Multi-Storey Steel Buildings

STEEL BUILDINGS IN EUROPE
Multi-Storey Steel Buildings

Part 1: Architect’s Guide
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FOREWORD
This publication is the first part of the design guide, Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.
The 10 parts in the Multi-Storey Steel Buildings guide are:

Part 1: Architect’s guide
Part 2: Concept design
Part 3: Actions
Part 4: Detailed design
Part 5: Joint design
Part 6: Fire Engineering
Part 7: Model construction specification
Part 8: Description of member resistance calculator
Part 9: Description of simple connection resistance calculator
Part 10: Guidance to developers of software for the design of composite beams
Multi-Storey Steel Buildings is one of two design guides. The second design guide is
Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
The two design guides have been produced in the framework of the European project
“Facilitating the market development for sections in industrial halls and low rise
buildings (SECHALO) RFS2-CT-2008-0030”.
The design guides have been prepared under the direction of Arcelor Mittal,
Peiner Träger and Corus. The technical content has been prepared by CTICM and SCI,
collaborating as the Steel Alliance.
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Contents
Page No
FOREWORD i
SUMMARY v
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 FUNCTIONAL QUALITIES 3
2.1 Architectural creativity and flexibility 3
2.2 Prefabrication – Industrialised building systems 5
2.3 An evolving art 6
2.4 Extending and refurbishment 6
3 STEEL – MATERIAL AND PRODUCTS 9
3.1 Steel the material 9
3.2 Steel products 9
4 BASIS OF GOOD DESIGN: THE STRUCTURE 13
4.1 The load-bearing system 13
4.2 Bracings 19
4.3 Floors 22
4.4 Connections 26
4.5 Summary 29
5 BASIS OF GOOD DESIGN: THE ENVELOPE 30
5.1 Façades 30
5.2 Roofing systems 36
6 OTHER FACTORS FOR GOOD DESIGN 41
6.1 Behaviour during an earthquake 41
6.2 Behaviour during a fire 42
6.3 Acoustic performance 48
6.4 Thermal performance 52
6.5 Durability of steel structures 53
6.6 Service integration 57
7 STEEL CONSTRUCTION AND SUSTAINABILITY 59
7.1 Life cycle 60
7.2 Advantages of steel products for construction 60
7.3 Steel-intensive solutions for buildings 61
8 CONCLUSION 64
REFERENCES 65
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SUMMARY
For centuries, steel has demonstrated all its advantages as a construction material for use
in famous buildings in the world, but steel is not only a material that delivers
technical prowess. It has so many qualities that simply make it the preferred material of
architects, especially for multi-storey buildings. This publication has been drafted by
architects for architects. It provides information on the material and on the
industrial components. It gives the bases of good practice in order to achieve maximum
benefit in using steel, in terms of structural behaviour of steel frames, the
building envelope, acoustic and thermal performances and sustainable construction.
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1 INTRODUCTION
What do Claude Perrault’s Louvre colonnades (1670), Mies van der Rohe’s
Lake Shore Drive apartment towers (1951), Soufflot’s Church of St. Genevieve
in Paris (1759), Piano and Roger’s Georges Pompidou Centre (1977) and
Jean Nouvel’s Hôtel Industriel in Pantin (1990) all have in common? Each one
bears testimony to the great epic of metal in construction.
Of course, the transformation from iron used as structural reinforcement and

decoration to the light and airy steel frame which we know today was a very
long process. It encompassed no less than 300 years of historical progress,
innovation, imagination and creativity: on the part of architects, who
introduced new shape grammars with cast iron, iron and then steel; on the part
of engineers, whose technical expertise and imagination played a major role in
the building of new structures which were once thought of as impossible, even
utopian; and on the part of manufacturers, who have worked tirelessly on the
development of new materials and products.
Three hundred years of passion for metal: a passion which has been expressed
in different ways. Cast iron, once used in buildings, was expensive, heavy and
brittle, and provided a very special kind of structural reinforcement dictated by
the style of that period: enormous proportions, with iron staples used to hold
together blocks of stone to ensure the building’s stability.
Today’s enthusiasm for iron and steel is very different. Iron brought about
transformations in design and the introduction of standard profiles (I, T and L).
Thanks to riveting, profiles could be assembled in numerous ways to create all
sorts of structures. A landmark achievement was Joseph Paxton’s Crystal
Palace (1851), the predecessor of modular architecture with its prefabricated
building components.
Figure 1.1 Crystal Palace, London
Steel has been in the vanguard of new assembly processes, rolling techniques
and computational modelling. It has made possible the use of large spans in
construction, for example in industrial buildings (La Samaritaine department
store in Paris, which opened in 1917), and in infrastructure and transportation
(The Forth Railway Bridge in Scotland, 1890).
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Steel is not just a material aimed at technical prowess! It has many qualities
that make it the preferred material for architects. It is economical and provides
great mechanical functionality; it permits the design of structures which are
graceful, light and airy; it streamlines construction site processes; and offers
rapid execution. A major advantage, however, is the infinite freedom for
creation which it affords the architect. The combinations of different products
lend themselves to rich and varied types of construction. When combined with
glass, steel makes fabulous use of light and space.
This document, which is aimed at architects, provides an overview of the

advantages of steel in construction for multi-storey buildings as well as best
practice for this type of structure. Whatever the architect’s project, residential
buildings, offices, schools, cultural buildings, retail or industrial buildings, the
designer should read this document. It addresses:
 The material, its qualities and market products
 The structure (how to design)
 The envelope (different types of façade and roofs, how to integrate solar
panels etc.)
 Sustainable steel construction.
Figure 1.2 Office building in Paris
Illustration of the many opportunities for using steel in building construction

can be found on the following web sites:
www.access-steel.com www.sbi.se (in Swedish)
www.acierconstruction.com (in French) www.szs.ch (in French and German)
www.construiracier.fr (in French) www.apta.com.es (in Spanish)
www.infosteel.be (in French and Dutch) www.promozioneacciaio.it (in Italian)
www.bouwenmetstaal.nl (in Dutch) www.eurobuild-in-steel.com
www.bauforumstahl.de (in German)
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2 FUNCTIONAL QUALITIES
2.1 Architectural creativity and flexibility

Construction methods bring about new architectural, aesthetic and artistic
solutions, breaking free of traditional practice. Awareness of environmental
problems caused by our lifestyles means that we need to invent building
systems that can meet these new challenges (see Section 7).
Steel is the material ‘par excellence’ when it comes to inventing new structures
and forms. All solutions are possible, from the very simplest to the most
challenging. Steel can be used for small buildings as well as large structures,
for routine construction projects and those subject to complex urban
constraints.
Figure 2.1 Energy efficient design at GLA building, London
No other material is used to make structures which are so thin, light and airy.
Forms can be created using different structural effects and envelopes with pure
or finely sculpted curves.
Designers can give free reign to their imagination and creativity.
Within the overall architectural concept, the structural steelwork may be

concealed or exposed to reveal its essence. In both cases the advantages
remain: facility for modular design, compactness, economy of material,
freedom of use, speed of assembly etc.
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Figure 2.2 ING Bank Headquarters in Amsterdam
Steel provides the flexibility needed to enable a building to evolve throughout

its working life. The building can be initially designed in order to facilitate
future evolutions:
 Modification of applied loads due to change of use of the building
 Floor plan morphology in order to retain the possibility to create new
openings
 Horizontal and vertical movements, exits: appropriate measures can be
taken in order to limit any impact on the primary building structure during
alterations.
Large spans constitute one of the major benefits of steel structures, thanks to
the quality of the material and the manufactured products. Large spans
facilitate future developments of the structural elements. The load-bearing
frame is integrated in the exterior walls of the building in order to free up
space. Large spans were once confined to industrial buildings or warehouses,
but are now very common in office or residential buildings.
It is advisable to adopt the principle of load-bearing columns, rather than

bearing walls, in order to release the construction space from the constraints
which fix a building in time and condemn its evolution. Load-bearing elements
are separated from the systems which make up the envelope and the internal
partitions, in order to allow future building development. Since they serve no
structural function, façades, roofs and partition elements can be removed and
replaced.
In multi-storey steel buildings, the vertical bracing systems must be arranged

so as not to obstruct the free use of open space.
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In order to design in steel, it is essential to understand the different aspects in

the construction process:
 Floors
 Façades
 Partitions
 Roofing.
Each aspect involves various products assembled in a specific order (see

relevant Sections).
2.2 Prefabrication – Industrialised building systems

Construction methods using prefabricated elements and components, and their
adaptability in terms of new project regulations, facilitate the design and
construction of buildings which are in perfect harmony with their end use.
All structural steel components are manufactured by steelmakers or fabricators

using automated and computerized cutting and bending machines. Design
tolerances are limited to millimetres, whilst for other construction materials
they are closer to centimetres. The finished products are subject to high levels
of quality control.
The components used to make a building are all prepared in the workshop and
delivered ready for assembly on site. The components are not modified on site.
They are ready for use.
Figure 2.3 Multi-storey industrial building during construction, in Monaco
One of the main qualities of steel structures is the speed of fabrication and
erection, and of the assembly and disassembly of non permanent structures (for
example, modular construction).
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Intelligent use of steel products and components produced by manufacturers

who are constantly innovating and developing, contributes to the
transformation of our urban landscapes.
2.3 An evolving art

Today’s perception of steel has evolved. Its qualities and advantages have been
revealed, tried and tested. Moreover, the very wide range of accompanying
products means the steel frame can respond to rapidly changing lifestyles and
use.
Many buildings constructed after the Second World War no longer fulfil
today’s needs, although they can be restructured and extended if the
patrimonial value of the existing building is worth prolonging.
Steel buildings are designed with walls made of light composite products. This
construction solution combines all of steel’s qualities.
2.4 Extending and refurbishment

2.4.1 Extending upwards
The concept of extending buildings upwards is very interesting. The designer
can benefit from the foundation of existing buildings and their vertical
connections.
Load-bearing steel frames are lightweight and adaptable for many situations.
They provide an effective solution for the extension of old buildings, whatever
the original material, and help find the right balance between the weight of the
new structure and the admissible loads.
In order to extend an existing steel structure, it is reasonable to retain the same

building system.
Figure 2.4 Extending building upwards
An extension is often carried out in parallel with complete refurbishment of the

building. The modus operandi for building an extension with a steel structure
allows the two activities to be managed simultaneously, thus significantly
reducing the time needed to refurbish the existing building. The latter can be
carried out in parallel with the extension and without incurring costly delays.
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Depending on the load-bearing structure of the extension, and in the case of a

reinforced concrete building whose width is not altered, the steel frame may,
for the most part, be installed on the external concrete walls or columns, or
even fixed to the external walls of the façades on each floor, in order to
distribute the load. Both solutions avoid having to create a new structure across
different levels or new foundations that are costly and difficult to build.
2.4.2 Extending width of buildings

When conditions are right for the restructuring of an existing building, the steel
structure also offers an effective functional solution for extending its width.
Figure 2.5 Extension of a multi-storey building
A number of technical solutions are possible, depending on the structural

characteristics of the building and the planning regulations applicable in that
area:
 Frames installed parallel to the building
 Half portal frames supported on a parallel row of foundations separate from
the building, depending on the project, and on the load-bearing structure of
the building
 Hangers fixed to the beams on the building super structure.
The steel structure of the extension is mechanically fixed to the building floors
and load-bearing plates.
2.4.3 Conversion and refurbishment of industrial buildings

Refurbishment and conversion is estimated to account for about 50% of
building work.
Structures made of steel frames lend themselves particularly well to such

alterations. Many conversions involve nineteenth century buildings made of
steel, such as stations, market halls and industrial workshops that are found in
dense urban areas.
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It is easy to remove components, to replace and modify spans, to change beam

or column dimensions. The ability to suspend building floors from roof
structures offers additional flexibility for new projects associated with existing
buildings.
It is also worth noting that the lightness of steel structures is a distinct

advantage when adding new floors by means of connections to existing
structures (once their potential has been verified). If new foundations are
required for the installation of new structures, these can be designed easily and
in such a way that they do not interfere with existing foundations.
The restructuring of relatively old buildings (such as that shown in Figure 2.6)
always requires work to ensure compliance with current standards. It can
involve:
 Emergency exits
 Increase in movement
 Installation of ventilation and smoke ducts
 Fire and corrosion protection of steel elements
 Reinforcement for new loads
 New means of access.
Figure 2.6 Headquarters of Nestlé France, Noisiel
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3 STEEL – MATERIAL AND PRODUCTS
3.1 Steel the material

Steel offers exceptional qualities in terms of mechanical resistance. Of the most
commonly used materials in construction, it demonstrates the greatest
resistance for the lightest section, both in tension and compression. This opens
the door for architects to a wide choice of technical and aesthetic solutions.
There are many types of steel. These are classified, according to their
composition. There are three main categories of steel:
 Non-alloy steel grades
 Stainless steel grades
 Other alloy steel grades.
Non-alloy steel grades are commonly used in the construction sector. The main
steel grades are S235, S275 and S355 for structural members. However the
higher strength steel S460 grade is used more and more in construction.
Steel products must demonstrate specific characteristics according to their

grade and form and as defined by National or European standards.
Full information can be found on steel producers’ web sites:

www.arcelormittal.com/sections
www.corusconstruction.com
www.peiner-traeger.de
3.2 Steel products

These can be classified into two main categories, as shown in Figure 3.1.
I and H sections
Channels, angles
Long products Hollow sections
(hot rolled profiles)
Bars for concrete
Sheet piles
Cold formed long products
Coils (1,5 mm < t < 15 mm)
Flat products Decking, cladding, roofing
Plates (5 mm < t < 400 mm)
Figure 3.1 Main categories of steel products used in construction
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3.2.1 Hot rolled long products

Hot rolled long products (often referred to as ‘sections’ or ‘profiles’) are
generally used for the main frame members (columns, beams, bracings).
I, H and channel sections
h h h
IPE HE UPE
80 mm < h < 750 mm 100 mm < h < 1000 mm 80 mm < h < 400 mm
Angles
h h
Equal legs Unequal legs

20 mm < h < 250 mm 100 mm < h < 200 mm
Hollow sections
t h
t
t
d b
b
Circular hollow sections Square hollow sections Rectangular hollow sections

20 mm < d < 1200 mm 40 mm < b < 400 mm 50 mm < h < 500 mm
Figure 3.2 Hot rolled long products used in steel construction
Sections undergo various transformations through cutting, welding, bending

etc., in order to obtain very different shapes and improved performance.
In this way, cellular beams (Figure 3.3) can be fabricated from IPE or HE
sections by oxy-cutting and welding.
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Figure 3.3 Cellular beams fabricated from hot rolled sections
3.2.2 Cold formed long products

Cold formed long products, formed from thin sheet steel, are generally used as
secondary members for cladding (rails) and roofs (purlins).
Figure 3.4 Cold formed products – Typical sections
3.2.3 Flat products

In building construction, the use of flat products is mainly for the following
purposes:
 Steel decking for floors
 Roofs
 Cladding
For each of these purposes, thin sheet steel is used, frequently formed into
profiled sheets (see Figure 3.5).
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Steel decking for floors
Steel sheeting for roofs
Steel sheeting for cladding
Figure 3.5 Use of flat products in steel construction
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4 BASIS OF GOOD DESIGN: THE STRUCTURE
4.1 The load-bearing system

In multi-storey structures, load-bearing and load distribution functions are
ensured by installing a main frame consisting of beams and columns.
4.1.1 Load-bearing framework

Optimisation of the number of load points is a question which is always raised
at the design stage and the response must take into account the building use. As
far as layout of space is concerned, columns are always considered obstacles
that must be limited as much as possible. Traditional framework structures use
spans of the order of 4,50 to 6 m for residential buildings. Large spans of
between 12 and 18 m for offices and 15 to 16 m for car parks can free up a lot
of space.
15 m 15 m
5×6m
Figure 4.1 Example of grid for columns and beams
The number of load-bearing points also depends on the type of foundation in

respect of soil conditions. When the soil is poor, it is advisable to limit the
foundation points and consequently reduce the number of columns. A steel
frame has the benefit of reducing the overall weight of the building and
therefore reducing the size of the foundations.
4.1.2 Columns
The main purpose of the columns is to transfer the vertical loads to the
foundations. However a part of the horizontal actions (wind action) is also
transferred through the columns. In multi-storey buildings, the columns are
heavily compressed and they are designed for buckling.
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The criteria which help to determine the choice of column are usually the
following:
 Architectural preference
 Grid layout and size
 Cost of steel products (I or H sections are less expensive than hollow
sections)
 Installation costs (complexity of installation)
 Ease and simplicity with which secondary components (for façades, walls,
ceilings) can be connected
 Work and products needed to respond to essential requirements (fire,
corrosion, etc.).
Table 4.1 shows the main types of columns used in multi-storey buildings.
Composite columns provide a better fire resistance.
Table 4.1 Main types of columns

Steel section Composite section
H-section
Circular hollow section
The column design shown in Figure 4.2 provides added value architecture, cost
savings in material and optimized structural behaviour.
Figure 4.2 Building structure with tie members
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Variable profile sections can deliver a certain architectural dynamism to the

design of these columns. Formed from standard sections or plates, these
columns have as their main characteristic variable lengthwise dimensions
which can optimize their structural function.
Since steel works equally well in tension as in compression, for functional (to
avoid obstruction) or architectural reasons, a hanger or tie rod may be preferred
to a column, in order to hold a beam and cross a floor space without a point of
support.
Figure 4.3 Structural arrangement with hangers
4.1.3 Beams
Beams spread the vertical loads and are mainly subject to bending. The beam
section must therefore present sufficient stiffness and strength in the vertical
plane.
There are many different types of beam, see Table 4.2. Amongst these,
composite beams are particularly well suited to multi-storey buildings. When
combined with steel, the concrete works in compression and the steel (mainly)
in tension: the outcome is a system that offers good mechanical performance,
both in terms of resistance and stiffness.
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Table 4.2 Main types of beams

Type Comment
Rolled profiles Rolled profiles are commonly used in

multi-storey buildings. A large range of
dimensions and steel grades is available.
Simple rolled profiles are well adapted for
small and medium span ranges. Rolled
profiles can be curved for architectural
purposes.
Welded profiles Welded profiles are fabricated from plates.

They can have flanges with different
dimensions to form a mono-symmetric
section. These profiles offer the possibility to
design tapered members, which optimizes
the quantity of material, with interesting
architectural effect.
This solution is generally used for beams

larger than rolled profiles.
Cellular beams By a process of oxy-cutting and welding, the

cellular beams can be fabricated from rolled
profiles. This is a very efficient solution for
office buildings, since it offers several
advantages, such as: increasing inertia
compared with the basic profile, providing
openings for services (ducts,
air-conditioning, etc.) and architectural
appearance.
Even if the openings are generally circular,

other shapes are possible such as
hexagonal openings.
Composite beams When a concrete slab is supported by the

beam, it is easy to ensure a structural
connection between the slab and the beam.
The steel profile can be a rolled profile, a
welded profile or a cellular beam. The latter
is especially recommended for large span
floors in multi-storey buildings (up to 18 or
20 m).
Many composite beam solutions have been

developed.
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Figure 4.4 Composite beam with welded studs at construction stage
Figure 4.5 Composite cellular beams with steel decking
Figure 4.6 New type of beam – AngelinaTM (composite beam), during erection
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There are several types of composite beams, as shown in Figure 4.7. In these
examples, the steel profile can be a rolled profile, a welded profile or a cellular
beam. In example (c), the steel profile is a rolled profile.
(a) (b) (c)

A pre-slab or a steel
Plain slab: this solution decking is used as The beam is partially concrete
requires temporary permanent formwork and encased to improve fire
formwork. contributes to the bending resistance.
resistance of the slab.
Figure 4.7 Composite beams
In multi-storey buildings, the total depth of the floors often needs to be reduced
to a minimum. The design of slim floors consists of integrating the steel beam
to the concrete slab. Figure 4.8 shows two types of integrated steel beams.
Figure 4.8 Integrated beams (slim floors)
Figure 4.9 shows three examples of steel beams used as integrated steel beams.
The lower flange is a plate The upper flange is a plate A plate is directly welded under
welded to the web of a half welded to the web of a half the lower flange of a rolled
rolled profile rolled profile profile
Figure 4.9 Different types of profiles used as integrated beams
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The span ranges for the various structural options for floors are shown in
Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Span ranges of various structural options

Span (m)
6 8 10 13 16 20
Reinforced concrete flat slab
Slim floor beams and deep composite slab
Integrated beams with precast slabs
Reinforced concrete beams and slab
Post-tensioned concrete flat slab
Composite beams and slab
Fabricated beams with web openings
Cellular composite beams
4.2 Bracings
4.2.1 General
A structure is statically determinate when the number of supports is just
enough to ensure its global stability. By increasing the number of supports and
rigid connections, the structure becomes stiffer, but rigid connections are more
expensive than simple connections. So an economic compromise has to be
found.
Figure 4.10shows two options for the stability in a vertical plane of a
multi-storey building.
Braced structure Frame effect

The global stability is ensured by cross The global stability is ensured by frame
bracing (see § 4.2.2). Simple connections effect (see § 4.2.3) thanks to the stiffness of
are used. The bracing members in the connections. This solution leads to more
compression are generally ignored in the complex connections.
detailed design.
Figure 4.10 Global stability in vertical planes of a multi-storey structure
The stability of a building has to be ensured in all the main planes (vertical and
horizontal planes) in order to transfer the forces to the foundations, as shown in
Figure 4.11.
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1
2
3
4
Key: - see text
Figure 4.11 Planes of stability for a rectangular building
The vertical stability (A and C in the Figure) can be provided by any of the
four systems:
1 Cross-bracing (simple construction)
2 Frame effect
3 Diaphragm effect (contribution of the cladding)
4 Concrete wall.
The horizontal stability (B and D in Figure 4.11) is generally ensured either by

the diaphragm effect in concrete floors or by a cross-bracing. Horizontal
stability systems must be appropriately connected to vertical stability systems
in order to transfer the forces to the foundations.
Wind action is the main horizontal action in multi-storey buildings. In seismic

areas, horizontal actions due to earthquakes have to be considered.
4.2.2 Braced structure option

Multi-storey buildings are generally designed with pinned members. Vertical
stability is commonly provided by cross-bracing, and sometimes by a concrete
core. The advantages of such a design are:
 Simple connections
 Quick erection
 Reduced fabrication costs.
The cross-bracing can be either inside or outside the building, depending on

architectural preference. An example of bracing as an architectural feature is
shown in Figure 4.12.
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Figure 4.12 External cross-bracing in a multi-storey building
4.2.3 Frame effect option

In order to avoid bracing between the beams, it is possible to design
rigid-jointed continuous frames.
Multi-storey buildings with a load-bearing structure formed of rigid frames

often require an increase in the column section and sometimes in the beam
section.
Since ensuring stability by frame action is less economical than by bracing, a

combination of the two systems can provide an efficient and balanced solution.
It is possible to have frames in one direction and to use bracing for stability in
the perpendicular direction.
The advantages of continuous frames are:

 The primary beams are stiffer – the deflections are lower than those of
simply supported beams
 The floors are less sensitive to vibrations
Adding redundancy to the structure increases robustness.
The disadvantages are:

 The connections are more complex and the erection is more complicated
 The internal forces in the columns are increased
The structure is globally more expensive.
Structures made of continuous frames in both directions are exceptional. They

can be recommended for buildings with special requirements (medical
research, white rooms, equipment sensitive to deflections and vibrations, etc.).
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4.3 Floors
4.3.1 General
The structural function of floors is to transfer loads to the main members of the
structure. Floors also contribute to the global stability of the structure because
they generally act as a diaphragm to provide stability in the horizontal plane of
each storey.
The design of a floor conforms to specifications that include:

 Applied loads
 Thermal performance
 Acoustic performance
 Fire resistance
 Service integration
 Requirements to connect a false ceiling.
The structural part of the floor can be one of the following:

 Composite slab using steel decking
 Concrete slab with steel decking used as permanent formwork
 Dry floors
 Plain slab, concrete slab including a precast slab
 Prefabricated slab.
4.3.2 Concrete slab with steel decking

The use of steel decking has many advantages:
 Efficient permanent formwork (the formwork does not have to be removed
after concreting)
 Installation of a steel decking is easier than that of a precast slab
 Propping during construction is often not necessary.
A simple steel decking is efficient as permanent formwork at the construction

stage. Special steel deckings have been developed in order to contribute to the
bending resistance of the floor, as a tension component. For these deckings,
embossments provide a good connection with the concrete. See Figure 4.13.
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Permanent formwork Composite slabs

(Non composite slab) (Steel deckings with embossments)
Figure 4.13 Concrete slab with steel decking
To optimize structural behaviour, a composite slab with steel decking can also
be designed to contribute to the bending resistance of the beams (composite
beams), as shown in Figure 4.14. This leads to a reduction in the size of the
steel profiles, and subsequently in the total depth of the floor, the weight of the
beam, etc.
Typical dimensions of a steel decking:

 Length: 6m
 Width: 1m
 Thickness: 0,75 or 1 mm.
Figure 4.14 Composite slab and composite beams
Fire resistance of slabs composed of a steel decking and concrete

The steel decking has a mechanical function of reinforcement. The underside
generally requires no protection. The composite slabs can have 30 minutes’ fire
resistance without special protection.
A higher resistance can easily be obtained by:

 Adding reinforcement bars in the slab
 Protecting the underside of the decking
 Adding a false ceiling of mineral wool and plasterboard.
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4.3.3 Precast slab with in-situ topping

Plain slabs are generally composed of a precast slab and cast-in-situ concrete.
At the concreting stage, temporary supports may be needed to transfer the
weight of the precast slab, the concrete and operatives working on the site.
The slab can contribute to the bending resistance and stiffness of the beams if
an appropriate connection (welded studs for instance) is provided between the
slab and the beam – see composite beams in Table 4.3.
4.3.4 Hollow core slabs

Prefabricated hollow-core slabs are generally used with integrated floor beams
(non composite beams). These elements can be placed on angles welded to the
web or on the lower flange (see Figure 4.15, Figure 4.8 and Figure 4.9). A
structural concrete topping with reinforcement is recommended in order to tie
the units together to serve as a diaphragm component.
Figure 4.15 Hollow core slab
4.3.5 Prefabricated composite slab elements

This type of floor is manufactured in elements, the width of which is 1,20 m
and the length up to 7,00 m as shown in Figure 4.16.
1 1 Concr ete slab

2 Steel mesh
3 Thermal and acoustic insulation
2
3 4 U-sha ped liners
Figure 4.16 Prefabricated composite slab elements
4.3.6 Dry floors

Dry floors are made of a mechanical assembly of industrialized components
(see Figure 4.17). The main properties of dry floors are:
 Lightness
1 - 24
 Thermal performance (insulation is integrated in the floor)

 Speed of erection
 No temporary propping during construction
 Flexibility.
The transfer of the loading is ensured by the profiled steel sheeting. Its length
can vary between 2,00 and 6,00 m and its depth is about 20 cm. Services
(cables, ducts) can be placed in the depth of the profiled steel sheeting. An
electric heating film can be incorporated in the floor.
1 1 Two layers of plasterboard

2 2 W ood board
3
3 Resilient material
4
4 Profiled steel sheeting
5 5 Layers of mineral wool
6 6 1 or 2 layers of plasterboard
Figure 4.17 Main components of a dry floor
Figure 4.18 Photo of a dry floor
The fire resistance of a dry floor depends on the fire performance of the false
ceiling and the upper components made of plasterboard. Performance can be
adapted to national regulation or other specific requirements.
4.3.7 Acoustic and thermal requirements for floors

In order to fulfil requirements relating to acoustic and thermal insulation, other
materials can be connected to the slab. Such materials also provide an
appropriate facing.
Such elements are:

 Plasterboard connected under the composite floor, the number layers of
which depends on the required acoustic performance
1 - 25
 Mineral wool layers supporting the plasterboard.
The space between the beams under the floor can be used for service
integration (ducts).
Figure 4.19 Composite slab with thermal insulation
4.4 Connections
4.4.1 General
Steel construction is based on a simple principle, involving the assembly of
elements, such as columns, beams, bracing members, tie members. The
components of the building envelope – floors and partitions – are then
connected to the principal members.
The main function of a connection is to transfer internal forces between the

members, in a way that is consistent with the design assumptions – pinned or
continuous connection. When the connections are visible, their aesthetic
quality can emphasise the structural behaviour and contribute to the
architectural value of the building
4.4.2 Types of connections

There are many types of connections for structural members. The principal
types commonly used in multi-storey buildings are:
 Nominally pinned connections (beam-to-beam and beam-to-column)
 Moment connections (beam-to-column) for continuous frames
 Connections of bracing members
 Column bases.
Figure 4.20 shows three types of beam-to-column connections. These

connections can be considered as pinned. This type of connection is mainly
designed to transfer a shear force and a small axial force.
1 - 26
End plate welded to the web of Fin plate welded to the column Double angle web cleats:
the beam and bolted to the flange and bolted to the web of angles bolted to the column
column flange the beam flange and the beam web
Figure 4.20 Typical beam-to-column connections – pinned connections
Figure 4.21 shows the connection of a secondary beam to a primary beam

using double angle web cleats. The secondary beam is notched so that its top
flange is at the same level as the top flange of the primary beam.
Figure 4.21: Typical beam-to-beam connection
Figure 4.22 shows an example of rigid beam-to-column connection. The end

plate is welded to the beam and bolted to the column flange. This type of
connection is designed to transfer a bending moment and a shear force.
Figure 4.22 Moment connection
In multi-storey buildings, the column bases are generally nominally pinned,

such as that shown in Figure 4.23(a). Significant compression force is
1 - 27
transferred to the concrete foundation. In routine situations, the shear force

remains quite low. Figure 4.23(b) is a fixed column base, shown here by way
of comparison.
(a) Pinned column base (b) Fixed column base
Figure 4.23 Column bases
The ends of bracing members are usually bolted onto gusset plates. The gusset
plates can be bolted, or sometimes welded, to the main members (beam and
column). An example is shown in Figure 4.24
Figure 4.24 Typical connection of a bracing member
1 - 28
4.5 Summary
Table 4.4 gives typical weights of building elements.
Table 4.4 Typical weights for building elements
Element Typical weight
Precast units (spanning 6 m, designed for a 5 kN/m2 imposed 3 to 4,5 kN/m2

load)
Plain slab (Normal weight concrete, 200 mm thick) 5 kN/m2
Composite slab (Normal weight concrete, 130 mm thick) 2,6 to 3,2 kN/m2
Composite slab (Lightweight concrete, 130 mm thick) 2,1 to 2,5 kN/m2
Services 0,25 kN/m2
Ceilings 0,1 kN/m2
Steelwork (low rise 2 to 6 storeys) 35 to 50 kg/m2
Steelwork (medium rise 7 to 12 storeys) 40 to 70 kg/m2
Steel provides many advantages to the architect for the design of a multi-storey
building:
 Large spans are possible
 A steel building is lighter than a traditional building
 The foundations are simple and less expensive
 This solution is well adapted to soils with poor load-bearing qualities.
1 - 29
5 BASIS OF GOOD DESIGN: THE ENVELOPE
5.1 Façades
5.1.1 General remarks
When steel is the material of choice for construction, façades are made up of a
series of fabricated products which fulfil the following functions: load-bearing
capacity, air tightness, water tightness, protection against intrusion, thermal
and acoustic insulation, fire protection and, of course, aesthetic appearance.
Application of these products for façade systems guarantees a high level of

precision and performance and therefore demands a certain degree of design
rigour, particularly in the connection and cladding details of the various
components.
With its component elements, the steel in a façade can be used for secondary
frames (light steel elements or double skin façade with steel sheeting or trays),
support for external facing, cladding and, lastly, for decoration and solar
protection.
Steel construction solutions can also be combined with other types of façade
facing: steel cladding, stone, brick, terracotta, wood and glass (see examples in
Figure 5.1). They offer a true palette of architectural solutions in terms of
appearance, shape and finish.
The huge range of façade dressings can influence performance and provide
solutions for all types of project (Figure 5.2), including:
 Public amenities
 Offices
 Apartments and hotels
 Commercial buildings.
1 - 30
Steel cladding – Montargis (France) Steel cladding – Montargis (France)
Terra Cotta – Fulham (United Kingdom) Stone – Bagnolet (France)
Wood– Luxembourg (Luxembourg) Render on load-bearing walls – Helsinki (Finland)
Figure 5.1 Types of material for façades
1 - 31
Millenaris – Budapest (Hungary) European Parliament (France)
House buildings - Evreux (France) University – Torino (Italy)
Figure 5.2 Façades for various types of project
5.1.2 Positioning the façade

There are three configurations for positioning the façade in relation to the
structure, as shown in Figure 5.3.
EXTERNAL: curtain wall, DOUBLE FAÇADE: infill light walls

INTERNAL: panel walls façade
prefabricated wall panels and external cladding
Spinningfield office Royal northern college of music Industrial workshops for public
Manchester Manchester transportation company - Paris
Figure 5.3 Positioning the façade
1 - 32
The features of these three options are:

 A completely external façade: the structure is visible inside
- The façade is a series of panels installed between floors
- If the column is hidden, the most cost efficient section should be used
- If the column is visible, the aesthetic appearance will need to be
considered.
- In this case, fire protection requirements vary according to the building
use and there are numerous solutions to satisfy these (see 6.2.4).
 A double façade thickness:
- Generally speaking, and since the column is not visible, the most
economic solution will be determined by the choice of section.
- If sizing leads to a discontinuity in the façade facing, the columns can
be divided into two in order to reduce obstruction.
- Internal and external facings which have been adapted will ensure
structural fire protection.
 Internal façade: the structure is visible outside the building
- The façade beam connection must be examined carefully, especially in
terms of thermal, structural and fire protection needs. Special
arrangements can be put in place.
5.1.3 The construction principle

In most construction elements for lightweight façades, the edge of the floor is
used to determine the limit. The vertical plane it defines is for fixing elements,
for reducing thermal bridging and for fire protection between floor levels.
On the outside, are the support elements for the external facing (secondary
frames, plates), which are installed vertically or sometimes horizontally. A
primary layer of thermal insulation is then applied. The external facing is
placed on this frame using a fixing device (transverse frame, bracing, pre-
frame, etc.). The external facing can be fabricated panels with insulation
(Figure 5.4).
On the inside, a double-skinned partition, comprising between one and three

layers of plasterboard fixed to a light steel frame, is commonly used.
Additional insulation is applied between the frame posts (Figure 5.5).
1 - 33
Pre-fabricated large wall panel with integral

Example of Vertical cladding
SHS sections (Finland)
1 Internal cladding – support for the façade
st
2 Thermal or acoustic insulation (1 layer)
3 Thermal insulation – 2nd layer behind steel trays
4 External cladding
Figure 5.4 Cladding
Figure 5.5 Thermal insulation
These lightweight façade systems often contain an air space for ventilation
between the continuous insulation layer applied in front of the floor edge and
the internal side of the outer facing.
This arrangement is conducive to good hygrothermal performance of the

partition wall and facilitates installation of unjointed facing elements.
However, installation of a rain screen to protect the external insulation layer is
essential.
If the external facing is watertight, the air space cannot be introduced and the
façade will not be ventilated.
1 - 34
Frame AXIS
3 6
Frame AXIS
5
7
Internal side of external skin

4
2
SLAB
SLAB
Internal side of external skin

8 2
1
6 3
4
Detail for bottom of infill walls Detail for top of infill walls
A Slab 1 Gypsum board 5 Screw
B Frame axis 2 Light steel gauge rail 6 Steel frame
C Ventilated air layer 3 Light steel gauge post 7 Air barrier
D Internal side of external skin 4 Hole for services 8 Joint treatment
Figure 5.6 Infill walls
5.1.4 Thermal and acoustic elements

Thanks to the two insulation layers, it is possible to vary the type (mineral
wool, polyurethane, cellular glass) and the thickness of materials used and thus
to eliminate a substantial amount of thermal bridging. The risk of direct heat
transfer (cold bridging) must be treated at the level of the fixings and joints
between the metal parts which are in contact with internal spaces and external
areas.
Acoustic performance also depends on the system and fixing of the external
cladding and the insulation density. To improve comfort, the internal finish
facing material can also consist of perforated metal sheets (see Figure 5.4),
allowing the mineral wool insulation material in the façade to correct the
acoustic performance through atmospheric absorption at a high sound pressure
level.
Lightweight façade solutions using steel structures are ideally suited to new
construction and also to refurbishment and in particular to upward building
extensions.
University of technology, Rzeszow (Poland) Residential building (Denmark)
Figure 5.7 Refurbishment and extensions
1 - 35
Table 5.1 Comparative weights of façades and partitions

Type of façade Weight (kg/m2)
Heavy façade: 80-100
- Bearing wall of 18 cm (wall not included)
- 8 cm outside insulation
- Terracotta or stone facing 20 to 50 cm
Light façade: 30-50

- Secondary frame of façade (cold-formed profiles)
- A layer of mineral wool
- Partition of dubbing of 0,07 cm
- Outside finish facing - steel tray
Concrete wall of 20 cm 500
2 H-shaped columns of 0,20 m 30-50 depending on

1 I-shaped beam of 0,27 m the use
Light partitions of 0,20 m
5.2 Roofing systems

Steel frames can accommodate all types of roofs, from watertight roofs to flat
or arched roofs, as well as opaque or glass roofs.
SuperC building – Aachen Stone – Bagnolet
Wood– Luxembourg Pitched roof on site Glass roof
Figure 5.8 Roofs
The building envelope needs to respond to many different requirements, see

Figure 5.9.
1 - 36
Watertightness
Pressure and depression
SNOW, External and internal hygrometry

Maintenance
Durability
Accessibility and maintenance

WIND WIND
Figure 5.9 Requirements for building envelope
Roof typology depends on several criteria, including shape, roof slope, external
appearance, material colour, type of support and the materials used.
Roofs are usually divided into three types:
 Flat roofs with no slope
 Pitched roofs (slope between 3 and 7%)
 Steep or arched roofs
‘T’ Intersection roof with Overlaid Hip roof with Hipped roof Flat roof
gable side gable side
Figure 5.10 Roofs
For low slope roofs, the most important elements for the steel frame are the
quality of fixings and arrangements for rainwater evacuation (Figure 5.11).
5.2.2 Flat roofs

The principle of flat roofing systems on surface support elements can be
applied using lightweight partitions, a metal sheet (see Figure 5.12) or the
concrete topping technique with a concrete compression decking.
A vapour screen, thermal insulation and waterproofing, with or without

protection, are installed on the upper side. In order to provide the parapet
which will be used to increase water tightness, it is possible to use a secondary
steelwork façade which can be en extended to the required height.
5.2.3 Pitched roofs

In the case of a low pitch roof (slope between 3 and 7%), water tightness is
also obtained by applying bituminous products or PVC watertight membranes.
Insulation is applied directly to the galvanized steel sheet tray. The process is
light and economical for non-accessible roofs. Phonic insulation is adjusted
through thickness of the materials and the order in which these are
superimposed.
1 - 37
Fixing on steel purlins Fixing on wood purlins

with self-drilling or self-tapping screw
Screw hook
1 Fixing without cover piece
Figure 5.11 Types of fixings
1 1 Seal ant coating

2 Rigi d insulation
2 3 Insulati on connection
4 Steel sheet
5 Scre w on beam
6 Beam
3
5
4
Figure 5.12 Typical view of a flat roof
Figure 5.13 Corner of façade and roof – On site view
1 - 38
5.2.4 Steep or arched roofs

Water tightness is easily obtained by overlapping of the metal sheets, more or
less following the roof slope and the product. The most common procedure is
to superimpose materials so that all air space is eliminated.
Figure 5.14 Curved roof
5.2.5 Roof construction

A typical roof construction, from the exterior inwards, consists of:
 A ribbed steel decking fixed perpendicular to the panels
 A primary layer of insulation made of a taut felt sheet combined with an
internal vapour screen placed between the decking and panels
 A second and thicker layer of mineral wool
 A steel frame on which to fix the product which is used for the internal
finish
 A second vapour screen
 An internal finish facing material, of one or two layers of plasterboard
screwed to the steel frame or, in some cases, steel decking or perforated
steel decking.
 Acoustic insulation to control rain noise is particularly effective.
Roof netting systems with different amounts of perforation can be fixed on

metal roofs to handle thermal shock and to improve the architectural concept
using a canopy.
Galvanized steel sheets, whether pre-painted or not, and stainless sheets, are
particularly suitable for arched roofs (see Figure 5.15). Stiffening ribs improve
bending strength.
The plates are supported by panels, the characteristics of which determine the
spacing and loads to be carried. Fixing is carried out above the stiffening ribs,
using compressed watertight joints.
1 - 39
Figure 5.15 Curved roof with galvanized steel sheet
5.2.6 Renewable energy systems

The roof can be designed to accommodate various systems for renewable
energy, such as solar panels. Figure 5.16 shows photovoltaic panels on a
residential building.
© SYSTAIC
Figure 5.16 Photovoltaic panels installed on a roof
Figure 5.17 shows wind turbines with vertical axis installed on a flat roof.
www.innoenergie.com
Figure 5.17 Array of small-scale vertical axis wind turbines on a flat roof
1 - 40
6 OTHER FACTORS FOR GOOD DESIGN
In addition to the benefits described in previous Sections, which were

concerned with mechanical performance and technical application, steel offers:
 Savings in structural weight
 Optimized space and return on investment
 Clean and efficient construction sites.
Good practice in steel building design and the appropriate choice of materials,
mean all the following requirements can be met, whether regulatory or at the
client’s request:
 Seismic behaviour
 Fire resistance
 Thermal performance
 Sustainability
 Service integration.
6.1 Behaviour during an earthquake

Steel structures are particularly well suited to construction in earthquake zones.
This is mainly due to reduced accelerated mass, as well as the high ductility of
steel material that allows significant energy dissipation.
Good seismic performance of steel structures is demonstrated by the fact that

destruction of steel buildings due to earthquakes in any part of the world is
rare. The most recent analysis of the consequences of a major earthquake in
Europe confirms this fact. On April 6, 2009, a magnitude 6.3 earthquake struck
close to the city of L’Aquila, located approximately 90 km north-east of Rome.
Steel structures in the region affected by the earthquake were mainly industrial
or commercial buildings, located outside towns. These structures suffered very
little damage. Any minor damage recorded did not affect their structural
integrity and there was a rapid resumption of activity. The photographs in
Figure 6.1, taken in the days that followed the earthquake, show the
commercial centre of Aquilone.
It is worth highlighting that the centre for emergency relief was set up in the
gymnasium of L’Aquila. This steel building, which consists of circular
columns and a three-dimensional truss roof, provided a huge empty space and
it was possible to continue to use it despite the many aftershocks in the weeks
following the main earthquake. The Italian authorities have every confidence in
the seismic behaviour of this type of building.
1 - 41
Figure 6.1 Commercial centre of Aquilone
6.2 Behaviour during a fire

Requirements in terms of structural behaviour during a fire are defined in
national regulations. These depend on the end-use of the building, its size and
accessibility, and the consequences in the event of collapse.
The objectives of fire safety objectives are:

 To ensure stability of the load-bearing elements for a specified period of
time
 To limit the emergence and spread of fire and smoke
 To facilitate rescue operations
 To facilitate safe and rapid evacuation of occupants
 To limit the spread of fire to neighbouring structures.
To achieve these objectives, regulations impose different types of requirement:

 Requirements relating to materials: reaction to fire
 Requirements for building elements (principal structural and secondary
non-structural elements): fire resistance, enhanced by passive protection
 Requirements related to layout of access and measures for active protection.
It is essential to take account of these requirements from the initial stages of

design. To consider fire protection requirements as an afterthought could result
in significant costs or even call into question the actual design.
6.2.2 Reaction to fire

Certain materials can speed up the development of fire. Table 6.1 gives the
European classifications for reaction to fire of building materials. Steel, a
non-combustible material, is classified as A1.
1 - 42
Table 6.1 European classification for building materials

Class Comment
A1 non-combustible products No contribution, even in highly developed fire. Must
automatically satisfy other less stringent classes
A2 non-combustible and not Class B + little contribution to fire load and to
very combustible products development of fire in event of very developed fire
B combustible products Item C with even stricter criteria
C combustible products Item D with stricter criteria
D combustible products Product resisting attack of small flame for longer period.
Capable of undergoing thermal attack from isolated
object on fire with delayed and limited heat release
E combustible products Products capable of resisting attack by small flame
without substantial spread
F unclassified products No fire reaction performance defined
The system provides additional classifications, as given in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Additional classes

Production of inflamed smoke Production of droplets or debris
S1 low smoke production d0 absence of inflamed droplets
S2 medium smoke production d1 no inflamed droplets exceeding 10 seconds
S3 no limit required d2 inflamed droplets (persistence > 10 seconds)
6.2.3 Fire resistance

Resistance to fire is the ability of a building element to continue to perform its
intended function in fire.
The fire resistance classification of a building element is defined by:

 Standardized criteria (see Table 6.3)
 Degree of fire resistance (duration, expressed in minutes, before reaching
criteria)
It measures the fire performance of the classified element.
Requirements for fire resistance of building elements are expressed in terms of

a classification criterion and a time for which the criterion must be satisfied.
Table 6.3 Classification for building elements

Criteria Definitions
R Mechanical resistance: ability to resist thermal attack from fire without loss of
structural stability
E Air tightness in a fire: ability to prevent spread of flames and hot gases
I Thermal insulation: ability to prevent increase in temperature of side not exposed to fire
W Thermal radiation: ability not to emit thermal radiation greater than 15 kW/m²
The classification of a construction element may be:

R, RE, E, REI or EI, followed by the time in minutes -15, 30, 60, 90,
120 minutes, etc.
Additional criteria and criteria specific to certain facilities are also given - see
Table 6.4.
1 - 43
Table 6.4 Additional and specific criteria

Criteria Additional criteria
S Air tightness to cold smoke: Prevents propagation of smoke in fire, even if
relatively cold
C Automatic shut down: Door, valve or shutter closes automatically
M Resistance to impact: Vertical partition to resist lateral mechanical shock
Criteria Specific criteria

B0 Outlet ducts for smoke (30 min): Outlet duct removes hot gases during the first
30 minutes
D Barriers (30 min): Confine hot gases and smoke during initial 30 minutes
F Smoke vents (30 min): Remove hot gases and smoke during initial 30 minutes
Tests or calculations are needed to demonstrate or justify the fire performance

of a building element or product. Tests are defined by standards which define
the methods and experiments to be undertaken for a specific type of behaviour.
Calculations can be based on conventional approaches (constant increase in

temperature over time), or on the new approach to fire safety engineering
introduced by the Eurocodes, through advances in knowledge about the
behaviour and development of fire.
6.2.4 Passive fire protection methods

As with other materials, the strength and stiffness of steel decrease at elevated
temperatures.
Conventional fire resistance of an unprotected steel section rarely exceeds

30 minutes when subjected to normal levels of loading.
Passive fire protection is therefore used to slow down the heating of steel
structures in order to give the required fire resistance.
A number of systems are available: these are listed below. They provide the
steel structure with the appropriate levels of protection, regardless of building
end-use. They are sometimes combined.
Screen protection
Screen protection isolates the structure from an advancing fire by the
interposition of elements that form a continuous wall. In a vertical position
they serve as wall panels; when horizontal, they are suspended ceilings. All
products used must have been tested for fire resistance.
The screen should be chosen for its fire resistance properties and can be used
for acoustic and thermal insulation, as well as for aesthetic reasons.
Spray applied fire protection

This is the most common form of protection. There are two basic sorts of
product, thick film and thin film.
1 - 44
Figure 6.2 Fire protection
With thick film coatings, the spray product or coating is fibrous or paste-like. It
is generally composed of mineral fibres, vermiculite, slag or gypsum, together
with a binder. It is sprayed on with special equipment under wet conditions.
Several layers may be necessary, which increases the drying time.
Fire protection can last up to 4 hours.
Thin film coatings, called intumescent coatings, have a special property - they
swell heat. When cold, the film thickness is between 0.5 and 4 mm. When
heated to a temperature between 100° C and 200° C, the film swells and turns
into foam, reaching thicknesses of 30 to 40 mm; this protects the steel element.
These paints are applied with a spray or brush and careful application of the
products ensures that protection is uniform.
Conserving the aesthetic appearance of the steel is the main advantage in this
type of protection, which can last up to 120 minutes.
Board protection
Board protection is achieved by forming a casing around the steel element.
This is done with mechanical fasteners (screws, staples) or adhesive. The
boards are made of gypsum, vermiculite, mineral fibre or calcium silicate
compounds.
The principle consists in.
The passage of hot gases into the joints is a risk and requires special attention
during application. This solution must be very carefully applied.
Performance may reach R120.
1 - 45
Composite steel-concrete construction

In composite construction, the combined properties of steel and concrete can
increase the fire resistance to cold and fire.
Figure 6.3 Composite construction
For I or H columns, the composite section consists of a complete coating, or

more often a filling, between the web and flange, as shown here.
For tubular columns, the section is rendered composite by filling the tube with
concrete.
The weight of the columns is significantly increased, but the performance can
achieve a resistance of R180. Composite steel-concrete design is also effective
in providing the floor beams with significant fire resistance.
Placing structure outside the envelope

An external structure is only exposed to flames projecting from openings and
from burning parts of the building. Contact with the ambient air also helps to
cool it down.
Positioning the structure outside the building can avoid the need for fire
protection.
6.2.5 Active fire protection methods

When dynamic fire protection devices are used (detection, alarms, smoke
extraction, sprinklers) or if there is human intervention to put out the start of a
fire (extinguishers), these are called ‘active’ methods.
Smoke detection Signs Smoke extraction extinguishers Sprinklers
Figure 6.4 Active fire protection methods
1 - 46
Their main purpose is to limit the spread of fire, in order to allow people to
escape as quickly as possible and to facilitate the prompt intervention of the
emergency services.
Detection systems
Fire detection requires different types of devices that are characterised by the
processes they use (static, velocimetric or differential), the phenomena detected
(smoke, flames, heat, gas) and the sphere of activity (confined or linear).
Table 6.5 Main type of detectors

Detectors Function Application domain
Ionic Comparison between ambient air and Offices, circulation areas
air contained in exposed room
Smoke Abatement or diffusion of light Computing areas or areas prone to
through smoke smoke
Flames Optical system, sensitive to infrared Storage of inflammable liquids or
or ultraviolet light) electrogen group
Thermal Sensitive to heat Aggressive areas (in combination with
other forms of protection)
Thermal Sensitive to rapid increase in Aggressive areas (installation near
velocimetric temperature sources of normal heat)
Autonomous Detection and Release systems (ADR) also exist. After detecting
a local phenomenon linked to fire, one or more Activated Safety Devices
(ASD) are released; the purpose is to activate the safety equipment: fire door,
smoke extractor, etc.
Extinguishers and smoke extraction systems

Extinguishing systems commonly applied in warehouses create a foam blanket,
the effect of which is to reduce oxygen and/or to cool down the premises.
Automatic water fire extinguishers (sprinklers) are designed to detect fire by

means of thermo-sensitive sprinkler heads.
Gas extinguishers using CO2, FM200, Novec or other gases which rely on the
principle of CO2 reduction in the area subject to fire. This process is often used
in computer offices, white rooms/laboratories or hospital theatres), etc.
Outlet ducts are used to evacuate smoke and hot gases in order to allow people
to escape and to limit increase in temperature of the premises. These come in
various types of openings (single or double doors with intumescent strips),
which are placed on the roof or façades and can be released manually with
fuses or using an ADR.
1 - 47
Figure 6.5 Smoke extractor
6.2.6 Other requirements

National regulations also define requirements for:
 Facilitating evacuation of occupants (number and size of exits)
 Protection of individuals (containment of fire, confinement of smoke and
smoke evacuation, emergency exits, legibility of escape routes, duration of
building stability for evacuation purposes)
 Response by emergency services (access to building, safety standards,
training).
6.3 Acoustic performance

In order to ensure an acceptable degree of acoustic comfort, national
regulations draw up requirements in accordance with building end-use.
The occupants of a building must be protected from different noises:

 Airborne noise: vibrations which begin in the air.
This is the sound of voices or internal and airborne ambient noise, or road
traffic as external airborne noise
 Structure-borne noise: resulting from shock and solid-borne vibrations.
These are the sounds of footsteps, fallen objects, impact.
 Noise from equipment: generated by the operation of equipment, these are
air-borne vibrations emitted through their media.
These are the sounds of ventilation, heating, sanitary appliances.
The transmission of noise from the outside to a room, or from one room to
another, occurs through vibration. This can be distinguished as:
 Direct transmission: through the wall which separates the receiving from
the originating area.
 Lateral transfer: through the walls which are connected to the partitioning
wall
 Parasitic transmissions: these result from single points in the partition wall
(air intakes, ducts or installation defects).
1 - 48
Acoustic insulation provided by a partition lies in its ability to resist the

transmission of sound from one side to the other. The sound reduction index is
used to measure the performance of the wall. This is expressed in dB.
Regulations set minimum values for this index as a function of the building
end-use, of the type of facilities being separated and for the airborne sound,
impact sound and equipment noise.
It should be noted that the insulation provided by a real wall is always less than
the index measured in the laboratory, because of lateral transfer and parasitic
resonance.
The acoustic behaviour of a wall is illustrated by applying the mass-spring-

mass law:
 The acoustic reduction index increases with the surface density of the wall
 For a double skin wall (two sandwich panels), this index depends on:
- Mass per unit area of each partition
- Thickness of the air space between partitions
- Thickness of acoustic absorption
- Critical frequency of each partition
The index of a double skin wall is much greater than a single wall with the
same surface density. (The sound emitted from a room and spreading to
another room horizontally and vertically passes through first layer of products
which causes an initial reduction. It is then ‘trapped’ in the central void of the
wall, where it bounces against the second partition and is absorbed by the
insulation layer before returning residually through the second partition wall).
The acoustic performance of a steel building depends on the composition of the

various partitions: external and internal, vertical and horizontal. Construction
solutions are available which can achieve the very highest levels of
performance.
6.3.2 Partitioning
Partitioning usually consists of thin, cold formed steel elements on which
plasterboard sheets of varying thicknesses are screwed onto both sides. This
creates a central air cavity in which one or more layers of insulating mineral
wool are inserted.
It can incorporate the main structural building elements.
The composition of a partition wall can be adapted to the required level of

performance by varying the following parameters:
 Thickness of the air cavity: the more this increases, the higher the acoustic
performance; the size of the main structural elements governs the choice of
thickness
 Composition of each facing (number and type of plates finished in plaster)
1 - 49
 Partition frame: use of a double metal stud wall separate from the building
improves performance
 Absorbent pad: the type and thickness of the insulation affects its quality.
2
1
3
4
8
7
Installation of a resilient joint under the panel rail of

each frame is strongly recommended.
1 Angle 5 Plaster board
2 Seal 6 Rail (70 mm)
3 Mineral wool 7 Air-tightness seal
4 Upright 70 (independent double frame) 8 Closed cells moss
Figure 6.6 Double skin partition
6.3.3 Floors
In steel framed multi-storey buildings, the composition of the floors is
completed with the installation of steel sheeted plasterboard to improve
acoustic performance. This can be adapted for all types of floors: concrete
decks, cellular structures, composite floors, etc.
Several parameters influence acoustic performance:

 Thickness of the concrete deck
 Depth of the ceiling void under the slab (minimum 60 mm, maximum
100 mm)
 Type and number of plasterboard sheets (1 or 2 standard or special sheets)
 Type of absorbent mattress placed between the false ceiling and the slab.
1 - 50
2
1
5
1
6 2
4 3 1
4 3
(plaster board + mineral wool)
1 Plaster board 4 Mineral wool 1 Resilient strips under rail

2 Steel sheet 5 Rail 70 mm 2 Gap if slab depth < 15 cm
3 Plaster board 6 Fixing 3 Ceiling void interrupted by the
partition
4 Seal
Figure 6.7 Cross sections on floor
Particular attention should be paid to the control of horizontal transmission:

 Depending on the thickness of the slab, it may be necessary to make a cut
in the slab perpendicular to the partition walls.
 For the same reason, the ceiling void formed above the false ceiling must
be interrupted perpendicular to the partition walls.
Finally, at the bottom of the walls, holes for technical equipment must not be
drilled opposite one another (minimum spacing of 50 cm)
Figure 6.8 On site supplies with installation of plasterboards – Partitions and

ceilings
6.3.4 Light façades: Curtain wall systems

The acoustic performance of curtain wall systems which usually make up the
steel building envelope is obtained through construction similar to that of
internal partitions:
 External cladding
 Internal facing
 Air cavity with a filling of an absorbent mattress (mineral wool).
1 - 51
The careful application of all these façade components is a pre-requisite to

ensuring a satisfactory efficiency.
At the intersection with the wall,

these facings must be separated by
the partition wall.
Likewise, vertically, the internal

facings of the lining continue as far
as the decking, by stopping the
suspended ceiling
NO YES
Figure 6.9 Horizontal cross section at the junction between façade and
partition
6.3.5 Steel roofing systems

There are special techniques for treatment of metal roofing (film or spraying)
in order to reduce the noise of impact caused by rain.
6.4 Thermal performance

In order to guarantee an acceptable level of thermal comfort for the occupants
of buildings with controlled energy consumption, national regulations
determine the material requirements for thermal performance. These depend on
the building end-use and location.
The requirements can be defined in terms of:

 Restrictions on energy consumption needed for thermal comfort
 Restrictions on indoor temperature during the summer
 Minimum thermal characteristics of envelope and equipment (restricting
heat loss – effect of thermal bridging).
Section 6.3 dealt with different ways of conforming with regulatory

requirements for the acoustic performance of steel buildings. The provisions do
for the various partitions typically use mineral wool as a mattress in the
composite walls and its presence in the walls that surround the rooms also
protects them from heat loss.
Between two floors, for example, calorific loss is reduced because layers of
mineral wool are used in the composition of the floors (above and below).
Separating the two layers of insulation means that the type and thickness of the
materials can be varied, thereby eliminating a large amount of thermal
bridging.
1 - 52
Insulation materials include rock wool or glass, polyurethane foam and

polystyrene foam.
The risk of direct temperature transfer between the metal parts in contact with
the outside and the inside areas of the wall must be dealt with at the level of the
fittings and joints.
6.5 Durability of steel structures

This Section covers the durability of steel building components. Sustainability
of the material itself, particularly in respect of recycling, is discussed in
Section 7 of this document.
Damage to a steel construction component arises mainly from two phenomena:

fatigue and corrosion. Routine multi-storey buildings covered in this document
are not affected by fatigue. This Section is therefore concerned only with the
corrosion.
It is important to note at the outset that the steel frame buildings do not
generally suffer major damage as a result of atmospheric corrosion. Moreover
corrosion is not an issue for internal steelwork.
Even if, in the absence of adequate protection, structural elements subjected to

normal atmospheric conditions may rust on the surface, this phenomenon is
rarely the cause of damage to buildings, as long as a few elementary
precautions are taken.
In contrast, the atmospheric conditions in some regions, such as coastal areas

with a saline climate, or where there are industries that give rise to corrosive
vapours, may result in steel structures having to be protected and maintained.
6.5.1 The phenomenon of corrosion

Corrosion is caused by the formation of metal salts on the surface of the steel
component when a metal is combined with other elements. For example, iron
corrosion leads to the production of iron oxide.
The corrosion process may be:

 Chemical: through reaction between the metal and a gas phase or liquid.
 Electrochemical: formation by electric current and oxidation of the anode.
 Biochemical: by attacking bacteria.
Steel corrosion
Rust is the result of steel corrosion and is mainly composed of iron oxides and
hydroxides, which grow in the presence of moisture and oxygen content in the
atmosphere.
The oxide layers are generally non-adherent and oxidation spreads steadily.
The parts lose weight linearly as a function of time.
The corrosion product does not protect the steel.
1 - 53
Atmosphere and climate are parameters that have a significant influence on the
aggressiveness of corrosion.
Atmosphere
The general atmospheric conditions at the building location affect the rate of
corrosion: there are four general conditions:
 Rural: alternation of wet and dry atmosphere – absence of pollutants
 Urban: alternation of wet and dry conditions – present of sulphur dioxide
(SO2)
 Marine: high relative humidity – presence of chlorides which accelerate
corrosion.
Industrial: presence of chemical agents – aggressive corrosion linked to degree
and rate of pollutants
Climate
Heat and humidity are factors which accelerate the phenomenon of corrosion.
In tropical climates, aggressive corrosion in rural environments is comparable
with that in large industrial areas in temperate climates.
Some elementary precautions

