Belt Theory

Friction Drives - V-Belts and V-Ribbed Belts

The figure to the left illustrates the basic idea of static friction. If the block weighs
“w” (perpendicular to the surface) and the force (parallel to the surface) “f” can be
applied to the side of the block before it begins moving, then the coefficient of
𝑓
static friction µ𝑆 = 𝑤
after the block begins to slip, the force “f” can be reduced
𝑓
while still overcoming the kinetic friction µ𝐾 = V-belts and flat belts employ the
𝑤
use of friction to transmit power while timing belts physically engage the pulley via
teeth and grooves. A friction drive consists of two shafts connected by a belt that is
drawn tight enough to grip each shaft and transmit torque. Generally, each shaft is fitted with a pulley which the belt is
situated in. As the drive pulley turns, the belt transmits power to the driven pulley. The figure on the following page
shows two views of a dual V-belt drive arrangement.

V-Ribbed Belts
V-ribbed, or Poly-V belts, are flat belts with a series of ribs running longitudinally along the driving face that fit into
grooves in a sheave. These belts are relatively thin with a well-supported tensile member. They are thinner and weigh
less than V-belts. Poly-V belts are a single unit utilizing an uninterrupted, full width tensile member which is completely
supported. The drive load is evenly distributed across the width of the sheave, equalizing belt stress. A Poly-V belt also
resists seating in the grooves, so speed ratios remain more consistent and output speed remains more uniform. These
belts utilize the entire width of the pulley face, allowing more compact drives. Poly-V belts allow narrowing mounting
clearances, need less center distance adjustment and require less take-up for tensioning. Narrow sheaves of smaller
diameter can be used without sacrificing power capacity while reducing weight and increasing efficiency.

Advantages
 Combines high power capacity of V-belts with the flexibility of flat belts
 With a thin cross section and low weight, high speed ratios (up to 40:1)
 Excel on small sheaves, at high speeds and with reverse bends
 Generally run smoother than V-belts
 Each belt is a single unit, no differential driving occurs (when load is carried unequally in a multi-belt drive)
 No separate belts to turn over, slip or interfere with each other
 Never any matching problems, the a V-ribbed belt is manufactured as a single unit
 Track properly without the need for guides, flanges, crowns or deep grooves
 V-Belts
The V-belt drive friction depends on several factors:
 Total tension in the drive, including static and centrifugal tension
 Coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley
 Angle of contact, dependent on pulley diameters and the center distance
 Centrifugal force lifting the belt off the pulley, produced by the rotation of the pulley
 Angle of the “V” in the pulley, which wedges the belt in place

Wedging Effect
 V-Belts largest advantage over flat-belt drives is the utilization of
wedging to increase the total friction between the belt and pulley without
increasing the hub load or effective tension.
 Tensioning a V-belt will cause the tensile members of the belt to exert
resulting force R on the body of the belt. The body of the belt in turn exerts a
total normal force N on the pulley groove. But because the bottom of the belt
does not contact the bottom of the pulley, the sidewalls are where the force
is exerted.
𝛽
 Balancing the forces gives: 𝑅 = 𝑁 sin 2
𝑁
o Therefore, 𝑅 ′ = 𝛽 For a 38° included sheave angle, N ≈ 2.92xR
sin ⁄2

 For a flat belt drive, the friction between the belt and pulley for a small segment of belt is 𝐹 = µ × 𝑅, while for a V-
belt/sheave with a 38° angle, the friction would be 𝐹 = 2.92 × µ × 𝑅
o The same hub load and stress in the tensile members gives V-belts nearly 3x the friction of flat belts.
 For a 38° angle, assuming all other characteristics are the same.

