Trusses 72 85
Trusses 72 85
Trusses 72 85
Introduction:
It is not an understatement to say that forces affect everything around us. It is therefore important
for engineering students, to understand what a force is, as well as its various effects especially on
structures. This will enable them to effectively deal with forces for the various applications in the
field of engineering.
Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to:
Learn the nature of a force
Distinguish the action of forces and their effects. and represent them in diagrams
Science of Mechanics
Mechanics is a branch of the physical sciences that is concerned with the state of rest or motion
of bodies that are subjected to the action of forces. In general, this subject can be subdivided into
three branches: mechanics of rigid bodies, mechanics of deformable bodies and fluid mechanics.
Mechanics of rigid bodies is divided into two areas: statics and dynamics. Statics deals with
bodies that are either at rest or move with a constant velocity; whereas dynamics is concerned
with the accelerated motion of bodies. This course focuses on Statics.
Mechanics is defined as the science that describes and predicts the conditions of rest or
motion of bodies under the action of forces.
Mechanics is an applied physical science since it aims to explain and predict physical
phenomena and thus to lay the foundations for engineering applications.
The concept of space is associated with the position of a point P. We can define the
position of P by providing three lengths measured from a certain reference point, or
origin, in three given directions. These lengths are known as the coordinates of P.
To define an event, it is not sufficient to indicate its position in space. We also need to
specify the time of the event.
The concept of mass is used to characterize and compare bodies on the basis of certain
fundamental mechanical experiments. Two bodies of the same mass, for example, are
attracted by the earth in the same manner; they also offer the same resistance to a change
in translational motion.
A force represents the action of one body on another. A force can be exerted by actual
contact, like a push or a pull, or at a distance, as in the case of gravitational or magnetic
forces. A force is characterized by its point of application, its magnitude and its direction;
a force is represented by a vector.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
In Newtonian mechanics, space, time and mass are absolute concepts that are independent of
each other. On the other hand, the concept of force is not independent of the other three. The
resultant force acting on a body is related to the mass of the body and to the manner in which its
velocity varies with time.
Models or idealizations are used in mechanics in order to simplify application of the theory.
Three important idealizations in Mechanics are used in this course:
Particle. A particle has a mass, but a size that can be neglected. For example, the size of the
earth is insignificant compared to the size of its orbit, and therefore the earth can be modeled as a
particle when studying its orbital motion. When a body is idealized as a particle, the principles of
mechanics reduce to a rather simplified form since the geometry of the body will not be involved
in the analysis of the problem; we can assume that it occupies a single point in space.
Rigid Body. A rigid body can be considered as a combination of a large number of particles
in which all the particles remain at a fixed distance from one another, both before and after
applying a load. This model is important because the body’s shape does not change when a load
is applied, and so we do not have to consider the type of material from which the body is made.
In most cases the actual deformations occurring in structures, machines, mechanisms, and the
like are relatively small, and the rigid-body assumption is suitable for analysis.
Concentrated Force. A concentrated force represents the effect of a loading which is assumed
to act at a point on a body. We can represent a load by a concentrated force, provided the area
over which the load is applied is very small compared to the overall size of the body. An
example would be the contact force between a wheel and the ground.
First law. If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the particle remains at rest (if
originally at rest) or moves with constant speed in a straight line (if originally in motion).
Second law. If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero, the particle has
acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the resultant and in the direction of this
resultant force. This law can be stated as
F = ma
Where F, m, and a represent, respectively, the resultant force acting on the particle, the
mass of the particle, and the acceleration of the particle expressed in a consistent system
of units.
Third law. The forces of action and reaction between bodies on contact have the same
magnitude, same line of action, and opposite sense.
Where r = the distance between the two particles and G = a universal constant called the
constant of gravitation.
Newton’s law of gravitation introduces the idea of an action exerted at a distance and
extends the range of application of Newton’s third law: the action F and the reaction –F in the
figure are equal and opposite, they have the same line of action.
Newton’s first and third laws, the parallelogram law of addition, and the principle of
transmissibility will provide us with the necessary and sufficient foundation for the entire study
of the statics of particles, rigid bodies, and systems of rigid bodies.
For more than two centuries, engineers have solved a tremendous number of problems
dealing with the conditions of rest and motion of rigid bodies, deformable bodies, and fluids by
applying these fundamental principles.
Systems of Units
Associated with the four fundamental concepts discussed above are the so-called kinetic
units, i.e., the units of length, time, mass, and force.
Basic Units: units of length, time and mass (may be defined arbitrarily)
Derived Unit: unit of force.
SI Prefixes
Addition of Vectors
The sum of the two vectors P and Q is obtained by attaching the two vectors to the same
point A and constructing a parallelogram, using P and Q as two adjacent sides.
The diagonal that passes through A represents the sum of the vectors P and Q, denoted by
P + Q.
Note that the magnitude of the vector P + Q is NOT, in general, equal to the sum P + Q
of the magnitudes of the vectors P and Q.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Since the parallelogram constructed on the vectors P and Q does not depend upon the
order in which P and Q are selected, we conclude that the addition of two vectors is
commutative, and we write P + Q = Q + P
Triangle Rule: an alternative method for determining the sum of two vectors, derived
from the parallelogram law. The sum of the two vectors thus can be found by arranging P
and Q in tip-to-tail fashion and then connecting the tail of P with the tip of Q.
Subtraction of a vector is defined as the addition of the
corresponding negative vector. Thus, we determine the
vector P – Q, representing the difference between the
vectors P and Q, by adding to P the negative vector –Q.
We write P – Q = P + (-Q).
The sum of three vectors (or more vectors) P, Q, and S
is obtained by first adding the vectors P and Q and then
adding the vector S to the vector P + Q. We write P + Q + S = (P + Q) + S
If the given vectors are coplanar, i.e., if they are contained in the same plane, their sum
can be obtained graphically. For this case repeated application of the triangle rule is
simpler than applying parallelogram law.
The repeated applications of triangle rule could be
eliminated and obtain the sum of the three vectors
directly.
The result would be unchanged if the vectors Q and S is
replaced by their sum Q + S. We may thus write P + Q
+ S = (P + Q) + S = P + (Q + S) which expresses the
fact that vector addition is associative.
In the case of two vectors, the addition of vectors has
been shown to be commutative. So, for the three vectors, we can write P + Q + S = (P +
Q) + S = S + (P + Q) = S + (Q + P) = S + Q + P. This expression shows that the order in
which several vectors are added together is immaterial.
Force on a Particle
A force represents the action of one body on another. It is characterized by its point of
application, its magnitude, and its direction.
Forces acting on a given particle have the same point of application.
The magnitude of a force is characterized by a certain number of units.
The direction of a force is defined by its line of action and the sense of the force. The line
of action is the infinite straight line along which the force acts; it is characterized by the
angle it forms with some fixed axis.
The force itself is represented by a segment of that line; through the use of an appropriate
scale, the length of this segment may be chosen to represent the magnitude of the force.
The sense of the force should be indicated by an arrowhead.
It is important in defining a force to indicate its sense. Two forces having the same
magnitude and the same line of action but different sense, such as the forces shown
above, will have directly opposite effects on a particle.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
A very effective way to remember what is being learned is to arrange the concepts in a coherent
form such as a tabulation. Sort out what you learned about a force by filling up the table below:
Force
Free-Body Diagram
In practice, a problem in engineering mechanics is derived from an actual physical
situation. A sketch showing the physical conditions of the problem is known as a space
diagram.
Large number of problems involving actual structures can be reduced to problems
concerning the equilibrium of a particle. The method is to choose a significant particle
and draw a separate diagram showing this particle and all the forces acting on it. Such a
diagram is called a free-body diagram. (The name derives from the fact that when
drawing the chosen body, or particle, it is “free” from all other bodies in the actual
situation.)
Exercises:
Illustrate the forces present in the following members/bodies by drawing their free body
diagrams following their lines of actions. Think also of at least 12 common everyday situations
that involve one or more forces. Illustrate them and then represent the forces in them by
superimposing the free body diagrams over the illustrations.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Introduction:
An entity as basic as a force can be represented and therefore analyzed using its different
equivalent configurations. This equivalence provides a simpler way of analysis which would not
have been possible otherwise. A thorough understanding of equivalent systems of forces is
indispensable.
Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to:
Numerically and graphically represent forces in a system
Correctly use forces and their corresponding equivalents in analysis of force systems
Many other cases can be encountered; for example, the direction of one
component may be known, while the magnitude of the other component is to be as small as
possible. In all cases the appropriate triangle or parallelogram which satisfies the given
conditions is drawn.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Note that we can obtain the rectangular components Fx and Fy of a force F by multiplying
respectively the unit vectors i and j by appropriate scalars. We have
F Fi
x= x F Fj
y= y F = Fi + Fj
x y
The scalars Fx and Fy are called the scalar components of the force F, whereas the actual
component forces Fx and Fy should be referred to as the vector components of F. The
vector as well as the scalar components of F may be referred as simply components of
F.
Note that the scalar component Fx is positive when the vector component Fx has the same
sense as the unit vector i (i.e., the same sense as the positive x axis) and is negative when
Fx has the opposite sense. A similar conclusion holds for the sign of the scalar component
Fy.
Scalar Components
Denoting by F the magnitude of the force F and by θ the angle between F and the x axis,
which is measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis (previous figure), the scalar
components of F may be expressed as
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
These relations hold for any value of the angle θ from 0° to 360°, and they define the
signs as well as the absolute values of the scalar components Fx and Fy.
Direction of a Force
When a force F is defined by its rectangular components FX and FY, the angle θ defining its
direction can be found from
tan θ = Fy / Fx
The magnitude F of the force can be obtained by applying the Pythagorean Theorem,
F2 = Fx2 + Fy2
As conclusion, when several forces are acting on a particle, we obtain the scalar
components Rx and Ry of the resultant R by adding algebraically the corresponding
scalar components of the given forces.
R2 = ∑Rx2 + ∑Ry2.
Resultant of Forces
Experimental evidence shows that two forces P and Q acting on a particle A can be
replace by a single force R that has the same effect on the particle. This force is called the
resultant of the forces P and Q.
Sample Problem 1. The link shown is subjected to two forces F1 and F2. Determine the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Solution
Trigonometric Solution. The triangle rule can be used. We note that the triangle shown
represents half of the parallelogram shown above. Using the law of sines, we write
Exercise Problems:
Moment of a Force
The moment of a force about an axis or line is the measure of its ability to produce
turning or twisting about the axis.
The magnitude of the moment of a force about an axis which is perpendicular to a plane
containing the line of action of the force is defined as the
product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the
axis to the line of action of the force (M = Fd). The distance d
is frequently called the moment arm of the force.
The axis of moments, which is perpendicular to the plane of
forces, appears as a point commonly called the center of
moments. In the figure, point O is the center of moments.
The center of moments is really the intersection of the axis of
moments with the plane of the forces.
The unit of moment is correspondingly the product of the dimensional units of force and
distance (N-m or lb-ft).
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
In this case it is convenient to calculate the moment arm d. By resolving the force into its
components Fx and Fy at A, the moment arm of Fx about O is the coordinate distance y, and
the moment arm of Fy about O is the coordinate distance x. Then the moment of F is
expressed by
MO = F · d = Fx · y – Fy · x
From which the value of the moment arm d may be computed if desired.
To solve for the intercepts of the line of action of F with X and Y axes, replace F by its
components at B and C in figure. Then, we have
MO = FX · iY
MO = FY · iX
Note that Fy at B and Fx at C both have zero moment about O since they both pass through O and
therefore have zero moment arms.
Couples
Sometimes the resultant of a force system will be
zero in magnitude and yet have a resultant moment
sum.
The special case in which the resultant has zero
magnitude but does have a moment is said to
consist of a couple.
Couple is made up of two equal, parallel,
oppositely directed forces.
The perpendicular distance between the action lines of the forces is called the moment
arm of the couple.
Their moment sum is constant and independent of the moment center. This is proved by
selecting moment centers at A and B (see figure) to give respectively
F · d = F (d + a) – F · a
To conclude, the moment of a couple C is equal to the product of one of the forces
composing the couple multiplied by the perpendicular distance between their action lines.
(C = F · d)
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Since the only effect of a couple is to produce a moment that is independent of the
moment center, the effect of a couple is unchanged if
a. The couple is rotated through any angle in its plane
b. The couple is shifted to any other position in its plane
c. The couple is shifted to a parallel plane
For the somewhat special case in which the given force system is composed entirely of
couples in the same or parallel planes, the resultant consists of another couple equal to the
algebraic summation of the moment sum of the original couples.
Always remember:
Adding two or more couples. This results in a new couple, the moment of which is
obtained by adding vectorially the moments of the given couples.
Replacing a force with an equivalent force-couple system at a specified point. The
force of a force-couple system is equal to the original force, whereas the required couple
vector is equal to the moment of the original force about the given point. In addition, it is
important to note that the force and the couple vector are perpendicular to each other.
Conversely, it follows that a force-couple system can be reduced to a single force only if
the force and couple vector are mutually perpendicular (see the next paragraph).
Replacing a force-couple system (with F perpendicular to M) with a single
equivalent force. The requirement that F and M be mutually perpendicular is satisfied in
all two-dimensional problems. The single equivalent force is equal to F and is applied in
such a way that its moment about the original point of application is equal to M.
Solution.
a. Force-Couple System at O. Each of the given forces is resolved into components. The force-
couple system at O equivalent to their resultant force R and a couple, the moment of which is
equal to MO as follows:
R2 = [5000 x (cos 60° + 3/5 + 0 + cos 45°)]2 + [5000 x (-sin 60° - 4/5 -1 + sin 45°)]2
R2 = (9035.53)2 + (-9794.59)2, R = 13325.72 kips
MO = 5000 x (50’ x cos 60° + 70’ x 3/5 + 0 -70 x cos 45°) + 5000 x (-90’ x sin 60° + 100’ x 4/5
+ 400’ x 1 -300’ x sin 45°) = 1037.14 kip-ft
MO = Rx · 70’ + Ry · x
1037.14 kip-ft = 9035.53 · 70’ + 9794.59 x
x = 41.31 ft
Exercise Problems:
Module 3: Equilibrium
Beer, F. P., Johnston , E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2016). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics 11th Edition. McGraw-Hill
Education.
Singer, F. L. (n.d.). Engineering Mechanics 2nd Ed. Harper & Row, New York, Evanston & London.
Hibbeler, H. I. (2013). Engineering Mechanics: Statics 13th Edition Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Introduction:
Forces affect almost every area of human life but it is the equilibrium of force systems that
enables life as we know it. It is also the state of equilibrium that provides some means of
analyzing forces that lead to finite solutions and therefore practicable applications. The concept
of equilibrium provides a key to understanding how order is possible amidst the countless
interacting forces.
Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to:
Use equilibrium concepts to determine forces acting in a system
Apply equilibrium in computing support reaction forces acting in a system
Equilibrium of a Particle
When the resultant of all the forces acting on a particle is zero, the particle is in
equilibrium.
A particle acted upon by two forces is in equilibrium if the two forces have the same
magnitude and the same line of action but opposite sense.
A case of equilibrium of a particle is represented in figure (a), where four forces are
shown acting on particle A. We use the polygon rule to determine the resultant of the
given forces (figure b). Starting from point O with F1 and arranging the forces in tip-to-
tail fashion, we find that the tip of F4 coincides with the starting point O. Thus, the
resultant R of the given system of forces is zero, and the particle is in equilibrium.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
When the force and the couple are both equal to zero, the external forces form a system
equivalent to zero, and the rigid body is said to be in equilibrium.
F=0 MO = d x F = 0
For a rigid body in equilibrium, the system of external forces imparts no translational or
rotational motion to the body.
In addition to the forces applied to a structure, its supports exert reactions on it. Specific
reaction is associated with each type of support.
Fx = 0 Fy = 0 MA = 0
Remember that unknown forces include reactions and that the number of unknowns
corresponding to a given reaction depends upon the type of support or connection causing that
reaction.
