STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (σ-ε) FOR MILD STEEL

The stress-strain diagram for mild steel and its important characteristics can be given as
follows.
σ Uniform strain region Necking

σm M σp : Proportionality limit
σe : Elastic limit
σf F σy : Yield strength
σm : Tensile strength
σf : Breaking strength
σy Y
σe S εm : Total uniform elongation
E εf : Rupture-elongation ratio
σp
P
εs : Contraction-elongation ratio
E : Modulus of elasticity

s  f  m
εs
E
ε For mild steel, εf  0.20-0.25
O
εp εm εf

Mild steel behaves linearly-elastic up to point P. Hooke`s law applies in this region.
Therefore,     E σ  σp.

Point E corresponds to the elastic limit. When the applied stress is removed at this point, the
steel sample returns to its original dimensions. Flow begins at point A where the elastic limit
is exceeded. That is, some atoms are permanently displaced. When the applied stress is
removed at this point, some of the total strain returns elastically, while some is permanent.
Flow stops at point S. The point M corresponds to the ultimate strength of the material.
Strains up to this point are assumed to be uniform throughout the sample length. From this
point on, deformation intensifies in the weakest section of the sample and the neck region,
where contraction begins, begins to form. The specimen breaks at this neck region, point F.
The stress corresponding to this point is known as the breaking strength.

When the steel sample is loaded and unloaded up to the elastic limit, it returns to its original
dimensions. So there is no permanent deformation. When the steel sample is loaded up to a
stress value beyond the elastic limit and the force is removed, some of the deformation is
elastic and the rest is plastic. Plastic deformation means a permanent change in the internal
structure of the material. The change in the internal structure occurs gradually, depending on
the level of applied stress. As long as the stress value reached at the first loading is not
exceeded, there will be no plastic deformation of the material in subsequent loadings. That is,
the material behaves elastically. This loading process causes the material to be cold worked.
As a result of loading, the stress limit at which the material behaves elastically increases. At
the same time, the proportionality limit and the elastic limit increase, but if yielding occurs,
the yielding region disappears. Meanwhile, the break-elongation ratio of the material, that is,
its ductility, decreases. This phenomenon is the cold working of the material and is known as
strain hardening. In the (σ-ε) curve of mild steel, the strain hardened region is between the S
1
and M points. When using strain hardened material, less material is required as the safety
stress is increased. This, therefore, means a more economical solution.

The material undergoes the same amount of deformation at every point until the final
strength. After this value, the uniformity disappears and contraction and excessive elongation
are observed in the rupture section; slip planes in the material begin to separate from each
other and finally the material breaks at F. The region between point M and point F in the (σ-ε)
curve is known as the contraction-elongation ratio, εs. The constriction ratio, , which occurs
in the breaking section of the sample where the rupture occurs.

σ σ

Ai Constriction ratio, φ
Ao
A  Ai
 o
Ao
Here Ao is the cross-sectional area of the sample
before strain and Ai is the cross-sectional area of
σ the sample after strain.
σ

When the sample is loaded and unloaded above the elastic limit, the return path in the (σ-ε)
curve becomes NN' as shown in the figure below. The slope of the line between the points N
and N' is approximately equal to the slope of the line OP. The elastic part (ɛe) of the total
strain returns after the load is removed, some (ɛp) is permanent. If the sample is loaded and
unloaded above its yield strength, and when it is loaded again, the path followed is the portion
shown by the dotted curve.

σ σ
N N

P P

εp εe
O ε O ε
N' N'

As can be seen from the figure, the material behaves as if it were a different material in
reloading. It behaves elastically up to point N and shear strain begins there. This phenomenon
is known as strain hardening. As the yield point of the steel loaded above the yield point
increases, its ductility decreases. On the other hand, modulus of elasticity and tensile strength
do not change.

Rupture-elongation ratio, εf, constriction ratio, φ, and breaking work, Wf, are indicators of the
energy capacity of the material. Materials with low energy capacity are brittle; that is, the
material is not resistant to impact effects. Materials are generally required to have high
strength and impact resistance. These two characteristics contradict each other. It does not
2
mean that the materials with the highest strength will generally have the highest fracture
energies.

Strain hardening is a method often used to improve the mechanical properties of metals
during manufacturing. As the metal undergoes strain hardening deforms plastically, it
becomes harder and stronger. Most metals harden at room temperature. Both the elastic limit
and the proportionality limit of strain hardened steel increase. In addition, the yield region
disappears. However, the ductility of the steel is significantly reduced due to strain hardening.