Advantages of V-Belts
 Reduced shock and vibration transmission
 Quite and require no lubrication
 Much cheaper, lighter, and cleaner than chains
 Somewhat tolerant to misalignment and abuse
 Easy installation and minimal maintenance
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
 Simple to change shaft speed by changing pulley diameters 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
= 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟
 Flexible equipment design, many sizes and cross sections available
 High efficiency, up to 98%
 Extremely wide horsepower and speed ranges
 Prevent severe power overload; can be used as a method of clutching
 Belts and pulleys wear gradually, allowing for simple preventative maintenance
 Timing Belts
Positive Engagement
 Timing belts, or synchronous belts, were developed as a compromise between chain and flat belt drives. Modern
timing belts offer high power ratings coupled with minimal maintenance.
 Because they do not depend on friction to provide grip between the belt and the sprockets, timing belts require less
tension than V-belts. This leads to lower bearing loads and reduced stress within the belt.
Advantages
 Do not slip under shock or pulsating loads
 Dust, oil and grease do not lead to slip
 Useful for applications where a fixed speed ratio or timing is required
 Virtually no elongation due to wear
 Significantly quieter than chains
 Thinner than V-belts, meaning less energy gets used bending the belt around pulleys
 Several tooth profiles have been developed for a range of applications
 Can be made with teeth on both sides for drives where the rotation direction is to be reversed without belt twisting
 Allow for precise rotary positioning of shafts relative to one another
 Unlike chains, timing belts require no lubrication (reduced recurring costs) and minimal maintenance
 No need for tensioning devices, if properly installed, initial tension will suffice for the life of the belt
Lateral Travel
Side to side movement of a timing belt, or “tracking” can be caused by several factors and is the reason flanges are used.
 Misalignment - a belt will usually “climb” to the position on the pulleys where it is tightest (the points farthest apart)
 Tension - lateral travel can be altered by adjusting tension
 Pulley Diameter - belts tend to track with more force on smaller pulleys
 Plane Location - vertical drives are more likely to track
 Belt Length/Width Ratio - the higher this ratio, the less likely the belt will move side to side
 Direction of Cord Lay - the direction the cords were wrapped around the mold will affect belt movement
 Direction of Cord Twist - the cords in the belt are twisted in either a “S” or “Z” construction
 Transmission of Force - V-Belts and V-Ribbed Belts
If a belt is tensioned between two pulleys which are free to turn, the
tension along the length of the belt is constant and equal to “T”. However,
when transmitting torque, the driven pulley will resist the motion and the
driver pulley will have to pull on the “Tight Side” in order to exert torque on
the driven pulley. The tension in the “Tight Side” can be called “T1”. The total
tension “TT” must remain constant. Thus, if a “Tight Side” is formed a “Loose
Side” must also be formed. This “Loose Side” tension can be called “T2”.
Therefore, if “TT” remains constant then 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 at all times. The
effectiveness of the drive depends on maintaining frictional contact between
the belt and the pulleys.

 Power is the rate of doing work. Power transmission by a V-belt is

dependent on the effective tension “Te” and the belt speed. The general power equation is 𝑃 = 𝑣(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝑣𝑇𝑒
 When the limiting friction is developed around the arc of contact, the belt can transmit the maximum torque to the
pulley or vice versa.
 “T1” & “T2” are the tight and loose side tensions, respectively. “R” is the resulting force perpendicular to the belt at a
point. µ is the coefficient of friction. “T” is the tension at a given point. For simplification, “µR” is not accounting for
the wedging effect of a belt.
 Analyzing the forces in the diagram tangentially for a small ΔΘ under low speed no-slip conditions leads to the
following:
1 1
o µ𝑅 = (𝑇 + ΔT) cos ΔΘ − T cos ΔΘ
2 2
o Thus, taking the limit as ΔΘ→0 gives us µ𝑅 = ΔT
 Radially:
1 1
o 𝑅 = (𝑇 + ΔT) sin ΔΘ + 𝑇 sin ΔΘ
2 2
o As ΔΘ→0, sin ΔΘ = Θ and ΔT = 0
o Taking the limit, 𝑅 = 𝑇ΔΘ
Δ𝑇
o Substituting with µ𝑅 = ΔT, 𝑇
= µ𝛩
𝑇
o Integrating over the entire Angle of Contact (θ), ln (𝑇1 ) = µ𝛩 which
2
𝑇1
gives = 𝑒 µ𝛩 This formula governs the amount of power which can be transmitted before the belt slips.
𝑇2
 This is the effective tension ratio between the tight and loose sides of the belt. For a belt drive between pulleys of
different diameters, the angle of contact of the smaller pulley should be used.
 Centrifugal Force & Tension
 In many cases, the speeds at which V-belts are operated can cause significant centrifugal force.
 Centrifugal force represents the effects of inertia which arise in connection with rotation and are experienced as an
outward force away from the center of rotation.
 Where ω is the weight of a unit length for a belt of a certain cross section and is equal to ρ*A ; v is the belt speed.
 The force on a belt element of length (ΔΘ*r) is given by 𝐹𝐶 = ρ ∗ A ∗ 𝑣2
𝑤∗𝑟∗ΔΘ 𝑣2 𝑤∗𝑣2 ∗ΔΘ
𝐹𝐶 = [ ]× =
𝑔 𝑟 𝑔
 The forces must balance, so
1 1 𝛩
2 × 𝑇𝐶 × sin 2 ΔΘ = 𝐹𝐶 = ρ ∗ A ∗ 𝑣 2 As ΔΘ→0, sin 2 ΔΘ = 2
𝑤∗𝑣 2 ρ×A×𝑣2
Therefore, 𝑇𝐶 =
𝑔
= 𝛩
 These additional forces must be accounted for when designing a drive.
o The centrifugal force FC will reduce the amount of friction between the belt and the
pulley, which could lead to excessive slip in extreme situations.
o The centrifugal tension TC will increase the total tension in the belt. If a belt was installed
with too much tension, this additional tension can lead to premature belt failure due to excessive stress in the
tensile members.
 Maximum power can be limited by centrifugal force.
o As previously mentioned, the power transmitted by a belt is 𝑃 = 𝑣(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝑣𝑇𝑒 Additionally,
𝑇1
= 𝑒 µ𝛩 𝑇
Solving 𝑇1 = 𝑒 µ𝛩 for T2, 𝑇2 =
𝑇1
𝑒 µ𝛩
= 𝑇1 𝑒 −µ𝛩 Substituting T2 into the power equation gives
𝑇2 2