= 0 and Fy = 0. From these equations, we can obtain the components Ax and Ay, respectively.
In practice, it is desirable to choose equations of equilibrium containing only one unknown, since
this eliminates the necessity of solving simultaneous equations. You can obtain equations
containing only one unknown by summing moments about the point of intersection of the lines
of action of two unknown forces or, if these forces are parallel, by summing force components in a
direction perpendicular to their common direction.
3. Reactions Equivalent to a Force and a Couple. These reactions are caused by fixed
supports that oppose any motion of the free body and thus constrain it completely. Fixed
supports actually produce forces over the entire surface of contact; these forces, however, form a
system that can be reduced to a force and a couple. Reactions of this group involve three
unknowns usually consisting of the two components of the force and the moment of the couple.
When the sense of an unknown force or couple is not readily apparent, do not attempt to
determine it. Instead, arbitrarily assume the sense of the force or couple; the sign of the answer
will indicate whether the assumption is correct or not.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
magnitude, direction,
Force a push or a pull
line of action
Components
Resultant
Moment
Couple
Reaction
Statically Indeterminate Reactions and Partial Constraints
Completely Constrained and Statically Determinate. In the two examples above, the
types of supports used were such that the rigid body could not possibly move under the
given loads or under any other loading conditions. In such cases, the rigid body is said to
be completely constrained. Recall that the reactions corresponding to these supports
involved three unknowns and could be determined by solving the three equations of
equilibrium. When such a situation exists, the reactions are said to be statically
determinate.
Partially Constrained. A situation in which the constraints provided by the supports are
not sufficient to keep the object from moving. In such a case, the three equations of
equilibrium are not satisfied. There are fewer unknowns than equations. Example, the
supports holding the truss shown in figure consist of rollers at A and B. Clearly, the
constraints provided by these supports are not sufficient to keep the truss from moving.
Although they prevent any vertical motion, the truss is free to move horizontally. It thus
observes that the equilibrium of the truss cannot be maintained under general loading
conditions.
If a rigid body is to be completely constrained and if the reactions at its supports are to
be statically determinate, there must be as many unknowns as there are equations of
equilibrium. When this condition is not satisfied, it can be certain that either the rigid
body is not completely constrained or that the reactions at its supports are not statically
determinate. It is also possible that the rigid body is not completely constrained and that
the reactions are statically indeterminate.
Improperly Constrained. The fact that the number of unknowns is equal to the number
of equations is no guarantee that a body is completely constrained or that the reactions at
its supports are statically determinate. Consider the figure which shows a truss held by
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
rollers at A, B, and E. It has three unknown reactions of A, B, and E, but the equation
Fx=0 is not satisfied unless the sum of the horizontal components of the applied forces
happens to be zero. Although there are a sufficient number of constraints, these
constraints are not properly arranged, so the truss is free to move horizontally. Therefore,
the truss is improperly constrained. Since only two equilibrium equations are left for
determining three unknowns, the reactions are statically indeterminate. Thus, improper
constraints also produce static indeterminacy.
A rigid body is improperly constrained whenever the supports (even though they may
provide a sufficient number of reactions) are arranged in such a way that the reactions
must be either concurrent or parallel.
Number of
Support or Connection Reaction
Unknowns
2
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
All the forces acting on the particle must be account for when drawing a FBD especially in
conditions of equilibrium. The following 3 steps are necessary to construct a free-body diagram:
Draw outlined shape. Imagine the particle to be isolated or cut “free” from its surroundings
by drawing its outlined shape.
Show all forces. Indicate on this sketch all the forces that act on the particle. These forces can be
active forces, which tend to set the particle in motion, or they can be reactive forces which are
the result of the constraints or supports that tend to prevent motion. To account for all these
forces, it may be helpful to trace around the particle’s boundary, carefully noting each force
acting on it.
Identify Each Force. The forces that are known should be labeled with their proper magnitudes
and directions. Letters are used to represent the magnitudes and directions of forces that are
unknown.
Solution.
we obtain the corresponding weights, that is, 9810 N or 9.81 kN, and 23,500 N or 23.5 kN. The
reaction at pin A is a force of unknown direction; it is represented by its components Ax and Ay.
The reaction at the rocker B is perpendicular to the rocker surface; thus, it is horizontal. We
assume that Ax, Ay, and B act in the directions shown.
Determination of B. We express that the sum of the moments of all external forces about point A
is zero. The equation obtained will contain neither Ax nor Ay, since the moments of Ax and Ay
about A are zero. Multiplying the magnitude of each force by its perpendicular distance from A,
we write
∑Fx = 0: Ax + B = 0 = Ax + 107.1 kN = 0
Ax = -107.1 kN
Since the result is negative, the sense of Ax is opposite to that assumed originally.
Determination of Ay. The sum of the vertical components must also equal zero.
Adding vectorially the components Ax and Ay, the reaction at A is 112.2 kN at 17.3° (W of N).
Check. The values obtained for the reactions can be checked by recalling that the sum of the
moments of all of the external forces about any point must be zero. For example, considering
point B, we write
Solution.
∑Fx = 0: Bx = 0
∑MA = 0: -(15 kips)(3 ft) + By(9 ft) - (6 kips)(11 ft) - (6 kips)(13 ft) = 0
By = 21.0 kips
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
∑MB = 0: -A(9 ft) + (15 kips)(6 ft) - (6 kips)(2 ft) - (6 kips)(4 ft) = 0
A = 6.00 kips
Check. The results are checked by adding the vertical components of all of the external forces:
Remark. In this problem the reactions at both A and B are vertical; however, these reactions are
vertical for different reasons. At A, the beam is supported by a roller; hence the reaction cannot
have any horizontal component. At B, the horizontal component of the reaction is zero because it
must satisfy the equilibrium equation ∑Fx = 0 and because none of the other forces acting on the
beam has a horizontal component.
We could have noticed at first glance that the reaction at B was vertical and dispensed with the
horizontal component Bx. This, however, is a bad practice. In following it, we would run the risk
of forgetting the component Bx when the loading conditions require such a component (i.e.,
when a horizontal load is included). Also, the component Bx was found to be zero by using and
solving an equilibrium equation, ∑Fx = 0. By setting Bx equal to zero immediately, we might
not realize that we actually make use of this equation and thus might lose track of the number of
equations available for solving the problem.
Exercise Problems:
Module 4: Friction
Reference:
Beer, F. P., Johnston , E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2016). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics 11th Edition. McGraw-Hill
Education.
Hibbeler, H. I. (2013). Engineering Mechanics: Statics 13th Edition Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Introduction:
Although the wearing effect of friction in materials is undesirable, frictional forces have much
useful application in engineering. It is therefore important for engineering students, to understand
the mechanics of friction and frictional force. This will enable them to effectively deal with
friction in its various applications in the field of engineering.
Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to learn the following:
Recognize friction in force systems and
Determine the actions of friction in surfaces such as in wedges, square-threaded screws
and flat belt.
When two surfaces are in contact, tangential forces, called friction forces, always develop if
you attempt to move one surface with respect to the other.
Two types of friction:
Fluid friction or viscosity develops between layers of fluid moving at different
velocities.
Dry friction, sometimes called Coulomb friction, develops in situations involving
rigid bodies that are in contact along unlubricated surfaces.
Theory of Dry Friction. Consider the effects caused by pulling horizontally on a block of
uniform weight W which is resting on a rough horizontal surface that is nonrigid or deformable,
Fig. a. The upper portion of the block, however, can be considered rigid. As shown on the free-
body diagram of the block, Fig. b, the floor exerts an uneven distribution of both normal force
ΔNn and frictional force ΔFn along the contacting surface. For equilibrium, the normal forces
must act upward to balance the block’s weight W, and the frictional forces act to the left to
prevent the applied force P from moving the block to the right. Close examination of the
contacting surfaces between the floor and block reveals how these frictional and normal forces
develop, Fig. c. It can be seen that many microscopic irregularities exist between the two
surfaces and, as a result, reactive forces ΔRn are developed at each point of contact. * As shown,
each reactive force contributes both a frictional component ΔFn and a normal component ΔNn.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
The effect of the distributed normal and frictional loadings is indicated by their resultants N and
F on the free-body diagram, Fig. d. Notice that N acts a distance x to the right of the line of
action of W, Fig. d. This location, which coincides with the centroid or geometric center of the
normal force distribution in Fig. b, is necessary in order to balance the “tipping effect” caused by
P. For example, if P is applied at a height h from the surface, Fig. d, then moment equilibrium
about point O is satisfied if Wx = Ph or x = Ph/W.