In steel construction design, every means of limiting the effects of corrosion
should be adopted:
 Avoid creating areas of moisture and water retention for elements which are
exposed to weather
 Avoid contact between materials which have different electro-chemical
potentials (e.g. aluminium and unprotected steel).
Protection of steel construction elements

It is advisable to adapt the degree of protection to the conditions in which the
steel construction elements are installed.
There are two main forms of protection:

 Painting
 Galvanizing.
6.5.2 Paint protection

Table 6.6 summarizes common coating systems for corrosion protection.
It is worth noting that steel structures located inside a building where the
atmospheric conditions are neither wet nor aggressive, and are permanently
protected from the weather, would not suffer corrosion to the extent that it
affects their resistance, even if they were not protected. However, what cannot
be excluded is the unattractive appearance of rust: this can be prevented by
applying a light paint coating.
Surfaces which remain unprotected must be visible in order to detect any

unexpected degree of corrosion.
1 - 54
Table 6.6 Protection and thickness of coating

Conditions of use Traditional anti-rust coating Coated steel products
Elements incorporated in 1 or 2 primer layers of anti-rust Lacquered and painted
floors and façades, protected paint, products:
in absence of humidity 40 to 50 microns thick 15-20 microns thick
Elements inside buildings 1 primer of anti-rust paint, Lacquered and painted

without constant humidity 1 paint finish, products. 1 paint finish.
60 microns thick
60 to 80 microns thick
Elements inside unheated 2 primers of anti-rust paint. Lacquered and painted

buildings or where humidity is 1 intermediate layer of paint, products:
high 1 finish of paint, 1 to 2 finishes of paint
80 to120 microns thick 80 to100 microns thick
or
Galvanized or pre-lacquered
products
Elements in contact with 2 primer layers of anti-rust Lacquered and painted

aggressive external paint, products
atmosphere, humid climate, 1 intermediary layer of anti- + 2 finishes of paint
urban or industrial regions rust paint, 100-120 microns thick
1 finish of anti-rust paint, Or: Galvanized or pre-
120 to 200 microns thick lacquered products
Elements in contact with 2 primers of anti-rust paint or Lacquered or painted products

marine environment galvanizing/metalizing with 1 + 2 layers of paint with high
layer of zinc content of zinc
1 intermediary layer of anti- or
rust paint, Galvanizing or metalizing
1 paint finish, more than + paint with high content of
150 microns thick zinc
Or: Pre-lacquered products
The steel elements are usually delivered to site with a surface coating
consisting of an anti-rust primer. Once the elements are installed, it is
necessary to touch up any coating which has deteriorated during assembly.
Although elements embedded in concrete are generally not painted, those parts
which are not fully covered by concrete are often prone to corrosion and must
be carefully protected (including column ends).
For those parts of the elements concerned, the welds are performed and
checked before applying surface protection. The welding procedure must be
adapted for pre-painted products.
Estimated life of paint protection: 8 to 10 years to first maintenance
1 - 55
6.5.3 Protection by galvanizing

The principle of galvanizing is the formation of protective layer of zinc and
zinc-steel alloy on the surface of the steel parts in order to protect against
corrosion.
The galvanized layer which is gradually oxidized to form corrosion products

that are generally adhesive.
However, this form of protection is time limited and loses its effectiveness
when all of the zinc coating has corroded.
Speed of corrosion and life of protection

Atmospheric conditions and climate have a direct impact on the rate of
corrosion. Polluted industrial conditions near the sea are obviously more
aggressive than the rural hinterland.
Depending on atmospheric conditions, the corrosion rate varies between

0,1 microns/year and 8 microns/year.
EN ISO 14713[1] provides guidance on the average annual zinc corrosion rate.
This allows lifetimes to be estimated according to the coating thickness.
Estimated life of protection by galvanizing: approximately 25 years
Aesthetic appearance and painting

All galvanized steel can be painted to alter the surface appearance. Painting
greatly enhances the life of the galvanized steel. Maintenance painting of
galvanized steel is very easy: a brush is used to apply new layer of paint to the
damaged area. The paint can also be applied as an additional form of corrosion
protection in environments where acidic solutions may attack the surface
coating.
Galvanizing processes
Zinc can be applied either by immersion or spraying (metalizing solution) or by
electrolysis. Immersion is generally used for new parts, for dimensions
compatible with the size of the baths. Spraying is used instead for renovation
work or for larger building elements. Electrolysis is suitable for small parts and
batch processing (e.g. bolts).
Some observations
Welding: Before welding galvanized parts, it is recommended that the coating
is removed in the area of the weld seam. After sealing, the affected area will be
protected by a zinc-rich paint.
Exposure to fire: A galvanized steel part that is exposed to fire behaves like
uncoated steel and there is no improvement in fire resistance.
1 - 56
6.6 Service integration

A multi-story building, regardless of end use, is the combination of multiple
elements or sub-elements that contribute to its performance: not only the
structure and envelope, but also the technical installations and services which
sustain the life of the building.
The control of interactions between the services and the building structure
should allow:
 Ease of access to services for maintenance purposes
 Facility to replace elements where their life span is shorter than the
structure
 Prevention of nuisances arising from vibration of structures due to
operation of equipment.
The main services to be installed are:
 Heating and air conditioning,
 Ventilation,
 High and low current power supplies.
Services to the whole building are supplied using horizontal and vertical
systems.
6.6.2 Horizontal systems

The steel structure and envelope offer very efficient methods of service
integration using horizontal systems, as illustrated in Table 6.7. It is worth
highlighting the use of cellular beams in this context (see sections 3 and 4 in
this document for a description of these products). Since services can pass
directly through these beams, the floor-to-floor height can be reduced. In some
cases, this allows another floor to be added without altering the overall height
of the building.
The standard configuration of cellular beams (regularly spaced cells of the
same size) can generally be adapted to create larger openings, especially near
the mid-span, in order to allow the passage of large rectangular ducts
(Figure 6.10).
6.6.3 Vertical systems

Steel construction and standard envelope systems also offer flexible integration
of vertical systems, due to open spaces in the wall thickness.
Achieving floor openings, and changing their location during the life of the
building, is facilitated by the use of composite dry floors.
It is best to prevent the passage of services through hollow sections (between
flange plates) because of potential problems with beam/column connections
and in event of application of fire protection coating.
The integration of vertical pipes in tubular columns is not recommended
because of lack of access for maintenance.
1 - 57
Table 6.7 Integration methods for horizontal systems

Sytem Feature
Visible systems For economical, technical or architectural reasons, services can
remain visible. The advantage lies in access to services, while the
disadvantage is the risk of shock on unprotected pipes.
Above ceiling systems Services can be installed above floors then concealed by false
open or closed ceilings and can be fully or partially dismantled.
The ceiling void is cut alongside the acoustic partitions, or for
reasons of fire safety.
Services can pass through the cellular beams or truss.
Systems with decking This arrangement is only possible for certain types of small
surface diameter pipe systems.
Plinth or breast systems Installation of composite façade walls facilitates this arrangement,
with ease of service offsets and connections through elimination of
constraints imposed by heavy walls.
Systems on floors Raised floors always consist of steel structures. The space
created between the floor and the false ceiling allows movement of
services with large number of ducts. These offer full accessibility
and adaptability.
Figure 6.10 Cellular beams and service integration
1 - 58
7 STEEL CONSTRUCTION AND

SUSTAINABILITY
The preoccupations of the sustainable development are of particular concern

for the construction sector, which is responsible for 25% of greenhouse gas
emissions and for 40% of the primary energy consumption. They constitute a
major stake for all the involved professionals.
It is a question today of designing and of realizing creative projects which

integrate values and new techniques. Steel is the mainspring in our quest to
improve the quality of our buildings and their impact on our living
environment.
General principles are established according to three main considerations:

ecological, economical and socio-cultural, although the methods for
determining their impact have not yet been agreed on an international scale.
The sustainability of buildings concerns a range of issues related to choice of

materials, construction process, occupation and end of life. These issues may
be expressed in terms of specific criteria, such as energy materials use, waste
minimization, reduction of primary energy use (and CO2 emissions), pollution
and other global impacts.
Figure 7.1 Praetorium building in La Défense (Paris) with ‘High

Environmental Quality’ label
1 - 59
7.1 Life cycle

Steel is an excellent solution for conserving raw materials, thanks to its
recyclability. It can be infinitely recycled without losing its properties.
Today, the production of steel in Europe consists of 50% recycled metal,

reducing the need for ore; for certain products intended for construction, this
rate can reach up to 98%. This re-use of the material is in particular made
possible by its magnetic properties facilitating the sorting.
For 25 years, the control of energy and the reduction of CO2 emissions during
production have led to vast improvements in developing new steel materials
and taking into account life cycle of materials and products. The European
steel industry has substantially contributed to the energy efficiency and the
reduction in CO2 emissions.
Between 1970 and 2005, the European steel industry reduced CO2 emissions
by 60%; between 1990 and 2005, this reduction was 21% (source Eurofer). In
the same period, crude steel production increased by 11.5% (source
Worldsteel for EU15).
Other solutions are already underway to improve these results.
Steel is a neutral material which emits no polluting substance or element that is

harmful to the environment or health, even under the influence of corrosion.
Galvanizing and painting (carried out in the factory) are corrosion protection
systems that guarantee the durability of steel up to 25 years.
Maintenance of steel is limited to regular follow-up and periodic painting.
7.2 Advantages of steel products for construction

An Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) is now a widely developed
approach for construction products. Based on ISO 21930[2] the overall goal of
an EPD is to provide relevant, verified and comparable information to meet
various customer and market needs.
Using life cycle assessments, the steel industry has already provided several
EPD for generic products as well as branded systems. The energy and lighting
consumption during service life exceeds the embodied energy in the structure.
Thanks to the efficient use of materials, steel construction minimizes waste in

manufacture and on-site, because all steel off-cuts and drills are sent for re-
cycling into new steel components. Typically, the average steel wastage and
re-use is about 2%, in comparison with the European average of 10% for all the
products used on-site.
The excellent weight-resistance ratio of the material offers incomparable

constructive and architectural possibilities. This performance opens the way to
the reducing the weight in buildings, using thin walled structures in the façade.
These features offer a large amount of space with light and vast possibilities for
architectural integration.
1 - 60
The association of steel with other materials offers many efficient solutions for
thermal and acoustic insulation.
For the envelope, the metallic construction is generally designed with an

external thermal insulation; walls are built from industrialized systems,
metallic or not (glass, wood, concrete, terra-cotta, plaster, etc.), which offer
high levels of thermal performance. The heating and ventilation systems can
then be chosen for optimal energy behaviour.
The range of qualities opens the architectural choices and allows the optimized
selection of the processes, the materials and the methods of construction,
especially by considering the global life of the building to be realized up to its
demolition.
7.3 Steel-intensive solutions for buildings

For buildings there are several environmental initiatives across Europe. These
approaches can be quantitative or qualitative, using variable criteria. However,
some subjects are common, but with different treatments, for which steel
solutions bring firm answers.
The harmonious integration of the building with its surrounding environment

The choice of a steel frame for a building project allows the designer a large
freedom of shape and the flexibility to adapt work to the constraints of the site.
Used for façades or roofing, steel products offer the architect a range of
textures, geometries and colours to respond to the most sensitive and the
varied of contemporary sites, whether a historical city centre or in the
countryside.
Lightness of the structures and the flexibility of spaces

A frame made with columns and beams is typical in steel buildings. Without
load-bearing walls, the construction is lighter; the impacts on the foundations
and the ground are lesser.
It is also easier to remodel internal spaces according to the changes of use.
A structure with connected components is an efficient solution for vertical

extensions as well as in the renovation of an existing building.
Less on-site problems

Steel products and associated elements are industrially made, of high precision.
They are delivered with accurate dimensions for on-site assembly. Due to the
higher level of pre-fabrication, implicit in steel-intensive constructions
systems, speed of construction is increased.
The construction site is transformed, with reduced deliveries, precise and
appropriate assembly, less storage and no waste.
Maintenance
Steel solutions provide durability and facilitate cleaning and replacement of
components.
1 - 61
Services (fluids, ducts, etc) are generally placed in the ceiling void. The
maintenance and the possible reconfiguration of the services are then
facilitated, especially in the presence of cellular beams. This flexibility allows
the different levels to be completely refitted.
At the end of life, the demolition consists of a clean dismantling, for a

complete recovery of materials.
Re-use of steel profiles

In Western Europe, a study has shown that about 11% of profiles in the
construction sector are directly reused after demolition, without remoulding
(ECSC Report ‘LCA for steel construction’. Document RT913. July 2002.
Steel Construction Institute).
Creating a safe and comfortable internal space

All combinations of wall components can be accommodated.
Steel solutions in combination with additional products contribute to the

excellent sound insulation through the ‘mass-spring-mass’ principle.
For thermal comfort, steel allows the design of ‘evolved’ façades, adapted to
the various climatic conditions:
 Double-skin façades, implementation of a layer of ventilated air,
 Fixed or mobile solar control mechanisms
Integration of alternative technologies on steel buildings

Alternative Energy Technologies (AET) are integrated into building design for
a wide range of reasons but typically the primary motivators are green
aspirations and planning restraints such as ‘Grenelle’, which will require a
certain percentage of a building’s energy consumption to be provided by
additional benefits from using AET, including renewable energy.
AET provide environmental benefits over the use of standard energy supply.
Moreover, they have a very low impact on steel buildings. The main concerns
for AETs implantation are:
 Plant Room: The location of the plant room and spatial restrictions can
impact on the viability of specific technologies
 Shading: the shape of the new building may restrict the location of solar PV
panels.
 Roof Orientation: The orientation and the shape of the roof can be a
limitation on energy output, for either solar hot water collectors or
photovoltaic panels.
 Reliability: If an unproven technology is used then it may not be reliable
and so the desired carbon savings cannot be made.
1 - 62
Table 7.1 Renewable energy sources

Type Comment
Biomass heating 8 The system requires a basic plant room for the
1 Boiler
1 6
boiler and storage for the fuel. This can be fully
3 7 integrated in the building, creating a steel
2 Burner 5 storage with a steel frame.
3 Pump 2
4 Ash removal
5 Biomass fuel delivery 4
6 Cold water
7 Hot water
8 Flue gas
Combined Heat and Power 1 6 The system only requires a typical plant room,
(CHP) 8
3
entirely compatible with a steel frame
1 Boiler
7
construction for mixed-use developments and
sites with high hot-water loads. It is generally
2 Engine
suitable for swimming pools, hotels and
3 Pump 2 4
hospitals,
4 Generator
5 Main gas supply 5 9
6 Cold water
7 Hot water
8 Flue gas
9 Electricity
Ground Source Heat Pumps 6
3 5 3 GSHP’s can be applied anywhere given that
(GSHPs) 1 there is enough space for plant room and
1 Compressor ground loops or wells. Often, areas used for
7 car parks or gardens can be used. All steel
2 Expansion valve
4
2
4 buildings are suitable for this technology.
3 Pump 8
4 Heat exchanger
5 Electricity in (AC 230V)
6 Hot water supply
7 Cold water return
8 Return to heat source
9 Supply from heat source
Solar Hot Water Collectors Solar equipment can be installed on a flat roof
1
1 Absorber plate without impact on the steel structure using a
cantilever, a steel structure to support the
2 Pump
panels (however, system weight, wind and
3 Cold water supply damp-proof cloth resistance have to be
4 Hot water return considered). On a pitched roof, the system can
be implemented by using subsidiary steel
2
work, clips or directly integrated in the roofing
3 4
such as PV tiles or on a façade, with simple
rails to allow the fastening.
Solar Photovoltaics
1
1 Photovoltaic module
2 DC electricity generation
3 Inverter
4 Electricity 3
Wind Turbines 2 A small scale wind turbine requires little

1 Wind energy infrastructure for its inclusion; only an allowance for
3 1
cable ducts from hard standing areas to a suitable
2 Turbine blades
plant room. If directly mounted on steel frame
3 Generator buildings, it is essential to consider the additional
4 Electricity 4
loads, vibration and noise. Small wind turbines can
be suitable for steel buildings, such as commercial
buildings, aircraft hangars, or industrial buildings as
they are best located in a clear wind stream, away
from obstructions and surface roughness.
1 - 63
8 CONCLUSION
Thanks to its outstanding mechanical performance, to the freedom of technical

prowess it affords, to its flexibility of use in different types of buildings, to its
plastic and aesthetic potential and the creativity it inspires, steel has a natural
place in the pantheon of materials for architectural design.
When an architect chooses steel, he knows this is a choice of no small

consequence. First this choice implies rigorous design, awareness of the
functionality of each of the elements that make up the design, and analysis of
all stages in the building process – from drawing board to routine management
of the completed project. Second, the choice is an expression of affirmation, of
putting ones mark on a design, a way of conceiving and perceiving, a
willingness to contribute to the urban landscape, to integrate with light and air
into the urban fabric. Steel is a form of expression which gives meaning to
architectural design.
Choosing steel to design a multi-storey building is to choose a material which

offers low cost, strength, durability, design flexibility, adaptability and
recyclability. It also means choosing reliable industrial products which come in
a huge range of shapes and colours; it means rapid site installation and less
energy consumption. It means choosing to commit to the principles of
sustainability. Infinitely recyclable, steel is the material that reflects the
imperatives of sustainable development. In conclusion, choosing steel means
choosing a greater freedom of construction, of architecture. It means injecting
style into the buildings and the cities of tomorrow.
1 - 64
REFERENCES
1 EN ISO 14713 Zinc coatings. Guidelines and recommendations for the protection
against corrosion of iron and steel in structures.
2 ISO 21930:2007 Sustainability in building construction. Environmental
declaration of building products
1 - 65

Part 2: Concept Design
.
2 - ii
FOREWORD
This publication is a second part of a design guide, Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.

Part 3: Actions
The design guides have been prepared under the direction of Arcelor Mittal, Peiner
Träger and Corus. The technical content has been prepared by CTICM and SCI,
2 - iii
2 - iv
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 INTRODUCTION: STRUCTURAL DESIGN IN OVERALL BUILDING DESIGN 1
1.1 Hierarchy of design decisions 2
1.2 Client requirements 3
1.3 Economics 5
1.4 Construction programme 6
1.5 Sustainability 7
2 BENEFITS OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION 11
2.1 Speed of construction 11
2.2 Construction process 12
2.3 Long spans and service integration 13
2.4 Lightweight structures and resource efficiency 14
2.5 Benefits of adaptability 15
3 CASE STUDIES ON MULTI-STOREY STEEL BUILDINGS 16
3.1 Office Building, Bishops Square, London 16
3.2 Le Seguana, Paris 18
3.3 Luxembourg Chamber of Commerce 19
3.4 Kings Place, Kings Cross, London 20
3.5 Kone Headquarters, Helsinki 21
3.6 AM Steel Centre, Liege 22
4 ANATOMY OF BUILDING DESIGN 24
4.1 Floor grids 24
4.2 Dimensional coordination 25
4.3 Structural options for stability 27
4.4 Columns 30
4.5 Structural options for floor systems 31
4.6 Factors influencing structural arrangements 35
4.7 Structure – service integration 37
5 FLOOR SYSTEMS 40
5.1 Composite construction 40
5.2 Composite beams and composite slabs with steel decking 40
5.3 Long-span composite beams with web openings 45
5.4 Cellular composite beams with composite slab and steel decking 47
5.5 Composite beams with precast concrete units 50
5.6 Non-composite beams with precast units 53
5.7 Integrated beams with precast concrete units 55
5.8 Asymmetric beams and deep decking 59
5.9 Beam connections 60
6 OTHER DESIGN ISSUES 63
6.1 Accidental Actions 63
6.2 Floor dynamics 65
6.3 Corrosion protection 67
6.4 Temperature effects 67
6.5 Fire safety 67
6.6 Acoustic performance 68
6.7 Energy efficiency 70
6.8 Cladding 70
REFERENCES 75
2-v
SUMMARY
This publication presents information necessary to assist in the choice and use of steel
structures at the concept design stage of modern multi-storey buildings. The primary
sector of interest is commercial buildings, but the same information may also be used in
other sectors. The information is presented in terms of the design strategy, anatomy of
building design and structural systems that are relevant to the multi-storey buildings.
This publication on the concept design of multi-storey frames complements other parts
of the guide.
The use of long span composite construction is considered to be a very important step
towards the greater use of steel in multi-storey buildings, and these forms of
construction are emphasised in this publication. Cellular beams and perforated steel
sections are promoted, as integrated solutions providing long spans without increasing
overall floor depth. Long spans provide column-free adaptable space with fewer
foundations. Integrated beams are also beneficial where the beam depth is minimised,
such as in renovation applications. Other forms of floor construction, such as precast
concrete units, are also covered.
Tables are provided for preliminary design of the various structural systems, with
typical layouts, sizes and guidance on the key design issues.
2 - vi
1 INTRODUCTION: STRUCTURAL DESIGN IN

OVERALL BUILDING DESIGN
In multi-storey buildings, the design of the primary structure is strongly

influenced by many issues, as defined below:
 The need to provide clear floor spans for more usable space
 The choice of cladding system
 Planning requirements, which may limit the building height and the
maximum floor-to-floor zone
 The services strategy and effective integration of building services
 Site conditions, which dictate the foundation system and location of
foundations
 Craneage limitations and storage space for materials and components
 Speed of construction, which may influence the number of components that

are used and the installation process.
Studies show that the cost of the building structure is generally only 10% of the
total building cost – and the influence of the choice of structure on the
foundations, services and cladding are often more significant[1]. In reality,
building design is a synthesis of architectural, structural, services, logistics and
buildability issues. Steel frames are ideally suited for modern multi-storey
commercial buildings such as that shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Modern commercial building in steel
2-1
1.1 Hierarchy of design decisions

The development of any proposal for a construction project requires a complex
series of design decisions that are inter-related. The process should begin with
a clear understanding of the client requirements and of local conditions or
regulations. Despite the complexity, it is possible to identify a hierarchy of
design decisions, as shown in Figure 1.2.
Firstly, planning requirements are likely to define the overall building form,
which will also include aspects such as natural light, ventilation and services.
The principal design choices that need to be made in close consultation with
the client are:
 The depth of the floor zone and the overall structure/service interaction
strategy
 The need for special structural arrangements in public spaces or circulation
areas
 The provision of some tolerance between structure and services, to permit
future adaptability
 The benefit of using longer span structure, at negligible extra cost, in order
to enhance flexibility of layout.
Based on the design brief, a concept design is then prepared and is reviewed by
the design team and client. It is this early interactive stage where the important
decisions are made that influence the cost and value of the final project. Close
involvement with the client is essential.
Figure 1.2 Hierarchy of design decisions
2-2
Once the concept design is agreed, the detailed design of the building and its
components is usually undertaken with less direct interaction with the client.
Connections and interfaces between the components are often detailed by the
fabricator or specialist designer but the lead architect should have an
understanding of the form of these details.
1.2 Client requirements

1.2.1 Spatial Requirements
Client requirements may be defined firstly by general physical aspects of the
building, e.g. the number of occupants and their range of functions, planning
modules or floor-to-floor zones. Minimum floor loadings and fire resistance
periods are defined in national regulations, but the client may wish to specify
higher requirements.
Examples of general client requirements are:

Occupation density 1 person per 10 m to 15 m2
Useable floor area : Total area 80 to 90% typically
Floor-to-floor zone 3,6 m to 4,2 m
Floor-to-ceiling zone 2,7 m to 3 m typically
Planning module 1,2 m to 1,5 m
Imposed loading 2,5 to 7,5 kN/m2
Fire resistance R60 to R120
The floor-to-floor zone is a key parameter, which is influenced by planning

requirements on overall building height, natural light, cladding cost and other
aspects.
1.2.2 Service requirement

Other client requirements may be defined under the heading of ‘servicing’,
which includes Information Technology and other communication issues in
addition to ventilation, lighting and other servicing requirements. In most inner
city projects, air conditioning or comfort cooling is essential, because noise
limits the use of natural ventilation. In sub-urban or more rural sites, natural
ventilation may be preferred.
Design requirements for building services are usually determined by

regulations in the country where the structure is to be constructed and are a
function of the external and internal environments.
Typical examples of client requirements for design of the primary building

services are:
Fresh air supply 8-12 litres/sec per person
Internal temperatures 22C  2C
Cooling load 40-70 W/m2
Thermal insulation (walls) U < 0,35 W/m2K
2-3
Data communications are normally placed under a raised access floor to

facilitate access by the user and future modifications. Other services are
generally supported under the floor, above a ceiling. The services can become
highly congested and an integrated solution, such as that shown in Figure 1.3
can be advantageous in minimising the overall depth required to accommodate
both structure and services.
Figure 1.3 Services integrated with a cellular floor beam
1.2.3 Floor loading

Floor loadings are presented in national Regulations or in EN 1991-1-1, and
minimum values can be increased by client requirements. Floor loading has
three basic components:
 Imposed loading, including partitions
 Ceiling and services, and a raised floor
 Self weight of the structure.
Imposed loading is dependant on the use of the building and design loads range
from 2,0 to 7,5 kN/m2, as illustrated in Table 1.1, which has been extracted
from Table 6.2 of EN 1991-1-1. Imposed loads on floors should be taken from
EN 1991-1-1 Tables 6.1 and 6.2. §6.3.1.2(8) provides an allowance for
movable partitions ranging between 0,5 kN/m2 and 1,2 kN/m2. A further
0,7 kN/m2 is generally allowed for ceiling, services and a raised floor.
For perimeter beams, it is necessary to include the loading from façade walls
and internal finishes which can range from 3 to 5 kN/m for lightweight
cladding to 8 to 10 kN/m for brickwork and 10 to 15 kN/m for precast concrete
panels.
The self weight of a typical composite floor is 2,8 to 3,5 kN/m2, which is only
about 50 % of that of a 200 mm deep reinforced concrete flat slab. The self
weight of a precast hollow core concrete slab and concrete topping is typically
3,5 to 6,5 kNm2 for a similar span.
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Other typical weights are illustrated in Table 1.2.
Table 1.1 Typical imposed loads for offices (kN/m2)

Ceiling,
En 1991-1-1 Imposed
Application Partitions Services,
Category Loading
etc.
B Offices - general 2,0 – 3,0 0,5 – 1,2 0,7
C1 Areas with tables 2,0 – 3,0 0,5 – 1,2 0,7
C2 Areas with fixed seats 3,0 – 4,0 0,5 – 1,2 0,7
C3 Areas open to crowds 3,0 – 5,0
C5 Areas open to large 5,0 – 7,5
crowds
Table 1.2 Typical weights for building elements

Element Typical weight
2
Precast units (Spanning 6 m, designed for a 5 kN/m imposed load) 3,5 to 4,5 kN/m2
Composite slab (Normal weight concrete, 140 mm thick) 2,8 to 3,5 kN/m2
Composite slab (Light weight concrete, 130 mm thick) 2,1 to 2,5 kN/m2
Services (lighting) 0,25 kN/m2
Ceilings 0,1 kN/m2
Steelwork (low rise 2 to 6 storeys) 35 to 50 kg/m2
Steelwork (medium rise 7 to 12 storeys) 40 to 70 kg/m2
1.2.4 External Loading

Roofs are subject to imposed loads, to be taken from EN1991-1-1, typically 0,4
or 0,6 kN/m2.
Roofs are also subject to snow loads, which should be determined from
EN 1991-1-3.
Wind loads should be calculated from EN 1991-1-4.
The determination of these loads is covered by other documents in this

series[2].
1.3 Economics
1.3.1 Cost of construction
A breakdown of construction costs for a typical office building[1] is
approximately as below:
Foundations 5-15%
Super structure and floors 10-15%
Cladding and roofing 15-25%
Services (mechanical and electrical) 15-25%
Services (sanitation and other services) 5-10%
Finishes, partitioning and fitments 10-20%
2-5
Preliminaries (site management) 10-15%
Preliminaries represent the costs of the site management and control facilities,
including cranes, storage and equipment. Site preliminaries can vary with the
scale of the project and a figure of 15% of the total cost is often allowed for
steel intensive construction reducing to 12% for higher levels of offsite
prefabrication. The superstructure or framework cost is rarely more than 10%
of the total, but it has an important effect on other costs. For example, a
reduction of 100 mm in the ceiling floor zone can lead to a 2,5% saving in
cladding cost (equivalent to 0,5% saving in overall building cost).
1.3.2 Benefits of steel construction

Steel construction offers many benefits to the client/user in operation
including:
 Column-free spans, permitting flexibility in use
 Ease of extension and adaptation in the future, including needs for
re-servicing
 Variety of cladding and roofing systems
 Long design life and ease of maintenance
 Energy efficient design.
These benefits of steel construction are explored in Section 2.
1.3.3 Cost of ownership / occupancy

It is estimated that the total cost of running a building during a 60 year design
life may be 3 to 5 times the cost of initial construction. Major components in
the longer term costs include:
 Direct running costs of heat, lighting, air conditioning
 Refurbishing the interior, minor redecoration every 3-5 years, major
refitting every 10-20 years
 Replacing the services, approximately every 15-20 years
 Possibly re-cladding the building after 25-30 years.
The European Directive on Energy Saving in Buildings now requires that

office buildings carry an ‘energy passport’ which defines the energy use and
energy saving measures. Many modern buildings are designed with energy
saving measures in mind, including double skin facades, thermal capacity and
chimneys for natural ventilation and photovoltaics in roofing.
1.4 Construction programme

A typical construction programme for a medium-sized office building is shown
in Figure 1.4. One of the advantages of steel construction is that the initial
period of site preparation and foundation construction permits sufficient time
for off-site fabrication of the steel structure into a ‘kit of parts’. This is known
as ‘Fast track’ construction.
2-6
The installation of the primary structure and floors takes approximately

20-25% of the total construction period but its completion permits an early start
on cladding and servicing. It is for these reasons that steel construction leads to
considerable advantage in terms of speed of construction, as it is a
prefabricated and essentially ‘dry’ form of construction.
In a typical construction project, savings in construction period using steel

construction compared to other materials can range from 5% to 15% depending
on the level of prefabrication that is used. The main programme benefit relative
to concrete construction is the creation of a water-tight building envelope early
in the construction process. Financial benefits from faster construction are:
 Savings in site preliminaries
 Site productivity gains for the remainder of the construction
 Reduced interest payments
 Earlier income from the new facility.
Typical time-related cost savings are 2% to 4% of the total costs i.e. a
significant proportion of the superstructure cost. Furthermore, in renovation
projects or major building extensions, speed of construction and reduced
disruption to the occupants or adjacent buildings can be even more important.
Months 0 4 8 12 16 20
Foundations
Superstructure
Cladding
Services
Finishes and fitments

Commissioning
Figure 1.4 Construction programme of a typical 4 to 6-storey commercial

building in steel
1.5 Sustainability
Sustainable construction must address three goals:
 Environmental criteria
 Economic criteria
 Social criteria.
These three criteria are met by construction in steel:
Environmental criteria
Steel
teel is one of the most recovered and recycled materials. Some 84% is
recycled with no loss of strength or quality, and 10% reused. Before
demolishing a structure, extending a building’s life is generally more
beneficial. This is facilitated by steel construction, since large column-free
2-7
spaces give flexibility for change in use. Advances in the manufacturing of raw
materials means that less water and energy is used in production, and allows
for significant reductions in noise, particle and CO2 emissions.
Economic criteria
Steel construction brings together the various elements of a structure in an
integrated design. The materials are manufactured, fabricated and constructed
using efficient production processes. The use of material is highly optimised
and waste virtually eliminated. The structures themselves are used for all
aspects of modern life, including logistics, retail, commercial, and
manufacturing, providing the infrastructure on which society depends. Steel
construction provides low investment costs, optimum operational costs and
outstanding flexibility of building use, with high quality, functionality,
aesthetics and fast construction times.
Social criteria
The high proportion of offsite fabrication in steel buildings means that working
conditions are safer, controlled and protected from the weather. A fixed
location for employees helps to develop communities, family life and the skills.
Steel releases no harmful substances into the environment, and steel buildings
provide a robust, safe solution.
Multi-storey buildings
The design of multi-storey buildings is increasingly dependent on aspects of
sustainability, defined by criteria such as:
 Efficient use of materials and responsible sourcing of materials
 Elimination of waste in manufacturing and in construction processes
 Energy efficiency in building operation, including improved air-tightness
 Measures to reduce water consumption
 Improvement in indoor comfort
 Overall management and planning criteria, such as public transport
connections, aesthetics or preservation of ecological value.
Steel framed buildings can be designed to satisfy all these criteria. Some of the
recognised sustainability benefits of steel are:
 Steel structures are robust, with a long life. Properly detailed and
maintained, steel structures can be used indefinitely
 Approximately 10% of steel sections are re-used[3]
 95% of structural steel sections are recycled
 Steel products can potentially be dismantled and reused, particularly
modular components or steel frames
 Steel structures are lightweight for use on poor ground or over tunnels
 Steel is manufactured efficiently in factory controlled processes

 All waste is recycled in manufacture and no steel waste is produced on site
2-8
 Construction in steel maximises the opportunity and ease of extending

buildings and change of use
 High levels of thermal insulation can be provided in the building envelope
 Prefabricated construction systems are rapidly installed and are much safer
in terms of the construction processes
 Steel construction is safe to install, and safety features can be introduced
into the steel design, such as pre-attached safety barriers, as shown in
Figure 1.5.
Different sustainability assessment measures exist in various European

countries[4]. National building regulations present minimum levels of overall
energy performance which must be satisfied. Many multi-storey buildings are
designed with solar shading and active energy creation technologies, such as
Photovoltaics (PVs), as shown in Figure 1.6.
Utilisation of the thermal capacity of the building structure can be achieved

using composite slabs, and research has shown that a slab depth of only 50 mm
to 75 mm is needed to provide adequate fabric energy storage[5].
Figure 1.5 Safety barriers pre-attached to the perimeter steelwork
2-9
Figure 1.6 ‘Green’ roof and PV panels attached to a city centre office building
2 - 10
2 BENEFITS OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION
In the multi-storey building sector, the benefits of steel construction are largely
related to the ‘fast track’ nature of the construction process, which leads to a
wide range of financial and process benefits. Many innovations associated with
the construction process have further improved these inherent benefits and
have increased efficiency and productivity. This is very important in inner city
projects where lack of space for storage of materials and other facilities,
limitations on deliveries and logistics, and planning constraints, mean that a
higher proportion of work should be done in the factory and less on site.
The benefits of steel in multi-storey construction arise mainly from its

prefabricated nature, its lightweight and the ability to phase the various
activities in series rather than in parallel. These benefits are explored in the
following sections.
2.1 Speed of construction

Speed of construction is the most important benefit offered by steel
construction, which leads to financial, management and other logistical
benefits, many of which can be experienced in economic as well as
sustainability terms. For an eight-storey office building, it is found that steel
construction is up to 20% faster than reinforced concrete, but, importantly, the
construction of the primary frame and floors is up to 40% faster and allows for
early start in building services, installation, cladding and other activities. The
fast construction process is based on a synergistic use of steel frames, steel
decking and in some cases, concrete or braced steel cores, as illustrated in
Figure 2.1.
The financial benefits of speed of construction may be expressed as:

 Early completion, which leads to reduced interest charges on the borrowed
capital and to early return in terms of revenue
 Lower cash flow
 Reduced management costs on-site, due primarily to the shorter
construction period, but also due to the fewer personnel employed
 Reduced hire costs of site facilities
 Greater certainty and less risk in the construction process.
2 - 11
Figure 2.1 Rapid installation of steelwork and steel decking speeds up the
construction process
2.2 Construction process

Speed of construction is achieved by ‘just in time’ delivery of components and
by rapid assembly for the steel framework. It is estimated that a single tower
crane can install up to 20 steel elements per day, which corresponds to a floor
area of approximately 300 m2.
Secondary benefits in steel construction arise from:

 Placing of steel decking, in ‘bundles’ on the beams and installation of
decking at a rate of up to 500 m2 per day
 Avoidance of temporary propping by using steel decking spans of 3 m to
4 m for profiles of 50 mm to 80 mm depth
 Fire protection by intumescent coating that is applied in the factory and,
therefore, eliminates the time required for this process on-site
 Opportunities for reduction in the amount of fire protection by use of fire
engineering analysis
 Use of mobile installation platforms improve construction safety and speed
up the installation process, as shown in Figure 2.2
 Prefabricated stairs that are installed as part of the steel construction
package
 Safety barriers can be attached to the perimeter steel beams, see Figure 1.5
 Rapid concrete placement of up to 1000 m2 area in one day for a 130 m
deep slab
2 - 12
 Light steel infill walls and partitions that are installed rapidly and can be
prefabricated
 Modular serviced units that may be installed with the steelwork package.
Figure 2.2 Rapid, safe installation of steelwork and steel decking from a
mobile erection platform speeds up the construction process
2.3 Long spans and service integration

The integration of building services within the primary structure can be
achieved by two methods:
 Designing the structure to be of minimum construction depth so that
services pass beneath
 Designing the structure with periodic openings or zones for integration of
services within the structural depth.
Long span construction is attractive because it eliminates the need for internal
columns and makes the internal space more adaptable to a range of current and
future uses. Spans of 12 m to 18 m are readily achieved by a variety of
structural steel technologies.
The minimum structural depth is achieved by use of slim floor or integrated

beams which have a maximum span capability of around 9 m. Structural
systems which provide for service integration include:
 Cellular beams with regular circular openings, as shown in Figure 1.3
 Rolled or fabricated steel beams with periodic openings, often rectangular
in shape, as shown in Figure 2.3
 Trusses or other open shaped members.
2 - 13
For commercial buildings, the floor and service zone is typically 800 mm to
1200 mm. For renovation projects where the original façade is retained, slim
floor or integrated beams have proved to be attractive and can achieve an
overall floor zone of less than 600 mm.
The economics of long span construction may be summarised as:

 Saving in cladding cost (up to 300 mm per floor)
 Elimination of internal columns and increase in useable area (up to 3% of
the plan area)
 Fewer steel elements to install (up to 25% less)
 Columns and façades can be located at the perimeter of the building
 Ease of service integration and future servicing
 Future adaptability of the space and re-use of the building.
Figure 2.3 Rectangular openings in composite beams for service distribution
2.4 Lightweight structures and resource efficiency

Steel construction of all types is lightweight, even when including concrete
floors. The self weight of a typical composite floor system is typically only
40% of that of a reinforced concrete flat slab. When the total building weight is
considered, a steel framed structure is up to 30% lighter than the equivalent
concrete building, which leads to an equivalent saving in foundation costs.
2 - 14
Furthermore, steel construction is the preferred solution for building on:

 Post-industrial or former built-on sites, often with pre-existing foundations
 Building over underground services and tunnels
 Building on railway lines and other ‘podium-type’ structures.
Steel construction virtually eliminates waste by the nature of its manufacturing

process and all steel waste is recycled. Synergistic materials such as
plasterboard can also be recycled.
2.5 Benefits of adaptability

General expectations for all multi-storey buildings change substantially during
their design lives. A building’s occupancy is also likely to change several times
during its life. Increasingly, the nature of the occupancy may change; for
example in many major European cities, there is a growing trend to convert
office buildings into apartments.
In the 1960s and 70s, many buildings were constructed to minimum cost
without any allowance for future adaptation. These structures have not proved
capable of responding to occupant’s changing needs, leading to their early
demolition.
Although difficult to quantify at the proposal development stage, there are clear
qualitative benefits in specifying a structure that is inherently adaptable to
changes in requirements during its design life. Key issues on adaptability are:
 Specifying longer spans, permitting greater flexibility of layout
 Providing space for additional services
 Specifying floor loadings that permit change of occupancy.
2 - 15
3 CASE STUDIES ON MULTI-STOREY STEEL

BUILDINGS
The following case studies describe the use of steel in multi-storey buildings,
primarily in the commercial building sector, but also in the residential sector,
where the same technologies are used.
3.1 Office Building, Bishops Square, London
Figure 3.1 Office building, Bishop’s Square, London
The Bishop's Square project near to London's Broadgate area comprises a

composite steel structure of 18 m span and only 650 mm depth. There is an
almost fully glazed façade and a 'green' roof space on three levels. The
completed building is shown in Figure 3.1, and during construction in
Figure 3.2.
The 12-storey building of close to 80000 m2 floor area comprised

approximately 9500 tonnes of steelwork, and was erected in only 30 weeks out
of an overall 20 month construction programme. Fire protection, in the form of
intumescent coatings, was applied off-site in a single operation by the
steelwork contractor, which speeded up the following trades.
The highly glazed façade was designed to satisfy onerous thermal requirements
which led to the use of triple glazing with integral louvres. Photovoltaic panels
were installed on the roof to provide an energy source for lighting, thereby
reducing running costs and CO2 emissions.
2 - 16
The floor-to-floor height was only 3,9 m, which necessitated a beam depth of
only 650 mm as part of a 1050 mm overall floor zone. The 9 m span heavily
loaded primary beams had large rectangular openings, and were tapered in
depth close to the concrete cores to allow for distribution of large ducts.
Secondary beams were designed as fabricated steel sections with a series of

425 mm diameter circular openings for services and two rectangular openings
of 425 mm depth × 750 mm length close to mid-span. An imposed load
deflection limit of only 30 mm was specified, which was achieved by beams of
138 kg/m weight with no stiffening.
Figure 3.2 View of long span cellular beams in the Bishop’s Square project
2 - 17
3.2 Le Seguana, Paris

Le Seguana is a 25000 m2 office development on the banks of the Seine in
Paris, shown in Figure 3.3. It consists of column free spaces of 18 m  36 m
and is fully air conditioned. The construction was completed in 22 months to
programme and budget, including the erection of 2000 tonnes of structural
steelwork in only 12 weeks.
Figure 3.3 Le Seguana buildings, Paris, during construction
Stability for the structure was provided by a combination of steel braced cores
and slip-formed concrete cores.
The strategy for air conditioning involved local control for every 12 m2 of floor
space. This demanded a large number of ducts, which were accommodated
within the cellular beams, as illustrated in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4 Ducts emanating from central plant room – providing locally
controlled environment
2 - 18
3.3 Luxembourg Chamber of Commerce
Figure 3.5 Luxembourg Chamber of Commerce
The headquarters of the chamber of commerce of the Grand Duchy of

Luxemburg was designed by Vasconi Architects and comprises an existing
building and 20000 m2 of new office space as shown in Figure 3.5.
A conference centre of approximately 8000 m2 was provided together with
650 underground parking spaces on four levels. The total building area is
52000 m2 including car parking.
The four- and five- storey composite structure consists of hot rolled steel
sections and concrete floor slabs with integrated IFB sections (a rolled
asymmetric section with a wide bottom flange).
The integrated steel beams are stiffened by the use of a lightweight truss below
the beams, leading to a 40% increase in span. Services are passed below the
beams and through the truss to minimise the floor depth.
The structure was assessed by a fire engineering analysis, which demonstrated

that 60 minutes fire resistance could be achieved without additional fire
protection. The IFB beams are partially protected by the concrete slab and
support the reduced load in fire despite the loss of the exposed truss.
2 - 19
3.4 Kings Place, Kings Cross, London
Figure 3.6 Kings Place during construction
Kings Place in north London provides seven floors of office space, a 420 seat
concert hall, art galleries and restaurants. The basement levels house the
auditorium and other recital facilities. It is shown in Figure 3.6 during
construction.
The flexible use structure is designed as a steel-composite frame consisting of

12 m span fabricated beams with multiple circular openings and supporting a
130 m deep composite slab. In some areas, the composite floor is supported on
a shelf angle. The forms of construction are shown in Figure 3.7.
A novel part of the design was the fire engineering strategy, which
demonstrated that the fire resistance of 90 minutes could be achieved by
intumescent coatings only on the beams connecting directly to the columns;
other beams were unprotected. The columns were protected by two layers of
boards. The long span fabricated beams are typically 600 mm deep and consist
of multiple 375 mm deep openings. The 130 mm deep composite slab is
reinforced according to fire engineering principles which permit development
of membrane effects in fire.
The primary and secondary beams connecting to the columns are protected by
1,6 mm thick intumescent coating that was applied off-site to speed up the
construction process. The coating was applied in a single layer, which was
achieved by designing slightly heavier steel sections to reduce the load ratio in
fire conditions. This holistic design approach was justified using a finite
element model in which the properties of the steel and concrete were modified
for the temperatures in both a standard fire and natural fire concept using the
fire load and ventilation conditions established for the building use.
2 - 20
Figure 3.7 Different beam types used in Kings Place
3.5 Kone Headquarters, Helsinki
Figure 3.8 Kone building during construction and completed
The 18-storey Kone headquarters building in Espoo near Helsinki used a

composite floor structure and had a fully glazed façade. The total floor area
was 9800 m2. Stability was provided by a large concrete core located on the
south face of the building, as shown in Figure 3.8.
The structure was innovative in its construction because the floor structure was
prefabricated as large cassettes and lifted into place, as shown in Figure 3.9.
The span of the floor grid was 12,1 m for the primary beams and 8,1 m for the
secondary beams. A minimum number of steel columns were used internally.
The east and west facing walls have full height glass panels. The cladding was
configured as a double facade to provide shading and also to act as a thermal
barrier. The concrete core next to the south facing wall reduced the heat gain
on this façade.
2 - 21
Figure 3.9 Prefabricated floor cassette system
3.6 AM Steel Centre, Liege
Figure 3.10 AM building during construction showing the cellular beams
2 - 22
The five-storey Steel Centre in Liege, Belgium is an innovative office building

designed to achieve a high level of energy efficiency. It is 16 m  80 m on plan
and consists of an off-centre line of internal columns to create beam spans of
9 m and 7 m. The longer span secondary members are 500 mm deep and are
placed at 3 m spacing, which support a composite floor. The secondary
members use IPE330/ IPE 300 sections to create cellular beams with regular
400 mm diameter openings. The form of construction is shown in Figure 3.10.
The 9 m span primary cellular beams are the same depth and use HEB 320 /
HEA 320 sections.
A fire engineering analysis was carried out to demonstrate that the composite
beams could be unprotected except for those connected to the columns. The
columns are concrete filled circular hollow sections, which are unprotected and
achieve the required fire resistance, leading to a considerable reduction in fire
protection costs.
The building is supported on piles because of the poor ground conditions in

this former industrial area. The low self weight of the structure (< 350 kg/m2)
and of the curtain walling system was important in minimising the loads on the
piles.
2 - 23
4 ANATOMY OF BUILDING DESIGN
The building design is dependent on various parameters:

 Floor grid
 Building height
 Circulation and access space
 Services requirements and service integration.
These aspects are addressed as follows:
4.1 Floor grids

Floor grids define the spacing of the columns in orthogonal directions, which
are influenced by:
 The planning grid (normally based on units of 300 mm but more typically
multiples of 0,6, 1,2 or 1,5 m)
 The column spacing along the façade, depending on the façade material
(typically 5,4 m to 7,5 m)
 The use of the internal space (i.e. for offices or open plan space)
 The requirements for building service distribution (from the building core).
Along the façade line, column spacings are normally defined by the need to
provide support to the cladding system (for example, a maximum column
spacing of 6 m is normally required for brickwork). This influences the column
spacing internally, unless additional columns are used along the façade line.
The span of the beams across the building normally conforms to one of the
following column grid arrangement:
 Single internal line of columns, placed offset to the line of a central
corridor. This is shown in Figure 4.1
 Pairs of column lines on either side of a corridor
 Column-free internal spans with columns located along the façade line.
For naturally ventilated offices, a building width of 12 m to 15 m is typically

used, which can be achieved by two spans of 6 m to 7,5 m. A single span can
also be provided with deep (400 mm or more) precast concrete hollow core
units spanning the full width of the building. Natural lighting also plays a role
in choice of the width of floor plate.
However, in modern buildings, a long span solution provides a considerable

enhancement in flexibility of layout. For air-conditioned offices, a clear span of
15 m to 18 m is often used. An example of the column grid for a long span
option in a building with a large atrium is shown in Figure 4.2.
2 - 24
6m
T
7.5 m T
S S
L
13.5 m
L L
6m
48 m
L – Lift; S – Stairs; T – Toilets
Figure 4.1 Column grid for a naturally ventilated office
15 m 30 m 7.5 m 7.5 m
15 m
L L
S S
15 m 45 m
T T
7.5 m
L L
7.5 m
L L
S
60 m
L – Lift; S – Stairs; T – Toilets
Figure 4.2 Column grid for long span floor in a prestige air conditioned office
4.2 Dimensional coordination

The choice of the basic building shape is usually the Architect’s responsibility,
constrained by such issues as the site plan, access, building orientation,
parking, landscaping and local planning requirements. The following general
guidance influences the choice of structure.
 Between sources of natural light there should be 13,5 m and 20 m intervals
 Naturally lit and ventilated zones extend a distance of twice the
floor-to-ceiling height from the outer walls – artificial light and ventilation
is required in other zones
2 - 25
 Atria improve the efficient use of the building, and reduce the running
costs.
4.2.1 Influence of building height

The building height has a strong influence on the:
 Structural system that is adopted
 Foundation system
 Fire resistance requirements and means of escape
 Access (by lifts) and circulation space
 Choice of cladding system
 Speed of construction and site productivity.
For taller buildings, strategically placed concrete or braced steel cores are
usually adopted. Ultra tall buildings are influenced strongly by the stabilising
system, but are outside the scope of this guidance.
Sizes of lifts and their speed of movement also become important

considerations for tall buildings.
Depending on the Regulations for fire safety in the particular country, the use
of sprinklers may be required for buildings of more than eight storeys (or
approximately 30 m high).
4.2.2 Horizontal coordination

Horizontal coordination is dominated by the need on plan for defined zones for
vertical access, safe evacuation in fire, and vertical service distribution.
Positioning of service and access cores is influenced by:
 Horizontal distribution systems for mechanical services
 Fire resistance requirements, which may control evacuation routes and
compartment sizes
 The need to distribute the stabilizing systems (bracing and cores)
effectively throughout the building plan.
Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2 show typical arrangements that satisfy these criteria.
An atrium may be incorporated to increase lighting to the occupied space and

to provide high value circulation areas at ground and intermediate levels. The
design requirements for atria are:
 Support to the long span roof of the atrium
 Access routes for general circulation
 Fire safety measures by smoke extraction and safe evacuation routes
 Light levels and servicing to internal offices.
2 - 26
4.2.3 Vertical coordination

The target floor-to-floor height is based on a floor-to-ceiling height of 2,5 m
to 2,7 m for speculative offices, or 3 m for more prestige applications, plus the
floor depth including services. The following target floor-to-floor depths
should be considered at the concept design stage:
Prestige office 4 – 4,2 m
Speculative office 3,6 – 4,0 m
Renovation project 3,5 – 3,9 m
These targets permit a range of structural solutions. If, for planning reasons, it
is required to limit the overall building height, this can be achieved by use of
slim floor or integrated beam systems. Integrated beam systems are often used
in renovation projects where the floor–to-floor height is limited by
compatibility with the existing building or façade.
For a 12 m span composite beam, the structural depth is approximately

600 mm. The fire protection thickness (if needed) and an allowance for
deflections should also be included (nominally 30 mm).
Where the structural and service zones are separated vertically, the following
should be added to the structural depth:
Raised access floor 150 mm to 200 mm
Air conditioning units 400 mm to 500 mm
Ceiling and lighting 120 mm to 250 mm
However, significant reductions in overall depth can be achieved by vertical

integration of the structural and service zones. This is particularly effective for
longer span construction.
For concept design of orthodox commercial multi-storey steel structures, the

following ‘target’ floor depths may be used:
Composite beam construction 800 mm – 1200 mm
Cellular beams (with service integration) 800 mm – 1100 mm
Precast concrete floors (7,5 m span) 1200 mm – 1200 mm
Precast concrete floors (14 m span) 1450 mm – 1450 mm
Slim floor or integrated beams 600 mm – 800 mm
4.3 Structural options for stability

The structural system required for stability is primarily influenced by the
building height. For buildings up to eight storeys height, the steel structure may
be designed to provide stability, but for taller buildings, concrete or braced
steel cores are more efficient structurally. The following structural systems
may be considered for stability.
2 - 27
4.3.1 Rigid frames

For buildings up to four storeys high, rigid frames may be used in which the
multiple beam to column connections provide bending resistance and stiffness
to resist horizontal loads. This is generally only possible where the beams are
relatively deep (400 mm to 500 mm) and where the column size is increased to
resist the applied moments. Full depth end plate connections generally provide
the necessary rigidity.
4.3.2 Braced frames

For buildings up to 12 storeys high, braced steel frames are commonly used in
which cross, K or V bracing is used in the walls, generally within a cavity in
the façade, or around stairs or other serviced zones. Cross bracing is designed
in tension only (the other member being redundant). Cross bracing is often
simple flat steel plate, but angle sections and channel sections may also be
used.
When bracing is designed to work in compression, hollow sections are often

used, although angle sections and channel sections may also be used.
A steel braced frame has the two key advantages:

 Responsibility for temporary stability lies with one organisation
 As soon as the steel bracing is connected (bolted), the structure is stable.
4.3.3 Concrete or steel cores

Concrete cores are the most practical system for buildings of up to 40 storeys
high, but the concrete core is generally constructed in advance of the steel
framework. In this form of construction, the beams often span directly between
the columns on the perimeter of the building and the concrete core. Special
structural design considerations are required for:
 The beam connections to the concrete core
 The design of the heavier primary beams at the corner of core
 Fire safety and robustness of the long span construction.
Special attention must be paid to the connections between the steel beams and
the concrete cores allowing for adjustment, anticipating that the core may be
out of position. The connection itself may not be completed until in situ
concrete has cured, or until elements have been welded, so attention to
temporary stability is important.
A typical layout of beams around a concrete core is shown in Figure 4.3,

showing the use of heavier beams at the corner of the core. A double beam may
be required to minimise the structural depth at the corner of the cores.
2 - 28
15 m 12 m
12 m
15 m
Figure 4.3 Typical beam layout around a concrete core
Steel plated cores may be used as an economic alternative where speed of

construction is critical. Double skin cores can be installed with the rest of the
steelwork package and the concreting operation can be carried out later. This
form of construction is shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4 Steel composite core speeds up the construction process
2 - 29
4.4 Columns
Columns in multi-storey steel frames are generally H sections, predominantly
carrying axial load. When the stability of the structure is provided by cores, or
discreet vertical bracing, the beams are generally designed as simply supported.
The generally accepted design model is that nominally pinned connections
produce nominal moments in the column, calculated by assuming that the beam
reaction is 100 mm from the face of the column. If the reactions on the
opposite side of the column are equal, there is no net moment. Columns on the
perimeter of the structure will have an applied moment, due to the connection
being on one side only. The design of columns is covered in detail in
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 4: Detailed design[6].
For preliminary design, it is appropriate to base the choice of column section

on axial load alone, but ensure that the column is only working at 90% of its
capacity, to allow for the subsequent inclusion of the nominal moments.
Typical column sizes are given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Typical column sizes (for medium span composite floors)
Number of floors supported by column
typical column size (h)
section
1 150
2–4 200
3–8 250
5 – 12 300
10 – 40 350
Although small column sections may be preferred for architectural reasons, the
practical issues of connections to the floor beams should be considered. It can
be difficult and costly to provide connection into the minor axis of a very small
column section.
For ease of construction, columns are usually erected in two, or sometimes

three-storey sections (i.e. approximately 8 m to 12 m in length). Column
sections are joined with splices, typically 300 mm to 600 mm above the floor
level.
It is common to vary the column size within the height of the building, to make
efficient use of the steelwork. Although it may be convenient to align the
columns on a single centroidal axis, it may be preferable to maintain the same
external face, so that all edge details, and supports for cladding, are similar.
The floor beams will be slightly different lengths, and the additional moment
induced by offsetting the upper column section will need to be accounted for in
design.
Typical splice details are shown in Figure 4.5, when a change in section has
been accommodated by a division plate between the sections.
2 - 30
1 Division plate
Figure 4.5 Typical splice details with bearing plate
If there are restrictions on space, it is possible to use countersunk bolts in the

plates, or if the column sections have the same internal profile, to use internal
cover plates and countersunk bolts, as shown in Figure 4.6.
External cover plates Internal cover plates
Figure 4.6 Column splice with countersunk bolts
4.5 Structural options for floor systems

4.5.1 General arrangement of floors
A wide range of floor solutions are available. Typical solutions are given in
Table 4.2, and more details in the following sections. Although steel solutions
are appropriate for short spans (typically 6 m to 9 m), steel has an important
advantage over other materials in that long span solutions (between 12 m and
18 m) can be easily provided. This has the key advantage of column-free space,
allowing future adaptability, and fewer foundations.
2 - 31
Floors spanning onto the steel beams will normally be either precast concrete
units, or composite floors. The supporting beams may be below the floor, with
the floor bearing on the top flange (often known as “downstand” beams), or the
beams may share the same zone with the floor construction, to reduce the
overall depth of the zone. The available construction zone is often the
determining factor when choosing a floor solution.
Beams within the floor zone are known as slim floor beams, or integrated
beams. Beams may be non-composite, or composite. In composite construction
shear connectors are welded to the top flange of the beam, transferring load to
the concrete floor. Shear connectors are often welded on site to the top flange
of the beam which has been left unpainted, through the steel decking (known as
“through-deck” welding). Despite extensive testing and research that
demonstrates the adequacy of through-deck welding, some authorities prefer
that the studs are welded off site, and the deck must therefore be single span, or
must be punctured to fit over the shear connectors. Alternatively, shear
connectors can be mechanically fixed (often shot fired) through the decking to
the beam.
Precast concrete units may be used for low rise frames, but composite floors
are common in both low rise and high rise structures.
Table 4.2 Typical floor solutions

Form of construction Typical solution
Low rise, modest spans, no restriction on downstand beams
construction depth precast units or composite floors
Modest spans (less than 9 m), restricted integrated solutions – precast or composite
construction depth floors
Low rise, long span (e.g. 15 m) downstand beams in the façade

precast concrete units (15 m),
composite floors with secondary steel beams
spanning 15 m
Medium and high rise, modest spans, no downstand beams, composite construction
restriction on construction depth
Medium and high rise, long spans (to 18 m) composite floors with cellular long span
restricted construction depth secondary steel beams
4.5.2 Composite beam arrangements

Composite beams support composite slabs, which span between the beams. For
design of orthogonal grids, two generic beam arrangements may be considered:
 Long span secondary beams, supported by shorter span primary beams (see
Figure 4.7). In this case, the beam sizes can be selected so that the primary
and secondary beams are of approximately equal depth.
 Long span primary beams, supporting shorter span secondary beams (see
Figure 4.8). In this case, the primary beams are relatively deep.
Cellular beams are more efficient when used for long span secondary beams,
whereas fabricated beams are more efficient for long span primary beams,
where shear forces are higher. It is also possible to eliminate secondary beams
2 - 32
by using long span composite slabs and primary beams directly attached to the
columns.
m 6-
15 9m
9-
130
450 - 600
0
450 - 45
300
Figure 4.7 Typical long span secondary beams (span of slab is indicated)
m 6-
15 9m
9-
500 - 700
130
0
240
300
0
- 90
600
Figure 4.8 Typical long span primary beams and shorter span secondary
beams (span of slab is indicated)
Integrated beams are a special case in which beams span directly between
columns and secondary beams are eliminated. These beams are generally used
in square grids, as illustrated in Figure 4.9. The slab is supported by the bottom
flange or extended bottom plate of the beam and may be in the form of a deep
composite slab or a hollow core concrete slab.
2 - 33
9m
5-
6
-9
m
(3)
300 - 350
(1)
(2)
225
1 Integrated beam
2 Tie member
3 Deep composite slab or hollow core concrete slab
Figure 4.9 Integrated beams or slim floor (span of slab is indicated)
The span range of various structural options in both steel and concrete are
illustrated in Figure 4.10. Long span steel options generally provide for service
integration for spans of over 12 m. Cellular beams and composite trusses are
more efficient for long span secondary beams, whereas fabricated beams are
often used for long span primary beams.
Span (m)
6 8 10 13 16 20
Reinforced concrete flat slab
Integrated beams and deep composite slab
Integrated beams with precast slabs
Composite beams and slab
Fabricated beams with web openings

