the selected bud in the inflorescence all other buds should be
removed. Care should be taken to see that any developing peg resulted from
self-pollination is not in axils of the leaf.
 Hold the bud very gently with your thumb and index finger.
Pull down a little part of the calyx with the help of forceps.

• Open the whole flower by forceps and holds its standard and wings with
thumb and index finger.
• Pull down the keel by forceps and remove all anthers in down-wards
movement very carefully. Do not touch the stigma by forceps during the
whole procedure.
• Leave the flower, it will close automatically.
• On the next day at 6.00 to 10.00 a.m. pollinate the emasculated flowers by
pollen of the desired male parent.
• After 5-7 days of pollination successfully crosses will produce pegs. A small
wire-ring of 4 mm diameter will kept on the pegs with code number of
receptive crosses.

 Breeding objectives:
1. Breeding for higher yield
The different yield components traits viz., Seed size (Virginia types have
larger kernels than Spanish type), Number of pods per plant, Shelling per
cent.

52
2. Breeding for fresh seed dormancy

Problem more persists in Spanish cultivars. The Spanish types cultivars

grown during kharif may faced early N.E. monsoon rains which results in
germination of varieties. So it is necessary to breed varieties having
dormancy. Semi spreading varieties are dormant TMV 7 and slightly dormant
varieties, BSR.1, ALR 2 dormant for 15 days.

3. Breeding resistance to biotic stresses

Disease: Rust and leaf spot (early and late) are major diseases; varieties
having multiple disease resistance are Girnar-1, ALR-2, GPBD-4, etc.
Tomato spotted wilt virus or Bud necrosis of late gaining importance. NCAC
17090 -resistant.

Pest: Red hairy caterpillar, leaf miner are major pests.

4. Breeding resistance to abiotic stresses

Different stress viz., drought (K 134, ICGS-1, ICGS-5, ICGS-37, etc. are
tolerance to drought), salinity, high temperature, Aluminum toxicity.

4. Breeding for earliness: Suitable to escape drought, disease, and prevent

germination due to early monsoon.
5. Breeding for quality
A. High oil content: More than 50 percent, the semi spreading variety
TMV 10 is having 52 percent oil. Generally oil content is highly
influenced by environment.
B. Oil quality: Low iodine value-long shelf life, high value: high level
of unsaturation may good for health purpose. Higher oleic to linoleic
acid ratio.
C. High shelling percentage: More than 75 percent. The variety
having Thin shelled shows high shelling percentage.
D. High sound mature kernel (SMK): This is also influenced by
environment. Increased boron application results in high shelling
percentage and high SMK %
E. Table purpose varieties: large seeded or confectionary types- good
for table purpose.

53
 F. Aflatoxin resistance: A toxin produced by fungi Aspergillus flavus
and A. parasiticus. Aflatoxin causes various disease in animal
including human i.e., Cancer, affects on immune system.
 Research stations
A. International
International Crop Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT), Patancheru, Hydrabad, Andhra Pradesh

B. National
Directorate of Groundnut Research (DGR) [National Research
Center for Groundnut (NRCG)], Junagadh, Gujarat

C. State level
Main Oilseeds Research Station, JAU, Junagadh, Gujarat

 Improved Varieties
Spreading types: GAUG-10, GG-11, GG-12, GG-13, GJG-17
Semi-spreading types: GG-20, GJG-22
Bunch type: GG-2, GG-4, TG-26, GG-5 and GG-7

Spreading type Bunch type Semi -spreading type

********

54
 Sesame Breeding

1. Name of crop : Sesamum, til, gingely

2. Botanical name : Sesamum indicum L.

3. Family : Pedaliaceae
4. Chromosome number : 2n = 26
5. Center of origin : East Africa or Asia
6. Mode of pollination : Self pollination
7. Out crossing percentage : <1%
8. Related wild species : S. alatum, S. carpense, S. schenckii,
S. malabaricum (2n=26).
S. prostratum, S. laciniatum, S. angolense,
S. angustifolium (2n=32).
S. radiatum, S. occidentale (2n=64)
 Flower Biology
 The flowers are zygomorphic, solitary, occasionally two or three together,
axillary, short- pedicelled, borne on the upper part of the stem or branches.
 The tube bent downward and is dialated above the oblique base.
 The calyx is small and five sectioned.
 The corolla is tubular and campanulate.
 There are four functional stamens and often one is sterile, didynamous. (Di -
two, dynamis – strength): Out of four stamens, two are long and two are
short.)
 The ovary is superior, bilocular but may be subdivided by false internal
walls.

55
The fruit is a capsule, erect and oblong. The capsule contains numerous small ovate
seeds. The testa may be smooth or reticulate and may be white, yellow, reddish-
brown or black

BREEDING OBJECTIVES

 The objectives are dynamic rather than static and change with the
requirement of time.
 The general breeding objectives in sesame are similar to those applicable in
other crops and include higher yield, improved plant architecture, reduced
length of growing season and resistance to diseases and pests whereas,
whereas the specific objectives vary with the level of technology and local
conditions.
 Sesame fits into cropping systems either as a main crop or a second crop.
 Furthermore, it is grown often in mixed stands with diverse companion crops
like groundnut, pigeon pea, cotton, pearl millet and soybean to mention a
few.
Non-shattering cultivars are needed for combine harvesting in advanced countries
and shattering types are preferred where manual labour is readily available and
prevailing the traditional systems.

Marketing and quality aspects:

 The confectionery market or the oil mills have different requirements.