Place a block of weight W on a horizontal plane surface. The forces acting on the block
are its weight W and the reaction of the surface. Since the weight has no horizontal
component, the reaction of the surface also has no horizontal component; the reaction is
therefore normal to the surface and is represented by N (fig. a).
Now suppose that you apply a horizontal force P to the block. If P is small, the block
does not move; some other horizontal force must therefore exist, which balances P. This
other force is the static-friction force F, which is actually the resultant of a great number
of forces acting over the entire surface of contact between the block & the plane (fig. b).
If you increase the force P, the friction force F also increases, continuing to oppose P,
until its magnitude reaches a certain maximum value Fm. If P is further increased, the
friction force cannot balance it anymore, and the block starts sliding. As soon as the
block has started in motion, the magnitude of F drops from Fm to a lower value Fk. From
then on, the block keeps sliding with increasing velocity while the friction force, denoted
by Fk and called the kinetic-friction force, remains approximately constant (fig.c).
Coefficients of Friction
The maximum value Fm of the static friction force is proportional to the normal
component N of the reaction of the surface. We have
Static Friction Fm = µN where µs = coefficient of static friction
Similarly, the magnitude Fk of the kinetic-friction force can be expressed in the form Fk =
µkN, where µk = coefficient of kinetic friction.
The coefficients of friction μs and μk do not depend upon the area of the surfaces in
contact. Both coefficients, however, depend strongly on the nature of the surfaces in
contact.
Approximate values of coefficients of static friction for various combinations of dry
surfaces are given in the Table 1. Since coefficients of friction are dimensionless
quantities, the values given in Table 1 can be used with any system of units.
Four different situations that can occur when a rigid body is in contact with a horizontal surface:
1. The forces applied to the body do not tend to move it along the surface of contact; there is
no friction force (Fig. a).
2. The applied forces tend to move the body along the surface of contact but are not large
enough to set it in motion. We can find the static-friction force F that has developed by
solving the equations of equilibrium for the body. Since there is no evidence that F has
reached its maximum value, the equation Fm = μsN cannot be used to determine the
friction force (Fig. b).
3. The applied forces are such that the body is just about to
slide. We say that motion is impending. The friction force F
has reached its maximum value Fm and, together with the
normal force N, balances the applied forces. Both the
equations of equilibrium and the equation Fm = μsN can be
used. Note that the friction force has a sense opposite to the
sense of impending motion (Fig. c).
4. The body is sliding under the action of the applied forces,
and the equations of equilibrium no longer apply. However,
F is now equal to Fk, and we can use the equation Fk = μkN.
The sense of Fk is opposite to the sense of motion (Fig. d).
Angles of Friction
Consider again a block of weight W resting on a horizontal plane surface. If no horizontal
force is applied to the block, the resultant R reduces to the normal force N (Fig. a).
If the applied force P has a horizontal component Px that tends to move the block, force
R has a horizontal component F and, thus, forms an angle ɸ with the normal to the
surface (Fig. b).
If you increase Px until motion becomes impending, the angle between R and the vertical
grows and reaches a maximum value (Fig. c). This value is called the angle of static
friction and is denoted by ɸs.
If motion actually takes place, the magnitude of the friction force drops to Fk; similarly,
the angle between R and N drops to a lower value ɸk, which is called the angle of kinetic
friction (Fig. d).
Most problems involving friction fall into one of the following three groups:
1. You know all the applied forces and the coefficients of friction, and you must
determine whether equilibrium is maintained. In this situation, the friction force is
unknown and cannot be assumed to be equal to μsN. (fig. a)
Write the equations of equilibrium to determine N and F.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Equations of Equilibrium.
Solving, F = 69.3 N
NC = 236.2 N
x = -0.00908 m = -9.08 mm
Since x is negative it indicates the resultant normal force acts (slightly) to the left of the crate’s
center line. No tipping will occur since x 6 0.4 m. Also, the maximum frictional force which can
be developed at the surface of contact is Fmax = µsNC = 0.3(236.2 N) = 70.9 N. Since F = 69.3 N
6 70.9 N, the crate will not slip, although it is very close to doing so.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Sample Problem 2. It is observed that when the bed of the dump truck is raised to an angle of θ
= 25° the vending machines on it will begin to slide off the bed. Determine the static coefficient
of friction between the vending machine and the surface of the truckbed.
Equations of Equilibrium.
∑Fx = 0; W sin 25° - F = 0 (1)
∑Fy = 0; N - W cos 25° = 0 (2)
∑MO = 0; -W sin 25°(2.5) + W cos 25°(x) = 0 (3)
Since slipping impends at u = 25°, using Eqs. 1 and 2, we have
Fs = µsN; W sin 25° = µs(W cos 25°)
µs = tan 25° = 0.466 Ans
The angle of θ = 25° is referred to as the angle of repose, and by comparison, it is equal to the
angle of static friction, θ = φs. Notice from the calculation that u is independent of the weight of
the vending machine, and so knowing u provides a convenient method for determining the
coefficient of static friction.
Note: From Eq. 3, we find x = 1.17 ft. Since 1.17 ft < 1.5 ft (location of center of gravity), indeed
the vending machine will slip before it can tip.
Exercise Problems:
Wedges
A wedge is a simple machine that is often used to transf orm an applied force into much larger
forces, directed at approximately right angles to the applied force. Wedges also can be used to
slightly move or adjust heavy loads.
Consider, for example, the wedge shown in Fig. a, which is used to lift the block by applying a
force to the wedge. Free-body diagrams of the block and wedge are shown in Fig. b. Here we
have excluded the weight of the wedge since it is usually small compared to the weight W of the
block. Also, note that the frictional forces F1 and F2 must oppose the motion of the wedge.
Likewise, the frictional force F3 of the wall on the block must act downward so as to oppose the
block’s upward motion.
The locations of the resultant normal forces are not important in the force analysis since neither
the block nor wedge will “tip.” Hence the moment equilibrium equations will not be considered.
There are seven unknowns, consisting of the applied force P, needed to cause motion of the
wedge, and six normal and frictional forces. The seven available equations consist of four force
equilibrium equations, ∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0 applied to the wedge and block, and three frictional
equations, F = µN, applied at each surface of contact.
If the block is to be lowered, then the frictional forces will all act in a sense opposite to that
shown in Fig. b. Provided the coefficient of friction is very small or the wedge angle u is large,
then the applied force P must act to the right to hold the block. Otherwise, P may have a reverse
sense of direction in order to pull on the wedge to remove it. If P is not applied and friction
forces
Sample Problem. The uniform stone has a mass of 500 kg and is held in the horizontal position
using a wedge at B. If the coefficient of static friction is µs = 0.3 at the surfaces of contact,
determine the minimum force P needed to remove the wedge. Assume that the stone does not
slip at A.
Solution. The minimum force P requires F = µsN at the surfaces of contact with the wedge. The
free-body diagrams of the stone and wedge are shown in Fig. 8–13 b. On the wedge the friction
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
force opposes the impending motion, and on the stone at A, FA < µsNA, since slipping does not
occur there. There are five unknowns. Three equilibrium equations for the stone and two for the
wedge are available for solution. From the free-body diagram of the stone,
NOTE: Since P is positive, indeed the wedge must be pulled out. If P were zero, the wedge
would remain in place (self-locking) and the frictional forces developed at B and C would satisfy
FB < µsNB and FC < µsNC.
Exercise Problems:
2) Determine the largest angle θ that will cause the wedge to be self-locking regardless of the
magnitude of horizontal force P applied to the
blocks. The coefficient of static friction
between the wedge and the blocks is µs = 0.3.