Cellular composite beams
Composite trusses
Figure 4.10 Span range of various structural options
2 - 34
4.5.3 Features of long span construction

Long span beams have gained in popularity in the commercial building sector
because they offer the following benefits in design and construction:
 Internal columns are eliminated, leading to more flexible and efficient use
of internal space
 Services can be integrated within the depth of the structure, and so the
floor-to-floor depth is not increased
 Fewer components are required (typically 30% fewer beams) leading to
reduced construction and installation time
 Fire protection costs can be reduced due to the massivity (weight : exposed
profile) of the longer span members
 For cellular beams, multiple circular ducts for services are cheaper than
rectangular ducts
 Steelwork costs are not increased significantly, despite the longer spans
 Overall building costs are increased by a negligible amount (less than 1%).
4.5.4 Approximate steel quantities

For estimating purposes in the design of office buildings, representative
weights of steel may be used for buildings of rectangular plan form. These
quantities will increase significantly for non rectangular or tall buildings or for
buildings with atria or complex façades.
The approximate quantities are presented in Table 4.3, and are expressed in
terms of the total floor area of the building, and do not include steelwork used
in the façade, atrium or roof.
Table 4.3 Approximate steel quantities for estimating purposes

Approximate steel quantities
Form of Building (kg/m2 floor area)
Beams Columns Bracing Total
3 or 4-storey building of rectangular form 25–30 8–10 2–3 35–40
6–8-storey building of rectangular form 25–30 12–15 3–5 40–50
8–10-storey building with long spans 35–40 12–15 3–5 50–60
20-storey building with a concrete core 25–30 10–13 1–2 40–50
20-storey building with a braced steel core 25–30 20–25 8–10 55–70
4.6 Factors influencing structural arrangements

The construction programme will be a key concern in any project, and should
be considered at the same time as considering the cost of structure, the
services, cladding and finishes. The structural scheme has a key influence on
programme and cost, and structural solutions which can be erected safely,
quickly to allow early access for the following trades.
2 - 35
4.6.1 Site conditions

Increasingly, structures are constructed on ‘brownfield’ sites, where earlier
construction has left a permanent legacy. In city centres, a solution involving
fewer, although more heavily loaded foundations are often preferred, which
leads to longer spans for the super-structure.
A confined site can place particular constraints on the structural scheme, for
example the physical size of the elements that can be delivered and erected.
Access may demand that the steel is erected directly from a delivery lorry in
the road. This may prevent working at certain times in the day making the
erection programme relatively inflexible. A mobile erection platform provides
temporary storage and speeds up the installation process, as shown in
Figure 2.2.
4.6.2 Cranes
The number of cranes on a project will be dominated by:
 The site footprint – whether a sensible coverage of the building site can be
achieved, including off-loading.
 The size of the project – which dictates whether more than one crane is
economic. In city centre projects, tower cranes are often located in a lift
shaft or atrium.
 Use of additional mobile cranes – multi-storey structures are generally
erected using a tower crane, which may be supplemented by mobile cranes
for specific heavy lifting operations.
As an indication, an erection rate of between 20 and 30 pieces per day is a

reasonable installation rate. With average weights of the components, this
equates to approximately 10 to 12 tonnes of steel per day. There is therefore
benefit in using fewer, long span beams. Where possible, prefabrication
reduces the number of items to be lifted, and increases erection rates.
4.6.3 Installation of composite floors

Composite floors comprise profiled steel decking, which is lifted onto the
steelwork in bundles and usually man-handled into position. Safety nets are
erected immediately after the steelwork and before the decking placement.
Steelwork already erected at upper levels does not prevent decking being lifted
and placed, although decking is usually placed as the steelwork is erected.
Completed floors may be used as a safe working platform for subsequent
erection of steelwork, and allow other works to proceed at lower levels, as
shown in Figure 4.11. For this reason, the upper floor in any group of floors
(usually three floor levels) is often concreted first.
2 - 36
Figure 4.11 Composite floors create a safe working platform during

construction
4.6.4 Installation of precast concrete slabs

Placing of precast concrete slabs becomes difficult if they are lowered through
erected steelwork. Better practice is to place the slabs as the steelwork for each
floor is erected, and for the supply and installation to be part of the Steelwork
Contractor’s package. Generally, columns and floor steelwork will be erected,
with minimal steelwork at upper levels sufficient to stabilise the columns, until
the precast slabs have been positioned. Steelwork for the upper floors will then
continue.
4.7 Structure – service integration

Most large office-type structures require air conditioning or ‘comfort cooling’,
which will necessitate both horizontal and vertical distribution systems. The
provision for such systems is of critical importance for the superstructure
layout, affecting the layout and type of members chosen.
The basic decision either to integrate the ductwork within the structural depth
or to simply suspend the ductwork at a lower level affects the choice of
member, the fire protection system, the cladding (cost and programme) and
overall building height. Other systems provide conditioned air from a raised
floor.
The most commonly used systems are the Variable Air Volume system (VAV)
and the Fan Coil system. VAV systems are often used in buildings with single
owner occupiers, because of their lower running costs. Fan Coil systems are
often used in speculative buildings because of their lower capital costs.
2 - 37
Generally, a zone of 400 mm will permit services to be suspended below the

structure. An additional 150–200 mm is usually allowed for fire protection,
ceiling and lighting units and a nominal deflection (25 mm). Terminal units
(Fan coil or VAV units) are located between the beams where there is more
space available.
Service integration is achieved by passing services through penetrations in the

supporting steelwork. These may be individual openings formed in steel
beams, or multiple regular openings.
Cellular beams permit multiple circular ducts to be distributed around the

building as shown in Figure 4.12, particularly where passing from the building
core. Elongated openings may be created in cellular beam construction, as
illustrated in Figure 4.13.
Figure 4.12 Cellular beam with multiple service ducts
If there are no overall height constraints, services can be accommodated below

the floor structure. The penalty is an increased construction depth of each floor,
and increased cladding area.
2 - 38
Figure 4.13 Elongated openings with horizontal stiffeners
An example of service distribution below the floor of an integrated beam is

illustrated in Figure 4.14. The shallowest integrated floor solution is achieved
with deep decking and asymmetric steel beams, where services can be located
in the ribs in the decking, and pass through the supporting steelwork. The size
of the ducting and service components is obviously limited in this arrangement.
Figure 4.14 Service distribution below the floor of an integrated beam floor
2 - 39
5 FLOOR SYSTEMS
In addition to their primary load-resisting function, floors transfer horizontal

loads to the vertical bracing. In addition, floor slab, beams and columns have to
satisfy a specified fire resistance (typically 60 to 120 minutes).
Services may be integrated with the floor construction, or be suspended below

the floor (as described in Section 4.6). In commercial buildings, raised floors
allow services (particularly electrical and communication services) to be
distributed easily.
This section describes various floor systems often used in multi-storey

buildings. The main characteristics of each floor system are described, with
guidance on important design issues. This section does not contain detailed
design procedures but directs the reader to the sources of design guidance.
The following floor systems are covered:

 Composite beams and composite slabs with steel decking
 Long-span composite beams often with service openings
 Cellular composite beams with composite slabs and steel decking
 Integrated beams with precast concrete units
 Composite and non-composite beams with precast concrete units.
5.1 Composite construction

In the following sections, design approaches are presented for composite
construction. Decking may have a re-entrant or trapezoidal profile – re-entrant
decking uses more concrete than trapezoidal decking, but has increased fire
resistance for a given slab depth. Trapezoidal decking generally spans further
than re-entrant decking, but the shear stud resistance is reduced due to the
influence of the profile shape.
Generally, normal weight concrete (NWC) is used, although lightweight

concrete (LWC) is structurally efficient and in some countries widely
available.
5.2 Composite beams and composite slabs with steel

decking
5.2.1 Description
Composite construction consists of downstand steel beams with shear
connectors (studs) welded to the top flange to enable the beam to act
compositely with an in situ composite floor slab.
The composite slab comprises profiled decking of various shapes that span 3 m
to 4 m between secondary beams. The generic deck profiles are illustrated in
2 - 40
Figure 5.1 together with their typical slab depths. A ‘target’ slab depth of
130 mm is often used for 50 or 60 mm deep deck profiles, increasing to
150 mm for 80 mm deep deck profiles. Steel thicknesses of 0,8 mm to 1,2 mm
are used depending on the deck spans.
The decking is normally designed to support the wet weight of the concrete and
construction loading as a continuous member over two or three spans, but the
composite slab is normally designed as simply supported between beams.
Sufficient composite action occurs that it is generally the construction
condition that controls the maximum spans that can be designed. Unpropped
decking is preferred for reasons of speed of construction.
The secondary beams in the floor grid are supported by primary beams. These
beams are usually designed as composite, but edge beams can be designed as
non-composite, although shear connectors may be used for structural integrity
and wind loads. A typical example of a composite beam used as an edge beam
is shown in Figure 5.2.
110 - 130
130 - 150
140 - 170
Figure 5.1 Decking profiles used in composite construction
The shear connectors are normally site-welded through the decking to provide
a secure fixing to the beam, and to enable the decking to provide restraint to the
beam during the construction stage.
Mesh reinforcement, normally of 140 mm to 200 mm2/m cross-sectional area,

is placed in the slab to enhance the fire resistance of the slab, to help distribute
localised loads, to act as transverse reinforcement around the shear connectors
and to reduce cracking in the slab over the beams.
2 - 41
Figure 5.2 Edge beam in composite construction
5.2.2 Typical beam spans and design criteria

Secondary beams are typically 6 m to 15 m span at 3 m to 4 m spacing (3,75 m
is generally the preferred maximum span of the slab). Primary beams are
designed with spans of 6 m to 12 m, when using IPE sections. A rectangular
floor grid is often used, in which the secondary beams span the longer distance,
in order that the secondary and primary beams are of similar size. A typical
structural arrangement is illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Edge beams may be deeper than internal beams because of serviceability

requirements of the cladding. Also, the use of composite edge beams requires
placing of U-bars around the shear connectors.
Limitations on total deflection will usually govern for secondary beams using
S355 steel. Bending resistance will usually govern for most primary beams in
S235 or S275.
2 - 42
6.0m 6.0m
3.0m 3.0m 3.0m 3.0m
55 5
55 5
55 5
S3 5
S3 5
S3 5
0 S3
0 S3
0 S3
22 20
22 40
22 40
EA 2
EA 2
EA 2
H EA
H EA
H EA
H
H
IPE A 360 S235 IPE A 330 S235
4 5
IPE 450 S235
IPE 400 S235
IPE 400 S235
IPE 300 S235
IPE 300 S235

7.5m 7
3
IPE 220
55 5
55 5
IPE 220
S3 5
S3 5
0 S3
0 S3
24 20
24 20
6
EA 2
EA 2
H EB
H EA
H
H
IPE O 360 S235 P1 IPE A 360 S235
55 5
S3 5
0 S3
22 40
EA 2
H EA
H
IPE 270 S235
IPE 270 S235
IPE 270 S235
IPE 270 S235
IPE 270 S235

6.0m 2
55 5
55 5
55 5
S3 5
S3 5
S3 5
0 S3
0 S3
0 S3
22 20
22 40
22 40
EA 2
EA 2
EA 2
H EA
H EA
H EA
1
H
H
IPE 300 S235 IPE 300 S235
1. Side bracing 3. Wall bracing 5. Lifts and toilets 7. Gable end

2. Slab 4. Stairs 6. Void
Figure 5.3 Short-span composite beam – example of floor steelwork

arrangement for 4-storey rectangular plan building
5.2.3 Services integration

Heating and ventilation units can be positioned between beams, but ducts will
generally pass below shallow beams. Typically, for the 7,5 m  6 m floor grid
shown above, the overall floor zone is 1100 mm to 1200 mm allowing for
150 mm raised floor and 400 mm deep air conditioning ducts below the beams.
The overall floor zone is illustrated in Figure 5.4. This floor depth may reduce
to 700 mm in the case without air conditioning services.
1 100-150
120
360 1 Raised floor

2 2 Fan-coil unit
≈ 1130-1180mm 3 Ducting and insulation
50 4 Lighting and Ceiling
3 400
50
4 50
Figure 5.4 Overall floor zone – typical short-span composite construction
2 - 43
5.2.4 Fire protection

Beams (typically):
Intumescent coating 1,5 mm thick for up to 90 minutes fire resistance
Board protection 15-25 mm thick for up to 90 minutes fire resistance
Columns (typically):
Board protection 15 mm thick for up to 60 minutes fire resistance
Board protection 25 mm thick for 90 minutes fire resistance
Table 5.1 Sizes of composite secondary beams using IPE or HE sections

(S235 steel) in a floor grid
Maximum span of secondary beam
Rolled steel beam
6m 7,5 m 9m 10,5 m 12 m
Minimum weight IPE 270A IPE 300 IPE 360 IPE 400 IPE 500
Minimum depth HE 220A HE 240A HE 280A HE 320A HE340B
2 2
Variable action = 3 kN/m plus 1 kN/m for partitions
Slab depth = 130 mm; Beam spacing = 3 m
Table 5.2 Maximum spans of composite secondary beams for typical

office loading
IPE Span (m) HEA Span (m) HEB Span (m)
200 5,0 200 5,8 200 6,7
220 5,6 220 6,5 220 7,7
240 6,2 240 7,3 240 8,6
- - 260 8,0 260 9,3
270 7,0 280 8,7 280 9,9
300 7,9 300 9,6 300 10,9
330 8,4 320 10,3 320 11,6
- - 340 11,3 340 12,3
360 9,4 360 11,9 360 12,9
400 10,4 400 13,1 400 13,8
450 12,2 450 14,2 450 14,7
500 13,6 500 15,1 500 15,6
550 14,7 550 15,9 550 16,4
600 15,7 600 16,6 600 17,1
2 2
Table 5.3 Sizes of composite primary beams (S235 steel) in a floor grid
Span of secondary Maximum span of primary beam
beams
6m 7,5 m 9m 10,5 m 12 m
6m IPE 360 IPE 400 IPE 450 IPE 550 IPE 600R
7,5 m IPE 400 IPE 450 IPE 550 IPE 600R IPE 750  137
9m IPE 450 IPE 500 IPE 600 IPE 750  137 IPE 750  173
2 2
2 - 44
5.3 Long-span composite beams with web openings

5.3.1 Description
Long span composite beams are often designed with large web openings to
facilitate integration of services, as shown in Figure 5.5. Grids are either
arranged so that the long span secondary beams are placed at 3 m to 3,75 m
spacing and are supported by shorter span primary beams. Alternatively,
short-span secondary beams (6 - 9 m span) are supported by long-span primary
beams. Service openings can be circular, elongated or rectangular in shape, and
can be up to 70% of the beam depth. They can have a length/depth ratio
typically of up to 3,5. Web stiffeners may be required around large openings.
Figure 5.5 Beams with various opening sizes and with off-site fire protection
5.3.2 Beam spans and design criteria

Long-span secondary beams: 9 m to 15 m span at 3 m to 3,75 m spacing.
Long-span primary beams: 9 m to 12 m span at 6 m to 9 m spacing.
A typical structural arrangement which eliminates internal columns is

illustrated in Figure 5.6. Elongated or rectangular openings should be located
in areas of low shear, e.g. in the middle third of the span for uniformly loaded
beams. Other guidance on opening sizes is presented in Figure 5.7. Critical
checks for long span beams are usually deflections and dynamic response.
Shear resistance at large openings close to the supports or point loads may be
critical.
2 - 45
3.
2.
1.
5.
4.
6.0m 7.5m
Lift
Slab
Stairs
H
Figure 5.6
HE E 2
4
22 0 A
0
A S35
Wall bracing
Side bracing
S3 5
55
IPE O 270 S235 IPE A 500 S235
HE H
HE E 2
HE 22 2
22 0 A 22 0 A
0 0
A S35 A S35
S3 5 S3 5
4
2
55 55
3.0m
IPE A 240 S235

IPE O 270 S235 IPE O 400 S235
1
1
6.0m
2 - 46
IPE A 360 S235
IPE O 360 S235
IPE A 330 S235

2
5
3.0m
IPE A 240 S235
IPE O 270 S235 IPE O 400 S235

HE HE H
3
HE E 2
HE 28 HE 24 8
22 0 A 22 0 A 22 0 A
0 0 0
A S35 A S35 A S35
S3 5 S3 5 S3 5
55 55 55
2
3.0m
IPE 550 S235

6.0m
IPE A 450 S235

IPE A 450 S235
Long-span composite beams (with web openings)

3.0m
H
H HE E 2
HE E 2 8
8 24 0 A
24 0 A 0
0 A S35
A S35 S3 5
S3 5 55
55
h h0 0.7h
0.25l 0
l0 h l0 2.5 h 0 l0
h h0 0.8 h
0.5 h 0 0.4h 0
Figure 5.7 Limits of sizes and spacing of circular and rectangular web
openings

Service ducts may pass through openings in the web of the beams. Ducts for air
conditioning are approximately 400 mm deep, but vary between manufacturers.
Larger service units, which are typically 450 mm deep, but up to 750 mm for
variable air volume (VAV) units can be situated between beams. The overall
depth of the floor zone will be typically:
1000 mm for 13,5 m span beam (with 300 mm deep web openings)
1200 mm for 15 m span beams (with 400 mm deep web openings)

Fire protection may be in the form of board protection or intumescent coating
(intumescent coatings can be applied off-site as a single coating up to 1,8 mm
thick in order to achieve 90 minutes fire resistance), as illustrated in Figure 5.5.
5.4 Cellular composite beams with composite slab

and steel decking
5.4.1 Description
Cellular beams are beams with circular openings with regular spacing along
their length, as illustrated in Figure 5.8. The beams are made by cutting and
re-welding hot rolled steel sections. Openings, or ‘cells’, are normally circular,
which are ideally suited to circular ducts, but can be elongated, rectangular or
hexagonal. Cells may have to be filled in to create a solid web at positions of
high shear, such as at supports or either side of point loads along the beam.
2 - 47
The size and spacing of the openings can be restricted by the fabrication
method. However, the full range of section sizes is available from which to
chose the sizes of the top and bottom chords. For composite design, the top
chord is generally chosen as a lighter section than the bottom chord
Cellular beams can be arranged as long-span secondary beams, supporting the

floor slab directly, or in some cases, as long-span primary beams supporting
other cellular beams or I section secondary beams.
Figure 5.8 Long-span secondary cellular beams with regular circular

openings

Secondary beams should be spaced at 3 m to 3,75 m to avoid temporary
propping of the decking during construction. Opening sizes are typically 60 to
80% of the beam depth. Stiffeners may be required for elongated openings.
Large (elongated or rectangular) openings should be located in areas of low
shear, e.g. in the middle third of span for uniformly loaded beams.
A structural arrangement for corner of a floor around an atrium is illustrated in

Figure 5.9. In this case, the floor grid is 15 m  7,5 m, in which the cellular
beams are 15 m span and 670 mm deep. Internal beams are eliminated except
around the service cores.
Shear or buckling of the web posts may occur between openings, particularly
near high point loads or adjacent to elongated openings. In this case, the
spacing of the openings should be increased or heavier sections used. Typical
chord sizes for 12 m to 18 m span cellular secondary beams at 3 m spacing are
presented in Table 5.4.
2 - 48
Table 5.4 Sizes of composite cellular beams as secondary beams (IPE/HE

sections in S355 steel)
Maximum span of cellular beam (m)

Cellular beam parameters
12 m 13,5 m 15 m 16,5 m 18 m
Opening diameter (mm) 300 350 400 450 500
Beam depth (mm) 460 525 570 630 675
Top chord IPE 360 IPE 400 IPE 400 IPE 450 IPE 500
Bottom chord HE 260A HE 300A HE 340B HE 360B HE 400M
Variable action = 3 kN/m2 plus 1 kN/m2 for partitions
15.0m 15.0m
3.75m 3.75m 3.75m 3.75m 3.75m 3.75m 3.75m 3.75m
IPE 450 S355 IPE 450 S355 IPE 450 S355 IPE 450 S355
76 HS
IPE O 360 S235
C
.1 S
x 27
3. 5
2
7.5m
IPE A 450 / IPE A 550 S355
IPE A 450 / IPE A 550 S355
IPE A 450 / IPE A 550 S355
IPE A 450 / IPE A 550 S355
IPE A 450 / IPE A 550 S355
IPE A 450 / IPE A 550 S355
IPE A 450 / IPE A 550 S355
IPE A 450 / IPE A 550 S355

75 2
S2 3.
S x
C 6.1
H
7
2
76 HS
C
IPE O 360 S235
.1 S
x 27
3. 5
7.5m
2
75 2
S2 3.
S x
1
C 6.1
H
7
HEB 320 S355 HEB 300 S355 HEB 450 S355 HEB 450 S355
IPE 220
3.0m
S235
3
4
IPE O 360 S235
IPE A 360 S235

HEB 300 S355
IPE O 400 S235

IPE O 300 S235
IPE 220
3.0m
S235
IPE A 360 S355

1.5m
IPE A 360 S355 IPE O 300 S235

IPE 220
IPE 220
3.0m
S235
S235
6 6
4
IPE O 360 S235
IPE A 360 S235

HEB 300 S355
IPE O 400 S235 IPE O 300 S235

4.5m
HEB 320 S355 HEB 300 S355
1. Wall bracing
2. Slab
3. Toilets
4. Void
5. Stairs
6. Lifts
Figure 5.9 Cellular beams (long-span secondary beams) – example of

steelwork arrangement at the corner of a 8-storey building with an
atrium
2 - 49

Regular openings in the web allow ducts to pass through the beams as shown in
Figure 5.10. Larger services equipment is located between the beams. Opening
sizes should allow for any insulation around the services. Fabrication should be
arranged to ensure web openings align through the beams along the building.
The overall floor zone can be as low as 1000 mm for 15 m span beams with
regular 400 mm openings, which is much shallower than the case where ducts
pass below the beams.
1 150
140
1 Raised floor
2 Ducting and insulation
≈1050 400 diameter
600
3 100
50
Figure 5.10 Cellular beam – Typical cross-section showing services

integration

Intumescent coatings are the preferred fire protection system for cellular
beams, and are often applied off-site. Reference 7 gives advice on fire
protection of beams with web openings.
5.5 Composite beams with precast concrete units

5.5.1 Description
This system consists of steel beams with shear connectors that are often
pre-welded to the top flange as part of the fabrication process. The beams
support precast concrete units with a structural concrete infill over the beam
between the ends of the units, and often with an additional topping covering the
units. The precast concrete (P.C.) units are either hollow core, normally 150 -
260 mm deep, or solid planks of 75 mm to 100 mm depth.
At the supports, deeper P.C. units are either chamfered on their upper face or
notched so that the in situ concrete fully encases the shear connectors. Narrow
openings are created within the hollow core units during the manufacturing
process to allow transverse reinforcement to be placed across the beams and
embedded in the precast units for approximately 600 mm on either side, as
2 - 50
(a)
1 Concrete infill (screed /

concrete topping optional)
2 Hollowcore slab
3 Transverse reinforcement
4 Concrete topping
5 Solid planks
(b)
(c)
Figure 5.11 Forms of composite beams with precast concrete units

(a) Composite beam with square-ended hollowcore slabs
(b) Composite beam with chamfered-ended hollowcore slabs
(c) Composite beam with precast planks
The shear connectors and transverse reinforcement ensure transfer of the

longitudinal shear force from the steel section into the precast concrete unit and
the concrete topping. Composite design is not permitted unless the shear
connectors are situated in an end gap (between the concrete units) of at least
50 mm. For on-site welding of shear connectors, a practical minimum end gap
between concrete units is 65 mm. The shear connector resistance depends on
the degree of confinement and in situ concrete with 10 mm aggregate is often
used. Hollow cores should be back-filled at the supports for a minimum length
equal to the core diameter to provide for effective composite action and
adequate fire resistance.
Minimum flange widths are required to provide a safe bearing length for the
precast units and sufficient gap for effective action of the shear connectors –
minimum recommended values are given in Table 5.5.
2 - 51
Table 5.5 Minimum widths for bearing of PC units

Minimum beam width
Internal beam 180 mm
75 mm or 100 mm deep solid precast unit
Edge beam 210 mm
Internal beam 180 mm
Hollow core precast unit
Edge beam 210 mm
Non-composite edge beam 120 mm
Edge beams are often designed as non-composite, with nominal shear

connection provided to meet robustness and stability requirements. These shear
connectors are usually site-welded through openings cast in the precast units.
Composite edge beams require careful detailing of U-bar reinforcement into
slots in the precast concrete units, and a greater minimum flange width.
Temporary bracing providing lateral restraint is often required to reduce the

effective length for lateral torsional buckling of the beam during the
construction stage, when only one side is loaded. Full torsional restraint in the
temporary condition may be difficult to achieve, unless deep restraint members
with rigid connections are used, or by developing ‘U-frame action’ involving
the beams, the restraint members and rigid connections.
5.5.2 Beam span and design criteria

Long span secondary beams should provide sufficient minimum width to
support the P.C. units as given in Table 5.5, so an IPE 400 mm is the minimum
practical beam depth. Beams that are placed parallel to the span of the precast
units cannot usually be designed compositely.
Edge beams are generally designed as non-composite, but are tied into the floor
to meet robustness requirements.
Transverse reinforcement must be provided in all composite design cases, as

shown in Figure 5.11 and Figure 5.12.
The critical check is often torsional resistance and twist, or combined torsion
and lateral torsional buckling resistance in the construction condition (with
loads on one side only).
2 - 52
Figure 5.12 Composite floor construction with precast concrete hollow core
units, showing transverse reinforcement bars placed within open
cores

Main service ducts are located below the beams with larger services equipment
located between beams. Allow for 1200 mm overall depth including ceiling
and services. Openings can be provided in the beam web but the beams should
be designed as non-composite in this case.

Spray, board or intumescent coating may be used as the fire protection systems
to beams supporting precast concrete units.
Transverse bars must be carefully detailed into the precast units – extending
600 mm into each unit. For 90 to 120 minutes fire resistance, a 50 mm
(minimum) concrete topping is required.
5.6 Non-composite beams with precast units

5.6.1 Description
Precast units may be supported on the top flange of the steel beams, or
supported on ‘shelf’ angles. The P.C. units are either in the form of hollow core
units, normally 150 – 400 mm deep, or solid planks of 75 mm to 100 mm
depth. Hollow core precast concrete units can be used to span up to 15 m
(400 mm or deeper). An example of long span precast concrete units being
placed on steel beams is shown in Figure 5.13.
2 - 53
Shelf angles are bolted or welded to the beam web, with an outstand leg long
enough to provide adequate bearing of the precast unit and to allow installation
of the units under the top flange of the beams. Precast concrete units are
generally grouted in position. The P.C. units may have either a screed (which
may be structural), or a raised floor.
Figure 5.13 Long span precast concrete units being placed on steelwork
Temporary lateral bracing is often required to limit the effective length for
lateral torsional buckling of the beam during the construction stage when only
one side is loaded.
In order to meet robustness requirements, mesh and a structural topping may be

required, or reinforcement concreted into hollow cores and passed through
holes in the steel beam web. Tying may also be required between the concrete
units and the edge beams.

Construction stage loading (precast planks on one side only) must be
considered. Temporary bracing may be required. Beams loaded on one side
only in the permanent condition should designed for the applied torsional
moment.
When the top flange of a beam supports precast planks, the minimum flange
width is 180 mm to allow for minimum bearing and a 30 mm gap between the
P.C. units, as illustrated in Figure 5.14.
Shelf angles should project at least 50 mm beyond the beam flange. When shelf
angles are provided, 25 mm clearance is required between the end of the
concrete unit and the beam flange, as shown in Figure 5.15.
The critical beam check is often torsional resistance, or combined torsion and
lateral torsional buckling resistance in the construction condition (with loads on
one side only).
2 - 54

Main service ducts are located below the beams with larger services equipment
located between beams.
180 min.
30
50
50 min.
75 min.
75 min.
(a) Units sitting on downstand beam (b) Units sitting on shelf angle beam
Figure 5.14 Floor construction with precast concrete units in non-composite

construction
25 min.
Figure 5.15 Bearing and clearance requirements for precast units on shelf
angle beams

Fire protection may be spray, board or an intumescent coating to the beam.
Shelf angle beams can achieve 30 minutes fire resistance by up-turning the
angles, (the vertical leg is above the projecting leg, as shown in Figure 5.15) so
that they remain relatively cool in fire.
5.7 Integrated beams with precast concrete units

5.7.1 Description
Precast concrete units may be used as part of a slim floor or integrated beam
system, in which the beams are contained within the floor depth, as illustrated
in Figure 5.16. Two forms of steel beams are commonly used:
 A steel plate (typically 15 mm thick) may welded to the underside of an
H section. This plate extends beyond the bottom flange by at least 100 mm
either side, in order to support the precast concrete units.
 A 20 mm flange plate (typical) may be welded to half of an I section cut
along the web.
2 - 55
A structural concrete topping with reinforcement is recommended in order to

tie the P.C. units together. The topping thickness should cover the P.C. units by
at least 50 mm. If used without a topping, reinforcement should be provided
through the web of the beam to tie the floor on each side of the beam together
in order to meet robustness requirements.
1 Hollowcore
concrete slab
2 IFB/SFB – beam
3 Column section
Figure 5.16 Integrated floor beam (slim floor beam) and precast concrete units
A composite integrated beam can be achieved by welding shear connectors

(normally 19 mm diameter  70 mm long) to the top flange of the steel section.
Reinforcement is then placed across the flange into slots prepared in the precast
units, or on top of shallow precast units. If the beams are designed compositely,
the topping should cover the shear connectors by at least 15 mm, and the
precast units by at least 60 mm.
A typical structural arrangement in which the integrated beams span 6 m and

the P.C. units span 7,5 m is illustrated in Figure 5.17. In this case, the P.C.
units are 200 mm deep and a 60 mm concrete topping is used. The edge beams
are IPE, designed as non-composite and are placed below the P.C. units.
Nominal shear connectors are provided to meet robustness requirements. In
this case, the slab can be cast level with the top of the beam, as shown in
Figure 5.18.

Ideally, the span of the precast concrete units and the beam span should be
optimised to produce a floor thickness compatible with the beam depth. Beams
loaded on one side only are relatively heavy because of their torsional loading.
Also, torsional effects during construction will need to be checked. A central
spine beam with precast units spanning to downstand edge beams (beams
located under the P.C. units, but concealed in the wall) will generally be more
economic than the P.C. units spanning along the building, onto a series of
transverse spanning beams.
Composite edge beams require careful detailing of U-bars around the shear
connectors and into the precast units or structural topping – therefore
non-composite edge beams are preferred.
2 - 56
Critical checks are usually the torsional resistance, combined torsion and
lateral torsional buckling resistance in the construction condition (when loaded
on one side only), or lateral torsional buckling in the construction condition
(with loads on both sides). Deflection may be critical for all types of integrated
beams.
Typical beam sizes of slim floor beams and integrated beams for spans of 5 m
to 8 m are presented in Table 5.6 and Table 5.7 respectively.
6.0m 6.0m
3.0m 3.0m
S3 5
S3 5
S3 5
0 S35
0 S35
0 S35
55
55
55
A 220
A 240
A 240
HE EA
22
HE EA
22
HE EA
22
H
H
IPE 400 S235 IPE 400 S235
1
IPE A 450 S235
IPE 400 S235
IPE 400 S235
IPE 240 S235

5
7.5m
4 3
IPE 220 S235
S 3 55
S3 5
0 S3
55
0 S35
55
IPE 220 S235
24 0
A 22
A 220
H E EB
HE B
24
H
HE
6 6
HEB 260/460 x 15 HEB 260/460 x 15
S3 5
0 S35
55
A 240
HE EA
22
H
IPE O 300 S235
IPE 240 S235
IPE 240 S235

2
6.0m
S3 55
0 3
55
S3 5
22 0 S
0 S35
55
A 24
A 240
HE EA
HE A
22
1
HE
IPE A 400 S235 IPE A 400 S235

S3 5
0 S35
55
A 220
HE EA
22
H
1. Side bracing
2. Precast concrete units + 60 mm NWC topping
3. Wall bracing
4. Stairs
5. Lifts and toilets
6. Slimflor beam
Figure 5.17 Slim floor steelwork arrangement for a four-storey rectangular

building (central spine slim floor beam and downstand edge
beams)
2 - 57

The flat floor soffit allows unrestricted access for services below the floor, as
1 60 1 NWC topping
2 2 A142 mesh
3 T12  1200 long tie bars @
3 200 600 ctrs through holes in
4
web
4 HEB 260
5
5 460  15 plate
Figure 5.18 Slim floor construction – typical cross-section using precast units

The concrete encasement around the beam is normally sufficient to provide up
to 60 minutes fire resistance without additional protection.
For 90 minutes fire resistance, an intumescent coating or board protection to

the flange plate is required. Correct detailing of transverse reinforcement is
required, particularly for hollow core units, where filling of the cores adjacent
to the beam is necessary.
Table 5.6 Span of slim floor beams comprising HE sections and welded
bottom plate
Span of slab Typical beam size for slim floor beam span
(m)
5m 6m 7m 8m
5 HE 200A HE 240A HE 280A HE 300A
6 HE 240A HE 280A HE 300A HE 280A
7 HE 280A HE 300A HE 280B HE 300B
8 HE 280A HE 280B HE 300B HE 320B
Slab depth equal to the beam depth, plus 50 mm
The welded plate should be 150 mm wider than the HE section
Table 5.7 Span of integrated beams cut from IPE sections with a welded
bottom flange plate
Span of slab Typical beam size for integrated beam span
(m)
5m 6m 7m 8m
5 IPE 400 IPE 500 IPE 550 IPE 600
6 IPE 500 IPE 550 IPE 600 HE 500A
7 IPE 550 IPE 600 HE 500A HE 600A
8 IPE 600 HE 500A HE 600A HE 600B
All section sizes are cut to be half the IPE section sizes given
A 20 mm thick welded bottom flange plate is used in all cases
2 - 58
5.8 Asymmetric beams and deep decking

5.8.1 Description
Asymmetric beams (ASBs) may be used to support composite slabs using deep
decking. ASBs are hot rolled steel beams with a wider bottom flange than top.
The section may have embossments rolled into the top flange and acts
compositely with the concrete encasement without the need for additional shear
connectors. The decking spans between the bottom flanges of the beams and
supports the loads during construction.
Span arrangements are normally based on a 6 m to 9 m grid, with a slab depth

of 280-350 mm. Decking requires propping during the construction stage for
spans of more than 6 m. Reinforcing bars (16 – 25 mm diameter) placed in the
ribs of the slab give sufficient fire resistance.
ASB sections are generally approximately 300 mm deep. The sections may be
rolled with relatively thick webs (equal to or thicker than the flanges), which
offer a fire resistance of 60 minutes without additional protection (for normal
office loading).
Services can be integrated by forming elongated openings in the webs of the

beams, and by locating ducts between the ribs of the decking, as illustrated in
Figure 5.19.
Edge beams can be slim floor beams utilising a rectangular hollow section, or
downstand beams. Ties, normally Tees with the leg cast in the slab, are used to
restrain the columns internally in the direction at right angles to the main
beams.
Mesh reinforcement (A142 for 60 minutes fire resistance and A193 for
90 minutes) is placed in the slab over the ASB. If the top flange of the ASB is
level with the surface of the concrete, the slabs each side of the ASB should be
tied together to meet robustness requirements, normally by reinforcement
(typically T12 bars @ 600 centres) passed through the web of the ASB. ASBs
are normally designed as non-composite if the concrete cover over the top
flange is less than 30 mm.
Figure 5.19 Integration of services using asymmetric beams
2 - 59

In this form of construction with deep decking, the maximum span of the
decking is limited to approximately 6 m for a 300 mm deep slab, in order to
avoid temporary propping. The maximum span of the ASB beams is in the
range of 6 m to 10 m, depending on their size and spacing.

Unrestricted distribution of services below the floor is provided. Small services
and ducts (up to 160 mm diameter) can be passed through holes in the beam
webs and between ribs in the decking, as shown in Figure 5.20. The following
floor zones may be used in scheme design using asymmetric beams and deep
decking.
600 – 800 mm with light services (and a raised floor)
800 – 1000 mm with air conditioning (and a raised floor)
1 150
1 Raised floor
300
2 2 Ducting through beam
800mm 3 Slimline fan coil unit
3 200
50
4
50
Figure 5.20 Typical floor construction using asymmetric beams and deep
decking

Fire engineered ASBs have relatively thick webs and with the web and top
flange encased with concrete require no additional fire protection for up to
60 minutes.
Other ASB sections require fire protection for greater than 30 minutes –
normally by board to the bottom flange.
5.9 Beam connections

All the floor systems reviewed in this section utilise simple connections
(nominal pins), which are not assumed to develop significant moments. To
realise this assumption in practice, the connection details must be ductile, in
order to accommodate the rotation that develops at the connection.
Full depth connections, where the end plate is welded to the web and flanges,
are provided for floor members that are subject to torsion, such as integrated
beams or slim floor beams. For any floor solution, the possibility of torsional
loading in the construction stage should be checked, as connections with
torsional resistance, or temporary restraints may be required.
2 - 60
The use of full depth end plates may mean that the connections can no longer
be assumed to be pinned. In many instances, it is assumed that the connection
may still be regarded as pinned, as long as the end plate thickness is no more
than half the bolt diameter, in S275 steel. Some regulatory authorities may
wish to see a calculation to demonstrate the connection classification.
5.9.1 Beam to column connections

When connections are not subject to torsion, simple (vertical shear only)
connections are usually detailed. Standard connections are used, with the
choice of detail left to the steelwork contractor. The standard connections are
the flexible end plate, a fin plate or double angle cleats, shown in Figure 5.21.
It is commonly assumed that the types of connections shown in Figure 5.21 are
pinned, as long as the plates and angles are relatively thin (10 mm in S275
steel). Multi-storey steel buildings Part 5: Joint design[8] cover the design of
pinned connections.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.21 Standard beam connections. (a) Flexible end plate (b) Fin plate
(c) Double angle cleat
In general, flexible end plates are generally used for beam-to-column

connections. Fin plates are often used for beam-to-beam connections.
5.9.2 Beam to beam connections

Beam-to-beam connections also utilise the standard details, although the
secondary beam will need to be notched, as shown in Figure 5.22.
Figure 5.22 Beam to beam connection
2 - 61
5.9.3 Full depth end plates

When connections are subject to torsion, the connection is usually fabricated
with a full depth end plate, as shown in Figure 5.23. In these connections, the
end plate is welded around the full profile of the member.
Figure 5.23 Full depth end plates for integrated beams
It is usual practice for the steelwork contractor to design the connections. The
frame designer should provide connection shears and torques for the relevant
stages, i.e. during construction and in the final state. This is because for many
members, torsion may be a feature at the construction stage, when loads are
only applied to one side of the member. In this case, both the welds and the
bolt group must be checked for the combined effects of the applied torsion and
vertical shear.
2 - 62
6 OTHER DESIGN ISSUES
The following design issues will affect the overall building concept, including
the structural design aspects.
6.1 Accidental Actions

EN 1990 requires that structures be designed for accidental design situations.
The situations that need to be considered are set out in EN 1991-1-7, and these
relate to both identified accidental actions and unidentified accidental actions.
The strategy to be adopted in either case depends on three “consequence
classes” that are set out in EN 1990; for buildings, one of those classes has
been subdivided and the categories of building in each class are set out in
EN 1991-1-7, Table A.1.
For identified accidental actions, design strategies include protecting the

structure against the action but more generally, and for unidentified actions, the
structure should be designed to have an appropriate level of “robustness”,
defined as:
“The ability of a structure to withstand events like fire, explosions, impact

or the consequences of human error, without being damaged to an extent
disproportionate to the original cause.”
For unidentified actions, the strategy for achieving robustness is set out in
EN 1991-1-7 § 3.3, which says that:
“… the potential failure of the structure arising from an unspecified cause
shall be mitigated … by adopting one or more of the following
approaches:
a) designing key elements on which the stability of the structure depends,
to sustain the effects of a model of accidental action Ad;
b) designing the structure so that in the event of a localised failure (e.g.
failure of a single member) the stability of the whole structure or of a
significant part of it would not be endangered;
c) applying prescriptive design/detailing rules that provide acceptable
robustness for the structure (e.g. three dimensional tying for
additional integrity, or a minimum level of ductility of structural
members subject to impact).”
6.1.1 Consequence classes

EN 1990 defines three consequences classes:
 CC1 Low consequences of failure
 CC2 Medium consequences of failure
 CC3 High consequences of failure
2 - 63
Class CC2 is subdivided by EN 1991-1-7 into CC2a (Lower risk group) and
CC2b (Upper risk group). Medium rise buildings mostly fall with group CC2b.
Examples of categories given by Table A.1 of EN 1991-1-7 include the
following:
Table 6.1 Examples of building categorisation (taken from Table A.1 of
EN 1991-1-7)
Consequence Example of categorization of building type and occupancy
Class
2B Hotels, flats, apartments and other residential buildings greater than
Upper Risk 4 storeys but not exceeding 15 storeys.
Group
Educational buildings greater than single storey but not exceeding
15 storeys.
Retailing premises greater than 3 storeys but not exceeding 15 storeys.
Offices greater than 4 storeys but not exceeding 15 storeys.
All buildings to which the public are admitted and which contain floor
areas exceeding 2000 m2 but not exceeding 5000 m2 at each storey.
The recommended strategy for Consequence Class 2b involves either the

design for localised failure (see Section 6.1.2) or the design of columns as key
elements (see Section 6.1.6).
6.1.2 Design for the consequences of localised failure in multi-storey

buildings
In multi-storey buildings, the requirement for robustness generally leads to a
design strategy where the columns are tied into the rest of the structure. This
should mean that any one length of column cannot easily be removed.
However, should a length be removed by an accidental action, the floor
systems should be able to develop catenary action, to limit the extent of the
failure.
It should be noted that the requirements are not intended to ensure that the
structure is still serviceable following some extreme event, but that damage is
limited, and that progressive collapse is prevented.
6.1.3 Horizontal tying

EN 1991-1-7, A.5 provides guidance on the horizontal tying of framed
structures. It gives expressions for the design tensile resistance required for
internal and perimeter ties. The calculated tying force is generally equal to the
vertical shear.
Tying forces do not necessarily need to be carried by the steelwork frame. A

composite concrete floor, for example, can be used to tie columns together, but
must be designed to perform this function. Additional reinforcement may be
required, and the columns (particularly edge columns) may need careful
detailing to ensure the tying force is transferred between column and slab.
If the tying forces are to be carried by the structural steelwork alone, it should
be noted that the check for tying resistance is entirely separate to that for
resistance to vertical forces. The shear force and tying forces are never applied
2 - 64
at the same time. Furthermore, the usual requirement that members and
connections remain serviceable under design loading is ignored when
calculating resistance to tying, as ‘substantial permanent deformation of
members and their connections is acceptable’. Guidance on the design of
connections to resist tying forces is given in Multi-storey steel buildings.
Part 5: Joint design[8].
6.1.4 Tying of precast concrete floor units

EN 1991-1-7, §A.5.1 (2) requires that when concrete or other heavy floor units
are used (as floors), they should be tied in the direction of their span. The
intention is to prevent floor units or floor slabs simply falling through the steel
frame, if the steelwork is moved or removed due to some major trauma. Slabs
must be tied to each other over supports, and tied to edge beams. Tying forces
may be determined from §9.10.2 of BS EN 1992-1-1.
6.1.5 Vertical tying

EN 1991-1-7, A.6 provides guidance on the vertical tying of framed structures.
The clause recommends that column splices should be capable of carrying an
axial tension equal to the largest design vertical permanent and variable load
reaction applied to the column from any one storey. In practice, this is not an
onerous obligation, and most splices designed for adequate stiffness and
robustness during erection are likely to be sufficient to carry the axial tying
force. Guidance on the design of splices to resist tying forces is given in other
publications in this series Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 5: Joint design [8].
6.1.6 Key elements

EN 1991-1-7, A.8 provides guidance on the design of “Key elements”. It
recommends that a key element should be capable of sustaining an accidental
design action of Ad applied in horizontal and vertical directions (in one
direction at a time) to the member and any attached components. The
recommended value of Ad for building structures is 34 kN/m2. Any other
structural component that provides “lateral restraint vital to the stability” of a
key element should also be designed as a key element.
6.1.7 Risk assessment

Buildings which fall into consequence class 3 have to be assessed using risk
assessment techniques. Annex B of EN 1991-1-7 provides information on risk
assessment and B.9 provides guidance specific to buildings.
6.2 Floor dynamics

Floor response is assessed first by calculating the fundamental frequency of the
floor, and checking this against a limit. Limits are given in National regulations
or technical guidance, and may vary between countries. Generally, if the
fundamental frequency of the floor structure is greater than 4 Hz, the floor is
usually considered to be satisfactory. The natural frequency of the floor is then
at least twice the natural frequency due to rapid walking. Whilst this is
generally acceptable for busy workplaces, it is not appropriate for quieter areas
of buildings where vibrations are more perceptible.
2 - 65
A more appropriate approach is an assessment based on a ‘response factor’ that

takes into account the amplitude of the vibration, which is normally measured
in terms of acceleration. Allowable response factors are also given in national
regulations or technical guidance and may vary between countries. Higher
response factors indicate increasingly dynamic floors that are more noticeable
to the occupants. A response factor of 8 relative to a base acceleration of
5 mm/s2 is generally taken to indicate acceptable performance for an office, but
it may be necessary to reduce the response factor to (for example) 1 to 2 for a
hospital or other specialist rooms.
In practice, response factors are reduced (i.e. vibration is less noticeable) by

increasing the mass participating in the motion. Long-span beams are generally
less of a dynamic problem than shorter spans, which is contrary to ideas based
on natural frequency alone.
Beam layout is often important, as longer continuous lines of secondary beams

in composite construction result in lower response factors than shorter lengths,
because more mass participates in the motion with longer lines of beams.
Figure 6.1 shows two possible arrangements of beams. The response factor for
arrangement (b) will be lower (less noticeable to occupants) than arrangement
(a), as the participating mass is increased in arrangement (b).
The dynamic response of bare floors during construction is more likely to be

perceived than the same floor when furnished and occupied.
Further information on the human induced vibration if steel structures can be

obtained from the HIVOSS website[9].
Secondary Secondary
beams beams
Primary Primary
beams beams
(a) (b)
Figure 6.1 Alternative beam layouts
2 - 66
6.3 Corrosion protection

The corrosion of steel is an electrochemical process that requires the
simultaneous presence of water and oxygen. In the absence of either, corrosion
does not occur. Hence, for unprotected steel in dry environments (e.g. internal
steelwork), corrosion will be minimal. The principal factors that determine the
rate of corrosion of steel in air are the proportion of total time during which the
surface is wet, due to rainfall, condensation etc, and the type and amount of
atmospheric pollution (e.g. sulphates, chlorides, etc.).
External steelwork will need corrosion protection. The local environment is

important, and can be broadly classified according to EN ISO 12944-2, which
describes categories from C1 (heated interiors) through to C5 (aggressive
marine or industrial environment). Many corrosion protection systems are
available, including metallic coatings (such as galvanising) and paint systems,
and should be chosen based on the environment classification.
Occasionally, local regulations demand that even interior steelwork or encased

members must have corrosion protection, but in general, hidden steelwork
inside dry, heated buildings requires no protection at all.
6.4 Temperature effects

In theory, steel frames expand and contract with changes in temperature. Often,
the temperature change of the steelwork itself is much lower than any change
in the external temperature, because it is protected.
It is recommended that expansion joints are avoided if possible, since these are
expensive and can be difficult to detail correctly to maintain a weather-tight
external envelope. In preference to providing expansion joints, the frame may
be analysed including the design effects of a temperature change. The
temperature actions may be determined from EN 1991-1-5, and combinations
of actions verified in accordance with EN 1990. In most cases, the members
will be found to be adequate.
Common practice for multi-storey buildings in Northern Europe, in the absence

of calculations, is that expansion joints do not need to be provided unless the
length of the building exceeds 100 m for simple (braced) frames, and 50m in
continuous construction. In warmer climates, common practice is to limit the
length to around 80 m. These recommendations apply to the steel frame –
expansion joints should be provided in stiff external cladding such as
brickwork. When expansion joints in multi-storey buildings are provided, they
are commonly arranged to coincide with significant changes of shape on plan,
or at significant changes in floor level, or to separate parts of the structure on
different foundations.
6.5 Fire safety

Building designers should consider the implications of fire resistance when
choosing the structural configuration and should address issues such as:
 Means of escape.
2 - 67
 Size of compartment
 Access and facilities for the Fire Service
 Limiting the spread of fire
 Smoke control and evacuation
 Adoption of sprinklers.
Generally, the above issues are addressed by the scheme architect.
In addition to the above, structural performance in the event of a fire must meet
prescribed standards, expressed as a period of fire resistance of the structural
components. As an alternative, a ‘fire engineering’ approach may be followed
which accounts for the fire safety of the whole building, considering the
structure use, the hazards, the risks and how these are addressed.
In general, the structural engineer and architect should consider:

 Schemes which have fewer beams to fire protect
 The opportunity to use unprotected steelwork
 The influence of service integration on the fire protection system, and
appropriate solutions such as intumescent coatings on cellular beams
 The influence that site applied protection may have on the construction
programme, particularly if the protection is a spray
 Requirements for the final appearance of exposed steelwork when choosing
a fire protection system.
Guidance on the fire engineering of multi-storey steel structures is given in

Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 6: Fire engineering[10].
6.6 Acoustic performance

Limits on residual noise, after accounting for attenuation by the building
façade, are usually specified in National regulations for open plan offices and
conference rooms. Criteria are also usually given for the acceptable noise from
building services in the same categories.
Maximum and minimum ambient noise level targets are generally defined for
spaces within buildings. These are appropriate for comfort in both commercial
premises and residential accommodation.
To meet acoustic performance standards, the construction details may require

special attention. In Figure 6.2 precast concrete units have an isolated screed (a
screed separated from the precast unit by a proprietary resilient layer, or by a
waterproof membrane and dense mineral wool). In addition, the ceiling is not
in direct contact with the steel beam, and is at least 8 kg/m2. Particular attention
must also be paid to the junction where walls meet floors and ceilings (known
as “flanking” details). An example of a typical flanking detail is shown in
Figure 6.3, where there is dense mineral wool around the steel beam, sealant
2 - 68
where the wall finish meets the ceiling, and sealant where the floor treatment
meets the wall finish.
Figure 6.2 Typical floor treatment to provide improved acoustic performance
1 Dense mineral wool

2 Acoustic sealant
3 Mineral wool packing
4 Precast concrete unit
5 Floor treatment
6 Sealant
Figure 6.3 Typical flanking detail for an internal separating wall
Separating walls between occupancies are likely to be of double skin

construction to reduce noise transmission, facilitating the use of bracing within
the wall construction.
2 - 69
6.7 Energy efficiency

Thermal insulation provided in the building envelope is traditionally the
architect’s responsibility. However, the structural engineer must be involved in
the development of appropriate details and layout. Supporting systems for
cladding may be more complicated in order to meet thermal performance
requirements, involving eccentric connection to the supporting steelwork. Steel
members that penetrate the insulation, such as balcony supports, need special
consideration and detailing to avoid ‘thermal bridging’. Thermal bridges not
only lead to heat loss, but may also lead to condensation on the inside of the
building.
6.8 Cladding
Cladding systems that may be used in multi-storey building depend on the
building height and the degree of fenestration. Fully glazed facades are widely
used, although provision for solar shading generally has to be made. An
example of a fully glazed cladding is shown in Figure 6.4. The following
cladding systems are generally:
 Brickwork
Ground supported up to 3 storeys. Supported by stainless steel angles
attached to edge beams for taller buildings
 Glazing systems
Generally triple glazing or double layer facades supported on aluminium
posts or glass fins
 Curtain walling
Aluminium or other lightweight façade that is attached to the perimeter
steelwork
 Insulated render or tiles
Cladding system supported on light steel infill walls, mainly used in public
sector buildings and residential buildings.
2 - 70
Figure 6.4 Triple glazed wall in a multi-storey commercial building
6.8.1 Brickwork cladding

Brickwork cladding is generally supported from the structural frame by
continuous angles, bracket angles or individual brackets, often formed from
stainless steel to avoid any unsightly staining. Generally, the brackets will have
some provision of vertical adjustment, often using two matching plates with
serrations on the mating surfaces. Figure 6.5 shows typical fixings to steel
beams, where the bracket arrangement is connected to a plate welded between
the flanges of the beam.
Figure 6.5 Typical fixing details to steel members
Figure 6.6 shows typical fixing details to the edge of concrete slabs. The
bracket may fix to the sop of the slab, or may connect to a dovetail shaped
profile formed in the edge trim of the slab.
2 - 71
Figure 6.6 Typical fixing details to concrete slabs
6.8.2 Glazing systems

Many steel structures have glazed facades. There are a large number of
different systems, and the manufacturer of the system should be consulted
when specifying the system, and particularly the fixings to the steel frame. In
many cases the fixings will be at the corners of glazed panels, and the panels
themselves will have some form of gasket on the joints between panels.
A number of important issues need to be addressed, notably the need to make

provision for adjustment in the connections, because the tolerances on the steel
frame and the glazing panels are generally different. Movement due to thermal
effects may be significant, and this will have to be accommodated in the
support system.
6.8.3 Curtain walling

Curtain walling includes:
 Metal panels (generally steel or aluminium)
 Precast concrete panels
 Stone cladding.
Curtain walling may be able to support their own weight and the applied loads
without additional structural systems. This type of panel is generally hung,
(supported at the top of the panel) or supported at their base from the floor.
Generally, each panel system will have a proprietary fixing detail that allows
for movement and adjustment in three directions, in order to overcome the
difference in tolerances of the frame and cladding panels. The connections can
be substantial, and provision may be require to conceal the connections in a
raised floor or ceiling zone. The slab design may need review in order to
accommodate the local connection forces. It is also common that fixings will
be required to the outside edge of a floor, which is usually achieved by a
dovetail channel cast into the edge of the slab.
Cladding may require additional structural support – generally in the form of

mullions which may extend vertically over a number of floors, possibly with
intermediate horizontal members (transoms). Vertical or horizontal metal
sheeting is often supported in this way. The connections need careful
consideration, to allow for adjustment in three directions, and to allow for
movement whilst carrying lateral loads to the floors.
2 - 72
6.8.4 Insulated render cladding and tiles

Insulated render cladding is a lightweight, energy efficient cladding for
multi-storey structures, which utilises insulation and render supported by a
secondary steel frame, as shown in Figure 6.7. With appropriate detailing and
installation, this type of façade can be a fast, robust and highly insulated
solution. Tiles may be used as a substitute for the render, and these may be
individual tiles or pre-formed panels. Similarly, brickwork can be used as the
external skin, as shown in Figure 6.8.
5 1 Fire resistant plasterboard

2 Supplementary insulation
6 3 Steel frame
4 Sheathing board
5 Breather membrane
7 6 Rigid board insulation
7 Polymer modified render
Figure 6.7 Typical insulated render cladding supported by light steel framing
2 - 73
1 Insulated board with foil face

2 Wall ties attached to dovetail
channels
3 Brickwork
Figure 6.8 Insulated infill panel with brickwork cladding
2 - 74
REFERENCES
1 HICKS, S. J., LAWSON, R. M., RACKHAM, J. W. and FORDHAM, P.

Comparative structure cost of modern commercial buildings (second edition)
The Steel Construction Institute, 2004
2 Steel Buildings in Europe
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 3: Actions
3 SANSOM, M & MEIJER, J
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) for steel construction
European commission, 2002
4 Several assessment methods are used. For example:
 BREEAM in the UK
 HQE in France
 DNGB in Germany
 BREEAM-NL, Greencalc+ and BPR Gebouw in the Netherlands
 Valideo in Belgium
 Casa Clima in Trento Alto Adige, Italy (each region has its own approach)
 LEED, used in various countries
5 GORGOLEWSKI, M.
The role of steel in environmentally responsible buildings
Multi-storey steel building. Part 4: Detailed design
7 SIMMS, W.I.
RT 983: Interim guidance on the use of intumescent coatings for the fire protection
of beams
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 5: Joint design
9 http://www.stb.rwth-aachen.de/projekte/2007/HIVOSS/download.php
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 6: Fire engineering
2 - 75

Part 3: Actions
Part 3: Actions
3 - ii
Part 3: Actions
FOREWORD
This publication is part three of a design guide, Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.