 Seed size, shape, and coat texture, colour and sweet taste are not so important
to the oil industry, but these characters are very critical for the confectionery
market which is increasing globally with the growing health concerns.
 In India, white seeded is preferred for export as well as for domestic use in
northern plains and plateau region.

56
  Whereas brown seeded or black seeded are preferred by domestic consumers
in eastern coastal region and black seeded in southern coastal region. Specific
breeding objectives in sesame are summarized below.
Seed characters:
Large or medium-large, well filled, shape and colour to satisfy market demands,
especially for confectionery use.
 Seed coat, rough or brittle, easily removed by dry decortication; Short term
(a few months) seed dormancy, appropriate for local cropping systems;
Higher oil content above 50%; Higher lignans content for longer shelf life.
Seedling characters:

 Fast, vigorous germination and emergence, with strong hypocotyl elongation

to assure better emergence; Rapid growth in the early stages to overcome
weeds and to give good stand establishment; Ability to germinate and
withstand lower temperatures in early stages of growth in temperate
production areas.
Breeding method
1. Plant Introduction
2. Selection :
 G.Til-1:Selection MT-6752
 G.Til-10:Selection from TNAU-17
3. Pedigree method

 G.Til-2:Gujarat Til-1 x TC-25

 G.Til-3:G Til-1 x AHT -85
 Research stations
A. National: Directorate of Oilseeds Research (DOR), Hyderabad, Andhra
Pradesh
B. State: Main Oilseeds Research Station, JAU, Amreli, Gujarat

 Improved varieties: Purva-1, Gujarat Til-1, Gujarat Til-2, Gujarat Til-3,

Gujarat Til-4, Gujarat Til-5 and Gujarat Til-10 (Black seeded)
 Hybrid varieties:
Yeti No. 9 (ms 86-1 x Danback, GMS based hybrid in China) developed by
Tu in 1995
==== x x x x x =====

57
 PRACTICAL: 9

COTTON BREEDING

India ranks first in terms of area among cotton growing nation. Cotton
constitutes about 85 per cent of raw material of our textile industries. The major
cotton growing states in India are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Punjab,
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Genus Cossypium
contains 39 species of which 33 are diploid and 6 are tetraploid. Ninety per cent
of the world cotton production comes from G. hirsutum followed by G.
barbadense (8%).,G.herbaceum and G. aeboreum is mainly cultivated in India.
1. Name of crop : Cotton
2. Botanical Name : Gossypium spp.
3. Family : Malvaceae
4. Chromosome Number : As per Table
5. Center of Origin : As per Table
6. Mode of pollination : Often cross pollination
7. Out crossing percentage : 5 – 25 %
8. Related wild species : As per Table

Genetic origin of tetraploid cotton

African linted species (G. africanum) reached America through
pacific ocean and after crossing with American lintless wild
diploid species G. rarimondii gave birth to tetraploid cotton.
The chromosome doubling took place in nature resulting in
the development of fertile amphidiploids
G. Herbaceum X G. rarimondii
Var africanum linted lintless
Old world cotton -Diploid American cotton -Diploid
(2n=2x=26) AA (2n=2x=26) DD
Large chromosome Small chromosome
F1 hybrid-Diploid
2n=2x=26 AD Sterile
Doubling of chromosomes
G. hirsutum: New world cotton: Amphidiploid
2n = 4x = 52 AA DD Large & small chromosome
This can be crossed with cultivated species and produces fertile hybrids

58
 Table: Details of cultivated species and wild relatives along with
chromosome number, center of origin and common name.
Sr. Particulars No. of Chromo. Center of origin Common
No. Chromo. Size name
A. Cultivated species
1 Gossypium 2n = 26 Large India Deshi/
arboreum Diploid/
Old world
2 G. herbaceum 2n = 26 Large Africa Deshi/
Diploid/
Old world
3 G. hirsutum 2n = 52 26-Large South America New world/
26-Small Tetraploid
4 G. barbadense 2n = 52 26-Large North America New world/
26-Small Tetraploid
B. Wild species
1 G. anomalum 2n = 26 Medium Africa Diploid/
Old world
2 G. thurberi 2n = 26 Small America Diploid/
New world
3 G. tomentosum 2n = 52 26-Large Hawaii Tetraploid/
26-Small New world
4 G. caicoense 2n = 52 26-Large Brazil Tetraploid/
26-Small New world

Growth and development in cotton: The branch forms in the axil above a main
stem leaf. The leaves and stems on nodes above and below the one illustrated
have been removed.

Fig. 1 Growth of a fruiting branch from the main stem

59
Development of fruiting and vegetative branches:-
The branches on a cotton plant are classified as either vegetative
branches (monopodia) or fruiting branches (sympodia). Vegetative branches, like
the main stem, are referred to as monopodia (meaning “single foot”) since they
have only one meristem. Because vegetative branches have only one meristem,
they grow straight and erect, much like the main stem (Fig. 2). Vegetative
branches can also produce fruiting branches.

Fig. 2 Fig.3
A cotton plant (with leaves A fruit Branch (with leaves)
removed) shows the straight removed shows its zig-zag
growth habit. growth

Habit of the main stem and the vegetative Branch:

The branches from which fruiting buds arise are called fruiting branches,
or sympodia (meaning” multiple feet”), because each fruiting branch contains
multiple meristems. Fruiting branches have a „zig-zag‟ growth habit of the
vegetative branches. The initial growth of a fruiting branch is terminated once a
fruiting bud forms. The fruiting branch, however, initiates a new growing point,
called an axillary meristem. The axillary meristem is located at the base of a leaf
that subtends the newly formed fruiting bud. The “zig-zag” growth habit is a
consequence of the stop - and - go growth of the fruiting branch (Fig. 3).