Neglect the weight of the wedge. (Ans. θ =
33.4°)
Square-threaded Screws
A square-threaded screw is commonly used to transmit power or motion from one part of the
machine to another, especially when large forces are applied along its axis. In this section, we
will analyze the forces acting on square-threaded screws. The analysis of other types of screws,
such as the V-thread, is based on these same
principles.
M’ = rW tan (θ - φs)
Sample Problem. The turnbuckle shown below has a square thread with a mean radius of 5 mm
and a lead of 2 mm. If µs = 0.25, between the screw and the turnbuckle, determine the moment M
that must be applied to draw the end screws closer together.
NOTE: When the moment is removed, the turnbuckle will be self-locking; i.e., it will not
unscrew since φs > θ.
Exercise Problems:
(Ans. M = 48.3 N – m)
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Belt Friction
Consider the flat belt shown, which passes over a fixed curved
surface. The total angle of belt to surface contact in radians is
β, and the coefficient of friction between the two surfaces is µ.
The point of interest is tension T2 in the belt, which is needed
to pull the belt counterclockwise over the surface, and thereby
overcome both the frictional forces at the surface of contact
and the tension T1 in the other end of the belt. Obviously, T 2 >
T1.
or T2 = T1eµβ
where:
T2, T1 = belt tensions; T1 opposes the direction of motion (or impending motion) of
the belt measured relative to the surface, while T 2 acts in the direction of the relative
belt motion (or impending motion); because of friction, T 2 > T1
µ = coefficient of static or kinetic friction between the belt and the surface of contact
β = angle of belt to surface contact, measured in radians
e = 2.718…, base of the natural logarithm
Note that T2 is independent of the radius of the drum, and instead it is a function of
the angle of belt to surface contact, β. As a result, this equation is valid for flat belts
passing over any curved contacting surface.
Solution.
Lifting the cylinder, which has a weight W = mg, causes the
cord to move counterclockwise over the drums at B and C;
hence, the maximum tension T2 in the cord occurs at D. Thus, F
= T2 = 500 N. A section of the cord passing over the drum at B
as shown. Since 180° = π rad the angle of contact between the
drum and the cord is β = (135°/180°)π = 3π/4 rad. We have
T2 = T1eµsβ; 500 N = T1e0.25[(3>4)π]
Hence,
T1 = 500 N / e0.25[(3>4)π] = 500 N / 1.80 = 277.4 N
Since the pulley at A is free to rotate, equilibrium requires that the tension in the cord remains
the same on both sides of the pulley. The section of the cord
passing over the drum at C is shown. The weight W < 277.4 N.
Why? We obtain
T2 = T1eµsβ; 277.4 N = We0.25[(3>4)π]
W = 153.9 N
so that
m = W/g = 153.9 N / 9.81 m/s2 = 15.7 kg Ans.
Exercise Problems:
Rolling Resistance
Theoretically, when a rigid cylinder rolls at constant velocity along a rigid
surface, the normal force exerted by the surface on the cylinder acts
perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact. However, because no
materials are perfectly rigid, the reaction of the surface on the cylinder
consists of a distribution of normal pressure. For example, consider the
cylinder to be made of a very hard material, and the surface on which it rolls
to be relatively soft. Due to its weight, the cylinder compresses the surface
underneath it. As the cylinder rolls, the surface material in front of the
cylinder retards the motion since it is being deformed , whereas the material in the
rear is restored from the deformed state and therefore tends to push the cylinder
forward. The normal pressures acting on the cylinder in this manner are represented
in the figure by their resultant forces Nd and Nr. The magnitude of the force of
deformation, Nd, and its horizontal component is always greater than that of
restoration, Nr, and consequently a horizontal driving force P must be applied to
the cylinder to maintain the motion.
Rolling resistance is caused primarily by this effect, although it is also, to a
lesser degree, the result of surface adhesion and relative microsliding between
the surfaces of contact. Because the actual force P needed to overcome these
effects is difficult to determine, a simplified method will be developed here to
explain one way engineers have analyzed this phenomenon. To do this, we will
consider the resultant of the entire normal pressure, N = Nd + Nr, acting on the
Figure G
cylinder. As shown in Fig. G, this force acts at an angle θ with the vertical. To
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
keep the cylinder in equilibrium, i.e., rolling at a constant rate, it is necessary that N be
concurrent with the driving force P and the weight W. Summing moments about point A gives
Wa = P(r cos θ). Since the deformations are generally very small in relation to the cylinder’s
radius, cos θ ≈ 1; hence,
Wa ≈ Pr or P ≈ Wa / r
The distance a is termed the coefficient of rolling resistance, which has the dimension of length.
For instance, a ≈ 0.5 mm for a wheel rolling on a rail, both of which are made of mild steel. For
hardened steel ball bearings on steel, a ≈ 0.1 mm. Because this factor is difficult to measure, little
reliance is placed on the data for determining a . The analysis presented here does, however,
indicate why a heavy load (W) offers greater resistance to motion (P) than a light load under the
same conditions. Furthermore, since Wa/r is generally very small compared to µ kW, the force
needed to roll a cylinder over the surface will be much less than that needed to slide it across the
surface. It is for this reason that a roller or ball bearings are often used to minimize the frictional
resistance between moving parts.
Solution.
As shown on the free-body diagram, when the wheel
has impending motion, the normal reaction N acts at
point A defined by the dimension a. Resolving the
weight into components parallel and perpendicular to
the incline, and summing moments about point A ,
yields
∑MA = 0; -(98.1 cos 1.2° N)(a)
+ (98.1 sin 1.2° N)(100 cos 1.2° mm) = 0
Solving, we obtain a = 2.09 mm Ans.
Exercise Problems:
Module 5: Centroids
References:
Beer, F. P., Johnston , E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2016). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics 11th Edition. McGraw-Hill
Education.
Singer, F. L. (n.d.). Engineering Mechanics 2nd Ed. Harper & Row, New York, Evanston & London.
Kraige, L.G., & Meriam, J.L. (2012). Engineering Mechanics Statics 7th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Introduction:
Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to learn the following:
Concept of the centroid
Determining the location of the centroid of a body with definite shape.
Theorems of Pappus and its application in the calculation of areas and volumes.
Centroid refers to the geometrical center of a plane figure: a curve, area or volume. It is the
average position of all the points of an object.
Looking at the figures shown, a circle and a rectangle, their respective centroids are denoted by
the dots at the intersection of their centroidal axes.
Centroidal Axes are the lines passing through the centroid of the figure. The vertical centroidal
axis is represented by line Y and the horizontal centroidal axis is donoted as line X.
When calculating for the location of the centroid, there are perpendicular lines selected and used
as reference lines. These are called the Reference Axes.
Since the centroid is the average position of the points in a figure, integration is the process used
to sum up the infinite number of points a figure has. Integration is also equivalent to summing up
finite elements. If an area of an element had been expressed as the differential dA, which is a
small portion of the whole area A, the equations to determine the centroid of an area would be:
Illustrative Problems
Solution:
Choosing the axis of symmetry as the x-axis makes 0. A differential element of arc has the
length expressed in polar coordinates, and the x-coordinate of the element is r cos .
Applying the equation for centroid of line with respect to x-axis and substituting :
For a semicircular arc , which gives . By symmetry we see immediately that this
result also applies to the quarter-circular arc when the measurement is made as shown.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Example 2: Determine the distance from the base of a triangle of altitude h to the centroid of
its area.
Solution:
The x-axis is taken to coincide with the base. A differential strip of area is chosen. By
similar triangles . Applying the equation for centroid of area with respect to y-axis:
This same result holds with respect to either of the other two sides of the triangle considered a
new base with corresponding new altitude. Thus, the centroid lies at the intersection of the
medians, since the distance of this point from any side is one-third the altitude of the triangle
with that side considered the base.