Part 3: Actions
Part 8: Design software – section capacity
Part 9: Design software – simple connections
Part 10: Software specification for composite beams.
3 - iii
Part 3: Actions
3 - iv
Part 3: Actions
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 SAFETY PHILOSOPHY ACCORDING TO EN 1990 2
2.1 General format of the verifications 2
2.2 Ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states 2
2.3 Characteristic values and design values of actions 3
3 COMBINATIONS OF ACTIONS 4
3.1 General 4
3.2 ULS combinations 4
3.3 SLS combinations 6
4 PERMANENT ACTIONS 8
5 CONSTRUCTION LOADS 9
6 IMPOSED LOADS 10
6.1 General 10
6.2 Reduction due to the loaded area 10
6.3 Reduction due to the number of storeys 11
6.4 Horizontal loads on parapets 11
7 SNOW LOADS 12
8 WIND ACTION 13
8.1 General 13
8.2 Structural factor cscd 13
9 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE 18
REFERENCES 19
APPENDIX A Worked Example – Wind action on a multi-storey building 21
3-v
Part 3: Actions
SUMMARY
This document provides guidelines for the determination of the loads on a common
multi-storey building, according to EN 1990 and EN 1991. After a short description of
the general format for limit state design, this guide provides information on the
determination of the permanent actions, the variable actions and the combinations of
actions. This guide also includes a worked example on the wind action on a multi-storey
building.
3 - vi
Part 3: Actions
1 INTRODUCTION
This guide provides essential information on the determination of the design

actions on a multi-storey building. It describes the basis of design with
reference to the limit state concept in conjunction with the partial factor
method, according to the following parts of the Eurocodes:
 EN 1990: Basis of structural design[1]

 EN 1991: Actions on structures
- Part 1-1: General actions – Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for
buildings[2]
- Part 1-3: General actions – Snow loads[3]
- Part 1-4: General actions – Wind actions[4]
- Part 1-5: General actions – Thermal actions[5]
- Part 1-6: General actions – Actions during execution.[6]
3-1
Part 3: Actions
2 SAFETY PHILOSOPHY ACCORDING TO

EN 1990
2.1 General format of the verifications

A distinction is made between ultimate limit states (ULS) and serviceability
limit states (SLS).
The ultimate limit states are related to the following design situations:
 Persistent design situations (conditions of normal use)
 Transient design situations (temporary conditions applicable to the
structure, e.g. during execution, repair, etc.)
 Accidental design situations (exceptional conditions applicable to the
structure)
 Seismic design situations (conditions applicable to the structure when
subjected to seismic events). These events are dealt with in EN 1998[7], and
are outside the scope of this guide.
The serviceability limit states concern the functioning of the structure under
normal use, the comfort of people and the appearance of the construction.
The verifications shall be carried out for all relevant design situations and load
cases.
2.2 Ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states

2.2.1 Ultimate limit states (ULS)
The states classified as ultimate limit states are those that concern the safety of
people and /or the safety of the structure. The structure shall be verified at ULS
when there is:
 Loss of equilibrium of the structure or any part of it (EQU)
 Failure by excessive deformation, rupture, loss of stability of the structure
or any part of it (STR)
 Failure or excessive deformation of the ground (GEO)
 Failure caused by fatigue or other time-dependent effects (FAT).
2.2.2 Serviceability limit states (SLS)

The structure shall be verified at SLS when there is:
 Deformations that affect the appearance, the comfort of users or the
functioning of the structure
 Vibrations that cause discomfort to people or that limit the functional
effectiveness of the structure
 Damage that is likely to adversely affect the appearance, the durability or
the functioning of the structure.
3-2
Part 3: Actions
2.3 Characteristic values and design values of

actions
2.3.1 General
Actions shall be classified by their variation in time as follows:
 Permanent actions (G), e.g. self-weight of structures, fixed equipment, etc.
 Variable actions (Q), e.g. imposed loads, wind actions, snow loads, etc.
 Accidental actions (A), e.g. explosions, impact from vehicles, etc.
Certain actions may be considered as either accidental and/or variable actions,

e.g. seismic actions, snow loads, wind actions with some design situations.
2.3.2 Characteristic values of actions

The characteristic value (Fk) of an action is its principal representative value.
As it can be defined on statistical bases, it is chosen so as to correspond to a
prescribed probability of not exceeding on the unfavourable side, during a
“reference period” taking into account the design working life of the structure.
These characteristic values are specified in the various Parts of EN 1991.
2.3.3 Design values of actions

The design value Fd of an action F can be expressed in general terms as:
Fd = f  Fk
where:
Fk is the characteristic value of the action
f is a partial factor for the action
 is either 1,00, 0, 1 or 2
2.3.4 Partial factors

Partial factors are used to verify the structures at ULS and SLS. They should be
obtained from EN 1990 Annex A1, or from EN 1991 or from the relevant
National Annex.
2.3.5  factors
In the combinations of actions,  factors apply to variable actions in order to
take into account the reduced probability of simultaneous occurrence of their
characteristic values.
The recommended values for factors for buildings should be obtained from
EN 1990 Annex A1 Table A1.1, or from EN 1991 or from the relevant
National Annex.
3-3
Part 3: Actions
3 COMBINATIONS OF ACTIONS
3.1 General
The individual actions should be combined so as not to exceed the limit state
for the relevant design situations.
Actions that cannot occur simultaneously, e.g. due to physical reasons, should
not be considered together in a same combination.
Depending on its uses and the form and the location of a building, the
combinations of actions may be based on not more than two variable actions –
See Note 1 in EN 1990 § A1.2.1(1). The National Annex may provide
additional information.
3.2 ULS combinations

3.2.1 Static equilibrium
To verify a limit state of static equilibrium of the structure (EQU), it shall be
ensured that:
Ed,dst ≤ Ed,stb
where:
Ed,dst is the design value of the effect of destabilising actions
Ed,stb is the design value of the effect of stabilising actions
3.2.2 Rupture or excessive deformation of an element

To verify a limit state of rupture or excessive deformation of a section, member
or connection (STR and/or GEO), it shall be ensured that:
Ed ≤ Rd
where:
Ed is the design value of the effect of actions
Rd is the design value of the corresponding resistance
Each combination of actions should include a leading variable action or an
accidental action.
3.2.3 Combinations of actions for persistent or transient design

situations
According to EN 1990 § 6.4.3.2(3), the combinations of actions can be derived
either from expression (6.10) or from expressions (6.10a and 6.10b –
whichever is more onerous). The choice between these two sets of expressions
may be imposed by the National Annex.
In general, expression (6.10) is conservative in comparison to the pair of

expressions (6.10a and 6.10b), but it leads to a reduced number of
combinations to consider.
3-4
Part 3: Actions
Permanent Leading Accompanying

actions variable action variable actions
Ed =   G, jGk, j +  Q,1Qk,1 +   Q,i 0,iQk,i (6.10)

j 1 i 1
Ed =   G, jGk, j +  0,1 Q,1Qk,1 +   Q,i 0,iQk,i (6.10a)

j 1 i 1
Ed =    G, jGk, j +  Q,1Qk,1 +   Q,i 0,iQk,i (6.10b)

j 1 i 1
Gk and Qk are found in EN 1991 or its National Annex.
G and Q are found in Table A1.2(A) for static equilibrium (EQU);

Tables A1.2(B) and A1.2(C) for rupture (STR and/or GEO) of EN 1990 or its
National Annex.
Table 3.1 Recommended values of partial factors
Table
Limit state Gj,inf Gj,sup Q,1 = Q,I Q,1 = Q,I
(EN 1990)
A1.2(A) EQU 0,90 1,10 1,50 1,50

A1.2(B) STR/GEO 1,00 1,35 1,50 1,50
A1.2(C) STR/GEO 1,00 1,00 1,30 1,30
0 factors are found in EN 1990 Table A1.1 or in its National Annex. This
factor varies between 0,5 and 1 except for roofs of category H (0 = 0).
ξ is a reduction factor for permanent loads. According to EN 1990

Table A1.2(B), the recommended value for buildings is ξ = 0,85. The National
Annex may specify a different value.
For example, according to expression 6.10:

With snow as the leading variable action:
Ed = 1,35 G + 1,5 S + (1,5  0,6) W = 1,35 G + 1,5 S + 0,9 W
With wind as the leading variable action:

Ed = 1,35 G + 1,5 W + (1,5  0,5) S = 1,35 G + 1,5 W + 0,75 S
3.2.4 Combinations of actions for accidental design situations

Combinations of actions for accidental design situations should either involve
an explicit accidental action or refer to a situation after an accident event.
Permanent Accidental Leading variable Accompanying

actions action action variable actions
( 1,1 or  2,1 )
Ed =  Gk, j + Ad + +   Q,i 0,iQk,i
j 1 Qk,1 i 1
3-5
Part 3: Actions
The choice between 1,1Qk,1 or 2,1Qk,1 should be related to the relevant

accidental design situation. Guidance is given in EN 1990 or in the National
Annex to EN 1990.
3.3 SLS combinations

3.3.1 Serviceability Limit State
To verify a serviceability limit state, it shall be ensured that:
Ed ≤ Cd
where:
Ed is the design value of the effects of actions specified in the
serviceability criterion,
Cd is the limiting design value of the relevant serviceability criterion.
3.3.2 Characteristic combination

The characteristic combination is normally used for irreversible limit states.

Ed =  Gk, j + Qk,1 +  0,iQk,i

j 1 i 1
For example, with snow as the leading variable action:

Ed = G + S + 0,6 W
Ed = G + S + 0,7 Q (Q being the imposed load in an office building)
3.3.3 Frequent combination

The frequent combination is normally used for reversible limit states.

Ed =  Gk, j +  1,1Qk,1 +  2,iQk,i

j 1 i 1
For example, with snow as the leading variable action:
Ed = G + 0,2 S (2 = 0 for the wind action)
Ed = G + 0,2 S + 0,3 Q (Q being the imposed load in an office building)
3-6
Part 3: Actions
3.3.4 Quasi-permanent combination

The quasi-permanent combination is normally used for long-term effects and
the appearance of the structure.
Permanent Variable
actions actions
Ed =  Gk, j +  2,iQk,i
j 1 i 1
For example:
Ed = G + 0,3 Q (Q being the imposed load in an office building)
3.3.5 Floor vibration

In multi-storey buildings, floor vibration is sometimes a serviceability limit
state that is critical in the design. There is no specific rule in the Eurocodes.
Limits may be given in the National Annexes.
A simple rule is generally to require the frequency to be higher than a

minimum value (3 or 5 Hz for example); the frequency being assessed from the
total permanent loads and a fraction of the imposed loads I (for example:
G + 0,2 I). This approach is often too conservative and more advanced methods
are available, see the Design guide for floor vibrations[8]. additional
information is given in Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 4: Detailed design[9].
3-7
Part 3: Actions
4 PERMANENT ACTIONS
The self-weight of construction works is generally the main permanent load.

As stated in EN 1991-1-1 § 2.1(1), it should be classified as a permanent fixed
action
The total self-weight of structural and non-structural members, including fixed

services, should be taken into account in combinations of actions as a single
action.
Non-structural elements include roofing, surfacing and coverings, partitions

and linings, hand rails, safety barriers, parapets, wall claddings, suspended
ceilings, thermal insulation, fixed machinery and all fixed services (equipment
for lifts and moving stairways, heating, ventilating, electrical and air
conditioning equipment, pipes without their contents, cable trunking and
conduits).
The characteristic values of self-weight should be defined from the dimensions

and densities of the elements.
Values of densities of construction materials are provided in EN 1991-1-1

Annex A (Tables A.1 to A.5).
For example:
Steel:  = 77,0 to 78,5 kN/m3
Normal reinforced concrete  = 25,0 kN/m3
Aluminium:  = 27,0 kN/m3
For manufactured elements (façades, ceilings and other equipment for

buildings), data may be provided by the manufacturer.
3-8
Part 3: Actions
5 CONSTRUCTION LOADS
EN 1991-1-6 gives rules for the determination of actions during execution.

Verifications are required for both serviceability limit states and ultimate limit
states.
Table 4.1 defines construction loads that have to be taken into account:
 Personnel and hand tools (Qca)
 Storage of movable items (Qcb)
 Non permanent equipment (Qcc)
 Moveable heavy machinery and equipment (Qcd)
 Accumulation of waste material (Qce)
 Loads from parts of structure in a temporary state (Qcf).
Recommended values are provided in the same table but values may be given
in the National Annex.
In multi-storey buildings, the design of composite floors or composite beams

should be carried out with reference to EN 1991-1-6 § 4.11.2 for the
determination of the construction loads during the casting of concrete.
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Part 3: Actions
6 IMPOSED LOADS
6.1 General
Generally, imposed loads on buildings shall be classified as variable free
actions. They arise from occupancy. They include normal use by persons,
furniture and moveable objects, vehicles, anticipating rare events
(concentrations of persons or of furniture, momentary moving or stacking of
objects, etc.). Movable partitions should be treated as imposed loads.
Imposed loads are represented by uniformly distributed loads, line loads or

point loads applied on roofs or floors, or a combination of these loads.
Floor and roof areas in buildings are sub-divided into categories according to
their use (Table 6.1). The characteristic values qk (uniformly distributed load)
and Qk (concentred load) related to these categories are specified in Table 6.2
(or in the National Annex).
For the design of a single floor or a roof, the imposed load shall be taken into
account as a free action applied at the most unfavourable part of the influence
area of the action effects considered.
Where the loads on other storeys are relevant, they may be assumed to be
distributed uniformly (fixed actions).
Characteristic values of imposed loads are specified in EN 1991-1-1

Section 6.3 as follows:
6.3.1 Residential, social, commercial and administration areas
6.3.2 Areas for storage and industrial activities
6.3.3 Garages and vehicle traffic areas
6.3.4 Roofs.
6.2 Reduction due to the loaded area

In multi-storey buildings, the characteristic value qk of the imposed loads on
floors and accessible roofs may be reduced by a factor A, for categories A to
D, where:
5 A
A =  0  0  1,0
7 A
With the restriction for categories C and D: A ≥ 0,6
where:
0 is the factor as defined in EN 1990 Annex A1 Table A1.1.
0 = 10 m2
A is the loaded area
The National Annex may give an alternative method.
3 - 10
Part 3: Actions
6.3 Reduction due to the number of storeys

For the design of columns and walls, loaded from several storeys, the total
imposed loads on the floor of each storey should be assumed to be distributed
uniformly.
For columns and walls, the total imposed loads may be reduced by a factor n,
for categories A to D, where:
2  (n  2)
n = 0
n
where:
0 is is the factor as defined in EN 1990 Annex A1 Table A1.1.
n is the number of storeys (> 2) above the loaded structural elements in
the same category.
The National Annex may give an alternative method.
6.4 Horizontal loads on parapets

The characteristic values of the line loads qk acting at the height of the partition
walls or parapets but not higher than 1,20 m should be taken from EN 1991-1-1
Table 6.12, which provides recommended values. Other values may be given in
the National Annex.
For areas susceptible to significant overcrowding associated with public events

(stages, assembly halls, conference rooms), the load should be taken according
to category C5 from EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.1.
For office buildings (category B), the recommended value from EN 1991-1-1
Table 6.12 is:
qk = 0,2 to 1,0 kN/m
The National Annex may define other values.
3 - 11
Part 3: Actions
7 SNOW LOADS
There is no issue in the calculation of snow loads specifically related to

multi-storey buildings. Full information including a worked example is
provided in Single-storey steel buildings. Part 3: Actions[10].
3 - 12
Part 3: Actions
8 WIND ACTION
8.1 General
The determination of the wind action according to EN 1991-1-4[4] is described
in Single-storey steel buildings. Part 3:– Actions [10] for a single storey
building. For a multi-storey building, the calculation is nearly the same, except
for two aspects:
 The calculation of the structural factor cscd
 For slender buildings, the external pressure coefficients must be calculated
for different strips along the height of the building.
According to EN 1991-1-4 § 6.2(1), the structural factor may be taken equal

to 1 when the height of the building is lower than 15 m, which is commonly the
case for single storey buildings. For multi-storey buildings, which are
commonly higher than 15 m, the structural factor has to be determined.
Section 8.2 provides the main steps of this calculation according to
EN 1991-1-4 § 6.3.1(1).
A detailed example including the full calculation of the wind action on a multi-
storey building is given in Appendix A.
8.2 Structural factor cscd

The structural factor cscd should be calculated for the main wind directions,
using the equation given EN 1991-1-4 § 6.3.1(1), provided that:
 The building shape is a rectangular, parallel sided as stated in EN 1991-1-4
§ 6.3.1(2) and Figure 6.1
 The along-wind vibration in the fundamental mode is significant and the
mode shape has a constant sign.
This calculation requires the determination of several intermediate parameters.
3 - 13
Part 3: Actions
W indicates the wind direction
Figure 8.1 General dimensions of a building
The following procedure is proposed:

1. The roughness length z0 and the minimum height zmin
These values are obtained from EN 1991-1-4 Table 4.1, depending on the
terrain category.
2. The reference height zs
zs = 0,6 h (h is the height of the multi-storey building)
But zs should not be taken lower than zmin.
3. The orography factor co(zs)
According to EN 1991-1-4 § 4.3.3, the effects of orography may be
neglected when the average slope of the upwind terrain is less than 3°.
Then:
co(zs) = 1,0
Otherwise, this factor can be determined either from EN 1991-1-4 §A.3, or
from the relevant National Annex.
4. The roughness factor cr(zs)
cr(zs) has to be calculated for the reference height according to EN 1991-1-4
§ 4.3.2:
If zmin ≤ zs ≤ zmax cr(zs) = 0,19 (z0/z0,II)0,07 ln(zs/z0)
Else, if zs < zmin cr(zs) = cr(zmin)
where: z0,II = 0,05 m and zmax = 200 m

5. The turbulence factor kl
It may be defined by the National Annex. The recommended value is:
kl = 1,0
3 - 14
Part 3: Actions
6. The turbulence intensity Iv(zs)

If zmin ≤ zs ≤ zmax Iv(zs) = kl / [c0(zs) ln(zs/z0) ]
Else, if zs < zmin Iv(zs) = Iv(zmin)
where: zmax = 200 m
7. The turbulent length scale L(zs)

If zmin ≥ zs L(zs) = Lt (zs/zt)
Else, if zs < zmin L(zs) = L(zmin)
where:  = 0,67 + 0,05 ln(z0) [z0 in meters]
Lt = 300 m
zt = 200 m
Note: Some of the following parameters are determined using EN 1991-1-4

Annex B as recommended method. They can also be defined by the
National Annex.
8. The background factor B2

1
B2  0,63
 bh 
1  0,9 
 L( z s ) 
9. The mean wind velocity vm(zs)
The mean wind velocity at the reference height zs is calculated from:
vm(zs) = c0(zs) cr(zs) vb
Where vb is the basic wind velocity as defined in EN 1991-1-4 § 4.2(2).
10. The fundamental frequency n1,x
The procedure requires the determination of the fundamental frequency of
the building in the wind direction. The following formula can be used for
common buildings in order to get a rough estimation of the fundamental
frequency in Hertz:
d
n1,x =
0,1h
With d and h in meters.
Complementary information can be found in the ECCS recommendations

for calculating the effect of wind on constructions[11].
11. The non-dimensional power spectral density function SL(zs, n1,x)

6,8 f L zs , n1, x 
SL(zs,n1,x) =
1  10,2 f z , n 
L s 1, x
5
3
3 - 15
Part 3: Actions
n1,x L zs 
where: fL(zs,n1,x) =
 m  zs 
12. The logarithmic decrement of structural damping s

s = 0,05 for a steel building (EN 1991-1-4 Table F.2).
13. The logarithmic decrement of aerodynamic damping δa

The logarithmic decrement of aerodynamic damping for the fundamental
mode is calculated according to EN 1991-1-4 § F.5(4):
cf  b vm ( zs )
 a =
2 n1,x me
where:
cf is the force coefficient in the wind direction
cf = cf,0 r  (EN-1991-1-4 § 7.6(1)
For common buildings, the reduction factors r and  can be taken
equal to 1,0.
cf,0 is obtained from EN 1991-1-4 Figure 7.23.
 is the air density as defined in EN 1991-1-4 § 4.5(1). The
recommended value is:  = 1,25 kg/m3
me is the equivalent mass per unit length according to EN 1991-1-4
§ F.4. For a multi-storey building, when the mass is
approximately the same for all the storeys, it can be taken equal
to the mass per unit length m. me is therefore the total mass of
the building divided by its height.
14. The logarithmic decrement of damping due to special devices d

d = 0 when no special device is used.
15. The logarithmic decrement 

 = s + a + d
16. The aerodynamic admittance functions Rh and Rb

They are calculated using the equation given in EN 1991-1-4 § B.2(6) in
function of parameters defined above: b, h, L(zs), fL(zs, n1,x).
17. The resonance response factor R2

2
R2  S L zs , n1, x   Rh  Rb
2
18. The peak factor kp

The peak factor can be calculated as (EN 1991-1-4 § B.2(3)):
3 - 16
Part 3: Actions
 0,6 
k p  Max  2  ln(T )  ; 3,0 
 2  ln(T ) 
 
where:
 R2 
v = Max n1, x  ; 0,08 Hz 
 B 2
 R 2 
 
T is the averaging time for the mean wind velocity: T = 600 s
19. Finally, the structural factor cscd can be calculated:
1  2 k p I v ( zs ) B2  R2
cs cd 
1  7 I v ( zs )
3 - 17
Part 3: Actions
9 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
Buildings not exposed to daily or seasonal climatic changes may not need to be
assessed under thermal actions. For large buildings, it is generally good
practice to design the building with expansion joints so that the temperature
changes do not induce internal forces in the structure. Information about the
design of expansion joints is given in Section 6.4 of Multi-storey steel
buildings. Part 2: Concept design[12].
When the effects of temperature have to be taken into account, EN 1993-1-5[5]

provides rules to determine them.
3 - 18
Part 3: Actions
REFERENCES
1 EN 1990:2002: Eurocode Basis of structural design

2 EN 1991-1-1:2002: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. General actions.
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings
Snow loads
Wind actions
Thermal actions
Actions during execution.
7 EN 1998-1:2004: Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake
resistance. General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings
8 HECHLER, O., FELDMANN, M., HEINEMEYER, C. and GALANTI, F.
Design guide for floor vibrations
Eurosteel 2008.
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 4: Detailed design
Single-storey steel buildings. Part 3: Actions
11 Recommendations for calculating the effect of wind on constructions
Publication No. 52. 1987. ECCS-CECM-EKS
(Available on the web site: www.steel-construct.com)
12 Recommendations for calculating the effect of wind on constructions
Publication No. 52. 1987. ECCS-CECM-EKS
(Available on the web site: www.steel-construct.com)
3 - 19
Part 3: Actions
3 - 20
Part 3: Actions
APPENDIX A
Worked Example: Wind action on a multi-storey

building
3 - 21
APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Wind action
1 of 18
on a multi-storey building
Made by DC Date 02/2009
Calculation sheet
Checked by AB Date 03/2009
1. Data
This worked example deals with the determination of the wind action on a
multi-storey building according to EN 1991-1-4.
h p = 1,50 m
h 0 = 33,50 m
h = 35,00 m
1
120 m
10 m
1 Parapet
Figure A.1 Dimensions of the building
The building is erected on a suburban terrain where the average slope of the
upwind terrain is low (3°).
The terrain roughness is the same all around and there are no large and tall
buildings in the neighbourhood.
The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity is:
Vb,0 = 26 m/s
The roof slope is such that:  < 5°
22
Title Appendix A Worked Example: Wind action on a multi-storey building 2 of 18
2. Peak velocity pressure

2.1. General
For a multi-storey building, the peak velocity pressure generally depends on
the wind direction because the height of the building is higher than the width
of the upwind face. Therefore we have to distinguish between:
 Wind on the long side
 Wind on the gable
The calculation of the peak velocity pressure is performed according to the

detailed procedure described in Section 7.2.1 of Single-storey steel buildings.
Part 3: Actions[10].
2.2. Wind on the long side

1 Fundamental value of the basic wind velocity
vb,0 = 26 m/s
2 Basic wind velocity
EN 1991-1-4
vb = cdir cseason vb,0
§ 4.2(2)
For cdir and cseason, the recommended values are:
cdir = 1,0
cseason = 1,0
Then: vb = vb,0 = 26 m/s
3 Basic velocity pressure
EN 1991-1-4
1
qb   vb 2 § 4.5(1)
2
where:
 = 1,25 kg/m3
Then: qb = 0,5 × 1,25 × 262 = 422,5 N/m2
4 Terrain factor
EN 1991-1-4
kr = 0,19 (z0 / z0,II)0,07
§ 4.3.2(1)
The terrain category is III. Then:
z0 = 0,3 m (and zmin = 5 m)
z0,II = 0,05 m
Then: kr = 0,19 × (0,3 / 0,05)0,07 = 0,215
5 Roughness factor EN 1991-1-4
§ 4.3.2
cr(z) = kr ln(z/z0) for: zmin ≤ z ≤ zmax
cr(z) = cr(zmin) for: z ≤ zmin
3 - 23
where:
zmax = 200 m
z is the reference height
The total height of the building is: h = 35 m EN 1991-1-4
Figure 7.4
The width of the wall is: b = 120 m
h ≤ b therefore qp(z) = qp(ze) with: ze = h = 35 m
Therefore cr(z) = 0,215 × ln(35/0,3) = 1,023
6 Orography factor
EN 1991-1-4
Since the slope of the terrain is lower than 3°, the recommended value is
§ 4.3.3
used:
co(z) = 1,0
7 Turbulence factor
EN 1991-1-4
The recommended value is used:
§ 4.4(1)
kl = 1,0
8 Peak velocity pressure
EN 1991-1-4
qp(z) = [1 + 7 Iv(z)] × 0,5  vm2(z) § 4.5(1)
where:
 = 1,25 kg/m3 (recommended value)
vm(z) is the mean wind velocity at height z above the terrain
vm(z) = cr(z) co(z) vb
= 1,023 × 1,0 × 26
= 26,6 m/s
Iv(z) is the turbulence intensity
Iv(z) = kl / [c0(z) ln(z/z0) ] for: zmin ≤ z ≤ zmax
Iv(z) = Iv(zmin) for: z ≤ zmin
Then: Iv(z) = 1,0 / [1,0 × ln(35/0,3)] = 0,21
qp(z) = [1 + 7 × 0,21] × 0,5 × 1,25 × 26,62 × 10-3
= 1,09 kN/m2
2.3. Wind on the gable

Several parameters are identical to the case of wind on the long side, as
follows:
1 Fundamental value of the basic wind velocity
vb,0 = 26 m/s
2 Basic wind velocity EN 1991-1-4
§ 4.2(2)
vb = 26 m/s
3 - 24
3 Basic velocity pressure § 4.5(1)

qb = 422,5 N/m2
4 Terrain factor § 4.3.2(1)
kr = 0,215
5 Roughness factor § 4.3.2
The total height of the building is: h = 35 m EN 1991-1-4
Figure 7.4
The width of the wall is: b = 10 m
h > 2b
Therefore several strips are considered:
- The lower strip between 0 and b = 10 m
- The upper strip between (h – b) = 25 m and h = 35 m
Intermediate strips with a height taken equal to: hstrip = 5 m
The values of cr(z) are given in Table A.1.
6 Orography factor EN 1991-1-4
§ 4.3.3
co(z) = 1,0
7 Turbulence factor § 4.4(1)
kl = 1,0
8 Peak velocity pressure
The peak velocity pressure is calculated for each strip, with z = ze which is
the position of the top of the strip (see Table A.1).
Table A.1 Peak velocity pressure – Wind on the gable

ze cr(z) vm(z) Iv(z) qp(z)
m/s kN/m2
0 10 m 0,75 19,5 0,29 0,72
10 m 15 m 0,84 21,8 0,26 0,84
15 m 20 m 0,90 23,4 0,24 0,92
20 m 25 m 0,95 24,7 0,23 1,00
25 m 35 m 1,02 26,5 0,21 1,09
3 - 25
3. Wind pressure
3.1. External pressure coefficients
3.1.1. Vertical walls
Wind on the long side:
EN 1991-1-4
b = 120 m (crosswind dimension) § 7.2.2(2)
d = 10 m Figure 7.5
Table 7.1
h = 35 m
h / d = 3,5
e = Min(b ; 2 h) = 70 m
Zone A (gables): cpe,10 = -1,2 (e > 5d)
Zone D (upwind): cpe,10 = +0,8
Zone E (downwind): cpe,10 = -0,6
Wind on the gable:

EN 1991-1-4
b = 10 m (crosswind dimension) § 7.2.2(2)
d = 120 m Figure 7.5
Table 7.1
h = 35 m
h / d = 0,29
e = Min(b ; 2 h) = 10 m
Long sides:
Zone A: cpe,10 = -1,2 (e < d) along e/5 = 2 m
Zone B: cpe,10 = -0,8 along 4/5 e = 8 m
Zone C: cpe,10 = -0,5
Gables (h/d  0,25):
Zone D (upwind): cpe,10 = +0,7
Zone E (downwind): cpe,10 = -0,3 (by linear interpolation)
3.1.2. Flat roof with parapets

The external pressure coefficients depend on the ratio: EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.2.3
hp / h0 = 1,50 / 33,50 = 0,045 Figure 7.6
Wind on the long side: Table 7.2
e = Min(b = 120 m ; 2 h0 = 67 m) = 67 m
The external pressure coefficients are given in Figure A.2 for wind on the
long side.
3 - 26
120 m
H: c pe,10 = -0,7
e/10 = 6,70 m
F: c pe,10 = -1,4 G: c pe,10 = -0,9 F: c pe,10 = -1,4
e/4 = 16,75 m e/4 = 16,75 m
Figure A.2 External pressure coefficients on the roof – Wind on the long side
Wind on the gable:

e = Min(b = 10 m ; 2 h0 = 67 m) = 10 m
The external pressure coefficients are given in Figure A.3 for wind on a gable.
e/4 = 2,50 m
F: c pe,10 = -1,4
G: c pe,10 = -0,9
H: c pe,10 = -0,7 I: c pe,10 = -0,2

e/4 = 2,50 m
e/10 = 1,00 m
e/2 = 5,00 m
Figure A.3 External pressure coefficients on the roof – Wind on the gable
3 - 27
3.2. Structural factor

3.2.1. General
The structural factor cscd is calculated from the following equation, for wind EN 1991-1-4
on the long side and for wind on the gable: § 6.3.1
1  2 k p I v ( zs ) . B2  R2
cs c d 
1  7 I v ( zs )
The calculation is performed according to the procedure given in Section 8.2
of this guide.
3.2.2. Wind on the long side

Dimensions: b = 120 m and h = 35 m EN 1991-1-4
1 The terrain category is III. Table 4.1
Then: z0 = 0,30 m and zmin = 5 m
2 Reference height:
EN 1991-1-4
zs = 0,6 h = 0,6 × 35 = 21 m (> zmin = 5 m)
Figure 6.1
3 Orography factor
EN 1991-1-4
Since the slope of the upwind terrain is less than 3°, c0(zs) = 1,0
§ 4.3.3
4 Roughness factor
EN 1991-1-4
Since zmin ≤ zs ≤ zmax (= 200 m)
§ 4.3.2
cr(zs) = 0,19 (z0/z0,II)0,07 ln(zs/z0)
= 0,19 × (0,3 / 0,05)0,07 × ln(21/0,3)
= 0,915
5 Turbulence factor (recommended value):

EN 1991-1-4
kl = 1,0
§ 4.4(1)
6 Turbulence intensity
Since zmin ≤ zs ≤ zmax (= 200 m)
EN 1991-1-4
Iv(zs) = kl / [c0(zs) ln(zs/z0) ] § 4.4(1)
= 1,0 / [1,0 × ln(21 / 0,3)]
= 0,235
7 Turbulent length scale

Since zs > zmin: L(zs) = Lt (zs/zt) EN 1991-1-4
Lt = 300 m § B.1(1)
zt = 200 m
 = 0,67 + 0,05 ln(z0) = 0,67 + 0,05 ln(0,30) = 0,61
Then: L(zs) = 300 × (21/200)0,61 = 75,9 m
3 - 28
8 Background factor
EN 1991-1-4
1 1
B2  0,63
 0,63
 0,415 § B.2(2)
bh  120  35 
1  0,9  1  0,9 
 L zs    75,9 
9 Mean wind velocity at the reference height zs
EN 1991-1-4
vm(zs) = cr(zs) c0(zs) vb
§ 4.3.1
= 0,915 × 1,0 × 26 = 23,8 m/s
10 Fundamental frequency n1,x
d
It is estimated by the simplified formula: n1,x =
0,1 h
10
n1,x = = 0,9 Hz
0,1 35
11 Non dimensional power spectral density function
6,8 f L ( zs , n1, x )
S L ( zs , n1, x )  EN 1991-1-4
1  10,2 f L ( zs , n1,x ) 5 / 3 § B.1(2)
n1,x L( zs )
f L ( zs , n1,x ) 
vm ( zs )
0,9  75,9
f L ( zs , n1,x )   2,87
23,8
6,8  2,87
Then: S L ( z, n)   0,0664
1  10,2  2,875 / 3
12 Logarithmic decrement of structural damping EN 1991-1-4
§ F.5(2)
s = 0,05 Table F.2
13 Logarithmic decrement of aerodynamic damping a
cf  b v m ( z s )
a = EN 1991-1-4
2 n1,x me § F.5(4)
 = 1,25 kg/m3
cf = cf,0 = 2,0 for d/b = 10/120 = 0,083
me is the equivalent mass per unit length: me = 150 t/m
2  1,25  120  23,8
Therefore: a =  0,026
2  0,9  150  103
14 Logarithmic decrement of damping due to special devices
d = 0 (no special device)
15 Logarithmic decrement EN 1991-1-4
§ F.5(1)
 =s + a + d = 0,05 + 0,026 + 0 = 0,076
3 - 29
16 Aerodynamic admittance functions
Function Rh:
EN 1991-1-4
Rh ( h ) 
1
h

1
2 h2
1  e 
 2 h § B.2(6)
4,6  35
f L zs , n1,x  
4,6h
h   2,87  6,09
L( z s ) 75,9
Then, we obtain: Rh(h) = 0,15
Function Rb:
EN 1991-1-4
Rb ( b ) 
1
b

1
2 b2
1  e 
 2 b § B.2(6)
4,6  120
f L zs , n1,x  
4,6b
b   2,87  20,9
L ( zs ) 75,9
Then, we obtain: Rb(b) = 0,046
17 Resonance response factor
EN 1991-1-4
2
R 2
 S L zs , n1, x  Rh  Rb § B.2(6)
2
= 2 × 0,0664 × 0,15 × 0,046 / (2 × 0,076)
= 0,0297
18 Peak factor
EN 1991-1-4
R2 § B.2(3)
  n1,x
B2  R2
0,0297
 0,9  = 0,23 Hz (> 0,08 Hz)
0,415  0,0297
0,6
kp  2  ln(T) 
2  ln(T)
T = 600 s
0,6
Then: k p  2  ln(0,23  600)   3,33
2  ln(0,23  600)
19 Structural coefficient for wind on the long side

1  2  3,33  0,235  0,415  0,0297
cs c d   0,773
1  7  0,235
3 - 30
3.2.3. Wind on the gable

Dimensions: b = 10 m and h = 35 m
Several parameters remain the same as for the wind on the long side.
1 Terrain category III:
z0 = 0,30 m
zmin = 5 m
2 Reference height:
zs = 21 m (> zmin = 5 m)
3 Orography factor
Since the slope of the upwind terrain is less than 3°, co(zs) = 1,0
4 Roughness factor:
cr(zs) = 0,915
5 Turbulence factor:
kl = 1,0
6 Turbulence intensity:
Iv(zs) = 0,235
7 Turbulent length scale:

L(zs) = 75,9 m
8 Background factor
EN 1991-1-4
1 1
B2  0,63
 0,63
 0,607 § B.2(2)
bh   10  35 
1  0,9  1  0,9 
 L z s    75,9 
9 Mean wind velocity at the reference height zs

vm(zs) = 23,8 m/s
10 Fundamental frequency n1,x

d
It is estimated by the simplified formula: n1,x =
0,1 h
120
n1,x = = 3,1 Hz
0,1 35
11 Non-dimensional power spectral density function

6,8 f L ( zs , n1, x )
S L ( zs , n1, x )  EN 1991-1-4
1  10,2 f L ( zs , n1,x ) 5 / 3 § B.1(2)
3 - 31
n1,x L( zs ) 3,1 75,9

f L ( zs , n1,x )    9,89
vm ( z s ) 23,8
6,8  9,89
Then: S L ( z , n)   0,0302
1  10,2  9,895 / 3
12 Logarithmic decrement of structural damping
s = 0,05
13 Logarithmic decrement of aerodynamic damping a

 = 1,25 kg/m3 EN 1991-1-4
cf = cf,0 = 0,9 for d/b = 120/10 = 12 § F.5(4)
me is the equivalent mass per unit length: me = 150 t/m

0,9 1,25 10  23,8
Therefore: a =  0,0003
2  3,1150.103
14 Logarithmic decrement of damping due to special devices

d = 0 (no special device)
15 Logarithmic decrement EN 1991-1-4

§ F.5(1)
 =s + a + d = 0,05 + 0,0003 + 0 = 0,0503
16 Aerodynamic admittance functions

Function Rh:
EN 1991-1-4
4,6h 4,6  35
h  f L z s , n1,x    9,89  21,0 § B.2(6)
L( z s ) 75,9
Then, we obtain: Rh(h) = 0,0465
Function Rb:
4,6b 4,6  10
b  f L z s , n1,x    9,89  5,99
L( z s ) 75,9
Then, we obtain: Rb(b) = 0,153
17 Resonance response factor

EN 1991-1-4
R 2 = 2 × 0,0302 × 0,0465 × 0,153 / (2 × 0,0503) § B.2(6)
= 0,0211
3 - 32
18 Peak factor
EN 1991-1-4
0,0211 § B.2(3)
  3,1 = 0,568 Hz (> 0,08 Hz)
0,607  0,0211
0,6
k p  2  ln(0,568  600)   3,59
2  ln(0,568  600)
19 Structural coefficient for wind on the long side

1  2  3,59  0,235  0,607  0,0211
cs cd   0,884
1  7  0,235
3.3. Internal pressure coefficients

3.3.1. Normal design situation
It is assumed that the doors and windows are shut during severe storms,
therefore: EN 1991-1-4
cpi = +0,2 § 7.2.9(6)
and cpi = -0,3
If air leakage is uniform around the building, the reference height for the
internal pressure is zi = ze. Therefore: EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.2.9(7)
qp(zi) = qp(ze)
3.3.2. Accidental design situation

The most severe case happens when the opening is located in a zone with the EN 1991-1-4
highest value of the external pressure coefficient |cpe|. § 7.2.9(3)
 Windows accidentally open upwind, with wind on the long side. This face
is dominant and the area of the openings is equal to 3 times the area of EN 1991-1-4
openings in the remaining faces. Therefore: § 7.2.9(5)
cpi = 0,9 cpe = 0,9 × (+0,8) = 0,72
The peak velocity pressure is maximum at the top of the building:
qp(zi) = qp(ze) = 1,09 kN/m2
 Windows accidentally open downwind, with wind on the long side. This
face is dominant and the area of the openings is equal to 3 times the area of
openings in the remaining faces. Therefore:
cpi = 0,9 cpe = 0,9 × (-1,2) = -1,1
qp(zi) = qp(ze) = 1,09 kN/m2
3 - 33
 Windows accidentally open upwind, wind on the gable:

cpi = 0,9 cpe = 0,9 × (+0,7) = 0,6
 Windows accidentally open downwind, wind on the gable:

cpi = 0,9 cpe = 0,9 × (-1,2) = -1,1
3.4. Resulting pressure coefficients on parapets

The peak velocity pressure at the top of the building (ze = 35 m) is:
qp(ze) = 1,09 kN/m2
The solidity ratio is:  = 1
3.4.1. Parapets on the long side – Wind on the long side

The parameters are:
ℓ = 120 m Length of the parapet
hp = 1,50 m Height of the parapet EN 1991-1-4
ℓ > 4 hp Table 7.9
Figure 7.19
The different zones are in Figure A.4 with the pressure coefficients cp,net.
120 m
1,50 m
A B C D
0,45 m
3,00 m
6,00 m
Zone A: cp,net = 2,1

Zone B: cp,net = 1,8
Zone C: cp,net = 1,4
Zone D: cp,net = 1,2
Figure A.4 Pressure coefficients cp,net on the parapet – Long side
3.4.2. Parapets on gable – Wind on gable

The parameters are:
ℓ = 10 m Length of the parapet
hp = 1,50 m Height of the parapet EN 1991-1-4
Table 7.9
ℓ > 4 hp Figure 7.19
The different zones are in Figure A.5 with the pressure coefficients cp,net.
3 - 34
10 m
1,50 m
A B C D
0,45 m
3,00 m
6,00 m 4,00 m
Zone A: cp,net = 2,1

Zone B: cp,net = 1,8
Zone C: cp,net = 1,4
Zone D: cp,net = 1,2
Figure A.5 Pressure coefficients cp,net on the parapet – Gable
3.5. Friction forces

Total area of the external surfaces parallel to the wind direction:
Apa = 2 × 35 × 10 + 120 × 10 = 1900 m2
Total area of the external surfaces perpendicular to the wind direction:
Ape = 2 × 35 × 120 = 8400 m2
Since Apa < 4 Ape, the friction forces should not be taken into account. EN 1991-1-4
§ 5.2(4)
Total area of the external surfaces parallel to the wind direction:
Apa = 2 × 35 × 120 + 120 × 10 = 9600 m2
Total area of the external surfaces perpendicular to the wind direction:
Ape = 2 × 35 × 10 = 700 m2
Since Apa > 4 Ape, the friction forces should be taken into account. EN 1991-1-4
§ 5.2(4)
2b = 20 m
4h = 140 m > 2 b
The friction forces apply on the part of external surfaces parallel to the wind,
located beyond a distance from the upwind edge equal to 20 m. The friction EN 1991-1-4
force Ffr acts in the wind direction: § 5.2(3)
Ffr = cfr qp(ze) Afr
3 - 35
where:
cfr = 0,01 for a smooth surface (steel)
qp(ze) is the peak velocity pressure at the height ze as given in Table A.1.
Afr is the relevant area.
The results are summarized in Table A.2 for the different strips of the vertical
walls and for the roof.
Table A.2 Friction forces – Wind on the gable

Strip ze Afr qp(z) Ffr
2 2
m kN/m kN
0 10 m 2000 0,72 14,4
10 m 15 m 1000 0,84 8,4
15 m 20 m 1000 0,92 9,2
20 m 25 m 1000 1,00 10,0
25 m 35 m 1700 1,09 18,5
Parapets 35 m 600 1,09 6,5
Roof 35 m 1000 1,09 10,9
W
h = 35 m
Min(2b ; 4h) = 20m
120 m
Figure A.6 Friction forces – Wind on the gable
3.6. Wind forces on surfaces

3.6.1. General
There are three types of wind forces:
 Wind forces resulting from the summation of the external and internal
pressure:
(Fw,e – Fw,i) / Aref = cscd qp(ze) cpe – qp(zi) cpi (in kN/m2)
They act normally to the surfaces. They are taken as positive values when
they are directed towards the surface and as negative values when they are
directed away from the surface.
 Friction forces (see Table A.2)
Ffr = cfr qp(ze) Afr (in kN)
They act on the external surfaces parallel to the wind direction.
3 - 36
 Wind forces on parapets

Fw = cscd cp,net qp(ze) Aref
They act normally to the surfaces.

For wind on the long side, the structural factor is: cscd = 0,773
Regarding the normal design situation, the values of the resulting pressure are
given in Table A.3 for the vertical walls and the roof:
(Fwe – Fwi)/Aref = cscd qp(ze) cpe – qp(zi) cpi
where:
cpe are the external pressure coefficients determined in § 3.1.1 for the
vertical walls, and in § 3.1.2 for the roof.
qp(ze) = 1,09 kN/m2 as calculated in § 2.2
qp(zi) = qp(ze) = 1,09 kN/m2 as stated in § 3.3.1
Note that for wind on the long side, there are no friction forces for this
building.
Table A.3 Wind on the long side (kN/m2) – Vertical walls

Vertical walls Roof
Zone A D E F G H
cpe -1,2 +0,8 -0,6 -1,4 -0,9 -0,7
cpi = +0,2 -1,23 +0,46 -0,72 -1,40 -0,98 -0,81
cpi = -0,3 -0,68 +1,00 -0,18 -0,85 -0,43 -0,26
In Table A.4, the values of the resulting pressure are given for the parapet,
using the formula:
Fw/Aref = cscd qp(ze) cp,net
where:
cp,net are the pressure coefficient determined in § 3.4.1
qp(ze) = 1,09 kN/m2
Table A.4 Wind on the long side (kN/m2) - Parapet

Zone A B C D
cp,net 2,1 1,8 1,4 1,2
2
Fw / Aref (kN/m ) 1,77 1,52 1,18 1,01
3 - 37
Regarding the accidental design situation, the values of the resulting pressure
are given in Table A.5 for the vertical walls and the roof, and for two
situations:
 Opening in zone D (cpi = +0,7)
 Opening in zone A (cpi = -1,1)
Table A.5 Wind on the long side (kNm2) – accidental design situation
Vertical walls Roof

Zone A D E F G H
cpe -1,2 +0,8 -0,6 -1,4 -0,9 -0,7
cpi = +0,7 -1,77 -0,09 -1,27 -1,94 -1,52 -1,35
cpi = -1,1 +0,19 +1,87 +0,69 +0,02 +0,44 +0,61

For wind on the gable, the structural factor is: cscd = 0,884
Regarding the normal design situation, the values of the resulting pressure are
given in Table A.6 for the vertical walls and in Table A.7 for the roof:
(Fwe – Fwi)/Aref = cscd qp(ze) cpe – qp(zi) cpi
where:
cpe are the external pressure coefficients determined in § 3.1.1 for the
vertical walls, and in § 3.1.2 for the roof
qp(ze) is the peak velocity pressure in kN/m2 as calculated in § 2.3
qp(zi) = qp(ze) for each strip, as stated in § 3.3.1.
Table A.6 Wind on the gable – Vertical walls

Zone A B C D E
cpe -1,2 -0,8 -0,5 +0,7 -0,3
0 < z ≤ 10 -0,91 -0,65 -0,46 +0,30 -0,33
10 < z ≤ 15 -1,06 -0,76 -0,54 +0,35 -0,39
cpi = +0,2 15 < z ≤ 20 -1,16 -0,83 -0,59 +0,39 -0,43
20 < z ≤ 25 -1,26 -0,91 -0,64 +0,42 -0,47
25 < z ≤ 33,50 -1,37 -0,99 -0,70 +0,46 -0,51
0 < z ≤ 10 -0,55 -0,29 -0,10 +0,66 +0,03
10 < z ≤ 15 -0,64 -0,34 -0,12 +0,77 +0,03
cpi = -0,3 15 < z ≤ 20 -0,70 -0,37 -0,13 +0,85 +0,03
20 < z ≤ 25 -0,76 -0,41 -0,14 +0,92 +0,03
25 < z ≤ 33,50 -0,83 -0,44 -0,15 +1,00 +0,04
3 - 38
Table A.7 Wind on the gable - Roof

Zone F G H I
cpe -1,4 -0,9 -0,7 -0,2
cpi = +0,2 -1,57 -1,09 -0,89 -0,41
cpi = -0,3 -1,02 -0,54 -0,35 +0,13
In Table A.8, the values of the resulting pressure are given for the parapet,
using the formula:
Fw/Aref = cscd qp(ze) cp,net
Table A.8 Wind on the gable (kN/m2) - Parapet

Zone A B C D
2
Fw / Aref (kN/m ) 2,02 1,73 1,35 1,16
Accidental design situation

Regarding the accidental design situation, the values of the resulting pressure
are given in Table A.9 for the vertical walls and in Table A.10 for the roof,
and for two situations:
 Opening in zone D (cpi = +0,6) for 25 m ≤ z ≤ 33,50 m
 Opening in zone A (cpi = -1,1) for 25 m ≤ z ≤ 33,50 m
Table A.9 Wind on the gable (kN/m2) – Vertical walls – Accidental design
situation
Zone A B C D E
cpi = +0,6 -1,81 -1,42 -1,13 +0,01 -0,94
cpi = -1,1 +0,04 +0,44 +0,72 +1,87 +0,94
Table A.10 Wind on the gable (kN/m2) – Roof – Accidental design situation
Zone F G H I
cpi = +0,6 -1,99 -1,51 -1,32 -0,84
cpi = -1,1 -0,13 +0,34 +0,53 +1,01
3 - 39

Part 4: Detailed Design
4 – ii
FOREWORD
This publication is part four of the design guide, Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.

Part 3: Actions
4 – iii
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD III
SUMMARY VI
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Scope of this document 1
2 BASIC CONCEPTS 2
2.1 Introduction 2
2.2 Simple construction 2
2.3 Sway and non-sway frames 3
2.4 Second order effects 4
2.5 General design procedure 7
2.6 Design of steel bracing systems to achieve cr  10 for all combinations
of actions 8
2.7 The effects of imperfections 10
2.8 Design summary 14
3 PRACTICAL GLOBAL ANALYSIS FOR ‘SIMPLE CONSTRUCTION’ 15
3.1 Introduction 15
3.2 Actions and their combinations 15
3.3 Analysis for gravity loads 16
3.4 Allowance for second order effects 18
3.5 Design Summary 19
4 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE 20
4.1 General 20
4.2 Load combinations 20
4.3 Horizontal deflection limits 20
4.4 Vertical deflection limits 21
4.5 Precambering 23
4.6 Dynamic response 23
5 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE 25
5.1 Introduction 25
5.2 Floor systems 25
5.3 Columns 37
5.4 Vertical bracing 42
5.5 Horizontal bracing 44
6 ROBUSTNESS 47
6.1 Accidental design situations 47
6.2 Consequence classes 48
6.3 Design for the consequences of localised failure in multi-storey buildings 49
6.4 Key elements 53
6.5 Risk assessment 54
REFERENCES 55
APPENDIX A WORKED EXAMPLES 56
A.1 Worked Example – Simply supported, laterally unrestrained beam 57
4 – iv
A.2 Worked Example – Simply supported beam with intermediate lateral

restraints 64
A.3 Worked Example – Simply supported, secondary composite beam 71
A.4 Worked Example – Simply supported, primary composite beam 81
A.5 Worked Example – Pinned column using non-slender H sections 94
A.6 Worked Example – Bolted connection of an angle brace in tension to a
gusset 98
4–v
SUMMARY
This document is the fourth part of a publication covering all aspects of medium rise
multi-storey building design. The guide focuses on the detailed design of buildings that
use steel bracing or concrete cores to resist horizontal actions and provide horizontal
stability.
The objective of this document is to introduce the basic concepts of multi-storey form
of construction, commonly referred to as ‘simple construction’ and to provide guidance
on practical aspects of building design.
It provides detailed guidance on how to design for stability, and goes on to give advice
on the global analysis of multi-storey buildings.
It also covers the serviceability and ultimate limit state requirements of EN 1993 and
EN 1994 and provides guidance on design for robustness to meet the requirements of
EN 1991-1-7.
It includes six worked examples, covering common elements in the design of

multi-storey buildings.
4 – vi
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
In this publication, medium rise steel frames are defined as frames where
neither resistance to horizontal loads, nor achieving sufficient sway stability
has significant impact on either the plan arrangement of the floors or the
overall structural form. This limit is normally regarded as twelve storeys.
Low rise buildings (of two or three storeys) are only subject to modest
horizontal forces and may readily be conceived with robust bracing systems
such that second order effects are minimised, to the extent that sway stability
effects need not be considered explicitly in design. The bracing may be
provided either by triangulated bracing or by reinforced concrete core(s); the
floors act as diaphragms to tie all columns into the bracing or cores.
1.2 Scope of this document

This document guides the designer through all the steps involved in the
detailed design of braced multi-storey frames to EN 1993[1] and EN 1994[2].
It focuses on the application of ‘simple construction’ as the way of achieving

the most economic form of construction. Coincidently, and very conveniently,
these approaches also are the simplest to use in the design office, thereby
minimising design office costs.
The guide addresses:

 The basic concept of simple construction
 Guidance on the global analysis of frames for simple construction
 Design checks at the Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
 Design checks for the Ultimate Limit State (ULS): floor systems, columns,
vertical and horizontal bracing
 Checks to ensure the structure has sufficient robustness to resist both
specified and unspecified accidental loads.
4–1
2 BASIC CONCEPTS
2.1 Introduction
EN 1993-1-1[1] provides a very flexible, comprehensive framework for the
global analysis and design of a wide range of steel frames.
This section introduces the basic concepts that underpin the design approaches
for economic low and medium-rise multi-storey frames.
2.2 Simple construction

As discussed in Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 2: Concept design[3], the
greatest economy for low and medium rise braced multi-storey frames will be
achieved by the use of ‘simple construction’. The analysis assumes nominally
pinned connections between beams and columns; resistance to horizontal
forces is provided by bracing systems or concrete cores. Consequently, the
beams are designed as simply supported and the columns are designed only for
any moments arising from nominal eccentricities of connections of the beams
to the columns (in conjunction with the axial forces). As a further consequence,
it is not necessary to consider pattern loading to derive design forces in the
columns.
This design approach is accommodated by the EN 1993[1] ‘simple’ joint model,

in which the joint may be assumed not to transmit bending moments. This
approach may be used if the joint is classified as ‘nominally pinned’ according
to EN 1993-1-8, § 5.2.2. This classification may be based on previous
satisfactory performance in similar cases. The joint configurations discussed in
Section 3.3 assume a pinned connection and that the beam reactions are applied
eccentrically to the columns. The widespread and successful use of these types
of connection in many parts of Europe provide the evidence of satisfactory
performance required by EN 1993-1-8, § 5.2.2.
For braced frames designed in accordance with EN 1993-1-1[1], the global

analysis model may therefore assume pinned connections between the columns
and the beams, provided that the columns are designed for any bending
moments due to eccentric reactions from the beams (see Section 3.3).
4–2
(a) fin plate (b) flexible end plate (c) web cleats
Figure 2.1 Typical ‘simple’ beam to column connections
For such simple frames, it is almost always economic to use:

 HE sections for columns
 IPE sections for beams
 Flats, angles or hollow sections for diagonal bracing members.
Figure 2.1 shows typical beam to column connections.
2.3 Sway and non-sway frames

2.3.1 Definitions
A braced frame has sufficient structural components to transmit horizontal
forces directly to the foundations. These components provide stability to the
frame. They may be one or more concrete cores, which will usually contain the
vertical services, lifts and stairs. Alternatively, they may be complete systems
of triangulated steel members in vertical planes (acting in conjunction with
floor diaphragms or horizontal bracing).
In a braced frame, the beams are designed as simply supported. The columns
carry axial loads and (generally) minimal moments. The beam to column
connections are designed as nominally pinned, and hence not attracting any
moment; sufficient rotation capacity must be provided.
An unbraced frame is any frame which does not have either a concrete core or
a complete system of vertical triangulation. At least some beam to column
connections must be moment resisting in order to transmit horizontal forces to
the foundations and to provide frame stability.
It should be noted that horizontal structure and associated behaviour needs to

be considered separately in two, usually orthogonal, directions. Thus a frame
may be:
 Braced in both directions
 Braced in one direction and unbraced in the other
 Unbraced in both directions
4–3
A ‘sway-sensitive frame’ is a frame where horizontal flexibility is such that

there needs to be some allowance for the effects of deformed geometry.
A ‘sway-insensitive frame’ is a frame with sufficient horizontal stiffness that

second order effects may be ignored.
It should be noted that horizontal stiffness needs to be considered separately in

two, usually orthogonal, directions. Thus, a frame may be:
 A sway-sensitive frame in both directions

 A sway-sensitive frame in one direction and a sway-insensitive frame in the
other
 A sway-insensitive frame in both directions.
2.3.2 Distinction between sway/non-sway and unbraced/braced

concepts
Both sway-sensitivity and braced/unbraced concepts relate to horizontal
structure. However, they are essentially different.
Sway-sensitivity definitions entirely relate to horizontal stiffness and

behaviour.
Braced/unbraced are descriptions of structural arrangement.
It follows that, in each of the two orthogonal planes, a frame may be:
 Braced and sway-insensitive
 Braced and sway-sensitive
 Unbraced and sway-sensitive
 Unbraced but sway-insensitive (unusual, but possible).
2.4 Second order effects

2.4.1 Basic principles
The sensitivity of any frame to second order effects may be illustrated simply
by considering one ‘bay’ of a multi-storey building in simple construction (i.e.
with pinned connections between beams and columns); the bay is restrained
laterally by a spring representing the bracing system. First and second order
displacements are illustrated in Figure 2.2.
4–4
V V
H2
V ( 2 / h) H1
k k
H1 H1
V
h
1 2
First order effects Second order effects

k1 = H1 k2 = H1 +V(2 / h) = H2
Figure 2.2 First and second order effects in a pinned braced frame
The equilibrium expression for the second order condition may be rearranged
as:
 1 
H2 = H1  
 1  V / kh 
Thus, it can be seen that, if the stiffness k is large, there is very little
amplification of the applied horizontal force and consideration of first order
effects only would be adequate. On the other hand, if the external horizontal
force, H1, is kept constant while the value of total vertical force V tends toward
a critical value Vcr (= kh), then displacements and forces in the restraint tend
toward infinity. The ratio Vcr/V, which may be expressed as a parameter cr is
thus an indication of the second order amplification of displacements and
forces in the bracing system due to second order effects. The amplifier is given
by:
 1 
 
 1 1/  
 cr 
EN 1993-1-1[1] presents both general rules and specific rules for buildings. In
order to cover all cases, § 5.2.1 of that code considers the applied loading
system, FEd, comprising both horizontal forces HEd and vertical forces VEd. The
magnitudes of these forces are compared to the elastic critical buckling load for
Fcr
the frame, Fcr. The measure of frame stability, cr is defined as .
FEd
Although Fcr may be determined by software or from stability functions, the

Eurocode provides a simple approach to calculate cr directly in § 5.2.1(4)B:
H  h 
 cr   Ed  

 VEd   H,ED 
where:
cr is the factor by which the design loading would have to be increased
to cause elastic instability in a global mode
HEd is the design value of the horizontal reaction at the bottom of the
storey to the horizontal loads and the equivalent horizontal forces
4–5
VEd is the total design vertical load on the structure on the bottom of the
storey
H,Ed is the horizontal displacement at the top of the storey, relative to the
bottom of the storey, under the horizontal loads (both externally
applied and equivalent horizontal forces)
h is the storey height.
2.4.2 Allowance for second order effects

As discussed in Section 2.3.1, horizontal flexibility influences overall structural
stability and the significance of second order effects on overall design.
As described in Section 2.4.1, EN 1993-1-1 § 5.2.1 introduces the concept of

cr as the basic measure of horizontal flexibility and its influence on structural
stability.
Depending on the value of c, three alternative design situations are possible.
cr > 10
Where horizontal stability is provided by a concrete core, or by robust bracing,
calculations will generally demonstrate that cr > 10 for all combinations of
actions. EN 1993-1-1, § 5.2.1(3) permits the use of first order analysis for such
frames.
When cr > 10, second order effects are considered small enough to be ignored.
It may be convenient for certain low rise frames to ensure that cr > 10, by
providing bracing of sufficient strength and stiffness. This is discussed in
Section 2.6. For medium rise structures, this simple approach will usually lead
to heavy triangulated bracing with large and expensive connections.
3,0 < cr < 10

For buildings between three and ten storeys, bracing designed for strength will
generally lead to 3,0 < cr < 10. (If cr should fall below 3,0 it is usually
practical to increase bracing sizes to satisfy this lower limit).
For cr > 3,0 EN 1993-1-1, § 5.2.2(6)B permits the use of first order analysis
provided that all storeys a similar:
 distribution of vertical loads and
 distribution of horizontal loads and
 distribution of frame stiffness with respect to the applied storey shear
forces.
To allow for second order effects, all relevant action effects are amplified by
the factor
1
1
1
 cr
4–6
Relevant action effects are:

 Externally applied horizontal loads, e.g. wind, HEd
 Equivalent horizontal forces (EHF) used to allow for frame imperfections,
VEd
 Other possible sway effects. (These are rare in low rise multi-storey frames
but could occur, for example where the building is on a sloping site with
differing levels of foundations. In such circumstances, axial shortening of
the different lengths of columns will cause overall sway.)
cr < 3.0

For cr < 3.0, EN 1993-1-1, § 5.2.2 requires such structures to be analysed by
second order analysis. This approach is not recommended for low or medium
rise buildings. Second order analysis may lead to marginal economies in the
mass of bracing systems but this advantage is more than offset by the increased
design costs and the difficulty of optimising such structures. Such flexible
structures are anyway likely to fail horizontal serviceability criteria.
2.5 General design procedure

Unless the simple approach described in Section 2.6 for low rise buildings is
adopted, the general design process is as follows:
1. Determine the ULS vertical actions.
2. Calculate the equivalent horizontal forces (EHF) to allow for imperfections
(see Section 2.7.1 of this guide).
3. Determine the ULS horizontal loads.
4. Determine the total horizontal loads (from 2 and 3 above).
5. Choose bracing configuration and choose bracing members, based on the
total horizontal loads.
(Note that the wind forces and EHF are usually distributed to individual
braced bays by simple load allocation techniques, thus avoiding the need
for a three-dimensional analysis).
6. Carry out first order analysis of the braced frames to determine both the
forces in the bracing system and the sway stiffness of the frames.
(This two dimensional analysis of each vertical bracing system is usually
carried out by computer to provide ready access to displacements).
7. For each floor of each braced bay, determine the ‘local’ cr from:
H  h
cr =  Ed 
 VEd   H,Ed
8. Determine the governing cr as the lowest value obtained from the analysis
above.
9. If cr > 10, second order effects are small enough to be ignored.
If 3,0 < cr < 10, calculate the amplification factor and increase all relevant
action effects (the bracing may need to be re-designed).
4–7
If cr < 3,0 the recommended approach is to increase the stiffness of the
structure.
2.6 Design of steel bracing systems to achieve

cr  10 for all combinations of actions
2.6.1 Introduction
Vertical bracing is designed to resist wind load plus equivalent horizontal
forces given by EN 1993-1-1, § 5.3. First order frame analysis can be used for
braced frames, provided that the vertical bracing provides sufficient stiffness.
For first order analysis to be applicable, EN 1993-1-1, § 5.2.1 requires that
cr  10 for the whole frame and therefore for each storey of a multi-storey
building.
Simple guidance is given below for the selection of bracing members so that
sufficient stiffness is provided for such analysis to be valid. This allows the
designer to avoid either the complexities of second order analysis, or of
allowing for second order effects by amplification of first order effects. The
method also permits the design of the frame to be undertaken without any
recourse to computer analysis (such analysis is normally necessary in order to
determine horizontal displacements and hence, cr).
The parametric study that led to these design recommendations is presented in

Access Steel document SN028a-EN-EU[4].
The bracing arrangements considered by this study are presented in Figure 2.3.
2.6.2 Scope
The design procedure presented below was derived for buildings with the
following limitations:
 Height not exceeding 30 m
 Angle of bracing members between 15° and 50° to the horizontal
 The bracing arrangements are as shown in Figure 2.3
Note that the procedure does not depend on the steel grade.
4–8
H5 H H
H4  
b b
H3 (a) (b)
H
H2
F Ed
H1 H
 

b b b
(c) (d)
At each floor level, Hi = 0,025  VEd,i where VEd,i is the total design load applied at that floor
level
(a) cross bracing, only diagonal in tension participating
(b) diagonal bracing
(c) horizontal K bracing
(d) vertical K bracing
Figure 2.3 Practical alternative arrangements for multi-storey bracing:
2.6.3 Design procedure