Determination of Yield Strength for Metals with Uncertain Yield Strength:

σ Plastic
The yield limit can be regarded as the first point in the
σy stress-strain curve where the deviation from linearity
begins. This point, denoted by P in the figure, is
P Proportionality sometimes also referred to as the "proportionality
limit limit". In some metals this point is not clear. For this
reason, the stress value corresponding to the point
where the parallel drawn from the permanent strain
point of 0.002 to the elastic part of the stress-strain
curve cuts the curve is defined as the yield strength, σy.
In some steels and materials, the elastic-plastic
O ε
0.002 transition is quite evident and this transition zone is
called the “yield zone”.

ENERGY CAPACITY

The energy storage capacity of the material is extremely important in terms of impact loading.
Generally speaking, work or energy is equal to force times distance. The elastically stored
strain energy can be mechanically recovered. In contrast, plastic energy is energy that is
converted into non-mechanical energy, such as heat energy.

σ M The energy capacity is the area under the curve in the

N
N (σ-ɛ) diagram. In the diagram given for mild steel, the
area denoted by Wer is the elastic resilience. When the
σp stress is removed at point N in the plastic region, the
Wherm return occurs along N N' and the recovered energy is
the area denoted by Wher. This is known as the hyper-
Werm
elastic resilience and is calculated as follows:
1 1 p  p2
Werm   p     p   (Elastic resilience)
O ε 2 2 E 2E
εp N' εm
εe  N2
εp Wherm  (Hyper-elastic resilience)
2 E

Both above and below the elastic limit,  e  always gives the elastic strain.
E
3
Fracture Work for Mild Steel

The fracture work for mild steel is approximately calculated by the following equation.

 y m
Wf  f where σy and σm are yield strength and tensile strength, respectively.
2

The modulus of resilience is also sometimes referred to as the "elastic energy strength" of the
material. This is important in terms of choosing the material that will be subjected to energy
loading, provided that it remains within the elastic limit. For a high modulus of resilience, the
material must either have a high elastic strength or a low modulus of elasticity.

When a material is subjected to cyclic loading, some energy is absorbed or lost in each
loading and unloading cycle. This is true even in the elastic region. This loss of energy is
commonly known as hysteresis. For the elastic region, this is called elastic hysteresis. In the
stress-strain diagram, the hysteresis loss occurs in the form of closed areas formed by
sequential loading-unloading cycles.

Factor of Safety

If the strength of the material is greater than the stress required to carry the exposed load,
there is a safety condition. The ratio of actual strength to required strength is called the factor
of safety and is calculated as follows:

Actual strength
Factor of safety, n=
Required strength

Allowable Stress or Work Stress

Building elements are required to carry the load they are exposed to with a certain safety. For
this, the safety stress is calculated by the following equation.

Maximum stress that the material can sustain

Allowable stress,  w =
Factor of safety

4
ACTUAL (TRUE) STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL

A lower breaking stress achieved after ultimate (maximum) strength is relevant to the
engineering stress definition. The original cross-sectional area Ao is used in engineering
calculations. However, the cross-sectional area constantly changes as the force increases. For
this reason, “true stress” and “actual strain” should be calculated as follows:
F dl l  A 
T  (True stress)  T    ln  i   ln  o  (True strain)
Ai lo  lo   Ai 
Here Ao is the initial area, Ai is the actual area at which the force F is applied at any instant.

Assuming that there is no volume change during deformation, that is, with the
A i  l i  A o  l o condition, the true stress and the true strain can be related as follows:

 T    1     T  ln 1   

These two statements are valid until the neck region begins to form. After this point, the
actual stress and strain must be calculated taking into account the actual force, cross-sectional
area and length measurements.

σ F'
True curve
M M
σu
M
F
The figure given on the right shows the
engineering stress-strain curve and the
Natural curve actual stress-strain curves. Necking starts
(or engineering) at point M on the engineering curve.
Point M corresponds to point M'' on the
real curve.
σu : Ultimate strength

O ε

Ao is the cross-sectional area of the element before

Ao the force is applied, and Ai is the cross-sectional
lo area at any instant after the force is applied.
F
Ao > A  is the engineering (or natural) stress.
l Ao
F
 T  is the true stress
A
l A σT > σ since Ao >A

5
Like stress, strains also change.

F  F  dF
dl
A  A - dA  T   T  d T d T 
l
l  l  dl
l
dl l
The real strain is obtained by  T    ln
lo
l lo
l  l o  l  l o    l o  l o  1   
l  1   
 ln 1      T  ln 1   
l
 T  ln  ln o
lo lo
A l
A o  l o  A  l  A  o o There is no volume change during deformation.
l
F l  l  l 
    1      T    1   
F
T       o
A Ao  lo  lo 

Example: The (σ-ε) diagram obtained as a result of the tensile test performed for a steel bar
with a cross-sectional area of 150 mm2 is below. Elongations were measured over a 12 cm
gauge length.