In engineering, numerous figures are composed of different geometric figures combined to create
a composite section. There are structural elements with predetermined location of centroids
which are available on different references. In some cases, these figures can be divided into finite
shapes, in which respective centroid is known. The moment of the total area is equal to the
summation of the moments of each part along a reference axis. This is very similar to that of
Varignon’s Theorem, only this time, we are dealing with the component regular shapes instead
of the component forces. The centroid of composite figure is determined using the following
equations:
The table next shows the centroids for common geometric shapes.
Source: http://sknlazoce.blogspot.com/2019/04/90-centroids-and-center-of-gravity.html
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Illustrative Problems
Solution:
The composite area is divided into the four elementary shapes shown in the figure. The centroid
locations of all these shapes may be obtained from table of centroids for common geometric
shapes. Note that the areas of the “holes” (parts 3 and 4) are taken as negative in the following
table:
Part a x y ax ay
(in2) (in) (in) (in3) (in3)
1 120 6 5 720 600
2 30 14 10/3 420 100
3 -14.14 6 1.273 -84.8 -18
4 -8 12 4 -96 -32
Total 127.9 959 650
(Answer)
(Answer)
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Theorems of Pappus
Pappus of Alexandria, a Greek geometrician who lived in the 3rd century A.D. discovered two
theorems for determining the surface area or volume generated by revolving a plane curve or a
plane area about an imaginary axis in the plane. The name of Guldinus (Paul Guldin, 1577-1643)
was also associated in these theorems after the Swiss mathematician claimed its authorship.
The First Theorem of Pappus provides a way for computing the surface area of a surface of
revolution: it says that the area of a surface of revolution is equal to the product of the length of
the revolving curve and the distance travelled by its centroid in this revolution.
Consider the figure shown where in a line segment of length L in the plane x-y is rotated about
the x-axis. It generates a surface area with a ring element formed by multiplying dL to the
distance travelled by its centroid rotated about the reference axis.
Likewise, the Second Theorem of Pappus is for computing the volume of a body of revolution:
this says that the volume of a body of revolution is equal to the area of the revolving plane
multiplied by the distance travelled by its centroid in this revolution.
As presented in the next figure, the area A in the plane x-y is rotated about the x-axis. It generates
a volume with a ring element formed by multiplying its cross section dA to the distance travelled
by its centroid rotated about the reference axis.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Illustrative Problems
Example 4: Compute the surface area of the cone generated by revolving the line shown about
the y-axis.
Solution:
Two cones can be generated by revolving the lines AB and AD about the y-axis.
The x-coordinate of the centroid for each segment of the line is given by ;
Hence 1 = 1 in and 2 = 1.5 in
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
4-in. Segment:
1 =2π 1L1
1 = (2π) (1) (4)
2
1 = 25.1 in
6-in. Segment:
2 =2π 2L2
2 = (2π) (1.5) (6)
2
2 = 56.5 in
= 1+ 2
= 25.1 in2 + 56.5 in2
Example 5: Calculate the volume V of the solid generated by revolving the 60-mm right
triangular area through 180° about the z-axis
Solution:
With the angle of revolution .
mm3 (Answer)
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Exercises:
Problem No. 1: Determine the x and y-coordinate of the centroid of the shaded area.
Problem No. 2: Determine the x and y-coordinate of the centroid of the shaded area.
Problem No. 3: Calculate the coordinates of the centroid of the segment of the circular area.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Problem No. 4: Determine the x and y-coordinate of the centroid of the shaded area.
Problem No. 5: Determine the x and y-coordinate of the centroid of the shaded area.
Problem No. 6: The circular arc is rotated through 360° about the y-axis. Determine the outer
surface area S of the resulting body, which is a portion of a spherical shell
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Problem No. 7: Using Theorems of Pappus, determine the surface area A and volume V of the
body formed by revolving the rectangular area through 360° about the z-axis.
Problem No. 8: Determine the volume V and total surface area A of the solid generated by
revolving the area shown through 180° about the z-axis.
Problem No. 9: Calculate the volume V of the large neoprene washer in the form of the
complete ring of section shown. Also compute the overall surface area A.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Problem No. 10: Calculate the mass m of concrete required to construct the arched dam shown.
Concrete has a density of 2.40 Mg/m3.
Exercises Key:
1. , 6.
2. , 7. ,
3. 8. ,
4. , 9. ,
5. , 10.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Beer, F. P., Johnston , E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2016). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics 11th Edition. McGraw-Hill
Education.
Singer, F. L. (n.d.). Engineering Mechanics 2nd Ed. Harper & Row, New York, Evanston & London.
Kraige, L.G., & Meriam, J.L. (2012). Engineering Mechanics Statics 7th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Khurmi, R.S. (n.d.). A Textbook of Engineering Mechanics 20th Multicolor Edition. S. Chand & Company Ltd.
Introduction:
The concept of moment of inertia provides a convenient way of computing the capacity of a
body to resist bending. It has no equivalent figure or diagram and so is defined only by its
formula. The general formula for (rectangular) moment of inertia is: Ix = ʃ y2 dA. [this is read as
moment of inertia about, or with respect to, the x axis]. The square of the y-distance in the
general formula is the reason why the moment of inertia is also known as the second moment of
area. The moment of inertia is a function of the geometry of the area and is usually used in the
applications of mechanics. Consequently, it is convenient to develop its properties in some detail
and to have these properties available for ready use when the need arises.
Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to learn the following:
Concept of the moment of inertia.
Concept of transfer formula, radius of gyration and polar moment of inertia.
Computation of the moment of inertia of regular and composite shapes in rectangular and
polar axes
Moment of Inertia, as defined in the introduction, is the second moment of area, since the first
moment y dA is multiplied by the moment arm y to obtain the second moment for the element
dA.
Consider the area A in the x-y plane in the figure shown. The moments of inertia of the element
dA about the x- and y-axes are, by definition, dIx = y2 dA and dIx = y2 dA respectively. Hence, the
Rectangular Moments of Inertia of A about the respective axes are:
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
The moment of inertia of dA about the pole O is, by similar definition, dJo = r2 dA. Therefore,
the Polar Moment of Inertia is:
Since, by Pythagorean Theorem, r2 = x2 + y2, it is evident that the Polar Moment of Inertia can be
express as Jo = Ix + Iy.
The Radius of Gyration (with respect to the x axis) of a shape with known area refers to the
distance from x axis where an imaginary thin strip (shown in the figure below) with the same
area as the original shape needs to be placed so that its moment of inertia about x is the same as
that of the original shape with respect to this same axis. By relationship,
kx2 =
where Ix is the rectangular moment of inertia with respect with the x-axis, A represents the total
area and kx is the radius of gyration of the area with respect to x-axis.
Computing the centroidal moment of inertia of composite or irregular figures requires the
transfer of the reference axes of the component shapes or figures from their respective centroidal
axes to the centroidal axis of the composite shape. This transfer formula is:
IN = IO + Ad2
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
where IN is the transferred moment of inertia, IO refers to the centroidal moment of inertia about
the component’s centroidal axis, A refers to the area of the component shape and d refers to the
distance from the centroid of the shape to the axis or centroid of the composite shape where it is
to be transferred.
The table next shows the properties for geometric shapes.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Illustrative Problems
Example 1: Determine the moments of inertia of the rectangular area shown about the centroidal
x0- and y0-axes, the centroidal polar axis through C.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Solution:
For the moment of inertia about the x0- axis, a horizontal strip of area bdy can be used so that the
y-coordinate is constant throughout b:
Following the same process, but this time about other axis, the moment of inertia about the y0-
axis is:
(Answer)
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Example 2: Calculate the moments of inertia of the area of a circle about a diametral axis and
about the polar axis through the center. Specify the radii of gyration.
Solution:
A differential element of area in the form of a circular ring may be used for the calculation of the
moment of inertia about the polar axis through O since all elements of the ring are equidistant
from O. The elemental area is and thus,
Since ,
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Example 3: Determine the moments of inertia about the x- and y-axes for the shaded area.
