محاضرة 2

Plasmodesmata
- Microscopic cytoplasmic canal that passes through plant-cell walls and allows
direct communication of molecules between adjacent plant cells.
Plasmodesmata passing through pits

Plasma membrane
- Thin membrane (75 angstrom)that surrounds every living cell,
delimiting the cell from the environment around it
- Barrier keeping the constituents of the cell in and unwanted

substances out
- Gate allowing transport into the cell of essential nutrients and
movement from the cell of waste products (selective permeability).
- Cell membranes are composed primarily of phospholipids and
proteins.
Plasma membrane
Primary cell walls
Plasma membrane under electron microscope

Molecular structure of plasma membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum ER
- Continuous membrane system that forms a series of flattened sacs
within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
- Serves multiple functions, particularly in the synthesis, folding,
modification, and transport of proteins
- Two types of ER, known as:
- Rough ER - Ribosomes
- Smooth ER – no Ribosomes
Ribosomes
- Ribosomes are made of proteins and (RNA), in almost equal amounts.
- Ribosomes are organelles located
inside the cytosol, some bound and
free-floating to the membrane of the
coarse endoplasmic reticulum.
- Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes
- Ribosomes in the chloroplasts
and mitochondria of eukaryotes are
70S ribosomes.
- Play vital role in protein synthesis
process (translation of mRNA)
Ribosomal units in Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Golgi apparatus
It is a membrane-bound organelle of eukaryotic cells that is made up of

a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae.
The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting, modifying, and

packaging proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted
destinations.
Plastids
- Double membrane-bound organelles found inside plants and some
algae, which are primarily responsible for activities related to making
and storing food.
- Has its own DNA

Types of plastids
- Has its own ribosomes (70S)
Chloroplast Chromoplast leucoplast

Chloroplast
- The chloroplasts are probably the most-known of the plastids.
are responsible for photosynthesis. The chloroplast is filled with

thylakoids, which is where photosynthesis occurs, and chlorophyll.
‫كأسية‬ Spiral Stellate
Cup
Disc Girdle
Internal structure of chloroplast
Plastid genome
Chromoplast
- A place for the pigments to be stored and synthesized in the plant. These are
found in flowering plants, fruits, and aging leaves. The chloroplasts actually
convert over to chromoplasts. There are carotenoid pigments here that allow
for the different colors you see in fruits and the fall leaves. One of the main
reasons for these structures and the colors is to attract pollinators.
Chromoplast
Leucoplast
- Leucoplasts are the non-pigmented

organelles.
- They are found in the non-photosynthetic part
of the plant, such as the roots.
- They may become essentially just storage
sheds for starches, lipids, and proteins.

Leucoplast
Amylopast Proteioplast Elaioplast

Mitochondria
- Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular)
- Generate most of the energy needed to power biochemical reactions.
- Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in (ATP).
- Mitochondria contain their own small DNA.
- Mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA are inherited only from the mother.
Internal structure of mitochondria
Peroxisomes
- Peroxisomes are membrane-

bound organelles in most
eukaryotic cells,
- Primarily involved in lipid

metabolism and the conversion of
reactive oxygen species such as
hydrogen peroxide into safer
molecules like water and oxygen
Glyoxysomes
- Glyoxysomes are temporary specialized peroxisomes found in plants
(particularly in the fat storage tissues of germinating seeds)
and also in filamentous fungi.
- Glyoxysomes appear in the first few days after seed germination in
endosperm cells and associate closely with lipid bodies.
- Besides peroxisomal functions,
glyoxysomes possess additionally the key enzymes of glyoxylate cycle

Nucleus
- Nucleus, is a specialized
structure occurring in
eukaryotic cells and
separated from the rest of
the cell by a double layer,
the nuclear membrane.
Nucleus
- This membrane seems to be continuous with the endoplasmic
reticulum of the cell and has pores, which probably permit the
entrance of large molecules.
- It controls and regulates the activities of the cell (e.g., growth