60
 Floral biology:
 The base of cotton flower is surrounded by leaf like triangular bracts that is
commonly known as squares.
 On the day before pollination the twisted corolla emerges from the bracts.
 When the corolla first opens the petals may be white, cream, yellow or purple
in the different varieties. The following day the corolla turns pink gradually
changes to red and finally falls from the plant.

Fig. 4 Flower of cotton showing subbracteal nectarines and longitudinal

section
 The stamens are numerous, forming a tube like staminal column around the
style which is united with the inside base of the corolla.
 Pistil is formed 3-5 carpel‟s corresponding to the number of locks in the ball
(Fig. 4)
 Pollen is shed directly on the stigma when the anthers open or it may be
carried to the stigma by insects may in considerable (5-25%) cross
pollination.
Formation of the cotton bud from square to bloom:
During the 21-day period from square to bloom, there are several
recognized developmental stages of the cotton flower bud (Fig. 5). A “pinhead”
square is the first stage at which the square can be identified. The next stage of
square growth is “match-head” or “one-third grown”. Once the cotton begins to
bloom, it is said to be

61
“flowering”. A cotton plant typically blooms or flowers for about 6 weeks. Thus,
until the cotton begins to produce fruit, the stage of development is discussed in
terms of leaves or nodes. Once fruiting begins, the stage of cotton development is
discussed in terms of square development and the number of nodes. Once blooms
are present, the stage of cotton development is discussed in terms of weeks of
bloom.
Fig.5: Development of the bud from match head square (a) to flower (e)
involves both a size increase and petal development.

Two bracts have been removed from each square, candle and bloom to show
this development.
Stages of flowering:
Flowering is important to cotton production because pollinated flowers from
cotton bolls. The bloom process takes several days, and bloom age can be
estimated by the bloom characteristics (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6: Development of a cotton bloom. A white flower emerges on day 1 (a), then
gradually darkens and takes on a red color during days 2, 3 and 4 after emergence
(B and c). The bloom eventually dries up and either falls off or becomes a bloom tag
(d).

62
 On the day a flower opens it is white in colour. Pollination of that flower usually
occurs within a few hours after the white flower opens.
On the second day, the flower will have a pink-like color and a red color
on the third day. Approximately 5 to 7 days after a flower appears it usually dries
and falls from the plant exposing the developing boll. Occasionally a flower will
stay attached to the developing boll for a longer period of time. This is referred to
as a bloom tag
Selfing technique:
The flowers, which are expected to open next day morning either, should
be covered with the proper size of paper bag or tide with the rubber ring, mud or
wire ring.
Crossing technique:
 Emasculate the young bud in the afternoon. Buds, which are likely to flower
next day, are selected for emasculation.
 Remove the corolla with staminal from the base of the buds with the help of nail
of the thumb without injuring the ovary. Emasculated flower is labeled and
bagged.
 Collect the male flower in the dish and exposed it to sunshine to stimulate the
anthers.
 Rub the male flower on the stigma of emasculated flower then labeled and
bagged.
 Pollination should be completed in the morning 8:00 to 10:00 am.

Stages of flowering:
 Flowering is important to cotton production because pollinated flowers form
cotton bolls.
 The bloom process takes several days, and bloom age can be estimated by the
bloom characteristics.
 On the day a flower opens it is white in color.
 Pollination of that flower usually occurs within a few hours after the white
flower opens.
 On the second day, the flower will have a pink-like color, and a red color on
the third day.
63
 Approximately 5 to 7 days after a flower appears, it usually dries and falls from
the plant exposing the developing fruit (boll).
 Occasionally a flower will stay attached to the developing boll for a longer
period of time. This is referred to as a bloom tag.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES:
1. Yield of line fiber:
More bolls and high lint percentage, Small bolled varieties having small
seeds and a high lint turnout.
2. Early maturity
3. Mechanical picking
4. Fiber quality: Fiber quality is depends on (i) Fiber length (staple length)
(ii) Fiber strength and (iii) Fiber weight (fiber fineness)
* Cotton fiber is borne in bolls consist 3-5 locks. The fiber developing on
the cottonseed may be separated into two groups according to length.
(a) Lint: the outlay is composed of long fibers separated from the seed in
ginning and used in spinning cotton yarn.
Lint Index 100 seed weight x Ginning per cent
=
(Absolute weight of lint/seed) 100 – Ginning per cent

Lint percent Weight of lint

=
(Ginning percent) Weight of cotton
(b) Linter (fuzz): The inner layer is composed of short fibers that remain
attached to the seed after ginning are used in marketing rayon and various
cellulose products.

5. Resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses

6. Glandless cotton: The cotton plant normally produces pigmented glands
in leaves, stems and seed, which contain Gossypol (undesirable toxic
substance) in the seed causes
• Discoloration in cottonseed oil
• Reduce availability of lysine and other essential amino acids in cotton
seed protein
• Male sterility in humans through cottonseed oil. Three genes viz., gl1,
gl2 and gl3 are controlling this character.
 Research Stations:
A. National:
64
 Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR), Nagpur, Maharashtra.
B. State level:
Main Cotton Research Station, Navsari Agricultural University, Surat, Gujarat.
 Improved varieties: GAU Cot-10, GAU Cot-100, G.Cot-101, G.Cot-11,
G. Cot- 12, G. Cot-13, G. Cot-14, G. Cot-16, G. Cot-18, G. Cot-20, G. Cot-22,
G. Cot-24
Hybrid varieties: GCH-4, GCH-6, GCH-7 (Deshi), GCH-8, GCH-9 (Deshi),
GCH-10 , GCH-12,GCH-14,
Bt hybrids: Boll Guard-I, Boll Guard-II and Fusion Bt
Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) approved following variety
for
Cultivation.
• RCH-2, RCH-138, RCH-118, RCH-144 (Rasi Seeds, Attur, Tamil Nadu)
• MECH 12, MECH 162, MECH 184, MRC 6301 (MAHYCO), Jalana,
Maharashtra.
• Ankur-651, Ankur 09 (Ankur seeds, Nagpur, Maharashtra)
• Bunny and Mallika (Nuziveedu seeds, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh)
Hybrid seed production is feasible in cotton due to…
Hand emasculation and pollination is very easy and become practically possible
because of large flower size, More number of seeds per cross, Low seed rate for
sowing.

 Procedure for hybrid seed production in cotton:

For example, Gujarat Cotton Hybrid-4
Gujarat – 67 x American Nectariless (AN)
↓
GCH – 4
The male and female parents are grown separately but near to each other.
Isolation distance should be maintained 50m for foundation seed and 30m for
certified seed.

65
A) Sowing of the female parent (Gujarat - 67):-
Sowing is done in last week of May to 2nd week of June at a distance of
1.5 m x 1.5m or 2.0 m x 2.0 m. the seed rate of 1.5 – 2.0 kg seed per hectare is
needed to grow approximately 2500 – 3600 plantlets per hectare. Extra seeds
may be raised in bags for gap filling.
B) Sowing of male parent (American Nectariless):
About 0.2 ha male plot is enough for one hectare of female parent. The
spacing required is 1.0 x 0.6 m proportion of female: Male is 5 : 1 rows.
C) Time of sowing:
American Nectariless is early in maturity. So that male parent should be
sown 20-25 days after the female parent sowing. The male parent is usually sown
in 2-3 different dates like.
(i) With female parent sowing
(ii) 10 days after female parent sowing
(iii) 25 days after female parent sowing
D) Period of Sowing:
• The crossing begins from September onwards and continues up to 15th
December. The seed setting is good during September – October.
• For emasculation of flower buds Doak‟s method is used. In this method, bracts,
petals and anthers removed by Thumbnail without damaging the ovary.
• Emasculation is carried out from 2.00 to 6.00 pm. Unemasculated open flowers
should be removed.
• After emasculation the flower buds should be covered by RED colored tissue
paper bag or round straw tube and tide with a thread or tag or price label. Red
colour bag is useful for identification of emasculated buds for pollination.
E) Pollination:
• From male flowers, which are about to open, bracts and petals are removed and
flower is kept in sunlight in trays or dishes. The anthers burst at 10.00 a.m.
• The red tissue bag from the emasculated female flower bud is removed and
male flower bud is rubbed all around the surface of the stigma.
• One male flower is sufficient for 3 to 5 female flowers.

66
• The pollinated female flowers are covered by white tissue paper bags.
F) Picking of crossed bolls:
• When the bolls open, picking should be done along with the tissue paper bags.
The cotton is then taken out and filled in gunny bags after drying.
• On an average, 700-1000 kg of hybrids seed can be produced per hectare.

**************

67
 PRACTICAL-10

Tobacco Breeding

1 Name of Crop : Tobacco

2 : Nicotiana tabacum
Botanical Name
Nicotiana rustica
3 Family : Solanaceae
4 Chromosome No. : 2n = 4x= 48 (Tetraploid)
5 Mode of pollination : Often- cross pollination

IMPORTANT RELATED SPECIES

:
N. Affinis Ornamental tobacco
N. glutinosa
Resistant
: to mosaic virus
N. repanda
N. longiflora Resistant
: to wild fire and black fire disease
Resistant to blue mould black root rot, wild fire and
N. debneyi :
fusarium wheat
Nicotine Botanical pesticide 40% Nicotine sulphate
Drugs/Tobacco cessation products Pure nicotine
Protein Feed supplement crude protein
Seed oil Paint and soap industry crude oil
Edible oil refined oil

68
 Nicotine
Tobacco type Type of curing
(%)
Burley Air-curing 0.5-1.0
FCV Flue-curing 2-3
Lanka/Natu Sun-curing 3-4
Hookah/chewing Air curing 4-6
Bidi Sun-curing 6-10

NICOTINE
• Nicotine (C10H14N2) is the principal alkaloid synthesized in roots and
accumulated in the leaf.
• Nicotine is known for its insecticidal property in the form of 40% Nicotine
sulphate.
• Further, tobacco decoction is used for controlling several pests in cereals and
vegetables in many countries.
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
Nicotiana sylvetries X Nicotiana tomentosa
2n=24 2n=24
F1(sterile)
Natural doubling of Chromosome
Nicotiana tabacum
2n=2x=48

Nicotiana paniculata X Nicotiana undulatea

2n=24 2n=24
F1(sterile)
Natural doubling of chromosome
Nicotiana rustica
2n=4x=48
• India grows both the species, but by far the largest area is under N. tabacum.
Since N. rustica requires cooler climate, its cultivation is confined mainly to the