B
A Load (kgf) Elongation (mm)
A 6000 0.24
B 8100 21.6
O ε

a) Calculate the proportionality limit, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, and fracture-
elongation ratio.
b) What will be the final length if 24 tons of load is loaded and unloaded on a 3 m long and
500 mm2 cross section rod made of the same steel?
c) What is the maximum elastic energy that the steel rod can store?
d) Calculate the fracture work.

Solution

B
54 A o  150 mm 2
48 F l
40
A lo=120 mm  
Ao lo
Wmax
σ (kgf/mm2) ε
A 40 0.002
O ε B 54 0.18
0.002 0.104 0.18

6
 40
a)  o   A  40 kgf/mm2 E
 20 000 kgf/mm 2  m   B  54 kgf/mm2
0.002
 f  0.18 (as lo=10×do condition is satisfied)

F 24 000
b) A=500 mm2 F  24 tons    48 kgf/mm 2
A 500
54 - 40 14
The slope of the line AB, m   78.65
(0.18 - 0.002) 0.178
If   48 kgf/mm2 is provided in the equation,   0.104 is obtained.
l  0.104  3  0.312 m l  l o  l  3  0.312  3.312 m
 48
When the load is removed,  el    2.4  103
E 20 000
 el  3 000  2.4  10 -3  7.2 mm l  l -  el  3312  7.2  3305 mm

 B2 54 2
c) Max elastic energy corresponds to B. Wmax    0.073 kgf/mm2
2E 2  20 000

0.002  40 40  54
d) Wf    (0.18  0.002)  8.406 kgf  mm/mm3
2 2

Example: The (σ-ε) diagram of a 100 cm long metal rod is as shown in the figure.
, kgf/mm2 a) Calculate the modulus of elasticity, the modulus of
T elastic resilience, and the maximum elastic energy that can
60
P be stored.
40 b) Calculate the elongation of the rod under a tensile stress
of 50 kgf/mm2. What will be the new length of the rod
when the load is removed?
ε c) What magnitude of stress must be applied to stretch this
O
2×10-3 0.3 metal rod 20 cm?
0 d) How much energy does it take to break this metal rod?

Solution:
o 40  o2 40 2
a) E   2  104 kgf/mm2 We    0.04 kgf/mm2
 o 2  10 3
2E 2  2  10 4

 T2 602
Wmax    0.09 kgf/mm2
2E 2  2 104

7
b) Since σ=50 kgf/mm2, the loading is between P-T.
60 - 40
The slope of the PT line, m  67.114
0.30 - 2  10 3
60 - 50
m  67.114    0.151
0.30 - 
The amount of elongation, l    l  0.151 1000  151 mm
 50
e    2.5  103 l e   e  l  2.5  10 -3  1000  2.5 mm
E 2  10 3

The new length of the rod, l y  l o  l - l e  1000  151  2.5  1148.5 mm

l 200 60 - 
c)    0.2 m  67.114 σ = 53.29 kgf/mm2
l o 1000 0.3 - 0.2

40  60
d) Wo 
1
2
 40  2  10 3 
2
 
 0.30  2  10 3  14.94 kgf/mm2

Example: The stress-strain diagram for mild steel is simplified as given in the figure below.
The proportionality limit is 24 kgf/mm2, on the basis of 0.2% permanent deformation, yield
strength is 32 kgf/mm2, tensile strength is 44 kgf/mm2, breaking strength is 40 kgf/mm2,
contraction-elongation ratio is 0.05 and modulus of elasticity is 2×104 kgf/mm2. Answer the
following questions for a 2 m long and 78.5 mm2 cross-sectional sample prepared from this
steel.
a) Determine the load causing an elongation of 150 mm.
b) Find the new length of the bar when the load is removed.
c) Calculate the new length of the rod if the rod had extended by 300 mm instead of 150 mm.