Select one of the bracing arrangements shown in Figure 2.3.
Verify that, in the columns and beams of the system to be braced, the axial
stresses calculated on the gross cross-section due to resistance of the
horizontally applied loads of 2,5% of vertical applied loads alone do not
exceed 30 N/mm2. (This is to limit the elongations of the bracing and
shortenings in the columns.) If the stresses are higher in the columns, either
larger sections must be chosen, or the spacing of the columns ‘b’ in Figure 2.3,
must be increased (but not exceeding 12 m). If the stresses in the beams are
larger, either a larger section must be chosen or the bracing arrangement must
be changed.
Size the bracing by conventional design methods, to resist horizontal applied

loads of 2,5% of vertical applied loads, ensuring that axial stresses on the gross
cross-section of the bracing do not exceed the values given in Table 2.1. For
intermediate floors, either the stress limits in Table 2.1 for the top floor should
be used, or a higher stress may be found by linear interpolation between the
stress limits according to the height of the bottom of the storey considered.
If the externally applied horizontal load, plus the equivalent horizontal forces
from imperfections, plus any other sway effects calculated by first-order
analysis, exceed 2,5% of the vertical loads, check the resistance of the bracing
to these loads. The stress limitations in Table 2.1 should not be applied when
checking this load combination.
4–9
Table 2.1 Limiting stress on the gross cross-section of the bracing members
Angle of bracing to Stress limit on the gross cross-section of the bracing member
the horizontal  due to horizontal forces equal to 0.025V
(degrees)
Top storey of 30 m Top storey of 20 m Bottom storey of
building building building
15   < 20 65 N/mm2 80 N/mm2 100 N/mm2
20   < 30 70 N/mm2 95 N/mm2 135 N/mm2
30   < 40 55* N/mm2 110 N/mm2 195 N/mm2
40   < 50 75 N/mm2 130 N/mm2 225 N/mm2
* This value is lower than the rest due to the way in which the forces are distributed
Note: The maximum stresses in Table 2.1 are limited in application to a building of a maximum
height of 30 m, storey height  3 m, with 5 m  b  12 m. The maximum permissible axial stress
on the gross cross-section of the columns and beams (from horizontal loads of 2,5% of vertical
2
loads) is 30 N/mm .
2.7 The effects of imperfections

Four types of imperfections influence the behaviour and design of multi-storey
frames and their components. The references listed below relate to
EN 1993-1-1.
 Overall sway imperfections (§ 5.3.2 (1) to (4))
 Sway imperfections over a storey (§ 5.3.2 (5))
 Imperfections at splices (§ 5.3.3 (4))
 Individual bow imperfections of members (§ 5.3.4).
EN 1993-1-1 provides comprehensive guidance on the treatment of all four

types of imperfection.
2.7.1 Overall sway imperfections

The global sway imperfections to be considered are shown in EN 1993-1-1
Figure 5.2, reproduced below as Figure 2.4.
h h
 
Figure 2.4 Equivalent sway imperfections (taken from EN 1993-1-1 Figure 5.2)
4 – 10
The basic imperfection is an out-of-verticality  of 1/200. This allowance is

greater than normally specified erection tolerances, because it allows both for
actual values exceeding specified limits and for effects such as lack of fit and
residual stresses.
The design allowance in EN 1993-1-1, § 5.3.2 is given by:

1
 = 0 h m = h m
200
where:
h is a reduction factor for the overall height and
m is a reduction factor for the number of columns restrained by the
bracing system. (For detailed definition, see EN 1993-1-1, § 5.3.2(3)).
For simplicity, the value of  may conservatively be taken as 1/200,

irrespective of the height and number of columns.
Where, for all the storeys, the horizontal force exceeds 15% of the total vertical
force, sway imperfections may be neglected (because they have little influence
on sway deformation and amplification factor for such robust structures).
2.7.2 Use of equivalent horizontal forces

EN 1993-1-1, § 5.3.2(7) states that vertical sway imperfections may be
replaced by systems of equivalent horizontal forces, introduced for each
column. It is much easier to use equivalent horizontal forces than to introduce
the geometric imperfection into the model. This is because:
 The imperfection must be tried in each direction to find the greater effect
and it is easier to apply loads than modify geometry.
 Applying forces overcomes the problems of the changes in length that
would occur when considering the columns of buildings in which the
column bases are at different levels.
According to EN 1993-1-1, § 5.3.2(7) the equivalent horizontal forces have the

design value of  NEd at the top and bottom of each column, where NEd is the
force in each column; the forces at each end are in opposite directions. For
design of the frame, it is much easier to consider the net equivalent force at
each floor level. Thus an equivalent horizontal force equal to  times the total
vertical design force applied at that floor level should be applied at each floor
and roof level.
2.7.3 Sway imperfections over a storey

The configuration of imperfections to be considered over a storey assumes a
change in direction of the column at that level, as shown in Figure 2.5. The
inclined columns produce a horizontal force (the horizontal component of the
inclined force). This horizontal force must be transferred to the stability system
(the bracing or concrete core(s)) via the floor diaphragm or via horizontal
bracing designed for that purpose. Usually it is sufficient to transfer these
forces via the floor diaphragm.
4 – 11
Figure 2.5 shows two cases, both of which give rise to a horizontal shear force
of  NEd. Note that in this case, the value of  is calculated using a value of h
that is appropriate to the height of only a single storey and that, since the value
of NEd is different above and below the floor, the larger value (i.e. that for the
lower storey) should be used.
2.7.4 Imperfections at splices

EN 1993-1-1, § 5.3.3 states that imperfections in the bracing system should
also be considered. Whereas most of the clause is applicable to bracing systems
that restrain members in compression, such as chords of trusses, the guidance
on forces at splices in § 5.3.3(4) should be followed for multi-storey columns.
NEd NEd
 /2

h h

Hi =  NEd H i =  NEd
 /2
NEd
Figure 2.5 Configuration of sway imperfection  for horizontal forces on floor

diaphragm (taken from EN 1993-1-1, Figure 5.3)
The lateral force at a splice should be taken as mNEd/100, and this must be
resisted by the local bracing members in addition to the forces from externally
applied actions such as wind load but excluding the equivalent horizontal
forces. The force to be carried locally is the summation from all the splices at
that level, distributed amongst the bracing systems. If many heavily-loaded
columns are spliced at the same level, the force could be significant. Assuming
that a splice is nominally at a floor level, only the bracing members at that floor
and between the floor above and below need to be verified for this additional
force. This is shown in Figure 2.6.
This additional force should not be used in the design of the overall bracing
systems and is not taken to the foundations, unless the splice is at the first
storey. When designing the bracing system, only one imperfection needs to be
considered at a time. When checking the bracing for the additional forces due
to imperfections at splices, the equivalent horizontal forces should not be
applied to the bracing system.
4 – 12
1 Level of splice
2 Local members to be verified for additional force arising from (in this case) 5 splices
Figure 2.6 Bracing members to be verified at splice levels
As the force may be in either direction, it is advised that the simplest approach
is to divide the force into components (in the case above, into the two diagonal
members) and verify each member for the additional force. Note that the values
of the imperfection forces and the forces in the members due to wind load vary,
depending on the combination of actions being considered.
2.7.5 Member bow imperfections

In a braced frame with simple connections, no allowance is needed in the
global analysis for bow imperfections in members because they do not
influence the global behaviour. The effects of local bow imperfections in
members are taken into account in the design of both compression members
and unrestrained beams through the use of appropriate buckling curves, as
described in Section 6 of EN 1993-1-1.
2.7.6 Design recommendations for imperfections

Based on the background studies presented in Access Steel document
SN047a[4], it is possible to make the following simple, safe recommendations
for design. (More direct application of EN 1993-1-1 could reduce the design
imperfection forces by 50% in some circumstances, but the forces are normally
small).
1. Apply equivalent horizontal forces of 1/200 of vertical forces at floor and
roof levels. Storey shears at any level in the building will be 1/200 of the
total forces above (the summation of the EHF above that level).
These forces should be considered in all relevant horizontal directions but
need only be considered in one direction at a time.
(In accordance with EN 1993-1-1, § 5.3.2(10), the possible torsional effects
on a structure caused by anti-symmetric sways at the two opposite faces
should also be considered. This effect is only significant in a building of
4 – 13
very low torsional stiffness on plan, a situation which is unlikely to occur in

practice).
2. Verify that all columns are tied into all attached beams by connections with
a minimum resistance of 1,0% of the column axial force, i.e. that the tying
resistance of the beam to column connection is at least 0,01× NEd,column.
3. Verify that all the equivalent horizontal forces in each column can be
transferred into the relevant bracing system. Diaphragm action in the floor
slab may be mobilised to satisfy this condition.
In accordance with EN 1993-1-1, § 5.3.3(1), a reduction factor
 1
m = 0,51  
 m
may be applied, where m is the number of columns to be restrained.
2.8 Design summary

 ‘Simple’ design and construction provides the most economical approach
for low and medium rise frames.
 System(s) of triangulated bracing or concrete core(s) provide resistance to
horizontal forces and overall frame stability.
 ‘Simple’ connections have been proven by experience to provide sufficient
strength, shear and rotation capacity to satisfy the assumptions of this
method.
 Beams are designed to span between grid lines.
 Columns are designed for axial loading only, with no account of pattern
loading and only nominal moments. The value of the nominal moments will
be based on the equilibrium model adopted for the connections, as
described in Section 3.3.
 Concrete cores may generally be assumed to provide sufficient stiffness for
all potential second order effects to be ignored.
 For low-rise (2 or 3 storey) braced frames, designing the bracing for
horizontal actions of 2,5% of vertical actions in accordance with section 2.6
will provide sufficient horizontal stiffness that all potential second order
effects may be ignored.
 Frames of intermediate stiffness, where 3 < cr < 10, may be analysed by
first order analysis, providing all relevant actions are amplified by the
factor
1
1
1
 cr
 Frames with cr < 3,0 should be avoided.
 The effects of sway imperfections and imperfections at splices may simply
be addressed by applying equivalent horizontal forces of 1/200 of vertical
forces, in accordance with Section 2.7.6 of this publication.
4 – 14
3 PRACTICAL GLOBAL ANALYSIS FOR

‘SIMPLE CONSTRUCTION’
3.1 Introduction
This Section provides guidance on the global analysis of a low or medium rise
building, taking appropriate account of the specific aspects of frame behaviour
addressed in Section 2. The Section addresses both persistent and transient
design situations. Design for accidental situations is addressed in Section 6.
3.2 Actions and their combinations

Buildings have to be designed for the combinations of actions set out in
EN 1990[5], § 6.4.3.2; this aspect is discussed in more detail in Multi-storey
steel buildings. Part 3: Actions[6]
For the ultimate limit state, the basic combination of actions is given in
expression (6.10) as:

j1
G ,j G k ,j   p P   Q , 1 Q k , 1  
i 1
Q ,i  0 ,i Q k ,i 6.10
This combination includes the permanent actions Gk,j, the pre-stressing

action P (not normally applicable in multi-storey steel building frames), the
leading variable action Qk,1 and the various accompanying variable actions Qk,i.
Partial factors, , are applied to the characteristic value of each action and
additionally a factor 0 is applied to each accompanying action.
Alternatively, for the STR and GEO Limit States (see EN 1990-1-1 § 6.4.1),
EN 1990[5] permits the use of the least favourable of the combinations of
actions given in expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b) for the ultimate limit state.
  G , j Gk , j   p P   Q,1 0,1Qk ,1   Q,i 0,iQk ,i 6.10a

j 1 i 1
  G, j Gk , j   p P   Q,1Qk ,1   Q,i 0,iQk ,i 6.10b

j 1 i 1
The first of these two expressions effectively treats all variable actions as
accompanying the permanent action (and thus applies 0 to all variable
actions) while the second considers the leading variable action as the primary
action and allows a modest reduction in the design value of the permanent
action.
Although EN 1990 permits the use of equations (6.10a) and (6.10b) as an

alternative to (6.10), the National Annex may give guidance regarding the
combination that should be used.
Recommended values of the partial factors and factors on accompanying

actions are given in EN 1990 but these are confirmed or varied by the
Nationally Determined Parameters (NDP) in the National Annex.
4 – 15
If the recommended values of NDP are adopted, it will be found that the option
of using expressions (6.10a)/(6.10b) is generally less onerous than using (6.10).
It will also be found that, apart from storage areas, (6.10b) is the more onerous
of (6.10a) and (6.10b), unless the permanent action is much (4,5 times) greater
than the variable action. This is most unlikely in a multi-storey framed
building.
Three types of combination of actions at the serviceability limit state are

considered – characteristic, frequent and quasi-permanent. Expressions for
these are given in 6.14b, 6.15b and 6.16b, as follows:
 G k , j  P  Qk ,1  0,iQk ,i 6.14b

j 1 i 1
 Gk , j  P  1,1Qk ,1  2,iQk ,i 6.15b

j 1 i 1
 Gk , j  P  2,iQk ,i 6.16b

j 1 i 1
It is implicit in these expressions that partial factors are equal to unity. The
factors for accompanying actions (0, 1 and 2) are given in EN 1990[5], but
the National Annex may give additional information as to what values should
be used. These values are specific for the type of load being considered, i.e. 1
for snow is different from 1 for wind.
For braced multi-storey building frames, the serviceability limit states to be

considered will normally be those for the vertical and horizontal deflections of
the frame and the dynamic performance of the floors. Crack widths may also
need to be controlled for durability reasons in some situations (such as in car
parks) and occasionally for appearance reasons. Guidance is given in
EN 1992-1-1[7] and in Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 3: Actions[6].
3.3 Analysis for gravity loads

With the assumption of pinned behaviour for beam/column connections, all
floor systems adopted for multi-storey buildings are statically determinate.
Simple load allocation may be adopted to determine the governing moments,
shears and axial forces in all elements: floors slabs, secondary beams, primary
beams, columns and connections.
EN 1991-1-1, § 6.2.1(4) defines the reduction factor, A, that may be applied to
gravity loads on floors, beams and roofs according to the area supported by the
appropriate member.
§ 6.2.2(2) defines an equivalent factor, n, for gravity loads on walls and
columns, depending on the number of storeys loading the appropriate element.
Not all imposed gravity loads qualify for the reduction. For example, it would
not be appropriate where:
 Loads have been specifically determined from knowledge of the proposed
use
4 – 16
 Loads are due to plant or machinery

 Loads are due to storage.
Appropriate account must be taken of the eccentricity of the line of shear

through the simple beam to column connections. Figure 3.1 and Table 3.1
show the nominal moments that have traditionally been considered in different
European countries. It is recommended that eccentricities are adopted that align
with traditional practice in the country concerned, in order to ease the
regulatory approval process. The moments are low and have only a modest
implication in final column design.
As a further concession to simplicity, designers are not required to consider

pattern live loading effects in simple construction.
Moments are not introduced into the column when the column is subject to
symmetrical reactions and the column is therefore designed for axial force
alone. Often, only columns on the edge of the structure will have unbalanced
reactions. Most columns within a regular column grid will be designed for
axial force only.
e e
R b1,Ed R b1,Ed
tw /2
h /2
tw
h
Figure 3.1 Nominal moments from floor beams
4 – 17
Table 3.1 Nominal Values of eccentricity 'e' typically used for ‘simple
construction’ in different European Countries
Country Major axis eccentricity Minor Axis eccentricity
Belgium h/2 0
Netherlands h/2 0
Germany h/2 0
France h/2 0
Spain h/2 0
Italy h/2 0
The nominal moments may be shared equally between the upper and lower
columns, provided the ratio of their stiffness (I/L) does not exceed 1,5[4].
Outside this limit, the moments should be distributed in proportion to column
stiffness.
2
Mu
ML
Mu I upper L upper

ML I lower L lower
Iupper /Lupper
But Mupper = Mlower when 0,67 < < 1,5
Ilower /Llower
1 Column
2 Floor beam
Figure 3.2 Distribution of nominal moments from floor beams
3.4 Allowance for second order effects

There are two options for low and medium rise frames and the allowance of
second order effects.
3.4.1 Ensure cr > 10
For small scale construction of up to three storeys, it may be appropriate to
ensure cr is greater than 10 by applying the simplified approaches of
Section 2.6 of this document.
4 – 18
3.4.2 Design for 3 < cr < 10

More generally, it is appropriate to design the horizontal bracing structure for
strength. It is then necessary to take appropriate account of second order effects
in accordance with § 2.4.2(2) of EN 1993-1-1. The steps described in
Section 2.5 should be followed.
3.5 Design Summary

References are to EN 1990-1-1[5].
 Use the least favourable of Equations 6.10a and 6.10b (where allowed by
the National Annex) for the combination of actions for the ultimate limit
state.
 Use Equations 6.14b, 6.15b, 6.16b for combinations of actions for the
serviceability limit state, noting any recommendations in the National
Annex.
 Use § 6.2.1(2) and (4) to determine the permissible reductions in variable
actions applied to large areas.
 Carry out the analysis in accordance with Section 3.3 of this publication for
gravity loads and 3.4 to assess the significance of second order effects and
allow for them if necessary.
4 – 19
4 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE
4.1 General
EN 1990[5], § 3.4 and 6.5 and EN 1993-1-1[1], § 7 require structures to satisfy
the Serviceability Limit State. Criteria relevant to multi-storey buildings are:
 Horizontal deflections
 Vertical deflections on floor systems
 Dynamic response.
The general philosophy of the Eurocodes is not to offer prescribed general

limits for horizontal and vertical deflections, but to recommend that limits
should be specified for each project and agreed with the client. They
acknowledge that National Annexes may specify relevant limits for general
applications in specific countries.
Sections 4.3 and 4.4 provide the definition of horizontal and vertical
deflections and suggest some limits, based on Access Steel document
SN034a[4].
4.2 Load combinations

As discussed in Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 3: Actions[6], different
combinations of actions are used for serviceability and ultimate limit states. It
is noteworthy that some countries only apply limits to response to variable
actions (i.e. deflections due to permanent actions are not limited).
4.3 Horizontal deflection limits

The definitions of horizontal deflections in Annex A1 to EN 1990[5] are shown
in Figure 4.10. Table 4.1 summarises typical horizontal deflection limits used
in Europe.
4 – 20
Notation:
u ui
u Overall horizontal displacement over the
building height H.
ui Horizontal displacement over a storey
height Hi
Hi
Figure 4.1 Definitions of horizontal deflections
Table 4.1 Horizontal deflection limits

Deflection limits
Country Comments
u ui
France
Multi-storey buildings H/300 Hi/250 These values should be verified
against the deflections calculated
from the characteristic
combination, unless otherwise
agreed with the client.
The limit given for u applies for H
 30 m.
Germany
There are no national deflection limits. The limits should be taken from manufacturers’
instructions (technical approvals) or agreed with the client.
Spain
Multi-storey buildings: These values are given in the
In general H/500 Hi/300 national technical document for
steel structures[8] and in the
With fragile partition walls, facades, Hi/500 Technical Building Code[9] and
envelopes or rigid floor finishing should be used unless otherwise
elements agreed with the client.
High rise slender buildings (up to H/600
100 m).
4.4 Vertical deflection limits

The definitions of vertical deflections in Annex A1 to EN 1990[5] are shown in
Figure 4.20.
4 – 21
wc
w1
w2 w
tot
wmax w3
wc is the precamber in the unloaded structural member

w1 is the initial part of the deflection under the permanent loads on the relevant
combinations of actions
w2 is the long-term part of the deflection under permanent loads
w3 is the additional part of the deflection due to the variable actions of the relevant
combinations of actions
wtot is the total deflection as the sum of w1, w2, w3
wmax is the remaining total deflection taking into account the precamber
Figure 4.2 Definitions of vertical deflections
Table 4.2 summarises typical vertical deflection limits used in Europe.
Table 4.2 Vertical deflection limits

Deflection limits
Country Comments
wmax w2+w3
France
Roof, in general L/200 L/250 These values are given in the
Roofs frequently carrying personnel L/200 L/300 French National Annex to EN
other than for maintenance 1993-1-1 and should be used
unless otherwise agreed with the
Floors, in general L/200 L/300 client.
Floors and roofs supporting plaster L/250 L/350 The values of the deflections
or other brittle toppings or non- calculated from the characteristic
flexible parts combinations should be
compared to these limits.
Floors supporting columns (unless L/400 L/500
the deflection has been included in
the global analysis for the ultimate
limit state)
When wmax can affect the L/250 -
appearance of the building
Germany
There are no national deflection limits. The limits should be taken from manufacturers’
instructions (technical approvals) or should be agreed with the client.
Spain
Roofs, with access for maintenance - L/250
only
Roofs in general L/300
Beams and floors, without fragile L/300
elements
Beams and floors, supporting L/400
ordinary partition walls and rigid floor
finishing elements with expansion
joints
Beams and floors, supporting fragile L/500
elements such as partition walls,
facades envelopes or rigid floor
finishing elements
Beams supporting columns L/500
Beams supporting masonry walls L/1000
4 – 22
4.5 Precambering
Deflections under permanent loads may be a significant part of the overall
deflection of floor beams. This is particularly true for composite floor systems
that are constructed without propping (as is recommended for fast, simple
construction).
In such cases, designers should specify pre-cambering to ensure that the

primary and secondary floor systems are flat and level once the structure has
been completed. Annex A1 of EN 1990[5] makes specific provision for
recognising the benefits of precambering.
4.6 Dynamic response

Annex A.1.4.4 of EN 1990 states the following requirements for the dynamic
response of all structures.
Vibrations
(1) To achieve satisfactory vibration behaviour of buildings and their
structural members under serviceability conditions, the following
aspects, amongst others, should be considered:
a) the comfort of the user;
b) the functioning of the structure or its structural members (e.g. cracks
in partitions, damage to cladding, sensitivity of building contents to
vibrations).
Other aspects should be considered for each project and agreed with the
client.
(2) For the serviceability limit state of a structure or a structural member
not to be exceeded when subjected to vibrations, the natural frequency of
vibrations of the structure or structural member should be kept above
appropriate values which depend upon the function of the building and
the source of the vibration, and agreed with the client and/or the relevant
authority.
(3) If the natural frequency of vibrations of the structure is lower than
the appropriate value, a more refined analysis of the dynamic response
of the structure, including the consideration of damping, should be
performed.
Note: for further guidance, see EN 1990-1-1, EN 1990-1-4 and
ISO 10137
(4) Possible sources of vibration that should be considered include
walking, synchronised movements of people, machinery, ground borne
vibrations from traffic, and wind actions. These, and other source, should
be specified for each project and agreed with the client.
In practice, for low and medium rise buildings for commercial or residential
use, the key issue is the dynamic response of the floor system to human
excitation, primarily either from walking or from a single heavy ‘foot-fall’.
4 – 23
The dynamic response of floor systems to human excitation is complex, for

three reasons:
 The nature of the excitation is uncertain in magnitude, duration and
frequency of occurrence.
 The structural response is substantially influenced by the magnitude of the
damping in the structure and the damping effect of non-structural
components of the building and its fittings, furnishings and furniture.
 Human perception of vibration and the definition of appropriate acceptance
criteria are both very imprecise, varying between individuals and for a
single individual over time.
It must be emphasised that a floor that has a ‘lively’ response to human

excitation is most unlikely to have inadequate or impaired strength. Traditional
timber floors have always exhibited such behaviour yet have performed
satisfactorily. However, both the increasing use of longer span steel floor
systems and the move to lighter construction increase the probability that
performance may cause discomfort to some users. Designers therefore need to
pay attention to this aspect of serviceability.
Historically, designers have used the natural frequency of the floor as the sole
measure of acceptable performance. A sufficiently high natural frequency
means that a floor is effectively ‘tuned’ out of the frequency range of the first
harmonic component of walking. However, resonance might still occur with
higher harmonics. As a guideline, a fundamental frequency above 4 Hz is
usually appropriate, but no requirements are given in EN 1994[2] and the
designer should seek guidance in the national regulations.
Much more effective, though more complex, methods of assessing dynamic

serviceability have emerged recently:
 Vibration design of floors RF32-CT-2007-00033: This is freely available
from RWTH Aachen. It provides a single mode analysis on the floor.
 Design of floors for vibration: A new Approach[10] presents a more
comprehensive, multi-mode approach to the same methods of assessment.
Design software is becoming available that takes full account of the method
presented in Reference 10.
4.7 Design summary

 Verify the horizontal deflections defined in Section 4.3 against the criteria
defined in the relevant National Annex
 Verify the relevant vertical deflection, defined in Section 4.4 against the
criteria defined in the relevant National Annex
 Consider pre-cambering for beams greater than 10 m in length
 Verify the dynamic response of the floor against one of the references given
in Section 4.6.
4 – 24
5 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
5.1 Introduction
Design for the Ultimate Limit State, i.e. verification of the strength of all the
structural components of the building to resist the actions identified by the
global analysis, remains the core of the detailed design process.
Fortunately, many design aids are now available to assist designers; these have
relieved them of much of the detailed effort that was previously required. The
following sections provide comprehensive guidance on how to take full
account of these aids, while still providing reference back to their basis in the
Eurocodes.
5.2 Floor systems

5.2.1 Floor slab
Either a composite slab or a precast floor will have been chosen during
conceptual design. Both may be designed from first principles but this is rarely,
if ever, done in practice.
A composite slab may be designed to EN 1993-1-3[1] for the construction

condition, EN 1994-1-1[2] for the completed structure and EN 1994-1-2 for the
fire condition.
A precast reinforced concrete floor may be designed to EN 1992-1-1[7].
All these standards make provision for design assisted by testing, in accordance
with Annex D of EN 1990[5].
For such specialist construction products with wide application in practice, the
design assisted by testing route has been adopted by the manufacturers because
it offers greater design resistance than that determined by calculation.
Manufacturers supplying into a national market will usually offer appropriate
design tables which take full account of Nationally Determined Parameters
defined in relevant National Annexes.
Designers should use these design tables wherever they are available.
5.2.2 Downstand non-composite beams

Downstand non-composite floor beams are used to support precast floor
systems, and, possibly, composite floor slabs that are not attached to their
supporting beams by shear connectors. Downstand roof beams generally carry
the purlins that support roof systems
Depending on the details of construction, these beams may be:

 Fully restrained for both construction and in-service conditions.
 Restrained at points of load application for both construction and in-service
conditions.
4 – 25
 Unrestrained for the construction condition and either:

- Fully restrained for the in-service condition (floor beams supporting
precast planks)
- Restrained at points of load application for the in-service condition
- Unrestrained for both construction and in-service conditions.
Depending on the slenderness of the beams, there may be a substantial

difference of resistance between restrained and unrestrained conditions. It
follows that, where the restraint condition improves when the structure is fully
constructed, separate verifications should be carried out for both construction
and in-service stages.
The detailed design process is presented in Figure 5.1 to Figure 5.4. It is

possible to cover all the cases listed above by appropriate consideration of the
restraint conditions and hence the design buckling resistance described in
Figure 5.4.
4 – 26
V Ed  V Rd
MEd  Mc,Rd
M Ed  M b,Rd
Figure 5.1 Overall procedure for the design of a non-composite beam under
uniform loading
4 – 27
hw 72

tw 
Figure 5.2 Detailed procedure for determining the design shear resistance of
a beam
4 – 28
Figure 5.3 Detailed procedure for determining the design resistance to

bending of a beam cross-section
4 – 29
 LT 
Wy fy  LT
M cr
 LT   LT,0
Figure 5.4 Detailed procedure for determining the design lateral-torsional

buckling resistance of a beam
Numerous worked examples are available to demonstrate these design

processes from first principles.
Appendix A to this publication presents:

 WE1 A simply supported, laterally restrained beam.
 WE2 A simply supported beam with intermediate lateral restraints.
Other examples can be found at the Access Steel web site[4]. These include two
interactive worked examples, where users may input their own variables to
carry out a worked example to their specification.
Use of design aids and software

The member resistance calculator provided in the spreadsheet accompanying
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 8 Design software – section capacity[11] may
4 – 30
be used to calculate the resistance of members in compression, bending,

tension and combined bending and compression, as well as the resistance of
webs and the shear resistance of cross sections.
Design software is increasingly available for the design of both restrained and
unrestrained beams and should generally be adopted for commercial design.
5.2.3 Downstand composite beams

Downstand composite beams are used as:
 Secondary beams, to provide direct support to composite floor slabs, with
shear connectors to ensure overall composite action.
 Primary beams, to support the secondary beams and transmit their loads to
the columns. Shear connectors are used to ensure overall composite action.
For simplicity in construction, it is strongly recommended that composite

beams are designed to be unpropped for the construction condition.
Verification for this condition needs to be carried out in accordance with
Section 5.2.2 of this guide before proceeding with the composite condition for
the completed structure.
Before proceeding with the composite checks, it is necessary to determine the

approach to shear connection (this may well have been considered initially
during the conceptual design stage). Two approaches are possible:
Full interaction
Sufficient shear connection is provided to develop the full plastic resistance of
the composite section. This approach simplifies the design approach and
maximises the stiffness of the composite beam. However, if the beam is larger
than is required for the ultimate limit state of the completed structure,
significantly more shear connectors may be required than would be necessary
for basic strength. There is clearly a cost implication for these additional shear
connectors, particularly for longer span primary beams. It may also be difficult,
or impossible, to fit sufficient shear connectors onto the top flange. Figure 5.5
presents the detailed design process for full shear connection for secondary
beams (primary beams are likely to be designed for partial interaction). This
simplified approach is restricted to Class 1 or 2 sections; this is unlikely to be
restrictive in practice.
4 – 31
Start
Span length Calculate internal forces and

VEd, MEd
Load combination moments
SN022 from Choose beam section, Cross section data

www.access-steel.com concrete parameters, Steel grade
connectors Connectors data
A
EN 1994 1-1
Calculate
§ 5.4.1.2 (5) beff
Effective width of concrete flange
EN 1994 1-1
§ 6.2.1.2 Verification of bending resistance
EN 1993 1-1
§ 6.2.6 Bending criterion
To A No
verified ?
Yes
EN 1994 1-1
Calculate vertical
§ 6.2.2.2 VRd
shear resistance
To A No VEd ≤ VRd
EN 1994 1-1
§ 6.6.3
Yes
Determine number of shear

EN 1994 1-1 Number of shear
connectors per half span (n) using
§ 6.6.4 connectors per
Nc Nc
n or n  half span (n)
k t .PRd k  .PRd
EN 1994 1-1
Verification of longitudinal shear
§ 6.6.6.2 Yes
resistance of the slab
Longitudinal shear Increase transverse

No No To A
criteria verified ? reinforcement?
Yes
EN 1994 1-1
Verify that the beam satisfies the
§ 7.3
Serviceability Limit State When the beam is not fully propped
during construction, it has also to be
checked for the construction condition
without contribution of concrete slab
SLS (see SF016) and taking account of lateral
To A No
verified ? torsional buckling
Yes
End
Figure 5.5 Design of simply supported composite beams with full shear
connection and Class 1 or 2 steel beams
Partial interaction
Where the size of the steel beam is defined either by the unpropped
construction condition or by the serviceability of the completed structure, it
will have excess resistance for the ultimate limit state of the composite section.
In such cases, adopting partial shear connection is likely to be more economic.
In this case, Figure 5.6 to Figure 5.9 present the overall procedure and detailed
sub-processes for design.
4 – 32
Start
Span Length Calculate internal forces and

VEd, MEd
Load combination moments
Choose beam section, Cross section data

concrete parameters, Steel grade
EN 1994 1-1 connectors Connectors data
§ 6.6.3
Calculate connectors
PRd
design resistance
EN 1994 1-1
§ 6.6.4
Calculate
beff
EN 1994 1-1 §
5.4.1.2
Verification of bending resistance,

see Figure 5.7
No Bending criterion verified ?
Yes
Calculate Shear Resistance,

VRd
see Figure 5.8
No VEd ≤ VRd
Yes
EN 1994 1-1 Verification of longitudinal shear
§ 6.6.6.2 resistance of the slab,
see Figure 5.9
Longitudinal shear criteria

No
verified ?
When the beam is not fully

propped during construction, it has
Yes also to be checked without the
contribution of the concrete slab
End
Note that rectangular boxes with heavy surrounds are references to detailed sub-processes in
Figure 5.7 to Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.6 Overall procedure for the design of a simply supported composite
beam
4 – 33
Figure 5.7 Verification of bending resistance of composite beam
4 – 34
Figure 5.8 Verification of vertical shear resistance
Figure 5.9 Verification of longitudinal shear resistance of the slab
4 – 35
Worked examples are provided in Appendix A to demonstrate the detailed

design of a secondary and primary composite beam.
Shear connection resistance

In the foregoing verifications of the resistance of composite beams, it should be
noted that shear connection resistance is a function of:
 The proportions of the deck through which the stud is welded.
 The position of the stud(s) with the troughs of the deck
 The number of studs within a single trough.
Deck manufacturers’ literature should be consulted to determine appropriate

design values.
Appendix A to this publication presents:

 WE3 Simply supported secondary composite beam (with partial shear
connection)
 WE4 Simply supported primary composite beam
Use of design aids and design software

With the number of variables to be considered in composite beams, it is not
practical to provide any form of tabular design aid. However, a software
specification for a composite beam program has been prepared as a separate
part of this publication.
Composite beam software is already available in some major European

Markets.
In addition, there are two interactive worked examples on the Access Steel web
site[4] that address simply supported secondary and primary beams. Users may
input their own variables to carry out a worked example to their specification.
5.2.4 Integrated floor beams

Integrated floor beams, which are principally encased within the depth of the
floor slabs, are manufactured by several suppliers. They are all supported by
manufacturers’ design data and some are supported by specialist software.
Manufacturers’ design data or software should be used in practice.
5.2.5 Cellular beams

Cellular beams are a specialist form of downstand beam where large openings
in the beam webs enable services to share the same depth as the structure
within the floor zone.
There are several manufacturers of such products, who have all developed
specialist design approaches for ‘cold’ design and some have extended their
approaches to encompass the fire limit state. All such software complies with
the Eurocodes.
4 – 36
Such beams are therefore always designed to a performance specification for a

specific project, using specialist software. Design from first principles to the
Eurocodes is not practicable.
5.3 Columns
As discussed in Section 3, one of the advantages of simple construction is that
internal columns in regular grids may generally be designed for axial load only.
External columns will be subject to both axial loads and moments from
connection eccentricity.
A simple design method for columns in simple construction with nominal

moments from connection eccentricity is described in Section 5.3.2.
4 – 37
5.3.1 Columns subject to axial load only
T T
Figure 5.10 Verification of column resistance – sheet 1
4 – 38
T  T  
  0,2
NEd
 0,04
Ncr
Figure 5.11 Verification of column resistance – sheet 2
Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.11 describe the detailed design verifications that are
necessary to verify a column subject to axial load only.
The application of this process is illustrated in WE5 in Appendix A.
Use of design aids

The member resistance calculator provided in Multi-storey steel buildings.
Part 8: Design software – section capacity[11] may be used to calculate the
resistance of members in compression, bending, tension and combined bending
and compression.
In addition, Access Steel document SI004[4] provides an interactive worked

example where users may input their own parameters to achieve the same
result.
5.3.2 Columns subject to axial load and moments

The general methods in EN 1993-1-1[1] for the design of members subject to
axial force and moments are complex for H columns in low and medium rise
buildings. Access Steel document SN048 (only available in English) of
provides an NCCI for such cases, including a justification of its simplifications.
The process to be adopted is described below:
4 – 39
Scope
It may only be adopted where:
 The column is a hot rolled I or H section.
 The cross-section is Class 1, 2 or 3 under compression.
 The bending moment diagrams about each axis are linear.
 The column is restrained laterally in both the y and z directions at each
floor level but is unrestrained between the floors.
 The buckling length is the same in both directions.
Design criterion: Overall buckling

The column must satisfy the single interactive equation:
N Ed M y,Ed M z,Ed
  1,5  1,0 5.1
N b,min,Rd M b,Rd M cb,z,Rd
where:
Nb,min,Rd is the lesser of Nb,y,Rd and Nb,z,Rd
Nb,y,Rd and Nb,z,Rd are the flexural buckling resistances about the y and the
z axes
Mb,Rd is the lateral-torsional buckling resistance
f yWpl.z
Mcb,z,Rd = for Class 1 and 2 sections
 min
f yWel,z
and = for Class 3 sections
 min
min = M1
It should be noted that this equation leads to a conservative answer when

Annex B of EN 1993-1-1 is used but no study has been done regarding its use
with Annex A of the same standard.
If this equation is not satisfied, then the more accurate expressions given in
equations 6.61 and 6.62 of EN 1993-1-1 can still be used.
Design criterion: Local verification

For the lowest storey column, if the base is nominally pinned (as is usually the
case), the axial force ratio must also satisfy:
N Ed
< 0,83 5.2
N b, y,Rd
where:
Nb,y,Rd is resistance to buckling about the major axis
Figure 5.12 presents a flowchart to describe this simple procedure.
4 – 40
Start
Design loading
NEd, My,Ed , Mz,Ed
SN010from Column section

www.access-steel.com Choose a column section data
(Afy , E, Iy, Iz, wy )
Buckling length–
take as system
length Classify cross
-
section
Is cross-section
No
Class 1, 2 or 3
Yes
Determine design
resistances of cross section
Nmin,b,Rd My,bRd Mz,cb,Rd
N Ed M y, Ed M z, Ed
No   1.5  1.0
N b,min, Rd M b, Rd M cb,z, Rd
Yes
Is column
No
lowest storey?
Yes
Is column
No
base pinned?
Yes
M Ed
No  0,83 Yes End
M b, Rd
Figure 5.12 Simplified procedure for verification of column subject to axial

load and nominal moments
Use of design aids

Design software is becoming increasingly available.
Because of the wide range of parameters involved, it is not feasible to use

tabulated data for the final design. However, tabulated design data can be used
to determine the denominators in Equations 5.1 and 5.2.
4 – 41
5.4 Vertical bracing

In a braced steel multi-storey building, the planes of vertical bracing are
usually provided by diagonal bracing between two lines of columns, as shown
in Figure 5.13.
Figure 5.13 Typical positioning of vertical bracing
The vertical bracing must be designed to resist the forces due to the following:
 Wind loads.
 Equivalent horizontal forces, representing the effects of initial
imperfections, Section 2.4.
These loads are amplified if necessary (cr < 10) to allow for second order
effects as described in Section 2.4.
Forces in the individual members of the bracing system must be determined for
the appropriate combinations of actions (see Section 3.2). For bracing
members, design forces at ULS due to the combination where wind load is the
leading action are likely to be the most onerous.
H5 H H
H4  
b b
H3 (a) (b)
H
H2
F Ed
H1 H
 

b b b
(c) (d)
At each floor level, Hi = 0,025  VEd,i where VEd,i is the total design load applied at that floor
level
(a) Cross bracing
(b) Diagonal bracing
(c) Horizontal k bracing
(d) Vertical k bracing
Figure 5.14 Typical arrangements of vertical bracing (as Figure 2.3)
4 – 42
The design of the members in any bracing system is generally straightforward.

However, the following specific points need to be addressed:
5.4.1 Tension only systems

Figure 5.14(a) shows nominally statically indeterminate systems with cross
bracing. In practice, the diagonal members are likely to have a high slenderness
(either as flats or as small angles to minimise intrusion into the building). The
contribution from the compressive diagonal is therefore ignored.
5.4.2 Load reversal in statically determinate bracing systems

Figure 5.14 (b), (c) and (d) show examples of statically determinate bracing
systems. The loading on most bracing systems is fully reversing. It is therefore
only necessary to design the diagonals for the more critical condition, when the
member is in compression.
5.4.3 Typical bracing members

Bracing members are connected using nominally pinned joints and therefore
they carry axial loads only.
Bracing members can be welded or bolted to the main structural members. For
bolted connections, use of normal (non-preloaded) bolts is generally
appropriate for bracing in the scope of this guide (up to 12 storeys).
Typical sections used as bracing include flats, angles and channels.
Flat bar
Two calculations must be carried out to determine the tension resistance of flat
bars:
 Gross section resistance, by using equation 6.6 of EN 1993-1-1. The partial
factor to be used in this equation is M0.
 Net section resistance, by using equation 6.7 of EN 1993-1-1. The partial
factor to be used in this equation is M2.
The compression resistance of flats should be carried out by following the
method given in EN 1993-1-1, § 6.3.1.
Angles
When the bolts are positioned on the centroid of the section, the tension
resistance of angles may be carried out as described for flat bars. When the
bolts are positioned away from the centroid of the section the following
procedures may be adopted.
Single line of bolts along the member

Where there is a single line of bolts along the angle and the bolts are not
aligned with the centroid of the section, there is an additional bending moment
due to the eccentricity. EN-1993-1-8, § 3.10.3 gives rules for the calculation of
the tensile resistance in this case.
4 – 43
Multiple bolts across the member

Where there is more than one bolt across the section, EN 1993 does not give
guidance to account for the eccentricity. In order to account for the additional
bending moment the designer has two options:
 To use the interaction equations 6.61 and 6.62 of EN 1993-1-1
 To use other recognised sources of information, such as Steel building
design: Design data[12], which provides an alternative method to account
for this effect.
The compression resistance of angles should be calculated by using the method
given in § 6.3.1 of EN 1993-1-1.
Where bolts are located away from the centroid of the section, the eccentricity
will generate an additional bending moment on the member. As previously
described for the tensile resistance of angles, this bending moment can be
accounted for in two ways:
 By using the interaction equations 6.61 and 6.62 of EN 1993-1-1
 By calculating a modified slenderness as given in EN 1993-1-1, Annex
BB 1.2 and applying it to the method given in § 6.3.1.
If the angle is welded instead of bolted, the forces distribute across the member
and no bending effects needs to be considered.
When the bracing consists of unequal angles, it is important to specify which

leg is connected.
Channels
The tension and compression resistances of channels are carried out in a similar
way to that described for angles.
Channels are invariably connected through the web, either by welding or by

means of bolts. This introduces an eccentricity with respect to the centroid of
the section. Although EN 1993-1-1 does not explicitly allow the use of
Annex BB 1.2 for the compression resistance of channels, the authors suggest
that the approach may also be used for this purpose.
When channels with thin webs are used, bearing of the bolts on the channel
may be critical. In order to avoid this problem the designer may specify larger
bolts or the web of the channel may be thickened by welding a plate on the
web.
5.5 Horizontal bracing

Horizontal bracing, or at least floor diaphragm action, is necessary to transmit
horizontal forces and requirements for horizontal restraint to planes of vertical
bracing.
Where triangulated steel bracing is adopted, the design approaches are

essentially the same as those for vertical bracing. However, in general, it is
more economical to use the floor as a diaphragm.
4 – 44
All floor solutions involving permanent formwork such as metal decking fixed
by studs welded to the beams, with in-situ concrete infill, provide an excellent
stiff diaphragm to carry horizontal forces to the bracing system.
Floor systems involving precast concrete planks require proper consideration to

ensure adequate transfer of forces if they are to act as a diaphragm. The
coefficient of friction between planks and steelwork may be as low as 0,1 and
even lower if the steel is painted. This will allow the slabs to move relative to
each other and to slide over the steelwork. Grouting between the slabs will only
partially overcome this problem, and for large shears, a more positive tying
system will be required between the slabs and from the slabs to the steelwork.
Connection between planks may be achieved by reinforcement in the topping.

This may be welded mesh or ties may be placed along both ends of a set of
planks to ensure the whole panel acts as one. Typically, a 10 mm bar at half
depth of the topping will be satisfactory.
Connection to the steelwork may be achieved by one of two methods:

 Enclose the slabs by a steel frame (on shelf angles, or specially provided
constraint) and fill the gap with concrete.
 Provide ties between the plank topping and a local topping to the steelwork
(known as an ‘edge strip’). The steel beam has some form of shear
connectors to transfer forces between the in-situ edge strip and the
steelwork.
Figure 5.15 Possible connection between precast concrete plank and

steelwork to ensure diaphragm action of the floor
Appropriate attention needs to be given to the ‘load paths’ that transfer the end
shears of the horizontal diaphragms in the vertical bracing or concrete core. It
is frequently possible to ensure that the ‘end posts’ of the horizontal
diaphragms (or trusses) are also the top ‘end posts’ of the vertical bracing.
Where concrete cores resist horizontal actions, it is usually possible to tie the
concrete diaphragms directly into the cores.
4 – 45
5.6 Design summary

Table 5.1 summarises the most appropriate design approaches for the ultimate
limit state for the various elements:
Table 5.1 Design of elements for ultimate limit state
Element Method Section Comments
Reference
Ensure relevant Nationally
Floor slab Manufacturers’ data 5.2.1 Determined Parameters
(NDP) are adopted
Downstand
Capacity tables from design Ensure relevant NDPs are
non-composite 5.2.2
software[11] adopted
beams
Downstand
composite Design software 5.2.3
beams
Columns under Ensure relevant NDPs are
Tabulated data 5.3.1
axial load adopted
Columns under
axial load and Design software 5.3.2
moments
Design using tabulated data,
taking account of local
Vertical bracing 5.4
connection / eccentricity
issues
Design using tabulated data,
taking account of both local
Horizontal
connection / eccentricity 5.5
bracing
issues and connectivity to
concrete
4 – 46
6 ROBUSTNESS
6.1 Accidental design situations

In order to avoid the disproportionate collapse of buildings in the case of
accidental situations, such as explosions, Section 2.1 of EN 1990 states two
Principles and provides one Application Rule for the robustness of structures.
These are as follows:
(4)P A structure shall be designed and executed in such a way that it will
not be damaged by events such as:
 Explosion,
 Impact, and
 the consequences of human errors,
to an extent disproportionate to the original cause.
NOTE 1. The events to be taken into account are “those agreed for an individual
project with the client and the relevant authority”.
NOTE 2: Further information is given in EN 1991-1-7.
(5)P Potential damage shall be avoided or limited by appropriate choice
of one or more of the following:
– avoiding, eliminating or reducing the hazards to which the
structure can be subjected;.
– selecting a structural form which has low sensitivity to the
hazards considered;
– selecting a structural form and design that can survive adequately
the accidental removal or an individual member or a limited part
of the structure, or the occurrence of acceptable localised damage;
– avoiding as far as possible structural systems that can collapse
without warning;
– tying the structural members together.
(6) The basic requirements should be met:
– by the choice of suitable materials.
– by appropriate design and detailing, and
– by specifying control procedures for design, production,
execution and use relevant to the particular project.
The strategy to be adopted with both identified and unidentified accidental
actions is illustrated in Figure 6.1 and depends on three consequence classes
that are set out in EN 1991-1-7[13] Appendix B.3 and discussed in Section 6.2.
4 – 47
Figure 6.1 Strategies for accidental design situations
6.2 Consequence classes

As mentioned above, Appendix B.3 of EN 1990 defines three consequence
classes:
CC1 Low consequences of failure
CC2 Medium consequences of failure
CC3 High consequences of failure
Class CC2 is subdivided by EN 1991-1-7[13] into CC2a (Lower risk group) and
CC2b (Upper risk group). Medium rise buildings mostly fall within
group CC2b, the criteria for which are reproduced Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 An example of building categorisation (taken from Table A.1 of
EN 1991-1-7)
Consequence Example of categorisation of building type and occupancy
Class
CC2b Upper Hotels, flats, apartments and other residential buildings greater than
Risk Group 4 storeys but not exceeding 15 storeys
Educational buildings greater than single storey but not exceeding
15 storeys
Retailing premises greater than 3 storeys but not exceeding 15 storeys
Offices greater than 4 storeys but not exceeding 15 storeys
All buildings to which the public are admitted and which contain floor areas
exceeding 2000 m2 but not exceeding 5000 m2 at each storey
EN 1991-1-7, § 3.2 and § 3.3 provide a wide range of possible general

strategies for identified accidental actions and for limiting the extent of
localised failure respectively. Apart from structures at specific risk from impact
(EN 1991-1-7 Section 4) or internal explosion (EN 1991-1-7, § 5), this
publication recommends that design of low and medium rise building
structures in Consequence Class CC2b should generally involve the design for
localised failure (see Section 6.3 of this document). The design of columns as
key elements (see Section 6.4) is only appropriate where not all columns are
continuous through to the basement; for example where they are supported by a
transfer structure.
4 – 48
6.3 Design for the consequences of localised failure

in multi-storey buildings
6.3.1 Design strategy
In multi-storey buildings, the requirement for robustness generally leads to a
design strategy where the columns are tied into the rest of the structure. This
should mean that any one length of column cannot easily be removed.
However, should a length be removed by an accidental action, the floor
systems should be able to develop catenary action, to limit the extent of the
failure. This is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 6.2. The
recommendations in EN 1991-1-7[13], Annex A in relation to horizontal tying
actions and vertical tying actions are related to this form of partial collapse.
Annex A does not prescribe a complete design model for this form of partial
collapse – for example, the reaction to the horizontal forces in Figure 6.2 is not
addressed. The rules in the Annex are best considered as prescriptive rules
intended to produce structures that perform adequately in extreme
circumstances and are not meant to be fully described systems of structural
mechanics. The illogical practice of designing certain connections for
considerable force, yet not making provision to transfer the forces any further,
illustrates this point.
It is important to note that the requirements are not intended to ensure that the
structure is still serviceable following some extreme event, but that damage is
limited and that progressive collapse is prevented.
1
1 Column removed
Figure 6.2 Concept of robustness rules
6.3.2 Limit of admissible damage

The limit of admissible damage recommended in EN 1991-1-7, Annex A is
4 – 49
2
2
Plan Elevation
1 Local damage not exceeding 15% of the floor area or 100 m2, whichever is the smaller, in
each of two adjacent storeys
2 Notional column to be removed
Figure 6.3 Recommended limit of admissible damage (taken from Figure A.1
of EN 1991-1-7)
6.3.3 Horizontal tying

EN 1991-1-7 § A.5 provides guidance on the horizontal tying of framed
structures. It gives expressions for the design tensile resistance required for
internal and perimeter ties.
For internal ties:

Ti = 0.8 (gk + qk) s L or 75 kN, whichever is the greater (A.1)
For perimeter ties:
Tp = 0.4 (gk + qk) s L or 75 kN, whichever is the greater (A.2)
where:
s is the spacing of ties
L is the span of the tie
 is the relevant factor in the expression for combination of action
effects for the accidental design situation (i.e. 1 or 2 in accordance
with expression (6.11b) of EN 1990[5]).The relevant National Annex
should give further guidance on the  values to be adopted.
Note that tying forces do not necessarily need to be carried by the steelwork
frame. A composite concrete floor, for example, can be used to tie columns
together but must be designed to perform this function. Additional
reinforcement may be required and a column (particularly an edge column)
may need careful detailing to ensure the tying force is transferred between
columns and slab. Reinforcing bars around a column, or threaded bars bolted
into the steel column itself, have been successfully used.
4 – 50
If the tying forces are to be carried by the structural steelwork alone, the
verification of tying resistance is entirely separate from that for resistance to
vertical forces. The shear forces and tying forces are never applied at the same
time. Furthermore, the usual requirement that members and connections remain
serviceable under design loading is ignored when calculating resistance to
tying, as ‘substantial permanent deformation of members and their connections
is acceptable’. Guidance on the tying resistance of standard simple connections
is presented in Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 5: Joint design[14].
Frequently, ties may be discontinuous, or have no ‘anchor’ at the end distant to

the column. The connection is simply designed for the applied force. This
situation is also common at external columns, where only the local design of
the connection is considered. The column itself is not designed to resist the
tying force.
6.3.4 Tying of precast concrete floor units

EN 1991-1-7 § A.5.1(2) requires that when concrete or other heavy floor units
are used (as floors), they should be tied in the direction of their span. The
intention is to prevent floor units or floor slabs simply falling through the steel
frame, if the steelwork is moved or removed due to some major trauma. Slabs
must be tied to each other over supports and tied to edge beams. Tying forces
may be determined from EN 1992-1-1[7], § 9.10.2 and the relevant National
Annex.
Tying across internal supports

If the precast units have a structural screed, it may be possible to use the
reinforcement in the screed to carry the tie forces, as shown in Figure 6.4, or to
provide additional reinforcing bars.
1 Reinforcement in screed
Figure 6.4 Screed with reinforcement
Alternatively, it may be possible to expose the voids in the precast planks and
place reinforcing bars between the two units prior to concreting, as shown in
Figure 6.5.
4 – 51
1 Reinforcement in core with concrete infill
Figure 6.5 Ties between hollow precast units
Special measures may be needed where precast planks are placed on shelf
angles, as shown in Figure 6.6. When it is not possible to use reinforcement in
the screed, straight reinforcement bars tying the precast units together are
usually detailed to pass through holes drilled in the steel beam.
1 Reinforcing bar
Figure 6.6 Precast units on shelf angles
Tying to edge beams

Anchorage is best accomplished by exposing the voids in the plank and placing
U-shaped bars around studs welded to the steelwork, as shown in Figure 6.7. In
this Figure, the studs have been provided in order to achieve adequate
anchorage; not for composite design of the edge beam. Figure 6.7b is a more
complicated solution involving castellation of the plank edge (often on site) so
that the plank fits around the stud and similar U-bars located in the voids prior
to concreting. However, this does allow a narrower steel beam to be used.
1 1
2
a) b)
1 U-bar
2 Plank castellated around shear studs
Figure 6.7 Tying of precast planks to edge beams

Minimum flange width of: (a) 180 mm, (b) 120 mm
4 – 52
In some circumstances, the floor units cantilever past the edge beam. Tying in
these situations is not straightforward, and a solution must be developed in
collaboration with the frame supplier and floor unit manufacturer.
6.3.5 Vertical tying

EN 1991-1-7, A.6 provides guidance on the vertical tying of framed structures.
It recommends that column splices should be capable of carrying an axial
tension equal to the largest design vertical permanent and variable load
reaction applied to the column from any one storey. It does not specify which
storey but it would be appropriate to use the largest value over the length down
to the next splice, or to the base, if that is nearer).
In practice, this is not an onerous obligation and most splices designed for
adequate stiffness and robustness during erection are likely to be sufficient to
carry the axial tying force. Standardised splices are covered in Multi-storey
steel buildings. Part 5: Joint design[14].
6.4 Key elements

EN 1991-1-7[13], § A.8 provides guidance on the design of “key elements”. It
recommends that a key element should be capable of sustaining an accidental
design action of Ad applied in horizontal and vertical directions (in one
direction at a time) to the member and any attached components. The
recommended value of Ad for building structures is 34 kN/m2 applied to the
surface area of the element in the most onerous direction. Any other structural
component that provides “lateral restraint vital to the stability” of a key
element should also be designed as a key element. Equation 6.11b of
EN 1990[5] defines the combination of actions which needs to be considered.
When considering the accidental loading on a large area (e.g. on a floor slab
supported by a transfer beam), it is reasonable to limit the area that is subjected
to the 34 kN/m2 load because a blast pressure is unlikely to be this high on all
the surfaces of a large enclosed space.
The maximum area to be considered is not defined but could be inferred from
the length of load-bearing wall to be considered (see EN 1991-1-7, § A.7)
which is 2,25 times the storey height, say 2,25  2,9 = 6,5 m. Therefore, a
maximum area that would be subjected to the 34 kN/m2 load could be a
6,5  6,5 m square.
For the design of a key element, it is necessary to consider what components,

or proportion of components, will remain attached to the element in the event
of an incident. The application of engineering judgement will play a major part
in this process. For framed construction, the walls and cladding will normally
be non-structural. Therefore, it is likely that the majority of these will become
detached from the key element during an incident, as shown in Figure 6.8.
For the column member key element shown in Figure 6.8, an accidental load of
34 kN/m2 should be applied over a width beff for accidental loading about the
major axis. The column section should be verified for the combination of
moments and axial force using the design case given above. The accidental
4 – 53
loading about the minor axis over a width of h (in this case) also needs to be
considered. The accidental loading should only be considered as acting in one
direction at a time and there is no requirement to consider a diagonal loading
case, i.e. at an angle to the major and minor axes.
beff 3
3
2
1 Key element
2 Portion of component that remains attached to key element after an incident
3 portions of component that are detached from key element during an incident
Figure 6.8 Component attached to a key element (column on plan)
Determining the width beff is very subjective. An estimate of what will remain
attached to the key element (during a loading of 34 kN/m2) will obviously
depend on what is attached and how it is fixed to the element.
6.5 Risk assessment

Buildings which fall into consequence class 3 have to be assessed using risk
assessment techniques. Annex B of EN 1991-1-7[13] provides information on
risk assessment and B.9 provides guidance specific to buildings.
6.6 Design summary

 Determine the relevant consequence class from Appendix B.3 of EN 1990[5]
(Section 6.2)
 Design members and connections to limit localised failure wherever
possible. Columns will need to be designed as key elements where they are
not continuous through to the basement; for example, where they finish on
a transfer structure.
 For design for localised failure, adopt the design strategy, limit of
admissible damage and horizontal and vertical tying rules described in
Section 6.3.
 Where key elements have to be protected, the approaches outlined in
Section 6.4 will have to be adopted.
4 – 54
REFERENCES
1 EN 1993: Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures

EN 1993-1-1:2005: General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-8:2005: Design of joints
2 EN 1994: Eurocode 4 Design of composite steel and concrete structures
EN 1994-1-2:2008: General rules. Structural fire design
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 2: Concept design
4 www.access-steel.com
5 EN 1990: Eurocode Basis of design
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 3: Actions
7 EN 1992: Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures
8 Instrucción de Acero Estructural.
Ministerio de Fomento, España, 2006.
9 Código Técnico de la Edificación
Ministerio de Vivienda, España, 2006
10 SMITH, A. L., HICKS, S. J. and DEVINE, P. J. (P354)
Design of floors for vibration: A new approach
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 8: Design software – section capacity
12 Steel Building Design: Design Data (P363)
13 EN 1991: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. General actions
EN 1991-1-7:2006 : Accidental actions
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 5: Joint design
4 – 55
APPENDIX A WORKED EXAMPLES
WE A.1: Simply supported, laterally unrestrained beam
WE A.2: Simply supported beam with intermediate lateral restraints
WE A.3: Simply supported, secondary composite beam
WE A.4: Simply supported, primary composite beam
WE A.5: Pinned column using non slender H Sections
WE A.6: Bracing and bracing connections
WE A.7 Bolted connection of an angle brace in tension to a gusset plate
4 – 56
A.1 Worked Example – Simply supported,
1 of 7
laterally unrestrained beam
Made by ENM Date 10/2009
Calculation sheet
Checked by DGB Date 10/2009
1. Simply supported, laterally unrestrained

beam
1.1. Scope
This example covers an I-section rolled profile beam, subject to bending about
the major axis and restrained laterally at the supports only. The example
includes:
 the classification of the cross-section
 the calculation of bending resistance, including the exact calculation of the
elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling
 the calculation of shear resistance
 the calculation of the deflection at serviceability limit state.
This example does not include any shear buckling verification of the web.
1.2. Loading
The uniformly distributed loading comprises:
 self-weight of the beam,
 concrete slab,
 imposed load.
1 1
1 Lateral restraint
Figure A.1 Beam employed in this example, showing the lateral restraints
1.3. Partial safety factors EN 1990

G = 1,35 (permanent actions)
EN 1993-1-1
Q = 1,50 (variable actions)
§ 6.1 (1)
M0 = 1,0
M1 = 1,0
4 - 57
Title A.1 Simply supported, laterally unrestrained beam 2 of 7
1.4. Basic data

Span length: 5,70 m
Bay width: 2,50 m
Slab depth: 120 mm
Partitions: 0,75 kN/m2
Imposed load: 2,50 kN/m2
Concrete density: 24 kN/m3
Steel grade: S235
Weight of the slab: 0,12  24 kN/m3 = 2,88 kN/m2
1.5. Choose a section

Try IPE 330 – Steel grade S235
1.5.1. Geometric properties z

tf
Depth h = 330 mm
Width b = 160 mm tw
Web thickness tw = 7,5 mm y y

h
Flange thickness tf = 11,5 mm
Root radius r = 18 mm
Mass 49,1 kg/m
Section area A = 62,6 cm2 z
b
Second moment of area about mayor axis: Iy = 11770 cm4

Second moment of area about minor axis: Iz = 788,1 cm4
Torsional constant It = 28,15 cm4
Warping constant Iw = 199100 cm6
Elastic modulus about major axis: Wel,y = 713,1 cm3
Plastic modulus about major axis: Wpl,y = 804,3 cm3
Yield strength EN 1993-1-1