Solution:
The solution for the problem is very similar to that of a composite section, only in this case,
some parts have to be deducted from a larger regular shape. There are three subareas presented in
the figure – a rectangle, a quarter circle and a triangle. The latter two subareas are to be
subtracted from the first as shown next.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Parts
Properties Total
1 2 3
A (mm2)
dx (mm) -
dy (mm) -
Adx2 (mm3)
Ady2 (mm3)
Ixo (mm4) -(
Iyo (mm4) -(
(Answer)
(Answer)
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Exercises:
Problem No. 1: Calculate the moment of inertia of the shaded area about the y-axis.
Problem No. 2: Use the differential element shown to determine the moments of inertia of the
triangular area about the x- and y-axes. Also determine the polar moment of inertia about point
O.
Problem No. 3: Determine the polar radius of gyration of the area of the equilateral triangle
about the midpoint M of its base.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Problem No. 4: Determine the moment of inertia about the x-axis of the rectangular area without
and with the central rectangular hole.
Problem No. 5: The cross-sectional area of a wide-flange I-beam has the dimensions shown.
Obtain a close approximation to the handbook value of Ix = 657 in4 by treating the section as
being composed of three rectangles.
Problem No. 6: Calculate the polar radius of gyration of the shaded area about its centroid C.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Problem No. 7: Determine the moments of inertia of the section about horizontal and vertical
axes passing through the centroid of the section.
Problem No. 8: A built up section is made by needing too stable and two channel sections.
Determine moment of inertia of a built up section about the axis passing through centre of
gravity of the section.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Problem No. 9: Find the moment of inertia of the lamina with a circular hole of 30 mm diameter
about the axis AB as shown.
Problem No. 10: Determine the polar moment of inertia about point O of the shaded area shown.
Exercises Key:
1. 6.
2. , , ) 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5. 10.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Beer, F. P., Johnston , E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2016). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics 11th Edition. McGraw-Hill
Education.
Singer, F. L. (n.d.). Engineering Mechanics 2nd Ed. Harper & Row, New York, Evanston & London.
Kraige, L.G., & Meriam, J.L. (2012). Engineering Mechanics Statics 7th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Introduction:
Application of the mechanics of forces in the field of structures. Transforming structures into
their equivalent member-forces lead to some set of concurrent forces and/or of coplanar/parallel
forces. Not unlike the Roman dictum divide et impera, analysing a truss with many members is
simplified by dividing it into portions that allow analysis using mechanics of forces. This leads to
the method of joints and the method of sections analyses of trusses. The graphical method, on the
other hand, use the diagrammatic properties of forces to determine the bar forces in structural
members by drawing line-representations of these forces.
Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to learn the following:
Determination of the magnitudes and directions of forces in structural members by
method of joints.
Determination of the magnitudes and directions of forces in structural members by
method of sections.
Determination of the magnitudes and directions of forces in structural members by
graphical method.
Analysis of Structures is the process of determining how the loads applied are distributed
throughout the structure. The purpose is to determine the forces acting in the members and upon
the pins or hinges of the structure.
Internal Forces hold together the various parts of the structure. Consider the structure in
equilibrium shown in the next figure:
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
A crane is supporting a load W (a). It’s free-body diagram (b) and the free-body diagram of the
components of the crane (c) are also presented.
The force exerted at B by member BE on member AD is shown equal and opposite to the force
exerted at the same point by member AD on member BE. Similarly, the force exerted at E by BE
on CF is shown equal and opposite to the force exerted by CF on BE, and the components of the
force exerted at C by CF on AD are shown equal and opposite to the components of the force
exerted by AD on CF. These representations of forces agree with Newton’s third law.
Truss Bridge
Bicycle Frame
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Analysis of Trusses
The truss is one of the major types of engineering structures. It provides a practical and
economical solution to many engineering situations, especially in the design of bridges
and buildings.
Truss members are connected at their extremities only; no member is continuous through
a joint.
Most actual structures are made of several trusses joined together to form a space
framework. Each truss is designed to carry those loads that act in its plane and thus may
be treated as a two-dimensional structure.
The members of a truss are slender and can support little lateral load; all loads, therefore,
must be applied at the various joints and not to the members themselves.
When a concentrated load is to be applied between two joints or when the truss must
support a distributed load, as in the case of a bridge truss, a floor system must be
provided. The floor transmits the load to the joints through the use of stringers and floor
beams.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
The members are actually joined together by means of welded, bolted, or riveted
connections, it is customary to assume that the members are pinned together; therefore,
the forces acting at each end of a member reduce to a single force and no couple.
This enables us to model the forces applied to a truss member as a single force at each
end of the member.
We can then treat each member as a two-force member, and we can consider the entire
truss as a group of pins and two-force members.
An individual member can be acted upon as shown in either of the two sketches. There
are forces that tend to pull the member apart, and that member is in TENSION (a).
However, there are forces that tend to push the member together, and that member is in
COMPRESSION (b).
Typical Trusses
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Any simple truss that is simply supported is a completely constrained and determinate
truss.
a. If m + r < 2n, there are fewer unknowns than equations. Thus, some of the
equations cannot be satisfied, and the truss is only partially constrained.
b. If m + r > 2n, there are more unknowns than equations. Thus, some of the
unknowns cannot be determined, and the truss is indeterminate.
To find out whether the truss is completely or improperly constrained, try to determine
the reactions at its supports and the forces in its members. If you can find all of them, the
truss is completely constrained and determinate.
This involves analyzing each joint of a structure to determine the bar forces in each of the
member meeting at that joint. Because forces in any joint will always be concurrent, the key in
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
this method is to begin with a joint with only two unknown bar forces. Then proceed with an
adjacent joint where there will only be two unknown members. This process is repeated until all
joints have been analyzed, meaning all member forces have been determined. [one at a time, with
patience]
To determine the forces in the members of a simple truss; that is, a truss that can be constructed
from a basic triangular truss by adding two new members to it at a time and connecting them at a
new joint, the following steps must be done:
Steps:
1. Draw a free-body diagram of the entire truss,
and use this diagram to determine the reactions
at the supports.
3. Locate a joint where the forces in only two of the connected members are still
unknown. Draw the free-body diagram of the pin and use it as indicated in Step 2 to
determine the two unknown forces.
4. Repeat this procedure until you have found the forces in all the members of the truss.
Since you previously used the three equilibrium equations associated with the free-
body diagram of the entire truss to determine the reactions at the supports you will
end up with three extra equations. These equations can be used to check your
computations.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
5. Note that the choice of the first joint is not unique. Once you have determined the
reactions at the supports of the truss, you can choose either of two joints as a starting
point for your analysis.
6.
The figure (a) shows a joint connecting four members lying along two intersecting
straight lines.
The free-body diagram of the figure (b) shows that pin A is subjected to two pairs of
directly opposite forces.
The corresponding force polygon, therefore, must be a parallelogram (c), and the forces
in opposite members must be equal.
Illustrative Problems
Example 2: Using the method of joints, determine the force in each member of the truss shown.
State whether each member is in tension or compression.
Method of Sections
This involves cutting the structure into sections, where the cutting plane must pass through the
members where the bar forces need to be computed, analyzing only one side of the cutting plane.
Diagrams in this method almost always result to coplanar force diagrams. This allows not only
the ∑F equations used in the method of joints but also the ∑M equations making the computation
of the bar forces usually shorter.
This method is more efficient when you need to find the force in only one member or the forces
in a very few members of a truss. The following are the steps in performing the method of
sections:
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Steps:
1. Draw a free-body diagram of the entire truss, and use this diagram to determine the
reactions at the supports.
2. Pass a section through three members of the truss, one of which is the member whose
force you want to find. After you cut through these members, you will have two separate
portions of truss.
3. Select one of these two portions of truss and draw its free-body diagram. This diagram
should include the external forces applied to the selected portion as well as the forces
exerted on it by the intersected members that were removed.
(a) We can pass a section nn through the truss, (b) Free-body diagram of portion ABC of the truss.
dividing the three members BD, BE, and CE. We assume that members BD, BE, and CE are in
tension.
4. You can now write three equilibrium equations that can be solved for the forces in the
three intersected members.
5. An alternative approach is to write a single equation that can be solved for the force in
the desired member. To do so, first observe whether the forces exerted by the other two
members on the free body are parallel or whether their lines of action intersect
.