69
 northern and north-eastern areas of the country, i.e., U.P., West Bengal, Bihar
and Assam.
• The N. tabacum varieties known as desi types have tall plants with broad leaves
and have usually pink flowers.
• The N. rustica varieties known as `vilayati' and `calcuttia' are characterised by
short plants with round puckered leaf and yellow flowers.
• Specific varieties in N. tabacum have been developed for cigarette, cigar and
cheroot, bidi, hookah and snuff tobaccos.
• The varieties developed in N. rustica are used for only chewing, hookah and
snuff tobaccos.
 Comparision between N. rustica and N. tabacum
N. rustica N. tabacum
Also known as vilayati, cullcuttia type Also known as desi types
leaves of are usually petiolate and of regular leaves are mostly sessile, ovate or
ovate or cordate shape with a dark green, shiny oblong-lanceolate shaped.
surf
N. rustica types are dwarf than rustica N. tabacum types are taller than rustica
types types
Chewing type Used for cigarette, cigar and cheroot,
bidi, hookah and snuff tobaccos.
Flower colour is yellow. Flower colour is pink.

 FLORAL BIOLOGY
• The inflorescence of tobacco is a terminal raceme
• The flowers are pedicellate and hermaphrodite

70
• Calyx contain five sepals
• Corolla contain five petal
• The stamens are five in number
• It has superior ovary
• It is self pollinated crop but; 4-10; of cross pollination occurs due to insects.
Therefore, it is grouped into often cross pollinated crop.
• Pollens are viable for 24hrs
• Stigma is receptive one day before and after flower opening
SELFING TECHNIQUE
Covering entire inflorescence with paper bag will ensures the self pollination.

CROSSING TECHNIQUE
• It involves emasculation followed by pollination
• For emasculation select the unopened flowers with pink colour tip and anthers
are removed with five pointed forceps after tearing petals
• Collect the pollen grain from matured flowers and dust it on the emasculated
flower
• Bag the pollinated flower and then tag it

71
 BREEDING METHODS
• Introduction
• Selection
• Pedigree method
• Back cross method
• Ploidy breeding
• Mutation breeding
• Genetic engineering
MAJOR BREEDING OBJECTIVES
• To develop drought tolerant, high yielding, better quality tobacco varieties.
• Breeding variety for multiple resistances to diseases and insect pests.
• Breeding tobacco for less health risk factors.
• Tailoring the genotypes suitable for alternate uses.
• Heterosis breeding for developing high yielding commercial hybrids
• Development of genotypes suitable for multiple and intercropping systems.
Physical traits
• Body appearance
• spangling score
• Colour
• Leaf thickness
Chemical traits
• Nicotine content
• Reducing sugar content
• Total nitrogen content
• Potash content
• Chloride content
• Aroma
Smoke quality traits
• Tar content
• Total phenol content
• Carbon monoxide content
Number of puff per bidi
Physical traits
• Body colour
• Puckering score
72
 • Spangling score
• White incrustation
Chemical traits
• Nicotine content
• Reducing sugar content
• Total nitrogen content
• Chloride content
• Aroma

Oganoleptic traits
• Chewing taste
• Elasticity
• Pungency
 RESEARCH STATION:
• National level:- Central Tobacco Research Institute,
Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh
• State level:- Bidi Tobacco Research Station (BTRS) - AAU, Anand

 VARIETIES / HYBRIDS RELEASED:

Tobacco type Varieties released
Flue-cured Chatam, Delcrest, Kanakaprabha, Dhanadayi, CTRI
tobacco Special,Jayasri, CTRI Spl. (MR), 16/103, FCV special,
Godavari Spl., Swarna, Mc Nair 12, Jayasri (MR), Hema,
Bhavya, Gauthami, CM 12 (KA), VT 1158, Kanchan,
Thrupthi, Rathna, Kanthi, Hemadri, Siri, Sahyadri, FCH 222,
LT Kanchan, CH-1, N-98, CH-3, CTRI Sulakshana (TBST-2)
Bidi GT 4, NPN 190, Anand 119, Anand 2, Spoorthy (PL 5), GT 5,
tobacco GT 7, GTH1, Bhavyasree, GT 9, NBD 43, MRGTH- 1, ABT
10, Vedaganga 1, GABT-11, Nadyala Pogaku-1, NBD 209
Chewing Chama, Podali, DP 401, GandakBahar, Sona, Vairam,
tobacco Thangam Bhagyalakshmi, Maragadham, Prabha, PT 76,
Meenakshi Vaishali Special, Lichchavi, Manasi, Abirami,
Kaviri, Meenakshi (CR), Sangami, Kamatchi, Abirami (CR),

Hookah and DD 437, Sonar Motihari, GC 1, GT 6, GCT 2, GT 8, GCT 3,

Chewing Dharla, Azad Kanchan
tobacco

Cigar-wrapper S 5, Krishna
tobacco

73
 PRACTICAL: 11

OKRA BREEDING

Okra is a fast growing annual herb, the young seed capsules are used for
vegetable purpose in tropical and sub-tropical regions. It is commonly grown in
Asia, Southern Europe, northern Africa and USA. In India, okra is commercially
grown in the states Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Utter Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Haryana and Punjab.

The okra is low in saturated fat, cholesterol and sodium and high in
dietary fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin K, thiamine, B6, folate, calcium,
magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, manganese, iron, zinc and copper.

1. Name of crop : Okra, Lady‟s finger

2. Botanical Name : Abelmoschus esculentus L.
3. Family : Malvaceae
4. Chromosome Number : 2n = 130
5. Center of Origin : India, Pakistan and Burma
6. Mode of pollination : Often cross pollination
7. Out crossing percentage : 4-42%
8. Related wild species : A. manihot, A. fluculnes, A. crinitus
with
variable chromosomes number
(2n = 80 to 130)

Floral biology:

 Flowers are solitary and axillary having long peduncle.