Steel grade: S235 Table 3.1
The maximum thickness is 11,5 mm < 40 mm, so: fy = 235 N/mm2
Note: The National Annex may impose either the values of fy from Table 3.1
or the values from the product standard.
1.5.2. Actions on the beam

Self weight of the beam : (49,1 × 9,81) × 10-3 = 0,482 kN/m
4 – 58
Permanent action:
Gk = 0,482 + (2,88 + 0,75) × 2,50 = 9,56 kN/m
Variable action (Imposed load):

Qk = 2,5 × 2,5 = 6,25 kN/m
1.5.3. Effects on the beam

ULS combination: EN 1990
G Gk + Q Qk = 1,35 × 9,56 + 1,50 × 6,25 = 22,28 kN/m § 6.4.3.2
Bending moment diagram
M
90,48 kNm
Maximum bending moment occurs at mid span and is given by:

wL2 22,28  5,70 2
My,Ed = = = 90,48 kNm
8 8
Shear force diagram

63,50 kN
Maximum shear force at supports:

VEd = 0,5 × 22,28 × 5,70 = 63,50 kN
1.5.4. Section classification :

The parameter  is derived from the yield strength:
EN 1993-1-1
235 235
   1,0 Table 5.2
fy 235
Outstand flange: flange under uniform compression

c = (b – tw – 2 r) / 2 = (160 – 7,5 – 2 × 18) / 2 = 58,25 mm
c/tf = 58,25 / 11,5 = 5,07 ≤ 9  = 9,0 Flange Class 1
Internal compression part: web under pure bending

c = h – 2 tf – 2 r = 330 – 2 × 11,5 – 2 × 18 = 271 mm
c / tw = 271 / 7,5 = 36,1 < 72  = 72 Web Class 1
The class of the cross-section is the highest class (i.e. the least favourable) of
the flange and the web. Therefore, the overall section is Class 1.
For Class 1 sections, the ULS verifications must be based on the plastic
resistance of the cross-section.
4 – 59
1.5.5. Section resistance

Cross-sectional moment resistance
The design cross-sectional resistance is: EN 1993-1-1
Mc,Rd = Wpl,y fy / M0 = (804,3 × 235 / 1,0) 10-3 = 189,01 kNm § 6.2.5
The section must verify that My,Ed / Mc,Rd < 1,0

My,Ed / Mc,Rd = 90,48 / 189,01 = 0,479 < 1,0 OK
Lateral-torsional buckling resistance

To determine the design lateral-torsional buckling resistance, the reduction
factor for lateral-torsional buckling must be determined. The following
calculation determines this factor by means of the elastic critical moment.
Elastic critical moment

The critical moment may be calculated from the following expression:
 
 2 E I z   k  I w k L  G I t
2 2
 SN003[4]
M cr  C1 2 
    (C2 zg ) 2  C2 zg 
k L    kw  I z  E I z
2


where:
E is Young’s modulus: E = 210000 N/mm2
G is the shear modulus: G = 80770 N/mm2
L is the span: L = 5,70 m
In the expression for Mcr, the following simplifications can be made:

k =1 since the compression flange is free to rotate about the weak
axis of the cross-section,
kw =1 since warping is not prevented at the ends of the beam.
zg is the distance from the loading point to the shear centre:

zg = h / 2 = +165 mm
(zg is positive when the loads act towards the shear centre)
The C1 and C2 coefficients depend on the bending moment diagram. For a
uniformly distributed load and k = 1: SN003[4]
C1 = 1,127
C2 = 0,454
Therefore:
 2 E Iz  2  210000  788,1  10 4
  10 3  502,75 kN
k L  2
(5700) 2
C 2 z g  0,454  165   74,91 mm
4 – 60
Mcr =
 199100 80770  281500 
1,127  502,75    100   (74,91) 2  74,91  10 3
 788,1 502750 
Mcr = 113,9 kNm
Non-dimensional slenderness
The non-dimensional slenderness is obtained from:
Wpl, y f y 804300  235  10- 6
 LT    1,288 EN 1993-1-1
M cr 113,9
§ 6.3.2.2 (1)
For rolled profiles:  LT,0  0,4 EN 1993-1-1

§ 6.3.2.3(1)
Note: the value of  LT,0 may be given in the National Annex. The
recommended value is 0,4.
So  LT  1,288   LT,0
Reduction factor, LT EN 1993-1-1
For rolled sections, the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling is § 6.3.2.3 (1)
calculated by:
  LT  1,0
1 
 LT  but    1
2
 LT   LT
2
   LT  LT  2
 LT
where:
 
LT  0,5 1   LT  LT   LT,0    LT  2

LT is the imperfection factor for LTB. When applying the method for rolled EN 1993-1-1
profiles, the LTB curve has to be selected from Table 6.5: Table 6.5
For h/b = 330 / 160 = 2,06 > 2 Table 6.3
Therefore use curve ‘c’ (LT = 0,49)
 LT,0  0,4 and  = 0,75
Note: the values of  LT,0 and  may be given in the National Annex. The
recommended values are 0,4 and 0,75 respectively.
LT  0,5 1  0,49 1,288  0,4  0,75  (1,288)2   1,340

and:
1
 LT   0,480
1,340  (1,340) 2  0,75  (1,288) 2
4 – 61
LT= 0,480 < 1,0 OK

2
and: LT = 0,480 < 1 /  LT = 0,603 OK
The influence of the moment distribution on the design buckling resistance EN 1993-1-1
moment of the beam is taken into account through the f-factor: § 6.3.2.3 (2)
 
f  1  0,5 1  k c 1  2  LT  0,8 
2
but ≤ 1,0
where: EN 1993-1-1
kc = 0,94 Table 6.6
 f = 1 – 0,5 (1 – 0,94) [1 – 2 (1,288 – 0,8)2] = 0,984
 LT,mod = LT / f = 0,480 / 0,984 = 0,488
Design buckling resistance moment
Mb,Rd = LT,mod Wpl,y fy / M1 EN 1993-1-1
§ 6.3.2.1
Mb,Rd = (0,488 × 804300 × 235 / 1,0) × 10-6 = 92,24 kNm
My,Ed / Mb,Rd = 90,48 / 92,24 = 0,981 < 1,0 OK
Shear Resistance
In the absence of torsion, the plastic shear resistance is directly related to the EN 1993-1-1
shear area, which is given by: § 6.2.6 (3)
Av = A – 2 b tf + (tw + 2 r) tf
Av = 6260 – 2 × 160 × 11,5 + (7,5 + 2 × 18) × 11,5 = 3080 mm2
Av ( f y / 3 ) 3080  (235 / 3 ) EN 1993-1-1
V pl,Rd    417,9 kN
 M0 1,0 § 6.2.6 (2)
VEd / Vpl,Rd = 63,50 / 417,9 = 0,152 < 1,0 OK

Shear buckling need not be taken into account when:
hw / tw ≤ 72  /  EN 1993-1-1
§ 6.2.6 (6)
where:
 may be conservatively taken as 1,0
hw / tw = (330 – 2 × 11,5) / 7,5 = 40,9 < 72 × 1 / 1,0 = 72
Note: No interaction of moment and shear has to be considered since the
maximum moment is obtained at mid-span and the maximum shear
force is obtained at supports. Generally for combined bending and
shear see EN 1993-1-1, § 6.2.8.
4 – 62
1.5.6. Serviceability Limit State verification

SLS Combination EN 1990
Gk + Qk = 9,56 + 6,25 = 15,81 kN/m § 6.5.3
Deflection due to Gk + Qk :
5 (G  Q) L4 5  15,81  (5700) 4
w   8,8 mm
384 E I y 384  210000  11770  10 4
The deflection under (Gk + Qk) is L/648 OK EN 1993-1-1
Note: 1 the deflection limits should be specified by the client. The National § 7.2.1
Annex may specify some limits.
Note 2: regarding vibrations, the National Annex may specify limits for the EN 1993-1-1
frequency. § 7.2.3
4 – 63
A.2 Worked Example – Simply supported beam 1 of 7
with intermediate lateral restraints
Made by CZT Date 06/2009

Calculation sheet
Checked by ENM Date 07/2009
2. Simply Supported Beam with Intermediate

Lateral Restraints
2.1. Scope
This example deals with a simply supported roof beam, with intermediate
lateral restraints, under a uniformly distributed load:
 self-weight of the beam
 roofing with purlins
 climatic loads.
The beam is a rolled I-profile in bending about the strong axis.
This example includes:

 the calculation of bending resistance
2.2. Partial safety factor

G,sup = 1,35 (permanent loads) EN 1990
Table A1.2(B)
G,inf = 1,0 (permanent loads)
Q = 1,50 (variable loads) EN 1993-1-1
M0 = 1,0 § 6.1 (1)
M1 = 1,0
2.3. Basic data

Span length: 15,00 m
Bay width: 6,00 m
Roof: 0,30 kN/m2
Climatic load: Snow 0,60 kN/m2
Climatic load: Wind - 0,50 kN/m2 (suction)
Steel grade: S235
The climatic loads are characteristic values assumed to have been calculated
according to EN 1991.
4 - 64
A.2 Worked Example – Simply supported beam with intermediate
Title 2 of 7
lateral restraints
6 x 2,50 m
3 x 5,00m
2
1 : Lateral restraints (purlins)
2 : Lateral restraints (bracing system)
Bracing system
The beam is laterally restrained at the supports. The upper flanges are
restrained by the purlins (at 2,50 m spacing) and the lower flanges by struts (at
5,00 m spacing).
The beam is fabricated with a pre-camber equal to l/500, wc = 30 mm.
2.4. Choose a section

2.4.1. Geometric properties

Depth h = 400 mm tf
z
Web Depth hw = 373 mm

Width b = 180 mm tw
Web thickness tw = 8,6 mm
y y
Flange thickness tf = 13,5 mm h
hw
Mass 66,3 kg/m r
Section area A = 84,46 cm2

z
b
4 – 65
Title 3 of 7
lateral restraints
Second moment of area about the major axis Iy = 23130 cm4

Second moment of area about the minor axis Iz = 1318 cm4
Torsion constant It = 51,08 cm4
Warping constant Iw = 490 000 cm6
Elastic section modulus about the major axis Wel,y = 1156 cm3
Plastic section modulus about the major axis Wpl,y = 1307 cm3
Yield strength
Steel grade S235
The maximum thickness is 13,5 mm < 40 mm, so: fy = 235 N/mm2 EN 1993-1-1
Table 3.1
2.5. ULS verification

2.5.1. Actions on the beam
Self weight of the beam: (66,3 × 9,81) × 10-3 = 0,65 kN/m
Permanent load:
Gk = 0,65 + 0,30 × 6,00 = 2,45 kN/m
Climatic load:
Qs = 0,60 × 6,0 = 3,60 kN/m
Qw = 0,50  6,0 = 3,00 kN/m
2.5.2. Effects on the beam due to ULS combinations: EN 1990

Combination 1 G,sup Gk + Q Qs = 1,35  2,45 + 1,50  3,60 = 8,71 kN/m § 6.4.3.2
Combination 2 G,inf Gk + Q Qw = 1,00  2,45 - 1,50  3,00 = 2,05 kN/m Expression
6.10
M
My,Ed
Maximum moment at mid span:

wL2 8,71  15 2
Combination 1 My,Ed = = = 244,97 kNm
8 8
wL2  2,05  15 2
Combination 2 My,Ed = = = 57,66 kNm
8 8
4 – 66
Title 4 of 7
lateral restraints
Shear force diagram

VEd
Maximum shear force at supports :

Combination 1 VEd = 0,5 × 8,71 × 15 = 65,33 kN
Combination 2 VEd = 0,5 × -2,05 × 15= 15,38 kN
2.5.3. Section classification

The parameter  is derived from the yield strength:
EN 1993-1-1
235 235
   1,0 Table 5.2
fy 235
Outstand flange: flange under uniform compression

c = (b – tw – 2 r) / 2 = (180 – 8,6 – 2 × 21)/2 = 64,7 mm
c/tf = 64,7 / 13,5 = 4,79 ≤ 9  = 9 Flange class 1
Internal compression part: web under pure bending

c = h – 2 tf – 2 r = 400 – 2 × 13,5 – 2 × 21 = 331 mm
c / tw = 331 / 8,6 = 38,49 < 72  = 72 Web class 1
The class of the cross-section is the highest class (i.e. the least favourable) EN 1993-1-1
between the flange and the web. Therefore, the overall section is Class 1. Table 5.2
For Class 1 sections, the ULS verifications should be based on the plastic
2.5.4. Section resistance

The design cross-sectional resistance is: EN 1993-1-1
Mc,Rd = Wpl,y fy / M0 = (1307 × 235 / 1,0)  10-3 = Mc.Rd = 307,15 kNm § 6.2.5
Combination 1 My,Ed / Mc,Rd = 244,97 / 307,15= 0,798 < 1,0 OK
Combination 2 My,Ed / Mc,Rd = 57,66 / 307,15= 0,188 < 1,0 OK
Lateral-torsional buckling verification using the simplified assessment

methods for beams with restraints in buildings:
In buildings, members with discrete lateral restraint to the compression flange EN 1993-1-1
are not susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling if the length Lc between § 6.3.2.4 (1)B
restraints or the resulting equivalent compression flange slenderness  f
satisfies:
4 – 67
Title 5 of 7
lateral restraints
k c Lc M
f  ≤  c0 c,Rd
if,z 1 M y,Ed
where:
My,Ed is the maximum design value of the bending moment within the
restraint spacing
kc is a slenderness correction factor for moment distribution between
restraints, see EN 1993-1-1, Table 6.6
if,z is the radius of gyration of the compression flange including 1/3 of
the compressed part of the web area, about the minor axis of the
section
 c0 is the slenderness parameter of the above compression element
 c0 =  LT,0  0,10
For rolled profiles,  LT,0  0,40
Note: The slenderness limit  c0 may be given in the National Annex. EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3 (1)
E 235 235
1 =π = 93,9 and   1
fy fy 235
If,z = [1318 - (2 × 37,3 / 3) × 0,863 / 12] / 2 = 658,34 cm4

Af,z = [84,46 - (2 × 37,3 / 3) × 0,86] / 2 = 31,54 cm2
658,34
if,z = = 4,57 cm
31,54
Wy = Wpl,y = 1307 cm3 EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3
E
1 =π = 93,9
fy
 c0 = 0,40 + 0,10 = 0,50

fy  235 
M c, Rd = Wy = 1307    10 3 = 307,15 kNm
 M1  1,0 
Combination 1 EN 1993-1-1
Note: Between restraints in the centre of the beam, where the moment is a Table 6.6
maximum, the moment distribution can be considered as constant.
kc =1
Lc = 2,50 m
1 250
f = = 0,583
4,57  93,9
4 – 68
Title 6 of 7
lateral restraints
307,15
 c0 M c, Rd / My,Ed = 0,50  = 0,627
244,97
f = 0,583 ≤  c0 M c, Rd / My,Ed = 0,627 OK
Combination 2
kc =1
Lc = 5,00 m
1 500
f = = 1,165
4,57  93,9
307,15
 c0 M c, Rd / My,Ed = 0,50  = 2,663
57,66
f = 1,165 ≤  c0 M c, Rd / My,Ed = 2,663 OK
Shear Resistance
In the absence of torsion, the shear plastic resistance depends on the shear
area, which is given by:
EN 1993-1-1
Av = A – 2 b tf + (tw + 2 r) tf
§ 6.2.6 (3)
Av = 8446 – 2 × 180 × 13,5 + (8,6 + 2 × 21) × 13,5 = 4269 mm2
Av,z ( f y 3) 4269  ( 235 3) EN 1993-1-1
V pl,Rd   1000  579,21 kN § 6.2.6 (2)
 M0 1,0
VEd / Vpl,Rd = 65,33 / 579,21 = 0,113 < 1 OK

Note that the verification to shear buckling is not required when : EN 1993-1-1
hw / tw ≤ 72  /  § 6.2.6 (6)
The value  may conservatively be taken as 1,0

hw / tw = (400 – 2 × 13,5) / 8,6 = 43,37 < 72 × 1 / 1,0 = 72
Note: No interaction between moment and shear has to be considered, since
the maximum moment is obtained at mid-span and the maximum
shear force is obtained at supports. Generally for combined bending
and shear see EN 1993-1-1, § 6.2.8.
2.6. Serviceability Limit State verification

2.6.1. Actions on the beam EN 1990
Characteristic combination: § 6.5.3
§ A1.4.2
Gk + Qs = 2,45+ 3,60 = 6,05 kN/m
4 – 69
Title 7 of 7
lateral restraints
2.6.2. Deflection due to Gk + Qs:

5 (G  Qs ) L4 5  6,05  (15000) 4 EN 1990
wtot    82,10 mm
384 E I y 384  210000  23130  10 4 § A1.4.3
wc = 30 mm pre-camber
wmax = wtot – wc = 82,10 – 30 = 52,10 mm
The deflection under (Gk + Qs) is L/288.
2.6.3. Deflection due to Qs :

5 (Qs ) L4 5  3,60  (15000) 4
w3    48,90 mm
384 E I y 384  210000  23130  10 4
The deflection under Qs is L/307.
Note: The limits of deflection should be specified by the client. The EN 1993-1-1
National Annex may specify some limits. § 7.2.1
4 – 70
1 of 10
secondary composite beam
Calculation sheet
3. Simply Supported, Secondary Composite

Beam
3.1. Scope
This example covers the design of a composite floor beam of a multi-storey
building according to the data given below. The beam is assumed to be fully
propped during construction.
3.2. Loading
The following distributed loads are applied to the beam:
 self-weight of the beam
 concrete slab
 imposed load.
Figure A.2 Composite secondary beam to be designed in this example
The beam is a rolled I profile in bending about the strong axis. This example
includes:
 the calculation of the effective width of the concrete flange
 the calculation of shear resistance of a headed stud
 the calculation of the degree of shear connection
 the calculation of bending resistance
 the calculation of longitudinal shear resistance of the slab
 the calculation of deflection at serviceability limit state.
4 - 71
A.3 Worked Example – Simply supported, secondary composite
Title 2 of 10
beam
3.3. Partial factors

G = 1,35 (permanent loads)
EN 1990
Q = 1,50 (variable loads)
M0 = 1,0 EN 1993-1-1
M1 = 1,0 § 6.1 (1)
EN 1994-1-1
V = 1,25
§ 6.6.3.1
C = 1,5 EN 1992-1-1
3.4. Basic data

The profiled steel sheeting is transverse to the beam.
Span length: 7,50 m
Bay width: 3,00 m
Slab depth: 12 cm
Partitions: 0,75 kN/m2
Imposed load: 2,50 kN/m2
Reinforced Concrete density: 25 kN/m3
Steel grade: S355
3.5. Choose section

Try IPE 270
3.5.1. Geometric properties

Depth ha = 270 mm tf
z
Width b = 135 mm
Web thickness tw = 6,6 mm tw
y y
Root radius r = 15 mm ha
Mass 36,1 kg/m

Section area Aa = 45,95 cm2
z
b

Elastic modulus about the major axis Wel,y = 428,9 cm3
Plastic modulus about the major axis Wpl.y = 484,0 cm3
Modulus of elasticity of steel Ea = 210000 N/mm2
4 – 72
Title 3 of 10
beam
Yield strength
Steel grade S355 EN 1993-1-1
Table 3.1
The maximum thickness is 10,2 mm < 40 mm, so: fy = 355 N/mm2
Note: The National Annex may impose either the values of fy from
Table 3.1 or the values from the product standard.
Profiled steel sheeting:

Thickness of sheet t = 0,75 mm
Slab depth h = 120 mm
Overall depth of the profiled steel sheeting hp = 58 mm
Trapezoidal ribs b1 = 62 mm
b2 = 101 mm
e = 207 mm
Connectors:
Diameter d = 19 mm
Overall nominal height hsc = 100 mm
Ultimate tensile strength fu = 450 N/mm2
Number of shear connectors studs n = L / e = 7500 / 207 = 36
Number of studs per rib nr = 1
h0
h
hsc
hp
0,5hp
b1
b2
Figure A.3 Trapezoidal decking
Concrete parameters: C 25/30 EN 1992-1-1

Value of the compressive strength at 28 days fck = 25 N/mm2 § 3.1.3
Modulus of elasticity of concrete Ecm = 33000 N/mm2 Table 3.1
4 – 73
Title 4 of 10
beam
To take into account the troughs of the profiled steel sheeting, the weight of
the slab is taken as:
 0,101  0,062 
25  3,0   0,12  5   0,058  = 7,2 kN/m
 2 
Self weight of the beam: (36,1  9,81)  10-3 = 0,354 kN/m
Permanent load:
Gk = 0,354 + 7,2 + 0,75 × 3,0 = 9,80 kN/m
Variable load (Imposed load):
Qk = 2,5  3,0 = 7,50 kN/m
3.6. ULS Combination: EN 1990

G Gk + Q Qk = 1,35  9,80 + 1,50  7,50 = 24,48 kN/m § 6.4.3.2
M
172,13 kNm
Maximum moment at mid span :
My,Ed = 0,125  24,48  7,502 = 172,13 kNm
Shear force diagram
91,80 kN

VEd = 0,5 × 24,48 × 7,50 = 91,80 kN
Section classification: EN 1993-1-1
The parameter ε is derived from the yield strength: Table 5.2
235 235
    0,81
fy 355
Note: The classification is carried out for the non composite beam. For the
composite beam, the classification is more favourable.

Outstand flange: flange under uniform compression EN 1993-1-1
c = (b – tw – 2 r) / 2 = (135 – 6,6 – 2 × 15)/2 = 49,2 mm Table 5.2
c/tf = 49,2 / 10,2 = 4,82 ≤ 9  = 7,29 Flange Class 1
4 – 74
Title 5 of 10
beam
Internal compression part

c = h – 2 tf – 2 r = 270 – 2 × 10,2 – 2 × 15 = 219,6 mm
c / tw = 219,6 / 6,6 = 33,3 < 72  = 58,3 Web Class 1
The class of the cross-section is the highest class (i.e. the least favourable)
between the flange and the web.
So the ULS verifications should be based on the plastic resistance of the
cross-section since the Class is 1.
3.6.2. Effective width of concrete flange

At mid-span, the total effective width may be determined by: EN 1994-1-1
Figure 5.1
beff,1  b0   bei
b0 is the distance between the centres of the outstand shear connectors,

in this case b0 = 0
bei is the value of the effective width of the concrete flange on each side
of the web, bei = Le / 8 but ≤ bi = 3,0 m
beff,1 = 0 + 7,5 / 8 = 0,9375 m
 beff = 2 × 0,9375 = 1,875 m < 3,0 m
At the ends, the total effective width is determined by:

beff,0  b0    ibei EN 1994-1-1
Figure 5.1
where:
i = (0,55 + 0,025 Le / bei) but ≤ 1,0
= (0,55 + 0,025 × 7,5 / 0,9375) = 0,75
beff,0 = 0 + 0,75 × 7,5 / 8 = 0,703 m
 beff = 2 × 0,703 = 1,406 m < 3,0 m
3.6.3. Design shear resistance of a headed stud

The shear resistance of each stud may be determined by:
 0,8 f ud 2 / 4 0,29d 2 f ck Ecm 
PRd  kt  Min ;  EN 1994-1-1
 V V 
  § 6.6.3.1
hsc / d = 100 / 19 = 5,26 > 4, so  = 1
Reduction factor (kt)

For sheeting with ribs transverse to the supporting beam, the reduction factor EN 1994-1-1 §
for shear resistance is calculated by: 6.6.4.2
Table 6.2
0,7 b0  hsc 
kt   1 but ≤ ktmax for profiled sheeting with holes.
nr hp  hp 

4 – 75
Title 6 of 10
beam
where:
nr =1
hp = 58 mm
b0 = 82 mm
hsc = 100 mm
0,7 82  100 
 kt    1  0,717 ≤ ktmax = 0,75
1 58  58 
 0,8  450    19 2 / 4 0,29  1  19 2 25  31000 
PRd  0,717  Min  ;   10 3

 1, 25 1, 25 
 0,717  Min 81,66 kN ; 73,73 kN 
PRd = 52,86 kN
3.6.4. Degree of shear connection

The degree of shear connection is defined by: EN 1994-1-1
Nc § 6.2.1.3 (3)

N c,f
where:
Nc is the design value of the compressive normal force in the concrete
flange
Nc,f is the design value of the compressive normal force in the concrete
flange with full shear connection
At mid-span the compressive normal force in the concrete flange represents

the total connection.
Ac is the cross-sectional area of concrete, so at mid-span Ac = beff hc
hc = h - hp = 120 – 58 = 62 mm
 Ac = 1875 × 62 = 116250 mm2
f ck 25
N c,f  0,85 Ac f cd  0,85 Ac  0,85  116250   10 3  1647 kN
c 1,5
The resistance of the shear connectors limits the normal force to:
Nc = 0,5 n PRd = 0,5 × 36 × 52,86 = 952 kN
Nc 952
   0,578
N c,f 1647
The ratio  is less than 1,0 so the connection is partial.
4 – 76
Title 7 of 10
beam
3.6.5. Verification of bending resistance

Minimum degree of shear connection
The minimum degree of shear connection for a steel section with equal EN 1994-1-1
flanges is given by: § 6.6.1.2
 355 
 min  1 -  0,75 - 0,03Le  with Le ≤ 25
f 
 y 
Le is the distance in sagging bending between points of zero bending moment
in metres, in this example: Le = 7,5 m
 min = 1 – (355 / 355) (0,75 – 0,03 × 7,50) = 0,475
 = 0,578 > min = 0,475 OK
Plastic Resistance Moment at mid span EN 1994-1-1

The design value of the normal force in the structural steel section is: § 6.6.1.2 and
Npl,a = Aa fy / M0 = 4595 × 355 × 10-3 / 1,0 = 1631 kN § 6.2.1.3
 Npl,a = 1631 kN > Nc = 952 kN

For ductile shear connectors and a Class 1 steel cross-section, the bending
resistance, MRd, of the critical cross-section of the beam (at mid span) is
calculated by means of rigid-plastic theory except that a reduced value of the
compressive force in the concrete flange Nc is used instead of Nc,f.
The plastic stress distribution is shows in Figure A.4.
Nc=Nc,f = 952 kN
-
hp 339 kN
MRd
+ hn Na = 1291 kN
Figure A.4 Plastic stress distribution
The position of the neutral axis is: hn = 263 mm

Therefore the design resistance for bending of the composite cross-section is:
MRd = 301,7 kNm
So, My,Ed / MRd = 172,2 / 301,7 = 0,57 < 1 OK
4 – 77
Title 8 of 10
beam
3.6.6. Shear Resistance

The shear plastic resistance depends on the shear area of the steel beam, which
is given by: EN 1993-1-1
Av = A – 2 b tf + (tw + 2 r) tf § 6.2.6 (3)
Av = 4595 – 2 × 135 × 10,2 + (6,6 + 2 × 15) × 10,2 = 2214 mm2
Shear plastic resistance

Av ( f y / 3 ) 2214  (355 / 3 ) -3 EN 1994-1-1
Vpl,Rd   10  453,8 kN § 6.2.2.2
 M0 1,0
VEd / Vpl,Rd = 91,80 / 453,8 = 0,202 < 1,0 OK
Verification to shear buckling is not required when:
hw / tw ≤ 72  /  EN 1993-1-1
§ 6.2.6 (6)
 may be conservatively taken as 1,0
hw / tw = (270 – 2 × 10,2) / 6,6 = 37,8 < 72 × 0,81 / 1,0 = 58,3 OK
3.6.7. Longitudinal Shear Resistance of the Slab

The plastic longitudinal shear stresses is given by :
Fd EN 1992-1-1
vEd  § 6.2.4
hf x
Figure 6.7
where:
x = 7,5 / 2 = 3,75 m
The value of x is half the distance between the section where the moment is
zero and the section where the moment is a maximum, so there are two areas
for the longitudinal shear resistance of the slab.
Fd = Nc / 2 = 951,56 / 2 = 475,8 kN
hf = h - hp = 120 – 58 = 62 mm
Fd 475,8  10 3
v Ed    2,05 N/mm2
hf x 62  3750
To prevent crushing of the compression struts in the concrete flange, the
following condition should be satisfied:
vEd  f cd sin  f cos f with   0,61  f ck / 250 and f = 45°
 25  25
vEd  0,6  1     0,5  4,5 N/mm2 OK
 250  1,5
The following inequality should be satisfied for the transverse reinforcement:
Asf fyd / sf ≥ vEd hf / cot θf where fyd = 500 / 1,15 = 435 N/mm2
4 – 78
Title 9 of 10
beam
Assume the spacing of the bars sf = 250 mm and there is no contribution from
the profiled steel sheeting:
2,05  62  250
Asf ≥  73,05 mm2
435  1,0
Take 10 mm diameter bars (78,5 mm2) at 250 mm cross-centres extending
over the effective concrete breadth.
3.7. Serviceability Limit State verification EN 1990

3.7.1. SLS Combination § 6.5.3
Gk + Qk = 9,80 + 7,50 = 17,30 kN/m
5 (G  Q ) L4
Deflection due to Gk + Qk: w 
384 E I y
Iy is calculated for the equivalent section, by calculating an effective
equivalent steel area of the concrete effective area: EN 1994-1-1
295 § 5.4.2.2
100
NA
263
Figure A.5 Equivalent steel section used for the calculation of A and Iy
bequ = beff / n0
n0 is the modular ratio for primary effects (Qk)
= Ea / Ecm = 210000 / 33000 = 6,36
 bequ = 1,875 / 6,36 = 0,295 m
Using the parallel axis theorem the second moment of area is:
Iy = 24 540 cm4
4 – 79
Title 10 of 10
beam
For the permanent action:

n = 2Ea / Ecm = 19,08 for permanent loads (Gk) EN 1994-1-1
§ 5.4.2.2(11)
 bequ = 1,875 / 19,06 = 0,0984 m
The second moment of area is calculated as:
Iy = 18 900 cm4
The deflection can be obtained by combining the second moment of area for
the variable and the permanent actions as follows:
5  7 ,54  9,80 7 ,50 
w  8
 8 
 16 mm
384  210000  18900 10 24540  10 
The deflection under (Gk + Qk) is L/469 EN 1994-1-1
§ 7.3.1
Note 1: The deflection limits should be specified by the client and the
National Annex may specify some limits.
Note 2: The National Annex may specify limits concerning the frequency of EN 1994-1-1
vibration. § 7.3.2
4 – 80
1 of 13
primary composite beam
Made by AL Date 08/2009
Calculation sheet
Checked by AB Date 08/2009
4. Simply Supported, Primary Composite

Beam
This example shows the design of a composite beam of a multi-storey
building, as shown in Figure A.6. The supporting beams are not propped and
the profiled steel sheeting is parallel to the primary beam.
6,0 m
6,0 m 3,0 m 3,0 m
9,0 m
Figure A.6 Floor arrangement where the primary beam of this example is
located
The secondary beams are represented by two concentrated loads as shown in

Figure A.7:
1 1
1 1
1 Lateral restraints at the construction stage
Figure A.7 Loads applied to the primary beam
4 - 81
Title A.4 Worked Example – Simply supported, primary composite beam 2 of 13
The beam is an I-rolled profile in bending about the major axis. This example
includes:
 the calculation of the effective width of the concrete flange
 the calculation of the shear resistance of a headed stud
 the calculation of the degree of shear connection
 the calculation of the bending resistance
 the calculation of the shear resistance
 the calculation of the longitudinal shear resistance of the slab
4.1. Partial factors

 G = 1,35 (permanent loads) EN 1990
 Q = 1,50 (variable loads)

EN 1993-1-1,
 M0 = 1,0 § 6.1 (1)
 M1 = 1,0 EN 1994-1-1,
 V = 1,25 § 6.6.3.1
EN 1992-1-1
 C = 1,5
4.2. Basic data

 Span length : 9,00 m
 Bay width : 6,00 m
 Slab depth : 14 cm
 Partitions : 0,75 kN/m2
 Secondary beams (IPE 270) : 0,354 kN/m
 Imposed load : 2,50 kN/m2
 Construction load : 0,75 kN/m2
 Reinforced concrete density : 25 kN/m3
4.3. Choose section

4 – 82
4.3.1. Geometric data

Depth ha = 400 mm tf
z
Width b = 180 mm
Web thickness tw = 8,6 mm tw
y y
Root radius r = 21 mm ha
Mass 66,3 kg/m

Section area Aa = 84,46 cm2
z
b

Elastic section modulus about the major axis Wel,y = 1156 cm3
Plastic section modulus about the major axis Wpl,y = 1307 cm3
Radius of gyration about the minor axis iz = 3,95 cm
Modulus of elasticity of steel Ea = 210 000 N/mm2
Yield strength
Steel grade S355 EN 1993-1-1,
The maximum thickness is 13,5 mm < 40 mm, so: fy = 355 N/mm2 Table 3.1
Note: The National Annex may impose either the values of fy from
Table 3.1 or the values from the product standard.
Profiled steel sheeting

Thickness of sheet t = 0,75 mm
Slab depth h = 140 mm
Overall depth of the profiled steel
sheeting excluding embossments hp = 58 mm
Trapezoidal ribs b1 = 62 mm
b2 = 101 mm
e = 207 mm
Connectors
Diameter d = 19 mm
Overall nominal height hsc = 100 mm
Ultimate tensile strength fu = 450 N/mm2
Number of studs n = 74 per row
(Stud at beam mid-span ignored)
4 – 83
b0
h
hsc
hp
0,5hp
b1
b2
Figure A.8 Geometry of the composite beam
Concrete class: C 25/30 EN 1992-1-1,

Value of the compressive strength at 28 days fck = 25 N/mm2 § 3.1.3
Secant modulus of elasticity of concrete Ecm = 31 000 N/mm2 Table 3.1
4.3.2. Actions on the beam at ULS

Permanent load:
To take into account the troughs of the profiled steel sheeting , the weight of
the slab for the secondary beams is taken as:
 0,106  0,145 0,058 

25  3,0   0,14    = 7,86 kN/m
 2 0,207 
Concentrated loads during the construction stage:
FG = (0,354 + 7,86) × 6,0 = 49,28 kN
Permanent loads in the final stage:
FG = (0,354 + 7,86 + 0,75 × 3,0) × 6,0 = 62,78 kN
Self weight of the primary beam:
qG = 9,81 × 66,3 × 10-3 = 0,65 kN/m
Variable load (Imposed load):

Concentrated loads during the construction stage:
FQ = 0,75 × 3,0 × 6,0 = 13,5 kN
Concentrated loads in the final stage:
FQ = 2,5 × 3,0 × 6,0 = 45,0 kN
4 – 84
ULS Combination:
G FG + Q FQ = 1,35 × 62,78 + 1,50 ×45,0 = 152,25 kN EN 1990
§ 6.4.3.2
G qG + Q qQ = 1,35 × 0,65 = 0,877 kN/m
Eq. (6.10) is used. In some countries, the National Annex may specify the use
of equations (6.10a) and (6.10b).
ULS Combination during the construction stage:

G FG + Q FQ = 1,35 × 49,28 + 1,50 ×13,5 = 86,78 kN
G qG + Q qQ = 1,35 × 0,65 = 0,877 kN/m
M
456,6 kNm
Figure A.9 Bending moment diagram at ULS in the final stage
Maximum moment at mid span:

My,Ed = 3,0 × 152,25 + 0,125 × 0,877 × 9,02 = 465,6 kNm
Maximum moment at mid span (sequence of construction):
My,Ed = 3,0 × 86,78 + 0,125 × 0,877 × 9,02 = 269,2 kNm
Shear force diagram

156,20 kN
Figure A.10 Shear force diagram at ULS in the final stage

VEd = 152,25 + 0,5 × 0,877 × 9,0 = 156,20 kN
Maximum shear force at supports (sequence of construction):
VEd = 86,78 + 0,5 × 0,877 × 9,0 = 90,73 kN
4.3.3. Section classification:
235 235
The parameter  is derived from the yield strength:     0,81
fy 355
Note: The classification is made for the non composite beam. For the
composite beam the classification is more favourable for the web.
4 – 85
Outstand flange : flange under uniform compression EN 1993-1-1

c = (b – tw – 2 r) / 2 = (180 – 8,6 – 2 × 21)/2 = 64,7 mm Table 5.2
c/tf = 64,7 / 13,5 = 4,79 ≤ 9  = 7,29 Flange Class 1 (sheet 2 of 3)
Internal compression part EN 1993-1-1

c = ha – 2 tf – 2 r = 400 – 2 × 13,5 – 2 × 21 = 331 mm Table 5.2
c / tw = 331 / 8,6 = 38,5 < 72  = 58,3 Web Class 1 (sheet 1 of 3)
The class of the cross-section is the highest class (i.e. the least favourable) of
the flange and the web.
In this case the overall section is Class 1.
For Class 1 sections, the ULS verifications should be based on the plastic
4.3.4. Construction stage

The design bending resistance of a cross-section is given by:
Mc,Rd = Mpl,Rd = Wpl,y fy / M0 = (1307 × 355 / 1,0) / 1000 EN 1993-1-1
§ 6.2.5
Mc,Rd = 463,98 kNm
My,Ed / Mc,Rd = 269,2 / 463,98 = 0,58 < 1 OK
Reduction factor for lateral–torsional buckling
To determine the design buckling resistance of a laterally unrestrained beam,
the reduction factor for lateral–torsional buckling must be determined. The
restraint provided by the steel sheet is in this case quite small and it is
neglected. The following calculation determines this factor by a simplified
method for lateral–torsional buckling. This method avoids calculating the
elastic critical moment.
Non-dimensional slenderness
The non-dimensional slenderness may be obtained from the simplified method
for steel grade S355: SN002[4]
L/iz 300/3,95
 LT    0,853
89 89
For rolled profiles,  LT,0  0,4 EN 1993-1-1,
§ 6.3.2.3(1)
Note: The value of  LT,0 may be given in the National Annex. The
recommended value is 0,4.
So  LT  0,853   LT,0 = 0,4
4 – 86
Reduction factor
For rolled sections, the reduction factor for lateral–torsional buckling is EN 1993-1-1
calculated from: § 6.3.2.3 (1)
  LT  1.0
1 
 LT  2
but    1
LT  LT
2
   LT  LT  2LT
where :   
LT  0,5 1   LT  LT   LT,0    LT
2

LT is the imperfection factor for LTB. When applying the method for rolled EN 1993-1-1
profiles, the LTB curve has to be selected from Table 6.5: Table 6.5
For ha/b = 400 / 180 = 2,22 > 2 Curve ‘c’ (LT = 0,49) Table 6.3
 LT,0  0,4 and  = 0,75

Note: The values of  LT,0 and  may be given in the National Annex. The
recommended values are 0,4 and 0,75 respectively.
 
We obtain : LT  0,5 1  0,49 0,853  0,4  0,75  (0,853)2  0,884 
1
and :  LT   0,730
0,884  (0,884)  0,75  (0,853) 2
2
Then, we verify : LT = 0,730 < 1,0

2
but : LT = 0,730 < 1 /  LT = 1,374
So : LT = 0,730
Design buckling resistance moment

Mb,Rd = LT Wpl,y fy / M1
EN 1993-1-1
Mb,Rd = (0,730 × 1307000 × 355 / 1,0) × 10-6 = 338,7 kNm
§ 6.3.2.1
My,Ed / Mb,Rd = 269,2 / 338,7 = 0,795 < 1,0 OK
Shear Resistance
The shear plastic resistance depends on the shear area, which is given by:
Av = A – 2 b tf + (tw + 2 r) tf EN 1993-1-1
Av = 8446 – 2 × 180 × 13,5 + (8,6 + 2 × 21) × 13,5 = 4269 mm2 § 6.2.6 (3)
Shear plastic resistance EN 1993-1-1

§ 6.2.6 (2)
Av ( f y / 3 ) 4269  (355 / 3 )  10 3
V pl,Rd    874,97 kN
 M0 1,0
VEd/Vpl,Rd = 90,73 / 874,97 = 0,104 < 1,0 OK
4 – 87
Note that the verification to shear buckling is not required when : EN 1993-1-1
hw / tw ≤ 72  /  § 6.2.6 (6)
The relevant value of  is :  = 1,2

EN 1993-1-5
hw / tw = (400 – 2 × 13,5) / 8,6 = 43 < 72 × 0,81 / 1,2 = 48,6 § 5.1 (2)
Interaction between bending moment and shear force
If VEd < Vpl,Rd / 2 then the shear force may be neglected. EN 1993-1-1
So, VEd = 90,73 kN < Vpl,Rd / 2 = 874,97 / 2 = 437,50 kN OK § 6.2.8 (2)
4.3.5. Final stage

The effective width is constant between 0,25 L and 0,75 L, where L is the span EN 1994-1-1
length. From L/4 to the closest support, the effective width decreases linearly. § 5.4.1.2
The concentrated loads are located between 0,25 L and 0,75 L.
The total effective width is determined by: (Figure 5.1)
b eff,1  b0  ∑ bei
b0 is the distance between the centres of the outstand shear connectors,
in this case b0 = 0
bei is the value of the effective width of the concrete flange on each side
of the web and taken as bei = Le / 8 but ≤ bi = 3,0 m
beff,1 = 0 + 9,0 / 8 = 1,125 m, then beff = 2 × 1,125 = 2,25 m < 3,0 m
Design shear resistance of a headed stud
The shear resistance should be determined by:
 0,8 f u  d 2 / 4 0,29 d 2 f ck E cm  EN 1994-1-1
PRd  k l  Min  ;  § 6.6.3.1
  V 
 V 
hsc / d = 100 / 19 = 5,26 > 4, so  = 1
Reduction factor (kl)

For sheeting with ribs transverse to the supporting beam, the reduction factor EN 1994-1-1
for shear resistance is calculated by: § 6.6.4.1
b0  hsc 
kl  0,6  
hp  hp  1 but ≤ 1
 
4 – 88
where:
nr =1
hp = 58 mm
hsc = 100 mm
b0 = 82 mm
82  100 
 kl  0 ,6   1  0 ,614 ≤ 1,0 OK
58  58 
 0,8  450    19 2 / 4 0,29  1  19 2 25  31000 
PRd  0,614  Min   10 3 ;  10 3 
 1,25 1,25 
 0,614  Min  81,66; 73,73 = 45,27 kN
Degree of shear connection

The degree of shear connection is defined by:
Nc EN 1994-1-1
 § 6.2.1.3 (3)
N c,f
where:
Nc is the design value of the compressive normal force in the concrete
flange
Nc,f is the design value of the compressive normal force in the concrete
flange with full shear connection
At the load location:
The compressive normal force in the concrete flange represents the force for
full connection.
Ac is the cross-sectional area of concrete, so at the load location:
Ac = beff hc
hc = h - hp = 140 – 58 = 82 mm
 Ac = 2250 × 82 = 184500 mm2
f ck 25 -3
 N c,f  0,85 Ac f cd  0,85 Ac  0,85  184500  10  2614 kN
C 1,5
Since the maximum moment is reached nearly at the load location, the studs
should be placed between the support and the concentrated load. However,
studs should also be placed between the concentrated loads.
4 – 89
3,0 m 1,5 m
e1
e2
31 studs spaced at e1 = 95 mm and 6 studs spaced at e2 = 220 mm
Figure A.11 Location of studs
So, the resistance of the shear connectors limits the normal force to not more
than:
N c = n × PRd = 31 × 45,27 = 1403 KN
Nc 1403
= = = 0 ,537
N c,f 2614
The ratio  is less than 1,0 so the connection is partial.
Verification of bending resistance

Minimum degree of shear connection
The minimum degree of shear connection for a steel section with equal EN 1994-1-1
flanges is given by § 6.6.1.2
 355 
 min  1 -  0 ,75 - 0 ,03Le  with Le ≤ 25 m
f 
 y 
Le is the distance in sagging bending between points of zero bending
moment in metres, for our example: Le = 9,0 m
 min = 1 – (355 / 355) (0,75 – 0,03 × 9,0) = 0,520
 min = 0,520 <  = 0,537 OK
Plastic resistance at the load location

The design value of the normal force in the structural steel section is:
EN 1994-1-1
N pl,a = Aa f y /  M0 = 8446 × 355 × 10 3 / 1,0 = 2998 kN
§ 6.2.1.2 and
 N pl,a > N c =  × N c,f = 0 ,537 × 2614 = 1403 kN § 6.2.1.3
For ductile shear connectors and Class 1 cross-section of the steel beam, the
resistance of the cross-section of the beam, MRd, at the load location is
calculated by means of rigid-plastic theory except that a reduced value of the
compressive force in the concrete flange, Nc, is used instead of Ncf.
The plastic stress distribution is shown in Figure A.12:
4 – 90
- Nc=Nc,f= 1403 kN
hp
797 kN
MRd
+ hn
Na= 2201 kN
Figure A.12 Plastic stress distribution on the beam
The position of the plastic neutral axis is: hn = 388 mm

Therefore, the design bending resistance of the composite cross-section is:
MRd = 738 kNm
My,Ed / MRd = 465,6 / 738 = 0,63 < 1,0 OK
Shear Resistance EN 1994-1-1

The plastic shear resistance is the same as for steel beam alone. § 6.2.2.2
Vpl,Rd  874 ,97 kN
VEd / Vpl,Rd = 156,20 / 874,97 = 0,18 < 1,0 OK
Interaction between bending moment and shear force

If VEd < Vpl,Rd / 2 then the shear force may be neglected. EN 1993-1-1
So, VEd = 156,20 kN < Vpl,Rd / 2 = 874,97 / 2 = 437,50 kN OK § 6.2.8 (2)
Longitudinal Shear Resistance of the Slab

The plastic longitudinal shear stresses is given by : EN 1992-1-1
Fd § 6.2.4
vEd 
hf x (Figure 6.7)
where x = 9,0 / 3 = 3,0 m

The value for x is the distance between the restraint and the point load.
Therefore there are three areas for the longitudinal shear resistance.
Fd = Nc / 2 = 1403 / 2 = 701,5 kN
hf = h - hp = 140 – 58 = 82 mm
Fd 701,5  10 3
v Ed    2,85 N/mm2
hf x 82  3000
4 – 91
To prevent crushing of the compression struts in the concrete flange, the

following condition should be satisfied:
vEd   f cd sin  f cos f with   0,61  f ck / 250 and f = 45°
 25  25
vEd  0,6  1     0,5  4,5 N/mm2 OK
 250  1,5
The following inequality should be satisfied for the transverse reinforcement :
Asf fyd / sf ≥ vEd hf / cot θf where fyd = 500 / 1,15 = 435 N/mm2
Assume the spacing of the bars sf = 200 mm and there is no contribution from
the profiled steel sheeting
2,85  82  200
Asf ≥  107,4 mm2
435  1,0
Take 12 mm diameter bars (113 mm2) at 200 mm spacing.
4.4. Serviceability Limit State verifications

The deflection due to G + Q is calculated as:
5 q G L4 a  (3L2  4a 2 )
wG   FG
384 E I y 24 E I y
a  (3L2  4 a 2 )
wQ  FQ
24 E I y
And the total deflection is: w = wG + wQ
4.4.1. Construction stage EN 1990

SLS Combination during the construction stage § 6.5.3
FG + FQ = 49,28 + 13,5 = 62,78 kN
qG = 0,65 kN/m
Deflection during the construction stage

Iy is the second moment of area of the steel beam.
5  0,65  9000 4 3000  (3  9000 2 - 4  3000 2 )
wG    49280
384  210000  23130  10 4 24  210000  23130  10 4
wG  1,1  26,2  27,3 mm
3000  (3  9000 2 - 4  3000 2 )

wQ   13500  7,2 mm
24  210000  23130  10 4
 w = wG + wQ = 27,3 + 7,2 = 34,5 mm
The deflection under (G + Q) is L/261
4 – 92
Deflection in the final stage

FG + FQ = 62,78 + 45,0 = 107,78 kN EN 1990
qG = 0,65 kN/m § 6.5.3
Deflection at the final stage:

Iy is calculated for the equivalent section, by calculating an effective
equivalent steel area of the concrete effective area.
bequ = beff / n0
n0 is the modular ratio for primary effects (Qk) EN 1994-1-1
= Ea / Ecm = 210000 / 31000 = 6,77 § 5.4.2.2
 beq = 2,25 / 6,77 = 0,332 m

Using the parallel axis theorem the second moment of area is obtained:
Iy = 82458 cm4
For the permanent action:
n = 2Ea / Ecm = 20,31 for permanent loads (Gk) EN 1994-1-1
§ 5.4.2.2(11)
 bequ = 2,25 / 20,31 = 0,111 m
The second moment of area is calculated as:
Iy = 62919 cm4
The deflection can be obtained by combining the second moment of area for
the variable and the permanent actions as follows:
wG = 27,3 mm
3000  (3  9000 2 - 4  3000 2 )
wpartitions  13500  2,6 mm
24  210000  62919  10 4
3000  (3  9000 2 - 4  30002 )
wQ   45000 = 6,7 mm
24  210000  82458 10 4
So, w = wG + wpartitions + wQ = 27,3 + 2,6 + 6,7 = 36,6 mm
The deflection under (G + Q) is L/246 EN 1994-1-1
§ 7.3.1
Note 1: The deflection limits should be specified by the client and the
National Annex may specify some limits.
Note 2: The National Annex may specify frequency limits. EN 1993-1-1
§ 7.2.3
4 – 93
A.5 Worked Example – Pinned column
1 of 4
using non-slender H sections
Made by DGB Date 06/2005
Calculation sheet
Checked by Date
5. Pinned Column Using Non-slender

H Sections
This example shows how to carry out the design of a column of a multi-storey
building. The column is an HE 300 B section in S235, and the restraints are
positioned as shown in Figure A.13.
SN008
N Ed N Ed
8,0
8,0
Lcr Lcr
 1,0  0,7
L L
Figure A.13 End conditions of the column under consideration about the
major and the minor axes and their buckling length factors.
5.1. Partial factors EN 1993-1-1

§ 6.1 (1)
 M0 = 1,0
 M1 = 1,0
4 - 94
Title A.5 Worked Example – Pinned column using non-slender H sections 2 of 4
5.2. Basic data

 Axial load : NEd = 2000 kN
 Column length : 8,00 m
 Buckling length about the y-y axis: 1,0  8,00  8,00 m
 Buckling length about the z-z axis: 0,7  8,00  5,60 m
 Steel grade : S235
 Section classification: Class 1
5.3. Geometric properties of the section

HE 300 B – Steel grade S235 z
tf
Depth h = 300 mm
tw
Width b = 300 mm
y y
Web thickness tw = 11 mm h
Flange thickness tf = 19 mm
z
Section area A = 149 cm2 b

Second moment of area about the minor axis Iz = 8560 cm4
5.4. Yield strength

Steel grade S235
The maximum thickness is 19,0 mm < 40 mm, so: fy = 235 N/mm2 EN 1993-1-1
Table 3.1
5.5. Design buckling resistance of a compression

member
To determine the design column buckling resistance Nb,Rd, the reduction factor
 for the relevant buckling curve must be obtained. This factor is determined
by calculation of the non-dimensional slenderness λ based on the elastic
critical force for the relevant buckling mode and the cross-sectional resistance
to normal forces.
5.6. Elastic critical force Ncr

The critical buckling force is calculated as follows:
π 2  EI y π 2  210000  25170  10 4
N cr,y  2
 2
 10 3  8151,2 kN
Lcr,y 8000
4 – 95
 2  EI z  2  210000  8560  10 4
N cr,z  2
 2
 10 3  5657 ,4 kN
Lcr,z 5600
E is the modulus of elasticity = 210000 N/mm2
Lcr is the buckling length in the buckling plane considered:
Lcr,y = 8,00 m
Lcr,z = 5,60 m
5.7. Non-dimensional slenderness EN 1993-1-1

§ 6.3.1.2 (1)
The non-dimensional slenderness is given by :
Af y 149  10 2  235
y    0,655
N cr,y 8151,2  10 3
Af y 149  10 2  235
z    0,787
N cr,z 5657,4  10 3
N Ed EN 1993-1-1 §
For slenderness  ≤ 0,2 or for ≤ 0,04 the buckling effects may be 6.3.1.2 (4)
N cr
ignored and only cross-sectional verifications apply.
5.8. Reduction factor

For axial compression in members, the value of χ depending on the non-
dimensional slenderness  should be determined from the relevant buckling
curve according to:
1 EN 1993-1-1 §
 but   1,0 6.3.1.2 (1)
2
  2 - 
where :

2

  0,5 1    - 0,2     
 is the imperfection factor.

For h/b = 300/300 = 1,00 < 1,2 and tf = 19,0 < 100 mm
Buckling about the y-y axis:
Buckling curve b, imperfection factor  = 0,34
 y  0,5 1  0,34 0,655 - 0,2  0,6552   0,792

1
y   0,808
0,792  0,792 2 - 0,655 2
4 – 96
Buckling about the z-z axis:

Buckling curve c, imperfection factor  = 0,49
 z  0,5 1  0,49 0,787 - 0,2  0,787 2   0,953

1
z   0,671
0,953  0,953 2 - 0,787 2
= min (y; z ) = min (0,808; 0,671) = 0,671 < 1,0

(when  > 1 then  = 1)
5.9. Design buckling resistance of a compression EN 1993-1-1 §

member 6.3.1.1 (3)
A  fy 149  10 2  235
N b,Rd   0,671  10 3  2349,5 kN EN 1993-1-1 §
 M1 1,0 6.3.1.1 (1)
The following expression must be verified:
N Ed 2000
  0,85  1,0 OK
N b,Rd 2349,5
4 – 97
A.6 Worked Example – Bolted connection of
1 of 6
an angle brace in tension to a gusset
Made by ENM Date 04/2009
Calculation sheet
Checked by JAC Date 04/2009
6. Bolted connection of an angle brace in

tension to a gusset
These types of connections are typical for cross bracings used both in façades
and in roofs to withstand the actions of the horizontal wind load in the SS048[4]
longitudinal axis of the single storey building. This is illustrated in SS048[4].
In order to avoid eccentricities of the loads transferred to the foundation, the

angle is aligned to meet the vertical axis of the column at the base plate. The
gusset plate is placed as close as possible to the major axis plane of the
column.
Table A.1 summarises the possible modes of failure in this connection. These
verifications are shown in the following sections.
Table A.1 Modes of failure of the bracing connection
Mode of failure Component Resistance
Bolts in shear N Rd,1

Bolts in bearing (on the angle leg) N Rd,2
Angle in tension N Rd,3
Weld design a
6.1. Details of the bracing connection

Figure A.14 shows the long leg of the 120 × 80 angle that is attached to the
gusset plate.
Figure A.14 Detail of the bolted connection: plan and elevation
4 - 98
A.6 Worked Example – Bolted connection of an angle brace in
Title 2 of 6
tension to a gusset plate
Common practice is to minimize the eccentricity between the bracing member

and the column axis. The gusset plate is welded to the column web and to the
base plate using double fillet welds (see Figure A.14). Although there is some
eccentricity in order to avoid the anchor bolt on the axis of the column, this is
better than the bracing being on the plane of the column flange.
6.1.1. Main joint data

Configuration Angle to gusset plate welded to a column web
Column HEB 300, S275
Bracing 120 × 80 × 12 angle, S275
Type of connection Bracing connection using angle to gusset plate and
non-preloaded bolts
Category A: Bearing type
Gusset plate 250  300  15, S275
Bolts M20, class 8.8
Welds Gusset plate to column web: fillet weld,
a = 4 mm (see 6.2.4).
Gusset plate to base plate: fillet weld,
a = 4 mm (see 6.2.4).
6.1.2. Column HEB 300, S275

Depth hc = 300 mm
Width bc = 300 mm
Thickness of the web tw,c = 11 mm
Thickness of the flange tf,c = 19 mm
Fillet radius r = 27 mm
Area Ac = 149,1 cm2
Second moment of area Iy = 25170 cm4
Depth between fillets dc = 208 mm
Yield strength fy,c = 275 N/mm2
Ultimate tensile strength fu,c = 430 N/mm2
4 – 99
Title 3 of 6
6.1.3. Angle 120 × 80 × 12, S

Depth hac = 120 mm
Width bac = 80 mm
Thickness of the angle tac = 12 mm
Fillet radius r1 = 11 mm
Fillet radius r2 = 5,5 mm
Area Aac = 22,7 cm2
Second moment of area Iy = 322,8 cm4
Yield strength fy,ac = 275 N/mm2
Ultimate tensile strength fu,ac = 430 N/mm2
6.1.4. Gusset plate 250  300  15, S275

Depth hp = 300 mm
Width bp = 250 mm
Thickness tp = 15 mm
Yield strength fy,p = 275 N/mm2
Ultimate tensile strength fu,p = 430 N/mm2
Direction of load transfer (1)

Number of bolt rows n1 =3
Angle edge to first bolt row el = 50 mm
Pitch between bolt rows pl = 80 mm
Direction perpendicular to load transfer (2)

Number of lines of bolts n2 =1
Angle attached leg edge to bolt line e2 = 80 mm
6.1.5. Bolts M20, 8.

Total number of bolts ( n  n1  n2 ) n=3
Tensile stress area As = 245 mm2
Diameter of the shank d = 20 mm
Diameter of the holes d0 = 22 mm
Diameter of the washer dw = 37 mm
Yield strength fyb = 640 N/mm2
Ultimate tensile strength fub = 800 N/mm2
4 – 100
Title 4 of 6
6.1.6. Partial safety factors

M0 = 1,0
M2 = 1,25 (for shear resistance of bolts)
6.1.7. Design axial tensile force applied by the angle brace to the
gusset plate
NEd = 250 kN
6.2. Resistance of the bracing connection
6.2.1. Bolts in shear EN 1993-1-8
N Rd,1  nFv, Rd Table 3.4.
f ub A 800  245
Fv,Rd   v  0,6   10 3  94,08 kN
 M,2 1,25
N Rd,1  3  94,08  282 kN
6.2.2. Bolts in bearing (on the angle leg) EN 1993-1-8

N Rd,2  nFb, Rd Table 3.4.
k1 b f u, ac d t ac
Fb, Rd 
 M2
All bolts:
 e 
k1  min 2,8  2  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 
e2 80
2,8   1,7  2,8   1,7  8,48
d0 22
 k1  min 8,48; 2,5  2,5
End bolt:
 e1 f ub 
 b  min ; ; 1,0 
 3d 0 f u,ac 
e1 50
  0,76
3d 0 3  22
f ub 800
  1,86
f u, ac 430
  b  min0,76; 1,86; 1,0  0,76

2,5  0,76  430  20  12
Fb, Rd, end bolt   103  156,9 kN
1,25
4 – 101
Title 5 of 6
Inner bolts:
 p1 1 f ub 
 b  min  ; ; 1,0 
 3d 0 4 f u,ac 
p1 1 80 1
    0,96
3d 0 4 3  22 4
f ub 800
  1,86
f u, ac 430
  b  min0,96; 1,86; 1,0  0,96

2,5  0,96  430  20  12
 Fb, Rd,interior bolt   103  198,1 kN
1,25
The bearing strength of the end bolt and of the inner bolt is greater than the EN 1993-1-8
bolt shear strength. The minimum value of the bearing strengths of all bolts in § 3.7(1)
the connection is adopted for all bolts.
 N Rd,2  3  156,9  471 kN
Note: The angle leg thickness, 12 mm, being less than that of the gusset
plate, 15 mm, and assuming an end distance of 50 mm or greater for
the gusset plate, only the attached angle leg requires a design
verification for bearing.
6.2.3. Angle in tension EN 1993-1-8

§ 3.10.3
 3 Anet f u
N Rd,3 
 M2
2,5d 0  2,5  22  55 mm
5d 0  5  22  110 mm
2,5d 0  p1  5d 0
 3 can be determined by linear interpolation:
  3  0,59
Anet  A  t ac d 0  2270  12  22  2006 mm 2

0,59  2006  430
 N Rd,3   10 3  407 kN
1,25
6.2.4. Weld design

The weld is designed as follows:
The gusset plate is welded to the column web and to the base plate using
double fillet welds.
4 – 102
Title 6 of 6
The procedure to determine the throat thickness of the double fillet welds is
the same for the gusset plate/column web connection and for the gusset
plate/base plate connection.
The following calculations show the design of the weld between the gusset
plate and the base plate.
It is possible to provide full strength double fillet welds following simplified SN017[4]
recommendations, see SN017[4]. However, that approach is too conservative
for this example.
The recommended procedure is to choose a weld throat and to verify whether
it provides sufficient resistance:
In this case, try a  4 mm .
Design resistance for the double weld, according to the simplified method: EN 1993-1-8
§ 4.5.3.3
N Rd, w,hor  2 Fw, Rdl
Fw, Rd  f vw, d a
fu 3 430 3
f vw, d    233,66 N/mm 2
 w  M2 0,85  1,25
 Fw, Rd  233,66  4  934,6 N/mm
 N Rd, w, hor  2  934,6  250  10 3  467 kN

It supports the horizontal component of the force acting in the bracing:
N Ed, hor  N Ed sin 40  250  sin 40  161 kN
Therefore the horizontal weld is OK.
The same approach can be used to design the vertical weld (the gusset plate is
welded to the column web).
6.3. Summary
The following table summarizes the resistance values for the critical modes of
failure. The governing value for the joint (i.e. the minimum value) is shown in
bold type.
Table A.2 Summary of the resistance values in the bolted bracing
connection
Mode of failure Component resistance
Bolts in shear NRd,1 282 kN
Bolts in bearing on the angle leg NRd,2 471 kN
Angle in tension NRd,3 407 kN
Some modes of failure have not been verified in this example, such as the
gusset plate in bearing and in tension. These verifications are not necessary
because the thickness of the gusset plate is greater than that of the angle, and
therefore the angle cleat would fail before the plate.
4 – 103

Part 5: Joint Design
.
5 - ii
FOREWORD
This publication is part five of a design guide, Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.