If these forces are parallel, you can eliminate them by writing an equilibrium
equation involving components in a direction perpendicular to these two forces.
If their lines of action intersect at a point H, you can eliminate them by writing an
equilibrium equation involving moments about H.
6. Keep in mind that the section you use must intersect three members only. The reason is
that the equilibrium equations in Step 4 can be solved for only three unknowns. However,
you can pass a section through more than three members to find the force in one of those
members if you can write an equilibrium equation containing only that force as an
unknown.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Note: A section passed through a truss does not have to be a vertical or horizontal; it can be
diagonal as well. Choose the orientation that cuts through no more than three members of
unknown force and also gives you the simplest part of the truss for which you can write
equilibrium equations and determine the unknowns.
Illustrative Problems
Graphical Method
This method involves plotting all the applied forces in sequence of their application and
according to scale in both magnitude and direction (head-to-tail) to form a force polygon,
naming each force by letter for clarity of identification. The direction (inclination) of each
structural member is then plotted from the point of intersection of the forces adjacent to it, one at
a time. Plot of the members that serve as legs of the angle between them will meet in at a
common point in the resulting diagram. This point of meeting (intersection) will be the starting
point of the plot for the next member that serve as a leg of the angle between it and any of the
member plotted before. The process is repeated until all the members have been plotted. The
magnitudes of the bar forces are then determined by measuring their plots according to the same
scale used in plotting the applied forces.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Exercises:
Exercises Key:
1. AB = 7.20 kN T, BC = 7.80 kN C, AC = 12 kN C
2. AD = 7 kN C, AB = 0, CF = 7 kN C, BC = 0, BD = 34 kN C, DE = 30 kN T, BF = 34 kN C,
EF = 30 kN T, BE = 8 kN T
3. AB = 5 kN C, AC = 4 kN T, BC = 0, CE = 4 kN T, BE = 0.2 kN C, BD = 4 kN C, FH = 5
kN C, HG = 4 kN T, EG = 4 kN T, FG = 0, DF = 4 kN C, EF = 0.2 kN C, DE = 0.24 kN T
4. AB = 7.5 kN C, AC = 4.5 kN T, CE = 4.5 kN T, BC = 4 kN T, BE = 2.5 kN T, BD = 6 kN
C, DE = 0, DF = 6 kN C, FH = 7.5 kN C, HG = 4.5 kN T, FG = 4 kN T, EG = 4.5 kN T, EF =
2.5 kN T
5. AC = 7.83 kN T, AB = 9.90 kN C, CE = 7.83 kN T, BC = 0, BE = 2 kN C, BD = 7.07 kN C,
EG = 5.59 kN T, DE = 1 kN T, DG = 0.56 kN C, DF = 5.03 kN C
6. DF = 5.45 kN C; DG = 1.000 kN T; EG = 4.65 kN T
7. CD = 20.0 kN C; DF = 52.0 kN C
8. CE = 7.20 kN T; DE = 1.047 kN C; DF = 6.39 kN C
9. DG = 3.75 kN T; FI = 3.75 kN C
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Module 8: Cables
References:
Beer, F. P., Johnston , E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2016). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics 11th Edition. McGraw-Hill
Education.
Singer, F. L. (n.d.). Engineering Mechanics 2nd Ed. Harper & Row, New York, Evanston & London.
Khurmi, R.S. (n.d.). A Textbook of Engineering Mechanics 20th Multicolor Edition. S. Chand & Company Ltd.
Introduction:
Cable, in its theoretical sense, is absolutely flexible, light (i.e. its weight is neglected) and
inextensible. It is capable of offering only tensile resistance. The slope of a loaded cable depends
upon its length and the loads supported by it. It will be interesting to know that if the loads
carried by the string are changed (in magnitude or position) its shape will also change.
Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to learn the following:
Determine the forces involved in parabolic cables.
Determine the forces involved in catenary cables.
Parabolic Cable
Because steel is very strong in tension, it finds practical use as parabolic cable support for
suspension bridges. In parabolic cable analysis, as presented next, the load (w) is considered as
uniformly distributed along the horizontal (x). Thus, the total load (W) = wx. Tension in such a
cable is minimum at the lowest point and maximum at the highest point [where it is supported].
A FBD of one side of the cable from its lowest point should show only three forces: the
minimum tension (TO), the maximum tension (T) at the point of support and the total (resultant)
load (W) acting midway between the lowest point & the point of support. If the distance between
the lowest point and the point of support is y, then y = wx2 / 2TO. Drawing a 3-force diagram
from this, if the angle between T and TO is θ, the following formula for parabolic cables are
formulated: T sinθ = W; T cosθ = TO; T2 = To2 + W2, T2 = To2 + w2x2.
Consider the cable shown with points A and B on the same level and loaded with uniformly
distributed load w along its horizontal span (l). The cable sag at point C is denoted as yc.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
therefore:
Illustrative Problems
Example 1: A suspension cable, with supports at the same level, has a span of 30 m and
maximum dip of 3 m. The cable is loaded with a uniformly distributed load of 10 kN/m
throughout its length. Find, from first principles, the maximum tension in the cable.
Solution:
Given: Span (l) = 30 m; Maximum dip (yc ) = 3 m and uniformaly distributed load (w) = 10
kN/m
(Answer)
Catenary Cable
Electricity distribution / transmission cables hang by their own weight. These are analyzed as
catenary cables. The shape, which a cable takes up because of its own weight (without any
external load) is called catenary.
Consider cable suspended at two points A and B at different levels (or same level) hanging freely
under its own weight with C as the lowest point as shown.
Assume that w = Weight per unit length of the cable. Now consider any point (P) on the cable
such that length of the cable CP be s. Now draw the tangent at P. Let ψ be the inclination of the
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
tangent with the horizontal as shown in the figure. We know that part CP of the cable is in
equilibrium under the action of the following forces.
Load (w.s) of the cable acting vertically downwards.
Horizontal pull (H) acting horizontally at C.
Tension (T) acting at P along the tangent.
In catenary cable analysis, the load (w) is considered as uniformly distributed along the cable
itself (s). Thus, the total load (W) = ws. Tension in such a cable is minimum at the lowest point
and maximum at the highest point [where it is supported]. A FBD of one side of the cable from
its lowest point should show only three forces: the minimum tension (TO), the maximum tension
(T) at the point of support and the total (resultant) load (W) acting midway along the cable’s
length s. Illustrating a catenary cable needs the catenary constant “c,” the distance from the
origin to the cable’s lowest point. Numerically, c = T O/w, therefore TO = wc.
The other catenary cable formulas are: s = c sinh [x/c]; y = c cosh [x/c]; c2 = y2 – s2 ; T = wy; W
= ws.
General Equation of Catenary
Illustrative Problems
Example 2: A heavy string ABCDE 10 m long hangs over two smooth pegs B and D as shown.
Locate the position of vertex C from the peg B along the string.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Solution:
Given: Total Length of string (L) = 10 m
Let:
l = Length of the secment BC
For point B:
y = 2.5 m and s = l
For point D:
y = 2.0 m and s = (5.5 – l)
Exercises:
Problem No. 1: A suspension cable of span 30 m has a central dip of 3m. Find the length of the
cable, if it carries a uniformly distributed load of 7.5 kN/m.
Problem No. 2: A cable carries a uniformly distributed load w = 80 N/m. The horizontal span
between supports is 200 m. The sag of the cable at its midspan is 10 m. Determine the maximum
tension and minimum tension of the cable.
Problem No. 3: A suspension cable of 120 m span hangs between two points which are 9 m and
4 m above the lowest point of the cable. Find the length of the cable
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies
Problem No. 4: A cable of span 50 m is suspended from two pegs 6 m and 1.25 m above the
lowest point of the cable. Find (i) horizontal tension in the cable and (ii) length of the cable
between two pegs. The cable is loaded with a uniformly distributed load of 5 kN/m
Problem No. 5: A suspension cable of 120 m span hangs between two points which are 9 m and
4 m above the lowest point of the cable. Find the length of the cable.
Exercises Key:
1 30.8 m
2.
3.
4.
5.