us 𝑃 = 𝑣(𝑇1 − 𝑇1 𝑒 −µ𝛩 ) = 𝑣𝑇1 (1 − 𝑒 −µ𝛩 )

o The approximate power equation when considering centrifugal force is 𝑃 = 𝑣(𝑇1 − ρA𝑣2 )(1 − 𝑒 −µ𝛩 ) Using
this equation and plotting the power vs speed for a nominal set of parameters results in the graph below.
 At zero speed, the power is obviously zero. Initially, one might think that, assuming a constant torque, as the speed
increases, the power able to be delivered will continue to increase. However, the centrifugal force of the belt will
begin to decrease the effective normal force between the belt and the pulley, resulting in less traction. The belt will
start to slip.
𝑑𝑃
 Taking the derivative at the critical speed, 𝑑𝑣
=0=
(𝑇1 − ρA𝑣𝐶 2 )(1 − 𝑒−µ𝛩 ) 100000

 Therefore, 𝑣𝐶 = √𝑇1⁄3ρA the speed at which 2 Belts

75000
Power (Watts)

maximum power can be delivered.

𝑑𝑃
 Critical speed must be calculated before using 𝑑𝑣
2
50000
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑣𝐶 𝑇1 )(1 − 𝑒 −µ𝛩 )𝑛 where n is the number
3
of belts. 25000
 Note that these factors are usually only a concern at 1 Belt
very high speeds. 0
 While high speeds do not generally reduce the ability 0 20 40 60 80
of a timing belt to transmit power, high tensions can Velocity (m/s) Critical Speed 𝑣𝐶
result from large centrifugal forces.
 Creep and Shear
 Creep when referring to belt drives is not the same as when used in regards to other engineering applications. The
change in length of the belt over time is called stretch. Creep is not the same as slip. Creep is defined as a loss of
driven speed as the result of alternate lengthening and shortening of each belt segment as it cycles through the tight
and loose side tensions.
 Whenever a belt passes around a pulley with different entering and exiting tensions, i.e. any driving or driven pulley,
belt creep occurs. The belt will be slightly longer on the tight side than on the loose side. As the belt travels
throughout the arc of contact, the length of a belt segment will slowly change from the tight side length to the loose
side length as tension decreases. This motion relative to the pulley is creep and leads to some sidewall wear.
 A critical assumption of creep theory is that the belt is
elastic enough to allow for large enough differences
between tight and loose side nominal segment lengths
that any shear stress within the belt can be considered
negligible. (Developed for round belts with significant
stretch and flat belts thin enough for minimal shear
stress.)
 Shear theory assumes that the stretch experienced by
a belt as it alternates between tight and loose side
tensions is negligible compared to the shear stress
within the belt. (Developed as a result of high strength
tensile members limiting cordline stretch.)
 The diagram to the left shows the stress within the tensile members as a belt travels around the pulleys shown. “FC”
is the tension induced by centrifugal force. “Fi” is the initial static tension of the belt. “ΔF” is tension difference
induced by the transmission of torque. Note that the maximum stress in the tensile members occurs at the entry
point (tight side) of the small pulley.
 The solid curve shows the stress as described by shear theory while the dashed curve shows the stress described by
creep theory. Point “A” is the tight side; point “D” is the loose side. All other points are the tangential entry or exit
points of the belt on the pulley. The vertical jumps in stress on the shear stress curve indicate the additional stress
imposed on the members of the belt when conforming to the curve of the pulley assuming relatively inextensible
tensile members. Those tension forces are balanced within the belt by compression stress within the body of the
belt. Note that the stress imposed by the smaller pulley is larger due to the smaller radius the belt must conform to.
Both cases result in fluctuating stresses within the belt, leading to fatigue and eventual failure.
 Fatigue
 As indicated above, the maximum stress in the belt is at the tight side entry point of the small pulley. The stress is a
combination of the tight side tension and the bending stresses.
𝑦 ∗ 𝐸⁄
o Elastic bending theory tells us that 𝜎𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅 where 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum distance to the
neutral axis, E is the elastic modulus, and R is the radius of the curve.
 The cyclical stress (seen in the above diagram) is what leads to the fatigue failure seen in belts. During each
revolution of the belt, each infinitesimal belt segment goes through a double-peaked fatigue cycle (Peaks at B & F,
minimum from C-E). Generally, cyclically loaded components follow an approximately log-log linear relationship
between the life and load of the component.
 Doubling the load a belt carries will not lead to half of the original life. The new life of the belt could be as little as
5%-10% of the original.