 Epicalyxes are 5 to 8 in number with gamosepalous calyx.
 Petals are five having yellow colour with crimson spot.
 Stamens are numerous and are united to the base of petals and form a staminal
coloum (monoadalphous).
 Stigmas are 5 to 9 in number, deep red in colour.

74
 Fig. 13. Okra flower A. Side view. B. Longitudinal section of
flower C. Longitudinal section of stamina column

A B
. .

 Flowers open during 8.00 and 10.00 a.m. The pollen viability is maximum in
the period between an hour before and an hour after opening of the flower. It
takes 2 to 6 hours for fertilization after pollination.
 The stigma is receptive at opening of the flower and hence pollination at bud
stage is not possible.

 Selfing and Crossing technique:

As per cotton breeding (Prac. No. 9)

 Breeding objectives:
1. Higher green fruit yield
2. Early and prolonged harvest
3. Dark green, tender, thin, medium long, smooth, 4-5 ridged fruits
4. Pods free from conspicuous hairs
5. Short plants with more number of nodes and short internodes
6. Optimum seed setting ability
7. Resistance to Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus (YVMV), fusarium with, cercospora
leaf spot and fruit rot
8. Resistance to insect-pests viz., Fruit and shoot borer, jassids and white fly
9. Tolerance to abiotic stress

75
 RESEARCH STATION:

A.International:
Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC), Shanhua,
Taiwan.

B. National:
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR), Varansi, Uttar Pradesh

C. State level:
Vegetable Research Station, JAU, Junagadh, Gujarat.

 Improved varieties: Gujarat Okra-2, Parbhani Kranti, Arka Abhay,

Arka Vikas, Hissar Unnat and Varsha Uphar.

Hybrid varieties: Gujarat Okra Hybrid-1, DVR-2 and DVR-3.

**************

76
 PRACTICAL: 12

BREEDING FOR BOTTLE GOURD, BITTER GOURD,

RIDGE GOURD, SMOOTH GOURD AND CUCUMBER

BOTTLE GOURD BREEDING

1. Name of Crop : Bottle gourd

2. Botanical Name : Lagenaria siceraria (Molina.) Stadl.
3. Family : Cucurbitaceae
4. Chromosome No. : 2n = 2x= 22
6. Progenitors Unknown
7. Mode of pollination Cross pollination
8. Out crossing : 95%
percentage
9. Related species : The genus Lagenaria contains five other
wild species, namely:
L. breviflora (Benth.) Roberty,
L. abyssinica (Hook f.) Jeffrey,
L. rufa (Gilg.) Jeffrey,
L. sphaerica (Sonder) Naudin and
L. guineensis (G. Don) Jeffrey

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
• Bottle gourd is a monoecious, annual vine pubescent herb with five angled stem,
stem is profusely branched.
• The flowers are large, unisexual, white, solitary, showy. The flower has five
petals (Pentamerous).

77
• The staminate flower are on long pedicels than female and hermaphrodite flower
& exceeding the foliage.
• The pistilate flowers are single with short peduncle and hairy ovary.
• Ovary may be round, ovate long or cylindrical.
• There are three stamens, two as compound and one as single.
• The spiny, sticky pollen is not windborne and the plants therefore require
pollinators to move pollen from male to female flowers.
• The ratio of male & female flower may vary from 5 : 1 to 15 : 1 in common type.
• The fruits are essentially a berry, it is called because of its hard and tough rind at
maturity.
• Tendrils are borne in the axils of leaves
•
GENETICS OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERS.
• Very little is known about genes following simple inheritance in this crop.
• Kalloo (1993) has mentioned fruit colour to be monogenically determined.
• Pathak and Singh (1950) have demonstrated a single dominant gene for
bitterness in Lagenaria leucantha (Duchs.). They also reported that two genes
have major effects on fruit shape, and a single gene pair determines patchy vs
white fruit colour in L. leucantha.
• Singh (1996) obtained an andromonoecious sex form (staminate and
hermaphrodite flowers on same plant) in a segregating progeny during the course
of selfing in a monoecious local collection of bottlegourd. F2 and
BC1 generations derived from the crosses between a stable monoecious line and
the andromonoecious form indicated monogenic recessive inheritance for
andromonoecious sex form.
•

78
 SEX PHENOTYPES
• Bottle gourd is a monoecious species with male and female flowers found
separately on the leaf axils of the same plant.
• Though monoecious, bottle gourd is a highly cross pollinating crop.
• Dioecious (i.e Male and female flowers found on different plants) and
andromonoecious sex forms (i.e Sex forms bearing male and perfect flowers)
also exist in wild, non-cultivated species (Singh et al., 1996).
• An andromonoecious sex form bearing hermaphrodite flower and male flower in
the same plant have been isolated and named Andromon-6 by Singh et al.
(1996). The male flowers of Andromon-6 are similar to normal monoecious,
however; the hermaphrodite flowers exhibit a few distinguishing characteristics
compared to normal female flowers.
• The expression of monoecious and andromonoecious sex form in bottle gourd is
genetically controlled (Singh et al., 1996).
• The expression of sex form, flower, fruit morphology and seed characteristics in
the F1 generation demonstrated that monoecious sex form is completely
dominant over andromonoecious sex form, normal size corolla dominant over
large size corolla, long fruit shape dominant over drum-shaped oval fruit, small
blossom scar dominant over large blossom scar and normal seed development
dominant over abnormal seed development.
• Even though more than one sex form has been reported in bottle gourd, there is
generally little sex phenotypes reported in this crop compared to other cucurbits.