Part 3: Actions
Single Storey Steel Buildings.
5 - iii
5 - iv
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD III
SUMMARY VII
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 About this design guide 1
1.2 Joint behaviour 1
1.3 Standardised joints 2
1.4 Tying resistance 3
1.5 Design guidance in this publication 3
1.6 Symbols 4
2 PARTIAL DEPTH END PLATE 5
2.1 Recommended details 5
2.2 Checks for vertical shear 6
2.3 Checks for tying 12
2.4 Worked Example – Partial depth end plate 14
3 FIN PLATE 21
3.4 Worked Example: Fin Plate 38
4 DOUBLE ANGLE WEB CLEATS 51
4.4 Worked Example: Angle Web Cleats 68
5 COLUMN SPLICES (BEARING TYPE) 83
5.2 Checks for tension 86
5.3 Check for horizontal shear 91
5.4 Checks for vertical tying 91
5.5 Worked Example – Column Splice 93
6 COLUMN BASES 101
6.1 Base plate size 101
6.2 Calculation of c 102
6.3 Base plate thickness 103
6.4 Base plate welds 104
6.5 Worked Example – Column base 105
APPENDIX A LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING STRENGTH 108
REFERENCES 109
5-v
5 - vi
SUMMARY
This design guide gives the design procedure for simple joints in multi-storey buildings
according to the Eurocodes.
The guide covers different types of joints:

 Beam-to-beam and beam-to-column joints
 Partial depth flexible end plate
 Fin plate
 Double angle web cleats
 Column splices
 Column bases
Each design procedure is illustrated by a worked example, using the recommended

values given in the Eurocodes.
5 - vii
5 - viii
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 About this design guide

This technical guide is for designing simple joints (nominally pinned) for use
in braced multi-storey buildings, designed according to the Eurocodes.
Design procedures are provided for:

 Beam-to-beam and beam-to-column joints
 Partial depth flexible end plates (also known as header plates)
 Fin plates
 Double angle web cleats
 Column splices
 Column bases
The design procedures start with recommended detailing rules (joint geometry)
required to ensure ductile behaviour, followed by the checks for each stage of
the load transition through the complete joint including welds, plates, bolts and
the section webs or flanges as appropriate.
Whilst the Eurocodes establish a common framework for structural

calculations across Europe, structural safety remains each country’s
responsibility. For this reason there are some parameters, called National
Determined Parameters (NDP), which each country can decide upon. These are
given in the National Annex (NA) documents, which complement the core
Eurocodes. However the Eurocode gives some recommendations as to what
value each NDP should take. In designing the structure the NDP should be
taken from the NA from the country where the structure is to be built.
In this publication the recommended values given in the Eurocode have been
adopted in the worked examples.
This publication is complemented by a spreadsheet design tool which allows

for NDP for a range of countries. The spreadsheet covers all the joint types
included in this publication and can be used in various languages.
1.2 Joint behaviour

Normal practice in simple construction is for beams to be designed as simply
supported and for columns to be designed for both the axial compression and,
where appropriate, a nominal moment from the beam end connections. In order
to ensure that the structure behaves appropriately it is necessary to provide
‘simple’ connections (‘nominally pinned’ joints) as defined in EN 1993-1-8,
§ 5.1.1[1], in which the joint may be assumed not to transfer bending moments.
In other words, the joints possess sufficient rotation capacity and sufficient
ductility.
5–1
Nominally pinned joints have the following characteristics:

1. they are assumed to transfer only the design shear reaction between
members
2. they are capable of accepting the resulting rotation
3. they provide the directional restraint to members which has been assumed
in the member design
4. they have sufficient robustness to satisfy the structural integrity
requirements.
EN 1993-1-8[1] provides two methods to classify joints: stiffness and strength.

 Classification by stiffness: the initial rotational stiffness of the joint,
calculated in accordance with Section 6.3.1 of EN 1993-1-8 is compared
with the classification boundaries given in Section 5.2 of the same
document.
 Classification by strength: the following two requirements must be satisfied
in order to classify a joint as pinned:
 the moment resistance of the joint does not exceed 25% of the moment
resistance required for a full-strength joint
 the joint is capable of accepting the rotation resulting from the design
loads.
Alternatively, joints may also be classified based on experimental evidence,

experience of previous satisfactory performance in similar cases or by
calculations based on test evidence.
Generally, the requirements for nominally pinned behaviour are met by the use
of relatively thin plates, combined with full strength welds. Experience and
testing have demonstrated that the use of 8 mm or 10 mm end plates, fin plates
and angles in S275, with M20 8.8 bolts leads to connections which behave as
nominal pins. If details are chosen outside these recommended parameters, the
connection should be classified in accordance with EN 1993-1-8.
1.3 Standardised joints

In a typical braced multi-storey frame, the joints may account for less than 5%
of the frame weight, but 30% or more of the total cost. Efficient joints will
therefore have the lowest detailing, fabrication and erection labour content –
they will not necessarily be the lightest.
Use of standardised joints where the fittings, bolts, welds and geometry are
fully defined offers the following benefits:
 Reduces buying, storage, and handling time
 Improves availability and leads to a reduction in material costs
 Saves fabrication time and leads to faster erection
 Leads to a better understanding of their performance by all sides of the
industry
5–2
 Leads to fewer errors.
To take advantage of these benefits, standardised joints are recommended in

this publication. A summary of the typical components adopted in this guide is
as follows:
 Material of grade S275 for components such as end plates and cleats
 M20 8.8 fully threaded bolts, 60 mm long
 22 mm holes, punched or drilled
 Fillet welds of 6 mm or 8 mm leg length
 Distance from the top of the beam to the first bolt row of 90 mm
 Vertical bolt spacing (pitch) of 70 mm
 Horizontal bolt spacing (gauge) of 90 or 140 mm
 Top of partial depth end plate, cleat or fin plate is 50 mm below the top of
the beam flange.
1.4 Tying resistance

The requirement for sufficient tying resistance is to safeguard the structure
against disproportionate collapse. Guidance on the design tying force that a
connection must carry is given in EN 1991-1-7 Annex A[2].
EN 1993-1-8 does not give any guidance on how to calculate the tying
resistance of joints. Other authoritative sources[3] recommend that the ultimate
tensile strength (fu) should be used for calculating the tying resistance and the
partial factor for tying Mu should be taken as 1,10. This value applies to the
design resistance of all components of the joint: welds, bolts, plate and beam.
1.5 Design guidance in this publication

In this publication, design checks are presented followed in each case by a
numerical worked example. The guidance covers:
 partial depth flexible end plates
 fin plates
 double angle web cleats
 column splices
 column bases.
In all worked examples, the section headings correspond to the headings in the
design procedure preceeding each workded example.
5–3
1.6 Symbols
a is the throat of the fillet weld
b is the breadth of the supported beam
d is the diameter of the bolt
d0 is the diameter of the hole
fy,b is the yield strength of the supported beam
fu,b is the ultimate tensile strength of the supported beam
fy,p is the yield strength of the plate (end plate, fin plate, flange cover plate,
base plate)
fu,p is the ultimate tensile strength of the plate (end plate, fin plate, flange
cover plate, base plate)
fy,ac is the yield strength of the angle cleats
fu,ac is the ultimate tensile strength of the angle cleats
fub is the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt
hb is the height of the supported beam
hp is the height of the plate (end plate, fin plate, flange cover plate)
hac is the height of the angle cleats
nb is the total number of bolts on supported beam side
ns is the total number of bolts on supporting beam side
n1 is the number of horizontal bolt rows
n2 is the number of vertical bolt rows
tf is the flange thickness of the supported beam
tw is the thickness of the supported beam web
tp is the thickness of the plate (End plate, Fin plate, Flange cover plate,
Base plate)
tac is the thickness of the angle cleats
s is the leg length of the fillet weld
M0 is the partial factor for the resistance of cross section (M0 = 1,0 is
recommended in EN 1993-1-1)
M1 is the partial factor for the resistance of members to instability assessed
by member checks (M1 = 1,0 is recommended in EN 1993-1-1)
5–4
2 PARTIAL DEPTH END PLATE
2.1 Recommended details

1
4
hp 5
hb
2 3 p3
6
8
7
9 10 11
12
1 Length of end plate hp  0,6hb 6 Gauge; p3, 90 mm  p3  140 mm

(see Note 1) 7 10 mm clearance
2 Face of beam or column 8 50 mm but  (tf,s + rs) and  (tf + r)
3 Plate thickness, tp 9 Supported beam (single notched)
tp = 10 mm or 12 mm (see note 2)
10 (hb,s – 50 mm) but  (hb – tf – r)
4 Bolt diameter, d
11 Supported beam (double notched)
5 Hole diameter, d0
12 Supporting beam
d0 = d + 2 mm for d  24 mm
d0 = d + 3 mm for d > 24 mm

hb,s is the height of the supporting beam (if applicable)
tf is the thickness of the flange of the supported beam
tf,s is the thickness of the flange of the supporting beam (if applicable)
r is the root radius of the supported beam
rs is the root radius of the supporting beam (if applicable)
Notes:
1. The end plate is generally positioned close to the top flange of the beam to
provide adequate positional restraint. A plate length of at least 0,6hb is
usually adopted to give nominal torsional restraint.
2. Although it may be possible to satisfy the design requirements with
tp < 8 mm, it is not recommended in practice because of the likelihood of
distortion during fabrication and damage during transportation.
5–5
2.2 Checks for vertical shear

2.2.1 Shear resistance of the beam web
1
hp hp hp
VEd VEd VEd

1 Critical length of web for shear
Shear resistance of the beam web at the end plate

Basic requirement: V Ed  V c,Rd
Vc,Rd is the design shear resistance of the supported beam connected to the
end plate.
A v f y,b / 3
Vc,Rd = Vpl,Rd = [EN 1993-1-1, §6.2.6(1)]
 M0
where:
Av is the shear area, Av = hptw [Reference 8]
2.2.2 Bending resistance at the notch
tp l n tp l n
d nt d nt
hb
dnb
1 1
VEd VEd
1 Critical section
VEd  (tp + ln)  Mv,N,Rd or Mv,DN,Rd

Mv,N,Rd isthe moment resistance of a single notched supported beam at the
notch in the presence of shear.
Mv,DN,Rd is the moment resistance of a double notched supported beam at the
notch in the presence of shear.
5–6
2.2.2.1 For a single notched beam:

For low shear (i.e. VEd ≤ 0,5Vpl,N,Rd)
f y,b W el, N, y
Mv,N,Rd = [Reference 4]
 M0
For high shear (i.e. VEd > 0,5Vpl,N,Rd)
f y,b W el, N, y   2VEd  

2
Mv,N,Rd = 1    1  [Reference 4]
 M0   Vpl, N,Rd  
 
2.2.2.2 For double notched beam:
For low shear (i.e. VEd ≤ 0,5Vpl,DN,Rd)
f y,b t w
Mv,DN,Rd = ( h b  d nt  d nb ) 2 [Reference 4]
6  M0
For high shear (i.e. VEd > 0,5Vpl,DN,Rd)
f y,bt w   2V  
2
Mv,DN,Rd = hb  d nt  d nb 
2
1   Ed
 1  [Reference 4]
6 M0   Vpl, DN, Rd  
 

Vpl,N,Rd is the shear resistance at the notch for single notched beams
A v, N f y,b
Vpl,N,Rd =
3  M0
tf
Av,N = ATee – btf + (tw + 2r)
2
ATee is the area of the Tee section
Vpl,DN,Rd is the shear resistance at the notch for double notched beams
A v,DN f y,b
Vpl,DN,Rd =
3  M0
Av,DN = tw (hb – dnt – dnb)
where:
Wel,N,y is the elastic modulus of the section at the notch
dnt is the depth of the top notch
dnb is the depth of the bottom notch
5–7
2.2.3 Local stability of notched beam

ln ln
d nt dnt
hb hb
dnb
ln
When the beam is restrained against lateral torsional buckling, no account

needs be taken of notch stability provided the following conditions are met:
For one flange notched, basic requirement:[5][6]

dnt  hb / 2 and:
ln  hb for hb / tw  54,3 (S275 steel)
160000 h b
ln  for hb / tw > 54,3 (S275 steel)
 h b / t w 3
110000 h b
 h b / t w 3
For both flanges notched, basic requirement:[7]
max (dnt, dnb)  hb / 5 and:
160000 h b
 hb tw 3
110000 h b
 hb tw 3
Where the notch length ln exceeds these limits, either suitable stiffening should
be provided or the notch should be checked to References 5, 6 and 7.
For S235 and S460 members see References 5, 6 and 7.
5–8
2.2.4 Bolt group resistance

1 1
e1 e1
1 Check these bolts in shear under concentric load

2 Supporting beam
3 Supporting column
Basic requirement: VEd  FRd

FRd is the resistance of the bolt group [EN 1993-1-8 ,§3.7(1)]
If (Fb,Rd)max  Fv,Rd then FRd = Fb,Rd
If (Fb,Rd)min  Fv,Rd  (Fb,Rd)max then FRd = ns(Fb,Rd)min
If Fv,Rd < (Fb,Rd)min then FRd = 0,8nsFv,Rd
2.2.4.1 Shear resistance of bolts

Fv,Rd is the shear resistance of one bolt
 v f ub A
Fv,Rd = [EN 1993-1-8, Table 3.4]
 M2
where:
v = 0,6 for 4.6 and 8.8 bolts
= 0,5 for 10.9 bolts
A is the tensile stress area of the bolt, As
M2 is the partial factor for resistance of bolts
2.2.4.2 Bearing resistance
k 1 b f u,p dt p
Fb,Rd = [EN 1993-1-8 Table 3.4]
 M2
where:
M2 is the partial factor for plate in bearing
 For end bolts (parallel to the direction of load transfer)
 e f 
b = min  1 ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 0 f u,p 
5–9
 For inner bolts (parallel to the direction of load transfer)

 p 1 f 
b = min  1  ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 0 4 f u,p 
 For edge bolts (perpendicular to the direction of load transfer)

 e 
k1 = min  2,8 2  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 
 For inner bolts (perpendicular to the direction of load transfer)

 p 
k1 = min 1,4 2  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 
2.2.5 Shear resistance of the end plate

1 2
e1
n1
e1 e1
e2 e2
VEd VEd VEd VEd

2 2 2 2
1 Critical section in shear and bearing
2 Block shear – check failure by tearing out of shaded portion
Basic requirement: VEd  VRd,min
VRd,min = min(VRd,g; VRd,n; VRd,b)
where:
VRd,g is the shear resistance of the gross section
VRd,n is the shear resistance of the net section
VRd,b is the block tearing resistance
2.2.5.1 Shear resistance of gross section

hp t p f y,p
VRd,g = 2  [Reference 8]
1, 27 3 M0
Note: The coefficient 1,27 takes into account the reduction in shear resistance
due to the presence of the nominal in-plane bending which produces tension in
the bolts[9].
5 – 10
2.2.5.2 Shear resistance of net section

f u,p
VRd,n = 2  A v,net [Reference 8]
3 M2
Av,net = t p  h p  n1 d 0 
M2 is the partial factor for the resistance of net sections
2.2.5.3 Block tearing resistance
 f u,p Ant f y,p Anv 
VRd,b = 2   [Reference 8]
  M2 3 M0 
 
But if hp < 1.36p3 and n1 > 1 then:
 0 , 5 f u,p Ant f y,p Anv 

VRd,b = 2  
  M2 3 M0 
 
Ant = t p e2  0,5 d 0 
Anv = t p  h p  e1  ( n 1  0 , 5 ) d 0 
where:
p3 is the gauge (cross centres)
2.2.6 Weld resistance

Full strength symmetrical fillet welds are recommended.
For a full strength weld, the size of each throat should comply with the
following requirement[8]:
a ≥ 0,46 tw for S235 supported beam
where:
a is the effective weld throat thickness
The leg length is defined as follows: s  a 2
5 – 11
2.3 Checks for tying

EN 1993-1-8 does not have a partial factor for structural integrity checks. In
this publication Mu has been used. A value of Mu = 1,1 is recommended.
2.3.1 Resistance of the end plate in bending
e1
p1 FEd
n1 p1
p1 m
e1
p3
There are three modes of failure for end plates in bending:

Mode 1: complete yielding of the flange
Mode 2: bolt failure with yielding of the flange
Mode 3: bolt failure
Basic requirement: FEd ≤ min(FRd,u,1; FRd,u,2; FRd,u,3)
Mode 1 (complete yielding of the end plate)

 8 n  2 e w  M pl,1,Rd,u
FRd,u,1 = [EN 1993-1-8, Table 6.2]
2 mn  e w  m  n 
Mode 2 (bolt failure with yielding of the end plate)
2 M pl,2,Rd,u  nΣF t,Rd,u
FRd,u,2 = [EN 1993-1-8, Table 6.2]
mn
Mode 3 (bolt failure)
FRd,u,3 = ΣF t,Rd,u [EN 1993-1-8, Table 6.2]
k 2 f ub A
Ft,Rd,u =
γ Mu
where:
2
0,25Σleff t p f u, p
Mpl,1,Rd,u =
γMu
Mpl,2,Rd,u = Mpl,1,Rd,u
p3  t w  2  0,8  a 2
m =
2
n = emin but n ≤ 1,25m where emin = e2
5 – 12
dw
ew =
4
dw is the diameter of the washer
k2 = 0,63 for countersunk bolts
= 0,9 otherwise
A is the tensile stress area of the bolts, As
Σleff is the effective length of one plastic hinge
Σleff = 2 e1 A  ( n 1  1 ) p 1 A
e1A 
= e1 but ≤ 0,5 p3  t w  2a 2  d0
2
p1A = p1 but ≤ p 3  t w  2 a 2  d 0
2.3.2 Beam web resistance
hp F Ed
Basic requirement: FEd  FRd
t w h p f u,b
FRd = [Reference 8]
 Mu
The weld size specified for shear will be adequate for tying resistance, as it is
full strength.
5 – 13
2.4 Worked Example – Partial depth end plate 1 of 7

Calculation sheet
2. Partial depth end plate

Details and data
40
70
70
IPE A 550
70 S275
275 kN
70
70
40
550 kN
140
Beam: IPE A 550 S275

Partial depth flexible end plate: 430  200  12, S275
Bolts: M20 8.8
Welds: 8 mm fillet (weld throat, a = 5,6 mm)
5 – 14
Title 2.4 Worked Example – Partial depth end plate 2 of 7
Summary of full design checks
Design forces
VEd = 550 kN
FEd = 275 kN (Tie force)
Shear resistances
Shear resistance of the beam web 614 kN
Bending resistance at the notch N/A
Local stability of notched beam N/A
Bolt group resistance 902 kN
Resistance of the end plate 1182 kN
Weld resistance OK
Tying resistances
Resistance of the end plate in bending 493 kN
Tension resistance of the beam web 1513 kN
Weld resistance OK
2.1. Recommended details

End plate: 20012 mm
Height of plate: hp = 430 mm > 0,6hb, OK
Bolts: M20, 8.8 at 140 mm gauge
2.2. Checks for vertical shear

2.2.1. Shear resistance of the beam web
Unless noted
otherwise, all
references are to
hp = 430 EN 1993-1-8
550 kN
Basic requirement: V Ed  V c,Rd
A v f y,b / 3 EN 1993-1-1
The shear resistance of the beam web, Vc,Rd =
 M0 § 6.2.6(1)
5 – 15
Shear area of beam web,

Av = 430  9 = 3870 mm2
Shear resistance of beam web,
3870  275 / 3
Vpl,Rd =  10 3 = 614 kN
1, 0
VEd = 550 kN  614 kN, OK
2.2.2. Bending resistance at the notch

Not applicable (No notch)
2.2.3. Local stability of notched beam

Not applicable (No notch)
2.2.4. Bolt group resistance

e 2 = 30
IPE A 550
e1 = 40
p1 = 70
550 kN
Basic requirement: V Ed  F Rd
The design resistance of the bolt group, FRd : § 3.7
if Fb, Rd max  Fv, Rd then FRd  ΣFb,Rd
if ( Fb, Rd ) min  Fv, Rd  ( Fb, Rd ) max then FRd  n s ( Fb,Rd ) min
if Fv,Rd  Fb, Rd min then FRd  0 , 8 n s F v,Rd
2.2.4.1. Shear resistance of bolts

 v f ub A Table 3.4
The shear resistance of a single bolt, Fv,Rd =
 M2
0 , 6  800  245
For M20 8.8 bolts, Fv,Rd =  10 3 = 94 kN
1, 25
5 – 16
2.2.4.2. Bearing resistance

k 1 b f u,p dtp Table 3.4
Bearing resistance, Fb,Rd 
 M2
 e 
For edge bolts, k1 = min 2,8 2  1,7; 2, 5
 d0 
 
 1,7; 2,5   min 2,12; 2,5  2,12
30
 min 2,8 
 22 
 e f   40 800 
For end bolts, αb = min 1 ; ub ; 1,0  = min ; ; 1.0 
 3d   3  22 430 
 0 f u,p 
= min(0,61; 1,86; 1,0) = 0,61
 p 1 f   70 1 800 
For inner bolts, αb = min 1  ; ub ; 1,0  = min  ; ; 1,0 
 3d   3  22 4 430 
 0 4 f u,p 
= min(0,81; 1,86; 1,0) = 0,81
2 ,12  0 , 61  430  20  12
End bolts, Fb,Rd,end   Fb,Rd  min   10 3  107 kN
1, 25
2,12  0,81 430  20  12
Inner bolts, Fb,Rd,inner  Fb,Rd max   10 3  142 kN
1,25
94 kN < 107 kN thus Fv,Rd < (Fb,Rd)min
FRd  0,8ns ( Fv,Rd ) min  0,8  12  94  902 kN
V Ed = 550 kN ≤ 902 kN, OK
2.2.5. Shear resistance of the end plate

Basic requirement: V Ed  V Rd, min
VRd,min = (VRd,g; VRd,n; VRd,b)
e2 = 30
e1 = 40
( n 1 - 1) p 1
hp
= 350
e1 = 40
VEd VEd
2 2
VEd = 550 kN
5 – 17
2.2.5.1. Shear resistance of gross section

2hptp f y,p 2  430 12  275 Ref (8)
VRd,g = = 10  3 = 1290 kN
1,27 3 M0 1,27  3 1,0
2.2.5.2. Shear resistance of net section

f u, p Ref (8)
VRd,n = 2  Av, net
3 M2
Net area, Av,net = 12430  6  22  = 3576 mm2
430
VRd,n = 2  3576  10  3 = 1420 kN
3 1,25
2.2.5.3. Block tearing resistance

hp = 430 and 1, 36 p 3  1, 36  140  190 mm Ref (8)
Since hp > 1,36p3 then

 f u,p A nt f y,p A nv 
VRd,b = 2  
  M2 3 M0 
 
Net area subject to tension, Ant  t p  e 2  0 , 5 d 0 
 12  30  0 , 5  22   228 mm2
Net area subject to shear, Anv  t p  h p  e1  ( n1  0 , 5 ) d 0 
 12  430  40  ( 6  0 , 5 ) 22   3228 mm2
 430  228 275  3228 

VRd,b = 2      10 3 = 1182 kN
 1, 25 3  1, 0 
VRd,min = min(1290; 1420; 1182) = 1182 kN
VEd = 550 kN ≤ 1182 kN, OK
2.2.6. Weld resistance

For a beam in S275 steel
Basic requirement: a ≥ 0,48 tw Ref (8)
0,48tp = 0 , 48  9 = 4,32 mm
a = 5,7 mm ≥ 0,48 tw OK
5 – 18
2.3. Checks for tying

2.3.1. Resistance of the end plate in bending
Basic requirement: FEd  min FRd,u,1 , FRd,u,2 , FRd,u,3 
e 2 = 30
275 kN
n1
p3 = 140
Mode 1:
8n  2ew M pl,1,Rd, u Table 6.2
FRd,u,1 =
2mn  ew m  n 
Σleff = 2 e1 A  ( n 1  1 ) p 1 A
d0
e1A = e1 but ≤ 0 , 5 ( p 3  t w  2 a 2 ) 
2
22
0 , 5 (140  9  2  5 , 6 2 )  = 69 mm
2
 e1A = 40
p1A = p1 but ≤ p 3  t w  2 a 2  d 0
p 3  t w  2 a 2  d 0 = 140  9  2  5 , 6 2  22 = 137 mm
 p1A = 70
Σleff = 2 e1 A  ( n1  1) p 1 A = 2  40  ( 6  1) 70 = 430 mm
2
0 , 25 Σl eff,1 t p f u,p 0 , 25  430  12 2  430
Mpl,1,Rd,u = =  10 6 = 6,05 kNm
 Mu 1, 1
p3  t w  2  0,8  a 2 140  9  2  0 , 8  5 , 6  2
m = = = 59 mm
2 2
d w 37
ew    9,25 mm
4 4
n = min e2 ; 1,25m  = min 30; 76 = 30 mm
5 – 19
 8  30  2  9 , 25 6 , 05  10 3
FRd,u,1 = = 493 kN
2  59  30  9 , 25  59  30 
Mode 2:
2 M pl,2,Rd,u  nΣF t,Rd,u Table 6.2
FRd,u,2 =
mn
M pl,2, Rd, u  M pl,1, Rd, u  6,05 kNm
k 2 f ub A 0 , 9  800  245
Ft,Rd,u = =  10 3 = 160 kN
 Mu 1, 1
2  6 , 05  10 3  30  12  160
FRd,u,2 = = 793 kN
59  30
Mode 3:
FRd,u,3 = ΣF t,Rd,u = 12  160 = 1920 kN Table 6.2
min FRd,u,1 , FRd,u,2 , FRd,u,3  = min( 493; 793; 1920) = 493 kN

FEd = 275 kN ≤ 493 kN, OK
2.3.2. Beam web resistance

Basic requirement: F Ed  FRd
275 kN
hp n1
t w h p f u,b 9  430  430 Ref (8)

FRd = =  10 3 = 1513 kN
 Mu 1, 1
FEd = 275 kN ≤ 1513 kN, OK

full strength.
5 – 20
3 FIN PLATE

2 1
1
7
hp
3 hb
5 z
Min. 2,5 d o
6 zp
1
10
16
14
3 hp
15
11
12
13 13
1 End projection gh
3 All end and edge distances  2d
4 Length of fin plate hp  0,6 hb
5 Bolt diameter, d. Only 8.8 bolts to be used, untorqued in clearance holes
6 Hole diameter, d0. d0 = d + 2 mm for d  24 mm; d0 = d + 3 mm for d > 24 mm
7 Supporting column
8 Face of web
tp
9 Long fin plate if z  tp = fin plate thickness
0,15
10 Fin plate thickness tp  0,5d
11 Double line of bolts
12 All end and edge distances  2d
13 Supported beam (Single notched)
14 Supporting beam
15 50 mm but  (tf + r) and  (tf,s + rs)
16 (hb,s – 50 mm) but  (hs – tf,s – rs)
17 Supported beam (Double notched)

hb,s is the height of the supporting beam (if applicable)
tf is the thickness of the flange of the supported beam
tf,s is the thickness of the flange of the supporting beam (if applicable)
r is the root radius of the supported beam
rs is the root radius of the supporting beam (if applicable)
5 – 21

p2
p p1 1
1
n1
p1 p1
p1 p1
z z z
2 2 2
VEd VEd VEd
1 Centre of bolt group

2 Assumed line of shear transfer
Basic requirement: VEd ≤ VRd
n b F v,Rd
VRd = [Reference 3]
(1  n b )  (  n b )
2 2

 v f ub A
Fv,Rd =
 M2
where:
αv = 0,6 for 4.6 and 8.8 bolts
For a single vertical line of bolts (n2 = 1)

6z
α = 0 and β =
n1  n 1  1  p 1
For a double vertical line of bolts (n2 = 2)

zp 2 zp
α = and β = 1  n1  1 
2I 2I
I =
n1
2
1
p 2  n1 n 1  1 p 1
2
6
2 2
 
z is the transverse distance from the face of the supporting element to the
centre of the bolt group
5 – 22
3.2.1.2 Bearing resistance of bolts on the fin plate

nb
VRd = [Reference 3]
2 2
 1  nb   nb 
   
F   
 b, ver,Rd   Fb, hor, Rd 
k1 b f u, p dtp
The bearing resistance of a single bolt is Fb,Rd =
 M2
The vertical bearing resistance of a single bolt on the fin plate is as follows:
k 1 b f u,p dt p
Fb,ver,Rd =
 M2
The horizontal bearing resistance of a single bolt on the fin plate is as follows:
k 1 b f u,p dt p
Fb,hor,Rd =
 M2
α and β are as defined previously
For Fb,ver,Rd:
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 2  1,7; 1,4 2  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 e p 1 f 
αb = min 1 ; 1  ; ub ;1,0 
 3d 3d 4 f u,p 
 0 0 
For Fb,hor,Rd:
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 1  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 e p 1 f 
αb = min 2 ; 2  ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 3d 4 f u,p 
 0 0 
3.2.1.3 Bearing resistance of bolts on the beam web

nb
VRd = [Reference 3]
2 2
 1  n b   n b 
   
F  F 
 b,ver,Rd   b,hor,Rd 
k 1 b f u,b dt w
Fb,ver,Rd =
 M2
k 1 b f u,b dt w
Fb,hor,Rd =
 M2
5 – 23
α and β are as defined previously

M2 is the partial factor for beam web in bearing
For Fb,ver,Rd :
 e p 
k1 = min 2.8 2,b  1,7; 1.4 2  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
e p 1 f 
αb = min 1,b ; 1  ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 0 3d 0 4 f u,b 
For Fb,hor,Rd :
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 1,b  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
e p 1 f 
αb = min 2,b ; 2  ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 0 3d 0 4 f u,b 
3.2.2 Shear resistance of the fin plate

1
e1
e1
hp hp
e1
e1
p2 e2
e2
VEd VEd
1 Critical section in shear and bending
Basic requirement: VEd ≤ VRd,min
3.2.2.1 Shear resistance of gross section

hp t p f y,p
VRd,g = [Reference 8]
1, 27 3 M0
the bolts9.
5 – 24
3.2.2.2 Shear resistance of net section

f u,p
VRd,n = A v,net [Reference 8]
3 M2
Av,net = t p hp  n1d 0 

0 , 5 f u,p Ant f y,p Anv
VRd,b =  [Reference 8]
 M2 3 M0
where:
For a single vertical line of bolts, Ant = t p  e 2  0 , 5 d 0 
 3 
For a double vertical line of bolts, Ant = t p  e 2  p 2  d 0 
 2 
Anv = t p  h p  e1  ( n1  0 , 5 ) d 0 
3.2.3 Bending resistance of the fin plate
hp
VEd z VEd z VEd z

zp
Basic requirement: VEd  VRd

If hp ≥ 2,73  z then VRd =  [Reference 8]
W el,p f y,p
Otherwise VRd =
z  M0
where:
t p hp 2
Wel,p =
6
5 – 25
3.2.4 Buckling resistance of the fin plate

Lateral-torsional buckling of the fin plate8.
Basic requirement: VEd  VRd
tp W f W f 
If z > then VRd = min el,p p,LT ; el,p y,p 
0 ,15  z 0,6 M1 z  M0 
Wel,p f y,p
Otherwise VRd =
z  M0
where:
t p hp 2
Wel,p =
6
fp,LT is the lateral torsional buckling strength of the plate obtained from
BS 5950-1 Table 17[10] (See Appendix A) and based on λLT as follows:
1/ 2
 z p hp 
λLT = 2,8 
 1, 5 t 2 
 p 
z is the lever arm
zp is the horizontal distance from the supporting web or flange to the first
vertical bolt-row

3.2.5.1 Shear and block tearing resistance
1
e 2,b e 2,b e 2,b

gh gh gh
e 1,b e1,b e1,b

2 2
n1
3 3
he he he
VEd VEd VEd
1 Critical section in plain shear

2 Shear failure
3 Tension failure
4 Block shear failure tearing out of shaded portion

5 – 26
Shear resistance of gross section

f y,b
VRd,g = A v,wb [Reference 8]
3 M0
where:
Av,wb = A – 2btf + (tw + 2r)tf but ≥ η hwtw for un-notched beam
Av,wb = ATee – btf + (tw + 2r)tf /2 for single notched beam
Av,wb = tw (e1,b + (n1 –1)p1 + he) for double notched beam
η is a factor from EN 1993-1-5 (it may be conservatively taken as 1,0.
National Annex may give an alternative value)
dnt is the depth of the top notch
dnb is the depth of the bottom notch
Shear resistance of net section

f u,b
VRd,n = A v,wb,net [Reference 8]
3 M2
where:
Av,wb,net = Av,wb – n1d0tw
Block tearing resistance

0 , 5 f u,b Ant f y,b Anv
VRd,b =  [Reference 8]
 M2 3 M0
where:
For a single vertical line of bolts, Ant = t w  e 2,b  0 , 5 d 0 
 3 
For a double vertical line of bolts, Ant = t w  e 2,b  p 2  d 0 
 2 
For a notched beam Anv = t w  e1,b  ( n1  1) p 1  ( n1  0 , 5 ) d 0 
For an un-notched beam Anv = t w e1,b  (n1  1) p1  (n1  1)d 0 
M2 is the partial factor for the resistance of net sections.
5 – 27
3.2.5.2 Shear and bending interaction at the 2nd line of bolts, if the notch
length ln > (e2,b + p2)
1
e2,b e2,b
gh p2 gh p2
ln ln
e 1,b e 1,b
p1 p1
n1 p1 p1
p1 p1
he
he
VEd VEd
Basic requirement: VEd (gh + e2,b + p2)  Mc,Rd
Mc,Rd is the moment resistance of the notched beam at the connection in the
presence of shear.
For single notched beam

f y,b W el,N
Mc,Rd = [Reference 4]
 M0
f y,bWel,N   2VEd  
2
Mc,Rd = 1    1  [Reference 4]
 M0   Vpl,N,Rd  
 
Vpl,N,Rd = min(VRd,g;VRd,b)
Wel,N is the elastic section modulus of the gross Tee section at the notch
For double notched beam

f y,b t w
Mc,Rd =  e1   n 1  1  p 1  h e  2 [Reference 4]
6  M0
  2V  
2
f y,b t w
Mc,Rd = e1  n1  1 p1  he  2
1   Ed
 1  [Reference 4]
6 M0   Vpl,DN,Rd  
 

Vpl,DN,Rd = min(VRd,g;VRd,b)
he is the distance between the bottom bolt row and the bottom of the section
5 – 28
3.2.5.3 Shear and bending interaction for un-notched beam

e2,b e2,b p2
A B A B
(n1 -1) p1 VEdzp VEd (zp+ p 2 )
D C D C
z = zp zp
V Ed V Ed
z
For short fin plates (i.e. z ≤ tp/0,15) the resistance of the web does not need to
be checked [4].
For long fin plates (i.e. z > tp/0,15) it is necessary to ensure that the section
labelled as ABCD in the figure can resist a moment VEdzp for a single line of
bolts or VEd(zp+p2) for a double line of bolts (AB and CD are in shear and BC is
in bending).
Basic requirement:

VEd zp  Mc,BC,Rd + Fpl,AB,Rd (n1 – 1) p1 [Reference 4]
For two vertical lines of bolts (n2 = 2)
VEd (zp + p2/2)  Mc,BC,Rd + Fpl,AB,Rd (n1 – 1)p1 [Reference 4]
Mc,BC,Rd is the moment resistance of the beam web BC
For low shear (i.e. VBC,Ed ≤ 0,5Fpl,BC,Rd)

f y,b t w
Mc,BC,Rd = n1  1 p1 2
6 M0
For high shear (i.e. VBC,Ed > 0,5Fpl,BC,Rd)

  2V  
2
f y,b t w
Mc,BC,Rd = n1  1 p1 2
1   Ed
 1 
4 M0   VRd,min  
 
Fpl,AB,Rd is the shear resistance of the beam web AB

Fpl,BC,Rd is the shear resistance of the beam web BC
where:
For a single vertical line of bolts (n2 = 1):
Fpl,AB,Rd
e t f e  d0 2tw f u, b 
= min 2, b w y,b ; 2, b 
 3  M0 3  M2 
5 – 29
  n1  1  p1 t w f y,b n1  1 p1  n1  1d 0 t w f u, b 

Fpl,BC,Rd = min  ; 

  
 3 M0 3 M2 
For two vertical lines of bolts (n2 = 2):

 e  p2 t w f y,b e2, b  p2  3d 0 2 t w f u, b 
Fpl,AB,Rd = min 2, b ; 

 3  M0 3  M2 
 n1  1 p1t w f y,b n1  1 p1  n1  1d 0 t w f u, b 
Fpl,BC,Rd = min ; 

 3  M0 3  M2 
VBC,Ed is the shear force on the beam web BC
= VEd – (VRd,min – Fpl,BC,Rd) but ≥ 0
VRd,min = min(VRd,g; VRd,n)
z is the transverse distance from face of supporting element to the centre

of bolt group.

1
gh l n gh l n gh ln gh l n
e 1,b e 1,b e 1,b e 1,b
n1
he he
he he
2 xN xN
2
VEd VEd VEd VEd
1 Critical sections
2 To notch or beam flange
3.2.6.1 For single bolt line or for double bolt lines, if xN ≥ 2d:
VEd (gh + ln)  Mv,N,Rd [Reference 4]
Mv,N,Rd is the moment resistance of the beam at the notch in the presence of
shear
For single notched beam:
f y,b W el,N
Mv,N,Rd =
 M0
5 – 30
2
Mv,N,Rd = 1    1 
 M0   Vpl,N,Rd  
 
For double notched beam:

f y,b t w
Mv,DN,Rd = ( e1,b   n1  1  p 1  h e ) 2
6  M0

  2V 
2

e  n1  1 p1  he 
f y,b t w
Mv,DN,Rd =
2
1   Ed 
1 
4 M0   Vpl,DN,Rd  
1,b
 
3.2.6.2 For double bolt lines, if xN < 2d:

max (VEd (gh + ln); VEd (gh + e2,b + p2)) ≤ Mv,N,Rd [Reference 4]
Mv,N,Rd = Mc,Rd from the previous check
where:
Wel,N is the elastic section modulus of the gross tee section at the notch
A v, N f y,b
=
3  M0
tf
2
A v,DN f y,b
=
3  M0
Av,DN = tw (e1,b + (n1 –1) p1 + he)
he is the distance between the bottom bolt row and the bottom of the
section
5 – 31
3.2.7 Local stability of the notched beam

ln ln
d nt
hb hb
d nb
ln
When the beam is restrained against lateral torsional buckling, no account need
be taken of notch stability provided the following conditions are met:
For one flange notched, basic requirement:[5],[6]

dnt  hb / 2 and:
160000 h b
 hb / t w 3
110000 h b
 h b / t w 3
For both flanges notched, basic requirement:[7]
max (dnt, dnb)  hb / 5 and:
160000 h b
ln  for hb / t w > 54,3 (S275 steel)
 hb tw 3
110000 h b
 hb tw 3
5 – 32

Full strength symmetrical fillet welds are recommended.
For a full strength weld, the size of each throat should comply with the
following requirement8:
a ≥ 0,46tp for S235 fin plate
where:
a is the weld throat thickness

3.3.1 Fin plate and bolt group resistance
FEd FEd
e2 p2 e2
e1
p
1
n1 p hp
1
p
1
e1
1 2
1 Single line of bolts

Basic requirement: FEd ≤ FRd
FRd = nbFv,u [Reference 8]

 v f ub A
Fv,u =
 Mu
5 – 33
where:
A is the tensile stress area of bolt, As
3.3.1.2 Bearing resistance of bolts on the fin plate

FRd = nbFb,hor,u,Rd
k 1 b f u,p dt p
Fb,hor,u,Rd = [Reference 8]
 Mu
where:
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 1  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 e p 1 f 
αb = min 2 ; 2  ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 3d 4 f u,p 
 0 0 
3.3.1.3 Tension resistance of the fin plate

FRd = min(FRd,n; FRd,b)
Tension resistance of net section

f u,p
FRd,n = 0 , 9 Anet [Reference 8]
 Mu
Anet = t p  h p  d 0 n1 
5 – 34
Case 1
1 2 3
Case 2
2 3
1 beam without notch
2 notched beam
3 fin plate
f u,p Ant f y,p Anv

FRd,b =  [Reference 8]
 Mu 3 M0
Case 1:
Ant = tp   n1  1  p 1   n1  1  d 0 
For a single vertical line of bolts: Anv = 2 t p  e 2  0 , 5 d 0 
 3 
For a double vertical line of bolts: Anv = 2 t p  e 2  p 2  d 0 
 2 
Case 2:
Ant = t p e1  n1  1 p1  n1  0,5d 0 
For a single vertical line of bolts, Anv = t p e 2  0,5d 0 
 3 
For a double vertical line of bolts, Anv = t p  e 2  p 2  d0 
 2 
5 – 35

e 2,b e2,b p 2
e 1,b e 1,b
p1
n1 p1 F Ed
F Ed
p1
e 2,b e 2,b p 2
e 1,b e 1,b
p1
n1 p1
F Ed F Ed
p1

FRd = nbFb,hor,u,Rd
k 1 b f u,b dt w
Fb,hor,u,Rd =
 Mu
where:
 e p 
k1 =  2,8 1,b  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
e p 1 f 
αb =  2,b ; 2  ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 0 3d 0 4 f u,b 
3.3.2.2 Tension resistance of the beam web

FRd = min(FRd,n; FRd,b)
5 – 36

f u,b
FRd,n = 0 , 9 Anet,wb
 Mu
Anet = t w h wb  d 0 n1 t w
hwb may be taken as the depth of the fin plate (it is conservative)
Case 1
1 2 3
Case 2
2 3
1 beam without notch

2 notched beam
3 fin plate
f u,b Ant f y,b Anv / 3

FRd,b = 
 Mu  M0
Case 1:
Ant = tw   n1  1  p 1   n1  1  d 0 
For a single vertical line of bolts, Anv = 2 t w  e 2 ,b  0 , 5 d 0 
 3 
For a double vertical line of bolts, Anv = 2 t w  e 2 ,b  p 2  d 0 
 2 
Case 2 (for notched beam only):

Ant = t w  e1 , b   n 1  1  p 1   n 1  0 , 5  d 0 
For a single vertical line of bolts, Anv = t w  e 2 ,b  0 , 5 d 0 
 3 
For a double vertical line of bolts, Anv = t w  e 2 ,b  p 2  d 0 
 2 

full strength.
5 – 37
3.4 Worked Example: Fin Plate 1 of 13

Calculation sheet
3. Fin plate
Details and data
40
70
70
350 kN
70
70
40
80 IPE A 550
S275
350 kN

Fin plate: 360  160  10 S275
Bolts: M20 8.8
Welds: 8 mm fillet (weld throat, a = 5,6 mm)
5 – 38
Title 3.4 Worked Example – Fin Plate 2 of 13
Design forces
VEd = 350 kN
Shear resistances
Bolt group resistance
Shear resistance of bolts 584 kN
Bearing resistance of bolts on the fin plate 605 kN
Bearing resistance of bolts on the beam web 624 kN
Shear resistance of the fin plate 450 kN
Bending resistance of the fin plate ∞
Buckling resistance of the fin plate 743 kN
Shear resistance of the beam web
Shear and block tearing resistance 545 kN
nd
Shear and bending interaction at the 2 line of bolts N/A
Shear and bending interaction for un-notched beam 66 kNm
Local stability of the notched beam N/A
Weld resistance OK
Tying resistances
Fin plate and bolt group resistance
Bearing resistance of bolts on the fin plate 1290 kN
Tension resistance of the fin plate 880 kN
Beam web resistance
Weld resistance OK
5 – 39

Fin plate thickness: tp = 10mm  0,5d Unless noted
otherwise, all
Height of fin plate: hp = 360 mm > 0,6hb references are to
EN 1993-1-8
50 60 50
e2
e1 = 40
(n1- 1)p1
= 280
e 1 = 40
p2
VEd

n b F v,Rd Ref (3)
VRd =
(1  n b ) 2  ( n b ) 2
Fv,Rd =
 M2
0.6  800  245
For M20 8.8 bolts, Fv,Rd =  103 = 94 kN
1,25
For a double vertical line of bolts (i.e. n2 = 2 and n1 = 5),
zp 2
α=
2I
I=
n1 2 1
2
 5

1

p2  n1 n1  1 p1 = 60 2  5 52  1 70 2 = 107000 mm2
6
2 2
2 6

80  60
α= = 0,022
2  107000
 n1  1  = 80  70  5  1  = 0,105
zp 1
And β =
2I 2  107000
10  94
Thus VRd = = 584 kN
(1  0 , 022  10 ) 2  ( 0 ,105  10 ) 2
5 – 40
VEd = 350 kN ≤ 584 kN, OK
3.2.1.2. Bearing resistance of bolts on the fin plate

nb Ref [3]
VRd =
2 2
 1  n b   n b 
   
F  F 
α = 0,022 and β = 0,105, as above
k 1 b f u,p dt p Table 3.4
The vertical bearing resistance of a single bolt, Fb,ver,Rd =
 M2
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 2  1,7; 1,4 2  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 50 60 
= min 2,8  1,7; 1,4  1,7; 2,5  = min( 4,67; 2,12; 2,5) = 2,12
 22 22 
 e p 1 f   40 70 1 800 
αb = min 1 ; 1  ; ub ; 1,0  = min ;  ; ; 1,0 
 3d 3d 4 f u,p   3  22 3  22 4 430 
 0 0 
= min( 0,61; 0,81; 1,86; 1,0) = 0,61
2,12  0,61  430  20  10
Fb,ver,Rd =  10 3 = 89 kN
1,25
k1 b f u,p dt p
The horizontal bearing resistance of a single bolt, Fb,hor,Rd = Table 3.4
 M2
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 1  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 40 70 
= min 2,8  1,7; 1,4  1,7; 2,5  = min( 3,39; 2,75; 2,5) = 2,5
 22 22 
 e p f 
αb = min 2 ; 2  0,25; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 3d f u,p 
 0 0 
 50 60 800 
= min ;  0,25; ; 1,0  = min( 0,75; 0,66; 1,0) = 0,66
 3  22 3  22 430 
2,5  0,66  430  20 10
Fb,hor,Rd = 10 3 = 114 kN
1,25
10
VRd = = 605 kN
2 2
 1  0 , 022  10   0 ,105  10 
   
 89   114 
5 – 41
VEd = 350 kN ≤ 605 kN, OK
3.2.1.3. Bearing resistance of bolts on the beam web

nb Ref (3]
VRd =
2 2
 1  n b   n b 
   
F  F 
α = 0,022 and β = 0,105, as above
k 1 b f u,b dt w Table 3.4
The vertical bearing resistance for a single bolt, Fb,ver,Rd =
 M2
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 2  1,7; 1,4 2  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 40 60 
= min 2,8  1,7; 1,4  1,7; 2,5  = min( 3,39; 2,12; 2,5) = 2,12
 22 22 
 p 1 f   70 1 800 
αb = min 1  ; ub ; 1,0  = min  ; ; 1,0 
 3d 0 4 f u,b   3  22 4 430 
= min( 0,81; 1,86; 1,0) = 0,81
2 ,12  0 , 81  430  20  9
Fb,ver,Rd =  10 3 = 106 kN
1, 25
k1 b f u, b dt w Table 3.4
The horizontal bearing resistance for a single bolt, Fb,hor,Rd =
 M2
 p   70 
k1 = min1,4 1  1,7; 2,5  = min1,4  1,7; 2,5 
 d0   22 
= min( 2,75; 2,5) = 2,5
e  
= min 2,b ; 2  ; ub ; 1,0  = min
p 1 f 40 60 1 800
αb ;  ; ; 1,0 
 3d 3d 4 f u,b   3  22 3  22 4 430 
 0 0 
= min( 0,61; 0,81; 1,86; 1,0) = 0,61
2 , 5  0 , 61  430  20  9
Fb,hor,Rd =  10 3 = 94 kN
1, 25
10
VRd = = 624 kN
2 2
 1  0 , 022  10   0 ,105  10 
   
 106   94 
VEd = 350 kN ≤ 624 kN, OK
5 – 42
3.2.2. Shear resistance of the fin plate

50 60 50
e2
e1 = 40
(n1- 1)p1
= 280
e 1 = 40
p2
VEd

3.2.2.1. Shear resistance of gross section

hp t p f y,p 360  10  275 Ref (8)
VRd,g = =  10 3 = 450 kN
1, 27 3 M0 1, 27  3  1, 0
3.2.2.2. Shear resistance of net section

f u,p Ref [8]
VRd,n = A v,net
3 M2
Net area, Av,net = t p  h p  nd 0  =  10  360  5  22  = 2500 mm2
430
VRd = 2500   10 3 = 497 kN
3  1, 25

 0 , 5 f u,p Ant f y,p Anv  Ref [8]
VRd,b =    10 3
  M2 3 M0 
 
Net area subject to tension, Ant = t p  p2  e2  1,5d 0 
= 1060  50  1,5  22   770 mm2
Net area subject to shear, Ant = t p hp  e1  (n1  0,5)d 0 
= 10360  40  (5  0,5)22   2210 mm2
0 , 5  430  770 275  2210
VRd,b =  = 483 kN
1, 25 3  1, 0
VRd,min = min(450; 497; 483) = 450 kN

VEd = 350 kN ≤ 450 kN, OK
5 – 43
3.2.3. Bending resistance of the fin plate

Basic requirement: VEd ≤ VRd Ref [8]
2,73  z = 2,73  80 = 218 mm
hp = 360 mm > 218 mm
Then V Rd  
V Ed  V Rd , OK
3.2.4. Buckling resistance of the fin plate

10 Ref [8]
tp/0,15 = = 67 mm
0 ,15
z = 80 mm > 67 mm
 Wel,p f p,LT Wel,p f y,p  fp,LT from
VRd = min ; 
z  M0 
BS5950-1
 z 0,6 M1 Table 17
(See Appendix A)
2
t p hp 10  360 2
Wel,p =   216000 mm3
6 6
zp = 80 mm
1/ 2
 z p hp   50  360 
1/ 2
λLT = 2,8  = 2 , 8  
 = 31
 1, 5 t 2   1, 5  10
2

 p 
fp,LT is obtained by interpolation from Appendix A.
fp,LT = 274 N/mm2
 216000 274 216000 275 
VRd = min   10 3 ;  10 3 
 80 0 , 6  1, 0 80 1, 0 
= min 1233; 743 = 743 kN
VEd = 350 kN ≤ 743 kN, OK
3.2.5.1. Shear and block tearing resistance
5 – 44
tw = 9
e 1,b = 90
( n 1 - 1) p1
= 280
h e = 177

f y,b Ref [8]
VRd,g = A v,wb
3 M0
Av,wb = A  2 bt f   t w  2 r t f
= 11700  2  210  15 , 7   9  2  24 15 , 7 = 6001 mm2
η hwtw = 1, 0  515 , 6  9 = 4640 mm2
6001  275
VRd,g =  10 3 = 953 kN
3  1, 0
f u,b Ref [8]
VRd,n = A v,wb,net
3 M2
Net area, Av,wb,net = A  n1 d 0 t w = 6001  5  22  9 = 5011 mm2
430
VRd,n = 5011   10 3 = 995 kN
3  1, 25
0 , 5 f u,b Ant f y,b Anv Ref [8]
VRd,b = 
 M2 3 M0
Net area subject to tension, Ant = t p  p 2  e2,b  1,5d 0 
 960  40  1,5  22   603 mm2
Net area subject to shear, Anv = t p e1,b  n1  1 p1  (n1  0,5)d 0 
= 990  5  170  (5  1)22 
= 2538 mm2
 0,5  430  603 275  2538 
VRd,b =     10 3 = 507 kN
 1,25 3  1,0 
VRd,min = min(953; 995; 507) = 507 kN
VEd = 350 kN ≤ 507 kN, OK
5 – 45
3.2.5.2. Shear and bending interaction at the 2nd line of bolts

Not applicable
3.2.5.3. Shear and bending interaction of un-notched beam

Shear and bending interaction at the beam web
tp 10 Ref [4]
= = 67 mm
0 ,15 0 ,15
z = 80 mm > 67 mm
Therefore this check is required.
Basic requirement: VEd (z + p2/2)  McBC,Rd + Fpl,AB,Rd (n1 – 1) p1
 n1  1 p1t w f y,b n1  1 p1  n1  1d 0 t w f u,b 

Fpl,BC,Rd = min ; 

 3  M0 3  M2 
 5  170  9  275
Fpl,BC,Rd = min  10 3 ;
5  170  5  1229  430 10 3 
3  1,0 3 1,25 
 
= min(400;343) = 343 kN
VBC,Ed is the shear force on the beam web BC
VBC,Ed = VEd – (VRd,min – Fpl,BC,Rd) but ≥ 0

VBC,Ed = 350 – (953 – 343) = -260 kN
Therefore VBC,Ed = 0 kN
f y,b t w
As VBC,Ed ≤ 0,5Fpl,BC,Rd then Mc,BC,Rd = n1  1 p1 2
6 M0
275  9
Mc,BC,Rd = 5  1702  10 6 = 32 kNm
6  1,0
 e  p2 t w f y,b e2, b  p2  3d 0 2 t w f u, b 
Fpl,AB,Rd = min 2, b ; 

 3  M0 3  M2 
 40  609  275 40  60  3  22 29  430  103 
= min  10  3 ; 
 3  1,0 3  1,25 
= min(143; 120) = 120 kN
McBC,Rd + Fpl,AB,Rd (n1 – 1) p1 = 32 + 120(5 – 1)7010-3 = 66 kNm
VEd (z + p2/2) = 350(80 + 60/2) 10-3 = 38 kNm
Therefore VEd (z + p2/2)  McBC,Rd + Fpl,AB,Rd (n1 – 1) p1 OK
5 – 46

Not applicable
3.2.7. Local stability of the notched beam

Not applicable

For a fin plate in S275 steel
Basic requirement: a ≥ 0,48tp Ref [8]
0,48tp = 0 , 48  10 = 4,8 mm
a = 5,7 mm ≥ 0,48tp OK

3.3.1. Fin plate and bolt group resistance
p2 = 60 e2 = 50
e 1 = 40
p1= 70
p1= 70
hp FEd = 350 kN
p1= 70
p1= 70
e 1 = 40

FRd = nbFv,u Ref [8]
 v f ub A 0,6  800  245
Fv,u = =  10 3 = 107 kN
 Mu 1,1
FRd = 10  107 = 1070 kN

FEd = 350 kN ≤ 1070 kN OK
3.3.1.2. Bearing resistance of bolts on the fin plate

FRd = nbFb,hor,u,Rd Ref [8]
k 1 b f u,p dt p
Fb,hor,u,Rd =
 Mu
5 – 47
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 1  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 40 
= min 2,8  1,7; 1,4  1,7; 2,5  = min  3 , 39 ; 2 , 75 ; 2 , 5  = 2,5
70
 22 22 
 e 
= min 2 ; 2  ; ub ; 1,0  = min  
p 1 f 50 60 1 800
αb ;  ; ; 1,0 
 3d 3d 4 f   3  22 3  22 4 430 
 0 0 u, p 
= min 0,75; 0,66; 1,86; 1,0  = 0,66
2 , 5  0 , 66  430  20  10
Fb,hor,u,Rd =  10 3 = 129 kN
1,1
FRd = 10  129 = 1290 kN
FEd = 350 kN ≤ 1290 kN, OK
3.3.1.3. Tension resistance of the fin plate

Basic requirement : FEd ≤ FRd
FRd = min  FRd,b ; FRd,n 
f u,p Ref [8]
FRd,n = 0 , 9 A net
 Mu
Anet = t p  h p  d 0 n1  = 10  360  22  5  = 2500 mm2
430
FRd,n = 0 , 9  2500 10 3 = 880 kN
1,1

Case 1 Ref [8]
f u,p Ant f y,p Anv
FRd,b = 
 Mu 3 M0
Ant = tp[(n1 – 1)p1 – (n1 – 1)d0] = 10[(5 – 1)  70 – (5 – 1)22] = 1920 mm2
 3   3 
Anv  2t p  e2  p2  d 0   2  10 50  60   22   1540 mm2
 2   2 
 430 1920 275  1540 
FRd,b =    10 3 = 995 kN
 1,1 3 1, 0 
Case 2
Ant = t p e1  n1  1 p1  n1  0,5 d 0 
Ant = 1040  5  1  70  5  0,5  22  = 2210 mm2
5 – 48
 3   3 
Anv = t p  e 2  p2  d 0  = 10 50  60   22  = 770 mm
2
 2   2 
 430  2210 275  770 
FRd,b =     10 3 = 986 kN
 1,1 3  1,0 
FRd = min 880; 995; 986  = 880 kN

FEd = 350 kN ≤ 880 kN, OK

e2,b=40
p 2 =60
e 1,b=90
p 1 =70
FEd

FRd = nbFb,hor,u,Rd
k 1 b f u,b dt w
Fb,hor,u,Rd =
 Mu
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 1,b  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 90 
= min 2,8  1,7; 1,4  1,7; 2,5  = min 9,8; 2,75; 2,5 = 2,5
70
 22 22 
e p 1 f   40 60 1 800 
αb = min 2,b ; 2  ; ub ;1,0  = min ;  ; ; 1,0 
 3d 0 3d 0 4 f u,b   3  22 3  22 4 430 
= min 0,61; 0,66; 1,86; 1,0  = 0,61

2 , 5  0 , 61  430  20  9
Fb,hor,u,Rd =  10 3 = 107 kN
1,1
FRd = 10  107 = 1070 kN
FEd = 350 kN ≤ 1070 kN OK
5 – 49
3.3.2.2. Tension resistance of the beam web

Basic requirement : FEd ≤ FRd
FRd = min  FRd,b ; FRd,n 
f u,b
 Mu
Anet,wb = t w h wb  d 0 n1 t w = 9  360  22  5  9 = 2250 mm2
430
FRd,n = 0 , 9  2250  10 3 = 792 kN
1 ,1
f u,b Ant f y,b Anv / 3

FRd,b = 
 Mu  M0
Ant  t w n1  1 p1  n1  1d 0 
= 95  1  70  5  122  1728 mm2
 3   3 
Anv  2t w  e2,b  p2  d 0   2  9 40  60   22   1206 mm2
 2   2 
 430  1728 275  1206 
FRd,b =     10 3 = 867 kN
 1 ,1 3  1, 0 
(Case 2 only applies to notched beams)
FRd = min 792; 867  = 792 kN
FEd = 350 kN ≤ 792 kN, OK

full strength.
5 – 50
4 DOUBLE ANGLE WEB CLEATS
Unless noted otherwise, the design rules below have been developed from
those established for partial depth end plates and fin plates from Reference 8.