and metabolism) and carries the genes structures that contain the
hereditary information.
- Nucleoli are small bodies often seen within the nucleus.
Schematic model of the structure of the nuclear pore complex.
Parallel rings composed of eight subunits each are arranged
octagonally near the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear
envelope. Various proteins form the other structures, such as the
nuclear ring, the spokering assembly, the central transporter, the
cytoplasmic filaments, and the nuclear basket.
Nucleic acids DNA
DNA, abbreviation
of deoxyribonucleic acid, organic
chemical of complex molecular
structure that is found in
all prokaryotic and eukaryotic ells and
in many viruses. DNA codes genetic
information for the transmission of
inherited traits.
RNA, abbreviation
of ribonucleic acid, complex
compound of high molecular
weight that functions in
cellular protein synthesis and
replaces DNA (deoxyribonucle
ic acid) as a carrier of genetic
codes in some viruses. Nucleotide composition
Types of RNA
Type Role
Messenger RNA Carries information from DNA in the nucleus to

(mRNA) ribosomes in the cytoplasm
Ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) Structural component of ribosomes
Transfer RNA Carries amino acids to the ribosome during

(tRNA) translation to help build an amino acid chain
Packaging of DNA
FIGURE 1.9 Packaging of DNA in a metaphase chromosome.

The DNA is first aggregated into nucleosomes and then
wound to form the 30 nm chromatin fibers. Further coiling leads to
the condensed metaphase hromosome. (After Alberts et al. 2002.)
Protein synthesis
Central dogma of biology
A gene that encodes a polypeptide is expressed in two steps. In this

process, information flows from DNA → RNA → protein, a directional
relationship known as the central dogma of molecular biology.
The genetic code
The first step in decoding genetic messages is transcription, which a

nucleotide sequence is copied from DNA to RNA.
The next step is to join amino acids together to form a protein.

Genetic code
The four bases of RNA form a language with just four nucleotide
bases:
adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U).
The genetic code
is read in three-base words called codons.
Each codon corresponds to
a single amino acid (or signals the starting and stopping points of a
sequence).
In transcription, a DNA sequence is rewritten, or transcribed,
into a similar RNA "alphabet.“ In eukaryotes, the RNA molecule
must undergo processing to become a mature messenger RNA (mRNA).
In translation, the sequence of the mRNA is decoded to specify
the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide .
The name translation reflects that the nucleotide sequence of the

mRNA sequence must be translated into the completely different
"language" of amino acids.
Transcription and translation
Translation:
- Initiation
- Elongation
- Termination
41

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Plasmodesmata

Plasmodesmata passing through pits

- Barrier keeping the constituents of the cell in and unwanted

- Gate allowing transport into the cell of essential nutrients and

movement from the cell of waste products (selective permeability).

- Cell membranes are composed primarily of phospholipids and

Primary cell walls

Plasma membrane under electron microscope

It is a membrane-bound organelle of eukaryotic cells that is made up of

The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting, modifying, and

algae, which are primarily responsible for activities related to making

and storing food.

- Has its own DNA

Chloroplast Chromoplast leucoplast

are responsible for photosynthesis. The chloroplast is filled with

‫كأسية‬ Spiral Stellate

- Leucoplasts are the non-pigmented

- They are found in the non-photosynthetic part

of the plant, such as the roots.

- They may become essentially just storage

sheds for starches, lipids, and proteins.

Amylopast Proteioplast Elaioplast

- Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular)

- Generate most of the energy needed to power biochemical reactions.

- Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in (ATP).

- Mitochondria contain their own small DNA.

- Peroxisomes are membrane-

- Primarily involved in lipid

(particularly in the fat storage tissues of germinating seeds)

and also in filamentous fungi.

- Glyoxysomes appear in the first few days after seed germination in

endosperm cells and associate closely with lipid bodies.

- Besides peroxisomal functions,

glyoxysomes possess additionally the key enzymes of glyoxylate cycle

- It controls and regulates the activities of the cell (e.g., growth

Messenger RNA Carries information from DNA in the nucleus to

Transfer RNA Carries amino acids to the ribosome during

FIGURE 1.9 Packaging of DNA in a metaphase chromosome.

A gene that encodes a polypeptide is expressed in two steps. In this

The first step in decoding genetic messages is transcription, which a

The next step is to join amino acids together to form a protein.

into a similar RNA "alphabet.“ In eukaryotes, the RNA molecule

must undergo processing to become a mature messenger RNA (mRNA).

In translation, the sequence of the mRNA is decoded to specify

the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide .

The name translation reflects that the nucleotide sequence of the

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