MALE AND FEMALE FLOWERS IN BOTTLE GOURD

• Male flowers in bottle gourd are borne on longer pedicels than female and
hermaphrodite flowers.
• Both male and female flowers generally have large and white corolla with five
petals.
• However, male flowers have larger petals than female flowers.
• In male flowers, stamens are apparently 3, two are 2–celled and one is 1–celled
(Singh, 2008). Female flowers have small prominent ovary, which may be round,
ovate, long or cylindrical. Female flowers also have three stigmatic lobes with
many ovules, generally between 400 to 700 (Morimoto et al., 2004; Singh,
2008). Petals and sepals are fused. (Morimoto et al., 2004).
•
SELFING TECHNIQUE IN BOTTLE GOURD
• For selfing, use the staminate flowers to pollinate the pistillate flower of the same
vine to ensure self pollination.
• Cover the pistillate flower after performing the selfing to avoid foreign pollens.
79
 CROSSING TECHNIQUE IN BOTTLE GOURD
• Being a monoecious plant, hybrid seed is produced by hand pollination without
emasculation.
• The female flowers of female parents and male flowers of male parents are tied
with butter paper bags about 24h before they open.
• It is less time consuming and also profitable if, corolla of the buds of male
flowers of male parents is covered with non-absorbent cotton instead of covering
them with butter paper bags.
• The following day, when the flower open, the male flower are collected after
removing cotton or butter paper bags and their pollen grains are dusted directly
on the stigmas of the female flowers after removing the butter paper bags.
• After completing the hand pollination, the female flowers are covered again by
butter paper bags and tags with small labels.
• After 4 to 5 days of pollination, remove butter paper bags for better fruit sets.
• The success of controlled pollination may be enhanced by removal of any
previously set fruit as first fertilized flower inhibits the development of
subsequent fruits. Therefore, controlled pollination should be done as soon as
possible after flowering begins.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES OF BOTTLE GOURD

1. High yield
2. More number of fruits per plant
3. Fruit size, shape and weight as per market demand
4. Earliness (appearance of pistillate flowers at early node number)
5. Immature seeds for longer period during green edible stage
6. High female: male flower ratio
7. Sparse hairs persisting on skin
8. Non-fibrous flesh at edible stage
9. Non-bitter fruit
10. Attractive green fruit with long colour retention
11. Identification of cultivars suitable for canning and dehydration (Value addition)

BREEDING METHODS

• Mass selection,
• Pedigree method
• Back cross method
• Bulk population method
• Heterosis breeding

80
•

GRAFT HYBRIDIZATION
• Intergeneric grafting is used in the production of many cucurbits, i.e. cucumber
grafted on pumpkin and water melon on bottle gourd.
• When watermelon tops are grafted onto bottle gourd root stock, they are found
to be resistant to Fusarium wilt.
• It‟s a non-genetic approach of crop improvement.
• Its better to assess graft compatibility before performing graft hybridization

VARIETIES / HYBRIDS RELEASED

Varieties
• Pusa Naveen
• PSPL
• ABG-1
• Arka Bahar
• Punjab Komal

Hybrids

• Pusa Hybrid-3
• Pusa Meghdoot
• NDBH-7
• GABGH-1

CUCUMBER BREEDING

Cucumber is one of the Asiatic species and member of the cucurbitaceae

Family which has 90 genera and 750 species. Cucumber is grown throughout the
world to be consumed as fresh fruits, as slicing and as pickles in immature stage.
Cucumber is regarded the fourth most important vegetable crop after tomato,
cabbage and onion.
Genetic of Sex:- Following main types are reported in cucumber.
1. Monoecious Plants: Staminate and pistillate flowers
2. Androecious plants: Only staminate flowers
81
3. Gynoecious plants: Only pistillate flowers
4. Hermaphrodite plants: Only hermaphrodite flowers
5. Andomonoecious plants : Staminate and hermaphrodite flowers
Floral biology (Fig. 12.1):-
Cucumber is an annual day neutral plants. Flowers are Monoecious. The
staminate flowers are in cluster with short, slender pedicels. The pistillate
flowers are usually solitary with stout, short pedicels. The calyx and corolla of
staminate and even hermaphrodite flowers have locales each and the third is
unilocular. Filaments are free, but the stamens are more or less united by their
anthers.
Anthesis takes place from 5.30 a.m. to 7.00 a.m. Dehiscence occurs
around 4.30 a.m. to 5.00 a.m. Pollen viability remains up to 14 hours. The
pistillate flowers are epigynous and hermaphrodite and hermaphrodite flowers
are perigynous. The pistil consists of one to five (but usually three) carpels which
in turn, produce ovaries with a corresponding number of locales.