σ
M
σm
K
σf F
σN E=2×104 kgf/mm2
N
σy σp=24 kgf/mm2
σp B σy=32 kgf/mm2 (0.2%)
P
σm=44 kgf/mm2
σf=40 kgf/mm2
εf=0.28
εs=0.05 εs=0.05

εm=0.28-0.05=0.23
O ε
0.002 εel εN εm εf=0.28

8
Solution:

a) l = 150 mm, lo = 2000 mm, Ao = 78.5 mm2, F=?

l 150
l    l o    0.075  75  10 3
lo 2000
Diagram
ε = 0.075 σ F  A o   [kgf]
24
Linear-elastic up to point P, that is,  p   p  E p   1.2  10 3
2  10 4
  75 10 3   p  1.2 10 3 ⸫ The loading has exceeded the proportionality limit.

At point B:
y 32
 B  0.002   0.002   3.6  10 3    75  10 -3
E 2  10 4

So the loading has exceeded point B.

At point M:
 m   f   s  0.28  0.05  0.23  230  10 3    75  10 -3
So the loading is between B and M.

Mathematical equation of the line B-M;

44 - 32
The slope of the line B-M, m  53
(230 - 3.6)  10 -3
44   N 44   N
 53  53  N  35.79 kgf/mm 2
m  0.23  75  10 3

F   N  A o  35.79  78.5  2810 kgf

N 35.79
b)  el    1.79  10 3 (Elastic strain)
E 2  10 4

l el   el  l o  2000  1.79  10 3  3.6 mm

l i  l o  l - l el  2000  150  3.6  2146.4 mm

c) l = 300 mm
l 300
   0.15   m  0.23 ⸫ So, the loading is between B-M.
l o 2000
At point K:
44   K 39.76
 53  K  36.76 kgf/mm 2  el   1.99  10 3
0.23  0.15 2  10 4

l el   el  l o  2000  1.99  10  4.0 mm

3

l i  l o  l - l el  2000  300  4.0  2296 mm

9
Example: The (σ-ε) diagram obtained in the tensile test performed on a metal sample with a
diameter of 16 mm is as follows. The loads at points A, B and C and the elongation measured
on lo=16 cm gauge length were determined as follows:

 B
C Load (kgf) Elongation (mm)
A
A 4800 0.192
B 8400 28.8
C 7200 38.4
O ε

a) Calculate the proportionality limit, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, maximum

uniform elongation, and contraction-elongation ratio of the metal.
b) Since the measured diameter of the metal at break is 12 mm, find the constriction ratio
and the actual stress at break.
c) Calculate the fracture work and the maximum elastic energy the metal rod can store.
d) Find the cross-sectional area of a 6 m long rod made of this metal such that it can carry 12
tons of load with 2 times the safety of yield strength. How long does the rod extend under
this load?
e) What is the length of the rod under a load of 36 tons? Calculate the new length of the rod
when the load is removed.
f) Calculate the yield limit, tensile strength, maximum uniform elongation ratio, and rupture-
elongation ratio of the rod after the load is removed.

Solution:

 B   do2  162
42 Ao    64    200 mm2
C 4 4
36 F l
A lo=160 mm  
24 Ao lo
σ (kgf/mm )
2
ε
A 24 0.0012
B 42 0.18
C 36 0.24
O ε
0.0012 0.12 0.18 0.24

24
a)  o   A  24 kgf/mm 2 E  20 000 kgf/mm 2  m   B  42 kgf/mm 2
0.0012
 m   B  0.18  f  0.24 (as lo=10do condition is satisfied)
 122 A o  Ai 200  113
b) A o  200 mm 2 Ai   113 mm2    0.435 (%43.5)
4 Ao 200
F 7200
g    63.7 kgf/mm 2
A 113
10
  B2 422
c) The max elastic energy takes place at B. Wmax    0.044 kgf/mm2
2 E 2  20 000

The fracture work is the area under the (σ-ε) curve. If this area is calculated,
0.0012  24 24  42 42  36
Wf    0.18  0.0012    0.24  0.18  8.25 kgf×mm/mm3
2 2 2

a 24 F 12 000
d)  em    12 kgf/mm 2 A   1 000 mm2
n 2  em 12
 12
   0.6  10 3 l  l    6 000  0.6 103  3.6 mm
E 20 000

F 36 000
e)     36 kgf/mm 2
A 1 000
From the graph,   0.12 l  0.12  6  0.72 m l  lo  l=6+0.72=6.72 m
 36
If load is removed,  el    1.8  10 3
E 20 000
 el  6 000 1.8 103  10.8 mm l  6720  10.8  6 709 mm

f) After loading and unloading,

σy=36 kgf/mm2
σm=42 kgf/mm2
εm=0.18-0.12+1.8x10-3=0.0618
εf=0.24-0.12+1.8x10-3=0.1218

11