82
 Flower Parts of flower
Selfing techniques:-
For Selfing use the staminate flowers to pollinate the pistillate flowers of
the same vine to ensure self pollination.
Crossing technique:- Being a Monoecious plant, hybrid seed is produced by hand
pollination without emasculation. The female flowers of female parents and male
flowers of male parents are tide with butter paper bags about 24 hours befor the
open. It is less time consuming and also profitable if, corolla of the buds of male
flowers of male parents is covered with non-absorbent cotton instead of covering
them with butter paper bags. The following day, when the flower open, the male
flower are collected after removing cotton or butter paper bags and their pollen
grains are dusted directly on the stigma of the female flowers after removing the
butter paper bags. After completing the hand pollination, the female flowers are
covered again by butter paper bags and tags with small labels. After completing
the hand pollination, the female flowers are covered again by butter paper bags
tags and tags with small labels. After 4 to 5 days of pollination, remove butter
paper bags for better fruit sets. The success of controlled pollination may be
enhanced by removal of any previously set fruit as first fertilized flower inhibits
the development of sub sequent fruit. Therefore, controlled pollination should be
done as soon as possible after flowering begins.
BITTER GOURD

83
 1 Name of crop Bitter gourd
2 Botanical name Momordica charantia L.
3 Family Cucurbitaceae
4 Chromosome number 2n = 22
5 Center of origin Indo-Malayan
6 Mode of pollination Cross pollination

Bitter ground is an important cucurbit fruit vegetable grown in tropics.

The crop is of Asiatic origin either China or India. It is cultivated in Malaysia,
China, Philippines, tropical Africa and North and South America. Immature
fruits is good source of vitamin-C and also contain vitamin-A, phosphorous and
iron. The tender vine tips are an excellent source of vitamin-A, protein, thiamin
and vitamin –C. Leaf juice is used for curing cough, as a purgative, anti-
helminthic to expel intestinal parasites, for healing wound and also act against
lowering blood sugar. The bitter taste is caused by a group of tetracyclic
triterpenes called cucurbitacins which are found in many gourd species.
Floral biology:-
Bitter ground is monoecious having both male and female flowers are in
same plant. The anthesis and anther dehiscence take place early in the morning
from 7.30 to 9.30 a.m. The stigma remains receptive 24 hours before and 24
hours after anthesis. Pollen losses viability as the day advanced and may be fully
non-viable by midday.
Selfing and crossing technique: As per cucumber

Breeding objectives (Cucumber, Bitter gourd and Bottle gourd):

1. Higher fruit yield

2. Earliness
3. High female: male flower ratio
4. Fruits free from carpel separation without hollow spots
5. Immature seeds for longer period during green edible stage
6. Resistance to diseases, insects and pests
7. Attractive green or dark green fruits with smooth surface and without prominent
spines or prickles (cucumber)
8. Uniform, long, club shape without crook neck (cucumber)
9. Round, long, club shape fruit (bottle gourd)
10. Sparse hairs persisting on skin (bottle gourd)
11. Whitish green to glossy green fruit (bitter gourd)
12. Less ridged fruit surface (bitter gourd and ridge gourd)
13. Thick fruits particularly suitable for stuffing (bitter gourd)

84
85
 SUPPLIMENTARY EXERCISE
Q.1 Describe floral biology of cucumber, bitter gourd, bottle gourd and
Loofah with suitable diagram.
Q.2 How selfing and crossing is done in cucumber, bitter gourd, bottle gourd
and Loofah?
Q.3 Enlist the important wild relatives of cucumber, bitter gourd, bottle gourd
and Loofah.
Q.4 List out breeding methods adopted for improvement of cucumber,

FLORAL BIOLOGY
• Bitter gourd is monoecious having both male and female flowers are in same
plant.
• The anthesis and anther dehiscence take place early in the morning from 7.30 to
9.30 a.m.
• The stigma remains receptive 24h before and 24h after anthesis.
• Pollen loses viability as the day advances and may be fully non-viable by
midday.

SELFING AND CROSSING TECHNIQUE

Same as Bottle gourd.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES OF BITTERGOURD

1. High fruit yield
2. Earliness
3. High female: male flower ratio
4. Immature seeds for longer period during green edible stage
5. Resistance to diseases, insects and pest
6. Whitish green to glossy green colour
7. Less ridged fruit surface
8. Thick fruits particularly suitable for stuffing
9. Non-bitter fruit
BREEDING METHODS
• Single plant selection
• Mass selection
• Pedigree method
• Back cross method
• Bulk population method
• Heterosis breeding

86
 VARIETIES / HYBRIDS RELEASED
• VK 1 Priya
• Pusa vishesh
• Punjab 14
• C 96
• Pusa Do Mousmi
• Arka Harit
• Coimbatore Long
• Kalyanpur barahmasi,
• Kalyanpur sona,
• Pant karela-1
• Coimbatore green
RESEARCH STATIONS FOR BOTTLE GOURD AND BITTER GOURD
A. International: Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center
(AVRDC), Shanhua, Taiwan
B. National: Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR, Varanasi, Uttar
Pradesh
State: Main vegetable Research Station, AAU, Anand, Gujarat

Improved varieties:
Ridge gourd: Co-1, Pusa nasdar, Pusa sadabahar, Satputia (hermaphrodite), Pant
torai-1
Sponge gourd: Pusa chikni, Kalyanpur chikni, Pusa Supriya, Gujarat Sponge
gourd-1

Improved varieties Bottle gourd

Pusa summer prolific long and round, Pusa meghdoot, Pusa manjari,
Pusa naveen, Punjab komal, Arka bahar
Hybrid varieties
Pant sankar lauki-1
Improved varieties Bitter gourd
Pusa do mausami, Priya, Arka harit, Pusa vishesh, Kalyanpur
barahmasi, Kalyanpur sona, Pant karela-1, Coimbatore green
Improved varieties Cucumber
Straight eight, Japanese long green, Poinsette, Pusa sanyog, Pant
Khira-1
Hybrid varieties
Pant sankar khira-1

**********

87
 PRACTICAL-13

Visit to seed production plots and AICRP plots of different

field crops and submission of report.

88
89