tf
1 3
5
p1
hac p1 6
hb
p1
2
t ac 4 p3
tf
8 9
10
1 Length of cleat hac  0,6hb

2 Face of beam or column
3 End projection, gh approximately 10 mm
5 Bolt diameter, d
6 Hold diameters, d0. d0 = d + 2 mm for d  24 mm; d0 = d + 3 mm for d > 24 mm
7 10 mm clearance
8 Supported beam (single notched)
9 Supported beam (double notched)
10 Supporting beam
5 – 51

4.2.1.1 Supported beam side
Shear resistance of bolts
p1 p1
p1 p1
p1 p1
z z z
1 1 1
VEd VEd VEd
1 Assumed line of shear transfer

n b F v,Rd
VRd = 2
(1  n b ) 2  (  n b ) 2
 v f ub A
Fv,Rd =
 M2
where:

6z
α = 0 and β =
n1 n1  1 p1
For a double vertical line of bolts (n2 = 2)

zp 2 zp
α = and β = 1  n1  1 
2I 2I
I =
n1
2
1
p 2  n1 n1  1 p 1
2
6
2
 2

5 – 52
z is the transverse distance from the face of the supporting element to

the centre of the bolt group
Bearing resistance of bolts on the angle cleats
p2 e2
e1
p1
e1 e1
1
VEd z e2 VEd z
2 2
Single row Double Row
1 Check the bearing strength of cleat under eccentric load

nb
VRd = 2
2 2
 1  n b   n b 
   
F  F 
k 1 b f u dt
The bearing resistance of a single bolt is Fb,Rd =
 M2
The vertical bearing resistance of a single bolt on the angle cleat is as follows:
k 1 b f u,ac dt ac
Fb,ver,Rd =
 M2
The horizontal bearing resistance of a single bolt on the angle cleat is as

follows:
k1 b f u, ac dtac
Fb,hor,Rd =
 M2
α, β and M2 are as defined previously.
For Fb,ver,Rd:
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 2  1,7; 1,4 2  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 e p 1 f 
αb = min 1 ; 1  ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 0 3d 0 4 f u,ac 
5 – 53
For Fb,hor,Rd:
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 1  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 e p f 
αb = min 2 ; 2  1,4; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 0 3d 0 f u,ac 
Bearing resistance of bolts on the beam web

gh e 2,b e 2,b
gh p2
e1,b e1,b
p1 p1
z z
VEd 1 VEd
1 Check bolt group in bearing under eccentric load

nb
VRd =
2 2
 1  n b   n b 
   
F  F 
k 1 b f u,b dt w
Fb,ver,Rd =
 M2
k 1 b f u,b dt w
Fb,hor,Rd =
 M2
α, β and M2 are as defined previously
For Fb,ver,Rd,
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 2,b  1,7; 1,4 2  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
e p 1 f 
αb = min 1,b ; 1  ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 0 3d 0 4 f u,b 
5 – 54
For Fb,hor,Rd
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 1,b  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
e p 1 f 
αb = min 2,b ; 2  ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 0 3d 0 4 f u,b 
4.2.1.2 Supporting beam side

Basic requirement:
VEd  FRd
FRd is the resistance of the bolt group [EN 1993-1-8, §3.7(1)]

If (Fb,Rd)max  Fv,Rd then FRd = Fb,Rd
If (Fb,Rd)min  Fv,Rd  (Fb,Rd)max then FRd = ns(Fb,Rd)min
If Fv,Rd ≤ (Fb,Rd)min then FRd = 0,8nsFv,Rd

 v f ub A
Fv,Rd = [EN 1993-1-8, Table 3.4]
 M2
where:
v = 0,6 for 4.6 and 8.8 bolts

Fb,Rd is the bearing resistance of a single bolt
Fb,Rd = [EN 1993-1-8, Table 3.4]
 M2
where:
M2 is the partial factor for plates in bearing
 For end bolts (parallel to the direction of load transfer)
 e f ub 
b = min  1 ; ; 1, 0 
 3d 0 f u,ac 
 For inner bolts (parallel to the direction of load transfer)
 p 1 f ub 
b = min  1  ; ; 1, 0 
 3d 0 4 f u,ac 
5 – 55
 For edge bolts (perpendicular to the direction of load transfer)

 e 
k1 = min  2 , 8 2  1, 7 ; 2 , 5 
 d0 
4.2.2 Shear resistance of the angle cleats

p2 e2
e1
p1
e1 e1
VEd z e2 VEd z
2 2
Single row Double row
4.2.2.1 Supported beam side


h ac t ac f y,ac
VRd,g = 2
1, 27 3 M0
the bolts.[9]

f u,ac
VRd,n = 2  A v,net
3 M2
Av,net = t ac  h ac  n1 d 0 
 0 , 5 f u,ac Ant f y,ac Anv 
VRd,b = 2   
  M2 3 M0 
 
Anv = t ac  h ac  e1  ( n1  0 , 5 ) d 0 
For a single line of bolts:
Ant = t ac  e 2  0 , 5 d 0 
5 – 56
For a double line of bolts:

Ant = t ac  e 2  p 2  1, 5 d 0 
4.2.2.2 Supporting beam side
1 2
e1
p1 p1
e1 e1
e2 e2
VEd VEd VEd VEd

2 2 2 2
1 Critical section in shear and bearing


h ac t ac f y,ac
VRd,g = 2 
1, 27 3 M0
the bolts[9].

f u,ac
3 M2
Av,net = t ac  h ac  n1 d 0 
VRd,b = 2   
  M2 3 M0 
 
Ant = t ac  e 2  0 , 5 d 0 
Anv = t ac  h ac  e1  ( n1  0 , 5 ) d 0 
5 – 57

1
gh e 2,b gh e 2,b gh e 2,b tf
e1,b e1,b e1,b

2 2
p1 p1 p1
3 3
he he
he
tf tf
VEd VEd VEd
1
e 2,b e 2,b e 2,b
gh p2 gh p2 gh p2
e1,b e 1,b e 1,b

2 2
p1 p1 p1
3 3
he
he he
VEd VEd VEd
4
2 Shear failure
3 Tension failure
4 Block shear failure tearing out of shaded portion
4.2.3.1 Shear and block tearing resistance


f y,b
VRd,g = A v,wb
3 M0
Av,wb = A – 2btf + (tw + 2r)tf but ≥ η hwtw for un-notched beam
Av,wb = ATee – btf + (tw + 2r)tf /2 for single notched beam
5 – 58
Av,wb = tw (e1,b + (n1 –1)p1 + he) for double notched beam
η is a factor from EN 1993-1-5 (it may be conservatively taken equal

to 1,0)

f u,b
VRd,n = A v,wb,net
3 M2
Av,wb,net = Av,wb – n1d0tw

0 , 5 f u,b Ant f y,b Anv
VRd,b = 
 M2 3 M0
For a single vertical line of bolts, Ant = t w  e 2,b  0 , 5 d 0 

 3 
For a double vertical line of bolts, Ant = t w  e2,b  p2  d 0 
 2 
Anv = t w e1, b  (n1  1) p1  (n1  0,5)d 0 

4.2.3.2 Shear and bending interaction at the 2nd line of bolts, if the notch
length ln > (e2,b + p2)
1
ln ln
e 2,b p 2 e 2,b p 2
gh gh
e 1,b e 1,b
p1 p1
he
he
VEd VEd
Basic requirement: VEd (gh+e2,b + p2)  Mc,Rd [Reference 4]

Mc,Rd is the moment resistance of the notched beam at the connection in the
presence of shear.
5 – 59
For single notched beam:

f y,b W el,N
Mc,Rd =
 M0
2
Mc,Rd = 1    1 
 M0   Vpl,N,Rd  
 
Vpl,N,Rd = min(VRd,g; VRd,b)

f y,b t w
Mc,Rd =  e1   n 1  1  p 1  h e  2
6  M0
f y,b t w   2V  
2
Mc,Rd = e1  n1  1 p1  he  2

1   Ed
 1 
6 M0   Vpl,DN,Rd  
 
Vpl,DN,Rd = min(VRd,g; VRd,b)

1
gh ln gh ln gh ln gh ln
e 2,b e2,b
e1,b e1,b e 1,b e 1,b
p1 p1 p1 p1
he he
he he
VEd VEd 2 VEd VEd

2
1 Critical sections
2 To notch or beam flange
Shear and bending interaction at the notch.
4.2.4.1 For single bolt line or for double bolt lines, if xN ≥ 2d:
VEd (gh + ln)  Mv,N,Rd [Reference 4]
Mv,N,Rd is the moment resistant of the beam at the notch in the presence of
shear
5 – 60
For single notched beam

f y,b W el,N
Mv,N,Rd =
 M0
2
Mv,N,Rd = 1    1 
 M0   Vpl,N,Rd  
 
f y,b t w
Mv,DN,Rd = ( e1,b   n1  1  p 1  h e ) 2
6  M0
  2V  
2
e  n1  1 p1  he 
f y,b t w
Mv,DN,Rd =
2
1   Ed
 1 
4 M0   Vpl,DN,Rd  
1,b
 
4.2.4.2 For double bolt lines, if xN < 2d:

max (VEd (gh + ln); VEd (gh + e2,b + p2)) ≤ Mv,N,Rd [Reference 4]
Mv,N,Rd = Mc,Rd from the previous check
where:
A v, N f y,b
=
3  M0
tf
2
A v,DN f y,b
=
3  M0
Av,DN = tw (e1,b + (n1 – 1) p1 + he)
where:
5 – 61
4.2.5 Local stability of the notched beam

ln ln
d nt d nt
hb hb
d nb
ln
When the beam is restrained against lateral torsional buckling, no account need
be taken of notch stability provided the following conditions are met:
[5],[6]
For one flange notched, basic requirement:
dnt  hb / 2 and:

160000 h b
 h b / t w 3
110000 h b
 h b / t w 3
[7]
For both flanges notched, basic requirement:
max (dnt; dnb)  hb / 5 and:

160000 h b
 hb tw 3
110000 h b
 hb tw 3
5 – 62

4.3.1 Angle cleats and bolt group resistance

4.3.1.1 Resistance of the angle cleats in bending
e2 p3
e1
p1
p
1
p1
e1
FEd
1 Critical sections
There are three modes of failure for angle cleats in bending:

Mode 1: complete yielding of the plate
Mode 2: bolt failure with yielding of the plate
Mode 3: bolt failure

FRd = min(FRd,u,1, FRd,u,2, FRd,u,3)
Mode 1 (the complete yielding of the angle cleats)
 8 n  2 e w  M pl,1,Rd,u
FRd,u,1 = [EN 1993-1-8 Table 6.2]
2 mn  e w  m  n 
Mode 2 (bolt failure with yielding of the angle cleats)
FRd,u,2 = [EN 1993-1-8 Table 6.2]
mn
Mode 3 (bolt failure)
FRd,u,3 = ΣF t,Rd,u [EN 1993-1-8 Table 6.2]
k 2 f ub A
Ft,Rd,u =
 Mu
5 – 63
where:
2
0 , 25 Σl eff t ac f u,ac
Mpl,1,Rd,u =
 Mu
Mpl,2,Rd,u = Mpl,1,Rd,u
p 3  t w  2 t ac  2  0 , 8  r
m =
2
n = emin but n ≤ 1,25m where emin = e2
dw
ew =
4
dw is the diameter of the washer
k2 = 0,63 for countersunk bolts
= 0,9 otherwise
Σleff is the effective length of a plastic hinge
Σleff = 2 e1 A  ( n1  1) p 1 A
d0
e1A = e1 but ≤ 0 , 5 ( p 3  t w  2 r ) 
2
p1A = p1 but ≤ p 3  t w  2 r  d 0

FRd = 2nbFv,u
 v f ub A
Fv,u =
 Mu
where:
4.3.1.3 Bearing resistance of bolts on the angle cleats

FRd = 2nbFb,hor,u,Rd
Fb,hor,u,Rd =
 Mu
5 – 64
where:
 e p 
k1 = min  2 , 8 1  1, 7 ;1, 4 1  1, 7 ; 2 , 5 
 d0 d0 
 e p 1 f 
αb = min  2 ; 2  ; ub ;1, 0 
 3 d 0 3 d 0 4 f u,ac 
Case 1
1 2 4
Case 2
2 4
1 Beam without notch

2 Notched beam
4 Double angle cleat
Basic requirement : FEd ≤ FRd,b

f u,ac Ant f y,ac Anv
FRd,b = 
 Mu 3 M0
Case 1:
Ant = 2tac n1  1 p1  n1  1d 0 
For a single vertical line of bolts: Anv = 4 t ac  e 2  0 , 5 d 0 

 3 
For a double vertical line of bolts: Anv = 4tac  e2  p2  d 0 
 2 
Case 2:
Ant = 2tac e1  n1  1 p1  n1  0,5d 0 
For a single vertical line of bolts: Anv = 2 tac e 2  0,5d 0 
 3 
For a double vertical line of bolts: Anv = 2 tac  e2  p2  d0 
 2 
5 – 65

e 2,b e 2,b p2
e1,b
e1,b
p1 p1
p p
1 1
FEd FEd
p p
1 1
e 2,b e 2,b p2
e1,b e1,b
p1 p1
p1 p1
FEd FEd
p p
1 1

FRd = nbFb,hor,u,Rd
k 1 b f u,b dt w,b
Fb,hor,u,Rd =
 Mu
where:
 e p 
k1 =  2,8 1, b  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
e p 1 f 
αb =  2, b ; 2  ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 0 3d 0 4 f u, b 
4.3.2.2 Tension resistance of the beam web

Basic requirement: FEd ≤ FRd,n
f u,b
 Mu
where:
Anet,wb = t w h ac  d 0 n1 t w
5 – 66
Case 1
1 2 4
Case 2
2 4
1 Beam without notch

2 Notched beam
4 Double angle cleat
Basic requirement: FEd ≤ FRd,b

f u,b Ant f y,b Anv
FRd,b = 
 Mu 3 M0
Case 1:
Ant = tw   n1  1  p 1   n1  1  d 0 
For a single vertical line of bolts, Anv = 2 t w  e 2 ,b  0 , 5 d 0 
 3 
For double vertical line of bolts, Anv = 2 t w  e 2 ,b  p 2  d 0 
 2 
Case 2 (for notched beams only):

Ant = t w  e1 , b   n 1  1  p 1   n 1  0 , 5  d 0 
For a single vertical line of bolts, Anv = t w  e 2 ,b  0 , 5 d 0 
 3 
For double vertical line of bolts, Anv = t w  e 2 ,b  p 2  d 0 
 2 
5 – 67
4.4 Worked Example: Angle Web Cleats 1 of 15

Calculation sheet
4. Angle Web Cleats

Details and data
40
70
70
IPE A 550
S275 370 kN
70
70
70
40
10
450 kN
50 40
50

Angle cleats: 2/90  90  10, S275
Bolts: M20 8.8
5 – 68
Title 4.4 Worked Example – Angle Web Cleats 2 of 15
Design forces
VEd = 450 kN
Shear resistances
Bolt group resistance
Supported beam side
Bearing resistance of bolts on the angle cleats 1075 kN
Supporting beam side
Resistance 902 kN
Shear resistance of the angle cleats
Supported beam side
Shear resistance 954 kN
Supporting beam side
Shear resistance of the beam web
Shear and block tearing resistance
Shear and bending interaction
at the 2nd line of bolts N/A
Local stability of the notched beam N/A
Tying resistances
Angle cleats and bolt group resistance
Resistance of the angle cleats in bending 696 kN
Bearing resistance of bolts on the angle cleats 1428 kN
Block tearing resistance 2060 kN
Beam web resistance
Block tearing resistance 927 kN
5 - 69

Cleats 10 mm thick Unless noted
otherwise, all
Length, hac = 430mm > 0,6hb, OK references are to
EN 1993-1-8
4.2.1.1. Supported beam side
n b F v,Rd
VRd = 2
(1  n b ) 2  (  n b ) 2
 v f ub A
Fv,Rd =
 M2
0 , 6  800  245
For M20 8.8 bolts, Fv,Rd =  10 3 = 94 kN
1, 25
For a single vertical line of bolts (i.e. n2 = 1 and n1 = 6), α = 0
6z 6  50
β = = = 0,102
n1 ( n 1  1 ) p 1 6  6  1  70
6  94
Thus VRd = 2  = 962 kN
(1  0  6 )  ( 0 ,102  6 )
2 2
VEd = 450 kN ≤ 962 kN, OK

Basic requirement: VEd ≤ Vb,Rd
nb
Vb,Rd = 2
2 2
 1  n b   n b 
   
F  F 
 b, ver,Rd   b,hor,Rd 
α = 0 and β = 0,102, as above
The vertical bearing resistance for a single bolt, Fb,ver,Rd =
 M2
   40 
= min 2,8 2  1,7; 2,5  = min 2,8  1,7; 2,5  = min 3,39; 2,5
e
k1
 d0   22 
= 2,5
5 - 70
 e p 1 f 
αb = min 1 ; 1  ; ub ; 1,0 
 3d 0 3d 0 4 f u,ac 
 40 
; 1,0  = min 0,61; 0,81; 1,86; 1,0 
70 800
= min ;  0,25;
 3  22 3  22 430 
αb = 0,61
2,5  0,61  430  20  10
Fb,ver,Rd =  10 3 = 105 kN
1,25
The horizontal bearing resistance for a single bolt, Fb,hor,Rd =
 M2
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 1  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 40 
= min 2,8  1,7; 1,4  1,7; 2,5  = min 3,39; 2,75; 2,5 = 2,5
70
 22 22 
 e f   40 800 
αb = min 2 ; ub ; 1,0  = min ; ; 1,0 
 3d 0 f u,ac   3  22 430 
= min 0,61; 1,86; 1,0  = 0,61

2 , 5  0 , 61  430  20  10
Fb,hor,Rd =  10 3 = 105 kN
1, 25
6
VRd = 2 = 1075 kN
2 2
 1 0 6   0 ,102  6 
   
 105   105 
VEd = 450 kN ≤ 1075 kN, OK
5 - 71
Bearing resistance of bolts on the beam web

tw = 9
e1,b = 90
(n1 -1)p1
= 350
h e = 107
e2,b = 40

nb
VRd =
2 2
 1  n b   n b 
   
F  F 
α = 0 and β = 0,102, as above
k 1 b f u,b dt w
The vertical bearing resistance of a single bolt, Fb,ver,Rd =
 M2
 e   40 
k1 = min 2,8 2,b  1,7; 2,5  = min 2,8  1,7; 2,5  = min 3,4; 2,5
 d0   22 
= 2,5
e 
= min 1,b ; 1  ; ub ; 1,0  = min  
p 1 f 90 70 1 800
αb
 3d 3d  ;  ; ; 1,0 
 0 0 4 f u, b   3  22 3  22 4 430 
= min 1,36; 0,81; 1,86; 1,0  = 0,81

2 , 5  0 , 81  430  20  9
Fb,ver,Rd =  10 3 = 125 kN
1, 25
The horizontal bearing resistance of a single bolt,
k 1 b f u,b dt w
Fb,hor,Rd =
 M2
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 1,b  1,7; 1,4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 90 
= min 2,8  1,7; 1,4  1,7; 2,5  = min 9,75; 2,75; 2,5 = 2,5
70
 22 22 
5 - 72
e f   40 800 
αb = min 2,b ; ub ; 1,0  = min ; ; 1,0 
 3d 0 f u,b   3  22 430 
= min 0,61; 1,86; 1,0  = 0,61

2 , 5  0 , 61  430  20  9
Fb,hor,Rd =  10 3 = 94 kN
1, 25
6
VRd = = 583 kN
2 2
 1 0 6   0 ,102  6 
   
 125   94 
VEd = 450 kN ≤ 583 kN, OK
4.2.1.2. Supporting beam side
e2 = 40
e 1 = 40
(n1-1)p1
= 350
e 1 = 40
VEd VEd
2 2
VEd = 450 kN
Basic requirement: V Ed  F Rd
The design resistance of the bolt group, FRd :
If  F b,Rd  max  F v,Rd then FRd  ΣFb,Rd
If ( F b,Rd ) min  F v,Rd  ( F b,Rd ) max then FRd  n s ( Fb,Rd ) min

If F v,Rd   F b,Rd  min then FRd  0 , 8 n s F v,Rd

 v f ub A
 M2
0 , 6  800  245
For M20 8.8 bolts, Fv,Rd = 10 3 = 94 kN
1, 25
5 - 73

Vb,Rd =
 M2
e2 40
For edge bolts, k1 = min(2,8  1,7; 2,5) = min(2,8   1,7; 2,5)
d0 22
= min(3,39; 2,5) = 2,5
e1 f 40 800
For end bolts, αb = min( ; ub ; 1,0) = min( ; ; 1,0)
3d 0 f u,ac 3  22 430
= min(0,61; 1,86; 1,0) = 0,61
p1 1 f ub
For inner bolts, αb = min(  ; ; 1,0)
3d 0 4 f u,ac
70 1 800
= min(  ; ; 1,0) = min(0,81; 1,86; 1,0)
3  22 4 430
= 0,81
2,5  0,61 430  20 10
End bolts, Fb,Rd,end  Fb,Rd min   10 3
1,25
 105 kN
2,5  0,81 430  20 10
Inner bolts, Fb,Rd,inner  Fb,Rd max  10 3
1,25
 139 kN
94 kN < 105 kN thus Fv,Rd < (Fb,Rd)min
FRd  0 , 8 n s F v,Rd  0 , 8  12  94  902 kN

V Ed = 550 kN ≤ 902 kN, OK
4.2.2. Shear resistance of the angle cleats

4.2.2.1. Supported beam side

h ac t ac f y,ac 430  10  275
VRd,g = 2 = 2  10 3 = 1076 kN
1, 27 3 M0 1, 27  3  1, 0
f u,ac
3 M2
5 - 74
Net area, Av,net = t ac  h ac  n1 d 0  = 10  430  6  22  = 2980 mm2

430
VRd,n = 2  2980   10 3 = 1184 kN
3  1, 25

VRd,b = 2  
  M2 3 M0 
 
Net area subject to tension, Ant = t ac  e 2  0 , 5 d 0
= 10  40  0 , 5  22  = 290 mm2
Net area subject to shear, Anv = t ac  h ac  e1  ( n1  0 , 5 ) d 0 
= 10  430  40  ( 6  0 , 5 ) 22  = 2690 mm2
 0 , 5  430  290 275  2690 

VRd,b = 2     10 3 = 954 kN
 1 , 25 3  1, 0 
VRd,min = 954 kN
VEd = 450 kN ≤ 954 kN, OK
4.2.2.2. Supporting beam side

e2 = 40
e 1 = 40
1
(n1-1)p1
= 350
e 1 = 40
VEd VEd
2 2
VEd = 450 kN
1 Block shear failure


hac t ac f y,ac 430  10  275
VRd,g = 2 = 2  10 3 = 1076 kN
1,27 3 M0 1, 27  3  1, 0
5 - 75

f u,ac
3 M2
Net area, Av,net = t ac  h ac  n1 d 0  = 10  430  6  22  = 2980 mm2
430
VRd,n = 2  2980   10 3 = 1184 kN
3  1, 25

VRd,b = 2  
  M2 3 M0 
 
Net area subject to tension, Ant = t ac  e 2  0 , 5 d 0

= 10  40  0 , 5  22  = 290 mm2
Net area subject to shear, Anv = t ac  h ac  e1  ( n1  0 , 5 ) d 0 

= 10  430  40  ( 6  0 , 5 ) 22  = 2690 mm2
 0 , 5  430  290 275  2690 

VRd,b = 2     10 3 = 954 kN
 1, 25 3  1, 0 
VRd,min = 954 kN
VEd = 450 kN ≤ 954 kN, OK

4.2.3.1. Shear and block tearing resistance
h ac = 430
VEd = 450 kN

5 - 76

f y,b
VRd,g = A v,wb
3 M0
Av,wb = A – 2btf + (tw + 2r)tf = 11700  2  210  15 , 7   9  2  24 15 , 7
Av,wb = 6001 mm2
η hwtw = 1, 0  515 , 6  9 = 4640 mm2
6001  275
VRd,g =  10 3 = 953 kN
3  1, 0

f u,b
VRd,n = A v,wb,net
3 M2
Net area, Av,wb,net = A v,wb  n1 d 0 t w = 6001  6  22  9 = 4813 mm2
430
VRd,n = 4813   10 3 = 956 kN
3  1, 25

 0 , 5 f u,b Ant f y,b Anv 
VRd,b =  
  M2 3 M0 
 
Net area subject to tension, Ant  t w e2,b  0,5d 0 
 9  40  0 , 5  22   261 mm2
Net area subject to shear, Anv  t w e1,b  n1  1 p1  (n1  0,5)d 0 
 9  90   6  1  70  ( 6  0 , 5 ) 22 
 2871 mm2
 0 , 5  430  261 275  2871 
VRd,b =     10 3 = 501 kN
 1, 25 3  1, 0 
VRd,min = min(953; 956; 501) = 501 kN
VEd = 450 kN ≤ 501 kN, OK
4.2.3.2. Shear and bending interaction at the 2nd line of bolts

Not applicable because it is un-notched

5 - 77
4.2.5. Local stability of the notched beam


4.3.1. Angle cleats and bolt group resistance
4.3.1.1. Resistance of the angle cleats in bending
Tension bolt group FEd
FRd  min FRd, u,1 , FRd, u,2 , FRd,u,3 
The tying resistance for Mode 1, FRd,u,1 is given by:

8n  2ew M pl,1,Rd,u
FRd,u,1 =
2mn  ew m  n 
Σleff = 2 e1 A  ( n 1  1 ) p 1 A
d0
e1A = e1 but ≤ 0 , 5 ( p 3  t w  2 r ) 
2
22
0 , 5 (109  9  2  11)  = 50 mm
2
 e1A = 40 mm
p1A = p1 but ≤ p 3  t w  2 r  d 0
p 3  t w  2 r  d 0 = 109  9  2  11  22 = 100 mm
 p1A = 70 mm
Σleff = 2 e1 A  ( n1  1) p 1 A = 2  40  ( 6  1) 70 = 430 mm
2
0 , 25 Σl eff,1 t f f u,ac 0 , 25  430  10 2  430
Mpl,1,Rd,u = =  10 6 = 4,2kNm
 Mu 1,1
p3  t w  2t ac  2  0,8  r 109  9  2  10  2  0,8  11
m = = = 31 mm
2 2
d w 37
ew    9,25 mm
4 4
n = min  e 2 ;1, 25 m  = min  40 ; 39  = 39 mm
5 - 78
 8  39  2  9 , 25  4 , 2  10 3
FRd,u,1 = = 696 kN
2  31  39  9 , 25  31  39 
The tying resistance for mode 2, FRd,u,2 is given by:
FRd,u,2 =
mn
Mpl,2,Rd,u = Mpl,1,Rd,u =4,20 kNm
k 2 f ub A 0 , 9  800  245
Ft,Rd,u = =  10 3 = 160 kN
 Mu 1, 1
2  4 , 2  10 3  39  12  160
FRd,u,2 = = 1190 kN
31  39
The tying resistance for mode 3, FRd,u,3 is given by
FRd,u,3 = ΣF t,Rd,u = 12  160 = 1920 kN
FRd  min FRd,u,1 , FRd,u,2 , FRd,u,3 
FRd  min 696, 1190, 1920  = 696 kN

FEd = 370 kN ≤ 696 kN, OK
FEd = 370 kN
IPE A 550
S275

FRd = 2nbFv,u
 v f ub A 0 , 6  800  245
Fv,u = =  10 3 = 107 kN
 Mu 1,1
FRd = 2  6  107 = 1284 kN
FEd = 370 kN ≤ 1284 kN, OK
4.3.1.3. Bearing resistance of bolts on the angle cleats

FRd = 2nbFb,hor,u,Rd
5 - 79
Fb,hor,u,Rd =
 Mu
 e p 
k1 = min 2,8 1  1,7; 1.4 1  1,7; 2,5 
 d0 d0 
 40 
= min 2,8  1,7; 1,4  1,7; 2,5  = min 3,39; 2,75; 2,5 = 2,5
70
 22 22 
 e f   40 800 
αb = min 2 ; ub ; 1,0  = min ; ; 1,0 
 3d 0 f u,ac   3  22 430 
= min 0,61; 1,86; 1,0  = 0,61

2 , 5  0 , 61  430  20  10
Fb,hor,u,Rd =  10 3 = 119 kN
1, 1
FRd = 2  6  119 = 1428 kN
FEd = 350 kN ≤ 1428 kN, OK

e2 = 40
e 1 = 40
70
70
hac
70
FEd = 370 kN
70
70
e 1 = 40

f u,ac Ant f y,ac Anv
FRd,b = 
 Mu 3 M0
Case 1
Ant = 2t ac n1  1 p1  n1  1d 0  = 2  10  6  1  70  6  1  22
= 4800 mm2
Anv = 4 tac e 2  0.5d 0  = 4  1040  0,5  22  = 1160 mm2
 430  4800 275  1160 
FRd,b =     10 3 = 2060 kN
 1,1 3  1,0 
5 - 80
Case 2
Ant = 2t ac e1  n1  1 p1  n1  0,5d 0 
Ant = 2  10  40  6  1  70  6  0,5  22 = 5380 mm2
Anv = 2 tac e 2  0,5d 0  = 2  10  40  0,5  22  = 580 mm2
 430  5380 275  580 
FRd,b =     10 3 = 2195 kN
 1,1 3  1,0 
FEd = 370 kN ≤ 2060 and 2195 kN, OK

e 2,b = 40
e1,b = 90
70 n1
70
70
FEd = 370 kN
70
70

FRd = nbFb,hor,u,Rd
k 1 b f u,b dt w
Fb,hor,u,Rd =
 Mu
 p   70 
k1 = min1,4 1  1,7; 2,5  = min1,4  1,7; 2,5  = 2,5
 d0   22 
e f   40 800 
αb = min 2,b ; ub ; 1,0  = min ; ; 1,0  = 0,61
 3d 0 f u,b   3  22 430 
2 , 5  0 , 61  430  20  9
Fb,hor,u,Rd =  10 3 = 107 kN
1,1
FRd = 6  107 = 642 kN
FEd = 370 kN ≤ 642 kN, OK
4.3.2.2. Tension resistance of the beam web

Basic requirement: FEd ≤ FRd,n
f u,b
 Mu
Anet,wb = t w h ac  d 0 n1 t w = 9  430  22  6  9 = 2682 mm2
5 - 81
430
FRd,n = 0 , 9  2682  10 3 = 944 kN
1 ,1
FEd = 370 kN ≤ 944 kN, OK

f u,b Ant f y,b Anv
FRd,b = 
 Mu 3 M0
Case 1
Ant = t w n1  1 p1  n1  1d 0  = 96  1  70  6  122
= 2160 mm2
Anv = 2t w e2,b  0,5d 0  = 2  9  40  0 , 5  22  = 522 mm2
 430  2160 275  522 

FRd,b =    10 3 = 927 kN
 1 , 1 3 1, 0 
FEd = 370 ≤ 927 kN, OK
(Case 2 only applies to notched beams)
5 - 82
5 COLUMN SPLICES (BEARING TYPE)
Column splices are designed assuming they must resist both the axial
compression and, where appropriate, a nominal moment from the connection to
the beams.
In bearing type splices, the axial load is transferred directly between the ends
of the column sections (with a division plate if necessary due to the change of
serial size) and not via the splices plates. The plates provide the splice with
adequate stiffness and tying resistance.

1
huc buc
2
t f,uc
3
5
hp
6
4
7
t w,lc
p2
h lc
bp
b lc
1 Web cover plate width  0,5huc

2 Multiple packs thickness tpa
3 Web cover plate at least 4 no. M20, 8.8 bolts – See notes
For double-sided web cover plates, thickness  tw,uc/2
For single-sided web cover plates, thickness  tw,uc
4 Flange cover plate. Height: hp  2buc and 225 mm; Width: bp  buc;
Thickness: tp  tf,uc/2 and 10 mm
5 Bolts (normally untorqued in clearance holes) – See notes
6 Packs arranged as necessary
7 Wide bolt spacing for joint rigidity
Ends of column sections in direct bearing
5 - 83
1
2
t f,uc
> 45° 5
1 Cleat length > 0,5huc

2 Web angle cleats at least 2 no. M20, 8.8 bolts each side
3 Multiple packs thickness tpa
4 Flange cover plate as above
5 Division plate thickness should be at least, [(hlc – 2tf,lc) – (huc – 2tf,lc)]/
Direct bearing onto a division plate
1
huc buc
2
t f,uc
4
Lj
3
hp
5
Lj
6
t w,lc
p2
h lc
bp
blc
1 Web cover plate width  0,5huc

2 Web cover plate at least 4 no. M20, 8.8 bolts
3 Flange cover plate. Height: hp  2buc and 450 mm; Width: bp  (buc – tw,lc – 2rlc)/2;
Thickness: tp  tf,uc/2 and 10 mm, (rlc = root radius)
4 Bolts (normally untorqued in clearance holes) – See notes
5 Packs arranged as necessary
6 Wide bolt spacing for joint rigidity
Internal flange cover plates
5 - 84
Notes:
1. Bolt spacing and edge distances should comply with the recommendations
of EN 1993-1-8:2005
2. The thickness of the flange cover plate should be at least the minimum of
10, tf,uc/2 and p1/14.
3. The thickness mentioned in Note 2 is in most cases sufficient to transmit at
least 25% of the maximum compressive force in the column, as required by
EN 1993-1-8 [§6.2.7.1(14)].
4. The column splices should be located at approximately 600 mm above floor
beam level. It is also recommended to use a minimum of four bolts. In a
braced frame, columns containing such splices will behave satisfactorily
even if the joint effectively behaves as a pin. In practice, typical bearing
column splices as given in this guide will provide significant stiffness about
both axes, although less than full stiffness.
5. In common practice the width of the flange cover plate would not be greater
than the width of the lower column flange. However if the width of the
flange cover plate is narrower than the upper column flange then edge and
end distances should be checked against the Eurocode (EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.3).
If there is significant net tension then the following notes should be adhered to:
6. Bolt diameters must be at least 75% of packing thickness tpa[11].
7. The number of plies in multiple packs should not exceed four[11].
8. There should not be more than one jump in serial size of column at the
splice.
9. If external and internal flange covers are to be provided, the size should be
similar to those shown in the figures and the combined thickness of the
external and internal cover plates must be at least tf,uc / 2. All cover plates
should be at least 10 mm thick.
5 - 85
5.2 Checks for tension

5.2.1 Net tension
5.2.1.1 Net tension effects
N Ed, G
M Ed
VEd
VEd
M NEd, G M NEd, G
( hEd + 2
) ( hEd - 2
)
The following checks the presence of net tension due to axial load and bending
moment[4]:
N Ed,G h
If MEd ≤ then net tension does not occur and so the splice need only be
2
detailed to transmit axial compression by direct bearing.
N Ed,G h
If MEd > then net tension does occur and the flange cover plates and
2
their fasteners should be checked for tensile force, FEd.
M Ed N Ed,G
FEd = 
h 2
MEd is the nominal moment due to factored permanent and variable loads
(i.e. column design moment) at the floor level immediately below the
splice.
NEd,G is the axial compressive force due to factored permanent loads only.
h is conservatively the overall depth of the smaller column (for external
flange cover plates) or the centreline to centreline distance between
the flange cover plates (for internal flange cover plates).
Preloaded bolts should be used when net tension induces stress in the upper
column flange > 10% of the design strength of that column.
5 - 86
5.2.1.2 Tension resistance of the flange cover plate

FEd
FEd
1 Column flange
2 Flange cover plate
3 Critical section
Basic requirement: FEd ≤ Nt,Rd

Nt,Rd = min(Npl,Rd; Nu,Rd; Nbt,Rd)
Tension resistance of gross section

Npl,Rd is the tension plastic resistance of the gross section
Afp f y,p
Npl,Rd = [EN 1993-1-1 §6.2.3(2)]
 M0
where:
Afp is the gross area of the flange cover plate(s) attached to one flange
Nu,Rd is the tension ultimate resistance of the net area
0 , 9 Afp,net f u,p
Nu,Rd = [EN 1993-1-1 §6.2.3(2)]
 M2
where:
Afp,net is the net area of the flange cover plate(s) attached to one flange
Afp,net = Afp − n2d0tp
5 - 87

Nbt,Rd is the block tearing resistance
e2 p2 e2 e2 p2 e2
e1 e1
p1 p1
Figure A Figure B
For a concentrically loaded bolt group: Nbt,Rd = Veff,1,Rd
f u,p Afp,nt f y,p Afp,nv

Veff,1,Rd =  [EN 1993-1-8 §3.10.2(2)]
 M2 3 M0
For eccentrically loaded bolt group: Nbt,Rd = Veff,2,Rd
0 , 5 f u,p Afp,nt f y,p Afp,nv

Veff,2,Rd =  [EN 1993-1-8 §3.10.2(3)]
 M2 3 M0
where:
fy,uc is the yield strength of the upper column
fu,uc is the ultimate tensile strength of the the upper column
Afp,nv is the net area of the flange cover plate subjected to shear
Afp,nv = 2tp ( e1+(n1 – 1)p1 – (n1 – 0,5)d0 )
Afp,nt is the net area of the flange cover plate subjected to tension
If p2 ≤ 2e2 Afp,nt = tp( p2 – d0 ) (Figure A)
If p2 > 2e2 Afp,nt = tp( 2e2 – d0 ) (Figure B)

Check for significant net tension:
F Ed
If > 0,1 then preloaded bolts should be used[4].
t f, uc b f, uc f y,uc
where:
tf,uc is the flange thickness of the upper column
5 - 88
bf,uc is the flange width of the upper column
5.2.1.3 Bolt group resistance

FEd
e1
p1
p1
2
e2 p2
FEd
1 Column flange
FRd,fp is the design resistance of bolt group [EN 1993-1-8, §3.7(1)]

FRd = ΣFb,Rd if (Fb,Rd)max ≤ Fv,Rd
FRd = nfp(Fb,Rd)min if (Fb.Rd)min ≤ Fv,Rd ≤ (Fb,Rd)max
FRd = nfpFv,Rd if Fv,Rd ≤ (Fb,Rd)min
nfp is the number of bolts between one flange cover plate and upper column

Fv,Rd is the shear resistance of a single bolt
 v f ub A
Fv,Rd = p [EN 1993-1-8, Table 3.4]
 M2
where:
v = 0,6 for 4.6 and 8.8 bolts = 0,5 for 10.9 bolts
βp = 1,0 if tpa ≤ d/3 [EN 1993-1-8 §3.6.1(12)]
9d
= if tpa > d/3
8d  3tpa
tpa is the total thickness of the packing
5 - 89
Check for long joint:

Lj is the joint length from EN1993-1-8[1], § 3.8
If Lj > 15d the design shear resistance Fv,Rd should be reduced by multiplying it
by a reduction factor βLf.
L j  15 d
 Lf  1 
200 d
Bearing resistance
Fb,Rd is the bearing resistance of a single bolt
k 1 b f u,p dt p
Fb,Rd = [EN 1993-1-8 Table 3.4]
 M2
Note: If the thickness of the column flange is less than the thickness of the
flange cover plates, then the bearing resistance of the column flange should
also be checked.
For end bolts:

 e f ub 
b = min  1 ; ; 1, 0 
 3d 0 f u,p 
For inner bolts:

 p 1 f ub 
b = min  1  ; ; 1, 0 
 3d 0 4 f u,p 
For edge bolts:

 e 
k1 = min  2 , 8 2  1, 7 ; 2 , 5 
 d0 
For inner bolts:

 p 
k1 = min  1, 4 2  1, 7 ; 2 , 5 
 d0 
M2 is the partial factor for plate in bearing

Resistance of preloaded bolts:
FEd ≤ Fs,Rd
For joints designed to be non-slip under factored loads.

Fs,Rd is the design slip resistance
k s n fs 
= Fp,C [EN 1993-1-8 §3.9.1(1)]
 M3
5 - 90
where:
ks = 1.0 for fasteners in standard clearance holes
(Table 3.6 of EN1993-1-8)[1]
nfs is the number of friction surfaces
μ is the slip factor (Table 18 of EN1090-2 [12])
Fp,C = 0 , 7 f ub As [EN 1993-1-8 §3.6.1(2)]
As is the tensile stress area of the bolt
M3 is the partial factor for slip resistance at ultimate limit state
5.3 Check for horizontal shear

For a bearing type splice, any horizontal shear VEd is assumed to be resisted by
friction across the splice interface[4].
Basic requirement: VEd ≤ shear resistance of splice interface
The coefficient of friction μf for a steel interface depends upon the surface
condition of the steel and on any coatings provided.
Conservatively, for steel with no surface treatment, with mill scale, the
coefficient of friction, μf may be taken as 0,2.
Shear resistance of splice interface = Vertical load  Coefficient of friction
5.4 Checks for vertical tying

Ftie
Ftie
If it is necessary to comply with structural integrity requirements, then checks

4.2.1.2 and 4.2.1.3 should be carried out[4] with:
F tie
FEd =
2
5 - 91
The yield strength should be replaced with the ultimate strength.
The partial safety factors (M0, M2) should also be replaced with the partial
factor for tying resistance. (Mu = 1,1).
Note:
1. The structural integrity checks are based on the conservative assumption
that the tie force is resisted by the two flange cover plates.
5. Ftie is the tensile force from EN1991-1-7, § A.6.
5 - 92
5.5 Worked Example – Column Splice 1 of 8

Calculation sheet
5. Column Splice
Details and data
HEB 260 x 93
(S355 steel)
40
160
50 50
525 25 25
50 50
160
40
HEB 320 x 127

(S355 steel)
55 150 55 35 80 35
260 150
Flange cover plates: 2/260  12  525

Flange packs: 2/260  30  240
Cleats: 4/90  90  8 Angles  150 long
Web Packs: 2/85  2  150
Division plate: 265  25  310
Bolts: M20 8.8
Fittings material: S275 steel
5 – 93
Title 5.4 Worked Example – Column Splice 2 of 8
Design forces Unless noted

otherwise, all
NEd,G = 760 kN
references are to
NEd,Q = 870 kN EN 1993-1-8
MEd = 110 kNm (about yy axis of column)
VEd = 60 kN
Tension resistances
Net tension
Tensile resistance of the flange cover plate 802 kN
Horizontal shear resistance 161 kN
Tying resistances
Tensile resistance of the flange cover plate 912 kN

External flange cover plates
Height, hp  2buc and 450 mm
Width, bp  buc = 260 mm Say 260 mm, OK
Maximum vertical bolt spacing, p1 = 14tp, i.e. minimum thickness is p1 /14
t f,uc p1
Thickness, tp  and 10 mm and
2 14
17 , 5 160
= and 10 mm and
2 14
= 8,75 mm and 10 mm and 11,4 mm
Say 12 mm, OK
h lc  h uc 320  260
Packs, tpa = = = 30 mm
2 2
Say 30 mm, OK
Division plate
 h lc  2 t f,lc    h uc  2 t f,uc 
Thickness 
2
=
 320  2  20 , 5    260  2  17 , 5   = 27 mm
2
Say 25mm, OK
5 – 94
Web cleats
Use 90908 angles to accommodate M20 bolts in opposite positions on
adjoining legs.
Length  0,5huc = 0,5  260 = 130 mm Say 150 mm, OK
t w,lc  t w, uc 11, 5  10
Packs, tpa = = = 0,8 mm Say 2 mm, OK
2 2

5.2.1. Net tension
5.2.1.1. Net tension effects
N Ed,G  h
Basic requirement for no net tension: MEd ≤
2
N Ed,G  h 760  260
=  10 3 = 99 kNm
2 2
MEd = 110 kNm > 99 kNm
Net tension does occur and the flange cover plates and their fastenings must
be checked for a tensile force FEd.
M Ed N Ed,G 110 760
FEd =  = 3
 = 43 kN
h 2 260  10 2
5.2.1.2. Tension resistance of the flange cover plate

Basic requirement: FEd ≤ Nt,Rd
Where Nt,Rd = min  N pl,Rd ; N u,Rd ; N bt,Rd 
Tension resistance of gross section
Afp f y,p EN 1993-1-1
Npl,Rd = § 6.2.3(2)
 M0
Gross area, Afp = 26012 = 3120 mm2
3120  275
Npl,Rd =  10 3 = 858 kN
1,0

0 , 9 Afp,net f u,p EN 1993-1-1
Nu,Rd = § 6.2.3(2)
 M2
Net area, Afp,net = 26012 – 22212 = 2592 mm2
0 , 9  2592  430
Nu,Rd =  10 3 = 802 kN
1, 25
Thus Nu,Rd = 802 kN
5 – 95

For concentrically loaded bolt group: Nbt,Rd = Veff,1,Rd § 3.10.2(3)
2e2 = 255 = 110 mm
p2 = 150 ≤ 2e2
Hence
Afp,nt = tp( 2e2 – d0 ) = 12 (255 – 22) = 1056 mm2
Afp,nv = 2tp ( e1+(n1 – 1)p1 – (n1 – 0,5)d0 )
= 212 (40 + (2 – 1)160 – (2 – 0,5)22) = 4008 mm2
 430  1056 275  4008 
Veff,1,Rd =     10 3 = 1000 kN
 1, 25 3  1, 0 
Nbt,Rd = 1000 kN
Nt,Rd = min(858; 802; 1000) = 802 kN
FEd = 43 kN ≤ 802 kN, OK
Check for the suitability of ordinary bolts.

(It is sufficiently accurate to base this calculation on the gross area of the Ref [4]
flange)
FEd 43  10 3
= = 0,04 < 0,1
t f,uc b f,uc f y,uc 12 , 5  260  355
There is no significant net tension in the column flange and the use of
ordinary bolts in clearance holes is satisfactory.
5.2.1.3. Bolt group resistance

1
e1 = 40
p1 = 160
e 2 = 55 p2 =150
Shear and bearing resistance of the flange cover plate

5 – 96
The design resistance of the bolt group, FRd,fp: § 3.7

FRd  ΣFb,Rd if  F b, Rd  max  F v,Rd
FRd  nfp (Fb, Rd ) min if ( F b, Rd ) min  F v,Rd  ( F b, Rd ) max
FRd  nfp Fv,Rd if F v,Rd   F b, Rd  min

 M2
A factor to account for the long joint effect must be introduced if Lj > 15d § 3.8
15d = 1520 = 300 mm
Lj = 160 mm, < 15d
Therefore there is no long joint effect.
d
Total thickness of flange pack, tpa = 30mm >  6 , 7 mm
3
Therefore Fv,Rd must be multiplied by a reduction factor βp.
9d 9  20
βp = = = 0,72
8 d  3 t pa 8  20  3  30
0 , 6  800  245
For M20 8.8 bolts, Fv,Rd = 0 , 72  ×10-3 = 68 kN
1, 25
Bearing resistance
Bearing resistance, Fb,Rd =
 M2
 e   55 
For edge bolts, k1 = min 2,8 2  1,7; 2,5  = min 2,8  1,7; 2,5 
 d0   22 
= min 5,3; 2,5 = 2,5
 e f   40 800 
For end bolts αb = min 1 ; ub ; 1,0  = min ; ; 1,0 
 3d   3  22 430 
 0 f u,p 
= min 0,61; 1,86; 1,0  = 0,61
 p f 
For inner bolts, αb = min 1  0,25; ub ; 1,0 
 3d f u,p 
 0 
 160 800 
= min  0,25; ; 1,0 
 3  22 430 
= min 2,17; 1,86; 1,0  = 1,0
5 – 97
2 , 5  0 , 61  430  20  12
End bolts, Fb,Rd,end =  Fb,Rd  min =  10 3
1, 25
= 126 kN
2 , 5  1, 0  430  20  12
Inner bolts, Fb,Rd,inner =  Fb,Rd max =  10 3
1, 25
= 206 kN
Thus Fv,Rd <  Fb,Rd  min
FRd = nfp Fv,Rd = 468 = 272 kN
FEd = 43 kN ≤ 272 kN, OK
5.2.2. Check for horizontal shear

For a bearing type splice, any horizontal shear VEd is assumed to be resisted Ref [4]
by friction across the splice interface.
Basic requirement: VEd ≤ shear resistance of splice interface
Vertical load with coexistent shear
M Ed N Ed,G 110  10 3 760
 =  = 803 kN
h 2 260 2
Shear resistance of splice interface: 8030,2 = 161kN
VEd = 60 kN ≤ 161 kN, OK
5.3. Structural integrity

5.3.1. Tying force
Check 4.2.1.2 and 4.2.1.3 should be carried out with:
Ftie
FEd =
2
Ftie = 2  FEd  2  43 = 86 kN
5.3.2. Tensile resistance of the flange cover plate

Basic requirement: Ftie ≤ Nt,Rd
Where Nt,Rd = min  N pl,Rd ; N u,Rd ; N bt,Rd 
5.3.2.1. Tension resistance of the gross area
Afp f u,p EN 1993-1-1
Npl,Rd = § 6.2.3(2)
 Mu
Gross area, Afp = 26012 = 3120 mm2
3120  430
Npl,Rd =  10 3 = 1220 kN
1, 1
5 – 98
5.3.2.2. Tension resistance of the net area

0 , 9 Afp,net f u,p EN 1993-1-1
Nu,Rd = § 6.2.3(2)
 Mu
Net area, Afp,net = 26012 – 22212 = 2592 mm2
0 , 9  2592  430
Nu,Rd =  10 3 = 912 kN
1, 1
Thus Nu,Rd = 912 kN

For concentrically loaded bolt group: Nbt,Rd = Veff,1,Rd Table 3.4
2e2 = 255 = 110 mm
p2 = 150 ≤ 2e2
Hence
Afp,nt = tp( 2e2 – d0 ) = 12 (255 – 22) = 1056 mm2
Afp,nv = 2tp ( e1+(n1 – 1)p1 – (n1 – 0,5)d0 )
= 212 [40 + (2 – 1)160 – (2 – 0,5)22] = 4008 mm2
 430  1056 275  4008 
Veff,1,Rd =     10 3 = 1049 kN
 1 ,1 3  1, 0 
Nbt,Rd = 1049 kN
Nt,Rd = min(1220; 912; 1049) = 802 kN
Ftie = 86 kN ≤ 912 kN, OK
5.3.2.4. Bolt group resistance

Shear and bearing resistance of the flange cover plate
Basic requirement: Ftie ≤ FRd
The design resistance of the bolt group, FRd,fp: § 3.7
FRd  ΣFb,Rd if  Fb,Rd max  Fv,Rd
FRd  n fp ( Fb,Rd ) min if ( Fb,Rd ) min  F v,Rd  ( Fb,Rd ) max
FRd  n fp F v,Rd if F v,Rd   Fb,Rd min

 Mu
A factor to account for the long joint effect must be introduced if Lj > 15d
15d = 1520 = 300 mm
Lj = 160 mm, < 15d
5 – 99
Therefore there is no long joint effect.

d
Total thickness of flange pack, tpa = 30mm >  6 , 7 mm
3
Therefore Fv,Rd must be multiplied by a reduction factor βp.
9d 9  20
βp = = = 0,72
8 d  3 t pa 8  20  3  30
0 , 6  800  245
For M20 8.8 bolts, Fv,Rd = 0 , 72   10 3 = 77 kN
1,1
Bearing resistance
Bearing resistance, Fb,Rd =
 Mu
 e   55 
For edge bolts, k1 = min 2,8 2  1,7; 2,5  = min 2,8  1,7; 2,5 
 d0   22 
= min 5,3; 2,5 = 2,5
 e f   40 800 
For end bolts αb = min 1 ; ub ; 1,0  = min ; ; 1,0 
 3d   3  22 430 
 0 f u,p 
= min 0,61; 1,86; 1,0  = 0,61
 p f 
For inner bolts, αb = min 1  0,25; ub ; 1,0 
 3d f u,p 
 0 
 160 800 
= min  0,25; ; 1,0 
 3  22 430 
= min 2,17; 1,86; 1,0  = 1,0
2 , 5  0 , 61  430  20  12
End bolts, Fb,Rd,end = Fb, Rd min =  10 3
1 ,1
= 143kN
2 , 5  1, 0  430  20  12
Inner bolts, Fb,Rd,inner =  Fb,Rd max =  10 3
1, 1
= 235 kN
Thus Fv,Rd <  Fb,Rd  min
FRd = nfp Fv,Rd = 477 = 308 kN
Ftie = 86 kN ≤ 308 kN, OK
5 – 100
6 COLUMN BASES
This design method applied to fixed bases of I section columns transmitting an

axial compressive force, and a shear force (i.e. a nominally pinned column
base). The rectangular base plate is welded to the column section in a
symmetrically position so that it has projections beyond the column flange
outer edges on all sides.
6.1 Base plate size
b bp bf
hp
hf
Basic requirement: Ap  Areq [Reference 4]

Ap = area of base plate
= hpbp for rectangular plates
Areq = required area of base plate
F Ed
=
f jd
2
fjd = fcd
3
where:
 df     e  
 = min   1  ,  1  2 eh ,1 2 b  , 3  [Reference 3]

  max  h p , b p    h p  
  bp 
 
If some dimensions are unknown, a value of  = 1,5 is generally appropriate.
hp is the length of the base plate
bp is the width of the base plate
df is the depth of the concrete foundation
hf is the length of the concrete foundation
5 – 101
bf is the width of the concrete foundation

tf is the flange thickness of the column
eb is the additional width outside of the base plate
= bf  b  2 t f  / 2
eh is the additional depth outside of the base plate
=  hf  h  2 t f  / 2
f ck
fcd =  cc [EN 1992-1-1, §3.1.6(1)]
c
αcc is a coefficient that takes into account long term effects on the
compressive strength and of unfavorable effects resulting from the
way the load is applied. [13]
c is the material factor for concrete from EN 1992-1-1, §2.4.2.4[13]
Concrete class C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45

Cylinder strength, fck (N/mm2) 20 25 30 35
Cube strength, fck,cube (N/mm2) 25 30 37 45
6.2 Calculation of c
hp
bp
A eff
1
2c + tf
Projection, c
tf = flange thickness
tw = web thickness
Basic requirement: Areq = Aeff
 If 2c ≤ h  2 t f , then there is no overlap.

Thus c may be calculated from the following equations for I and H sections:
Aeff ≈ 4c2 + Percolc + Acol
where:
Acol is the cross sectional area of the column
Percol is the column perimeter
 If 2c > h  2 t f , then there is an overlap.
Thus c may be calculated from the following equations for I and H sections:
Aeff ≈ 4c2 + 2(h + b)c + h  b
5 – 102
To ensure that the effective area fits on the base plate:

h + 2c < hp
b + 2c < bp
6.3 Base plate thickness
tp
A eff
2c + tf
Basic requirement: tp ≥ tp,min
3 f jd  M0
tp,min =c [Reference 3]
f yp
where:
fyp is the yield strength of the base plate
2
fjd = fcd
3
f ck
fcd =  cc
c
, αcc, c, fck, and c are as defined previously.
5 – 103
6.4 Base plate welds

NEd
tp
VEd
Basic requirement:
For shear: VEd  Fw,Rd  ℓweld,shear [Reference 4]
For axial load:
This check is only necessary when the contact faces of the column and base
plate are not in tight bearing. See Reference [4] for more details.
FEd  Fw,Rd  ℓweld,axial
where:
Fw,Rd is the resistance of the fillet weld per unit length = fvw,d  a
fu 3
fvw,d = [EN 1993-1-8 §4.5.3.3(3)]
 w  M2
fu is ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part joined
w = 0,8 for S235 steel
= 0,85 for S275 steel
a is the weld throat
ℓweld,shear is total effective length of the welds in the direction of shear
ℓweld,shear = 2  l  2 s  (for IPE, HE, HD sections)
l is the weld length in the direction of shear
ℓweld,axial is the total effective length of the welds to the column flange for
rolled sections
M2 is the partial factor for welds from EN 1993-1-8
5 – 104
6.5 Worked Example – Column base 1 of 3

Calculation sheet
6. Column base
Details and data
HD 320 x 127 Unless noted

S355 otherwise, all
references are to
EN 1993-1-8
N Ed = 4300kN
50
V Ed = 100kN
3 600
2
f ck= 30N/mm 100
4
600
1 600  600  50 Base plate S275

2 8 mm fillet welds
3 M24 grade 4.6 holding down bolts
4 Contact faces of the column and the base plate are in direct bearing
5 – 105
Title 6.5 Worked Example – Column base 2 of 3
6.1. Base plate size

Basic requirement: Ap  Areq Ref [3]
Area of base plate: Ap = hp  bp = 600  600 = 360000 mm2 fcd from

f ck EN 1992-1-1
30
Design strength of the concrete: fcd =  cc = 1, 0  = 20 N/mm 2 §3.1.6(1)
c 1, 5
αcc from
N Ed 4300  10 3 2 EN 1992-1-1
Area required: Areq = = = 215000 mm
f jd 2 §3.1.6(1)
 1, 5  20
3
C from
EN 1992-1-1
Table 2.1N
Ap = 360000 mm2 > 215000 mm2 OK
6.2. Calculation of c
t f + 2c
tf
tw
t w +2c b b+2 c bp
h
Aeff
h+2 c
hp
Basic requirement: Aeff = Areq

To calculate the effective area, assume first that there is no overlap.
Aeff ≈ 4c2 + Percolc + Acol
Column perimeter Percol = 1771 mm
Area of column Acol = 16130 mm2
Aeff ≈ 4c2 + 1771c + 16130 = 215000 = Areq
 c = 93 mm
To ensure that there is no overlap, c has to be less than half the depth between
flanges:
h  2t f 320  2  20 , 5
= = 139,5 mm > 93 mm
2 2
Therefore the assumption that there is no overlap is correct.
5 – 106
Title 6.5 Worked Example – Column base 3 of 3
To check that the effective area fits on the base plate:

h + 2c = 320  2  93 = 506 mm < 600 mm
b + 2c = 300  2  93 = 486 mm < 600 mm
Therefore the calculated value of c is valid (otherwise recalculate c).
6.3. Base plate thickness

3 f jd  M0 Ref (3)
tp,min =c
f y,p
2 2
fjd =  f cd   1,5  20 = 20 N/mm2
3 3
Yield strength of the 50 mm plate, fy,p = 255 N/mm2
3  20  1, 0
tp,min = 93 = 45 mm
255
tp = 50 mm > 45 mm OK
6.4. Base plate welds (Shear resistance of column-to-

base weld)
Basic requirement: VEd  F w,Rd  l eff,shear Ref [4]
Ultimate tensile strength of the 50 mm plate, fu,p = 410 N/mm2

fu 3 410 3 Fw,Rd from
Fw,Rd = f vw,d  a = a =  0 , 7  8 = 1248 N/mm § 4.5.3.3(3)
 w  M2 0 , 85  1, 25
ℓeff,shear = 2 (l – 2s) = 2 100  2  8  = 168 mm
Fw,Rdℓeff,shear = 1248  168  10 3 = 210 kN

VEd = 100 kN ≤ 210 kN OK
5 – 107
APPENDIX A Lateral torsional buckling strength

Lateral torsional buckling strength taken from BS 5950-1 Table 17[10]
Lateral torsional buckling strength (N/mm2)
Steel grade
LT S275 S355
235 245 255 265 275 315 325 335 345 355
25 235 245 255 265 275 315 325 335 345 355
30 235 245 255 265 275 315 325 335 345 355
35 235 245 255 265 272 300 307 314 321 328
40 224 231 237 244 250 276 282 288 295 301
45 206 212 218 224 230 253 259 265 270 276
50 190 196 201 207 212 233 238 243 248 253
55 175 180 185 190 195 214 219 223 227 232
60 162 167 171 176 180 197 201 205 209 212
65 150 154 158 162 166 183 188 194 199 204
70 139 142 146 150 155 177 182 187 192 196
75 130 135 140 145 151 170 175 179 184 188
80 126 131 136 141 146 163 168 172 176 179
85 122 127 131 136 140 156 160 164 167 171
90 118 123 127 131 135 149 152 156 159 162
95 114 118 122 125 129 142 144 146 148 150
100 110 113 117 120 123 132 134 136 137 139
105 106 109 112 115 117 123 125 126 128 129
110 101 104 106 107 109 115 116 117 119 120
115 96 97 99 101 102 107 108 109 110 111
120 90 91 93 94 96 100 101 102 103 104
125 85 86 87 89 90 94 95 96 96 97
130 80 81 82 83 84 88 89 90 90 91
135 75 76 77 78 79 83 83 84 85 85
140 71 72 73 74 75 78 78 79 80 80
145 67 68 69 70 71 73 74 74 75 75
150 64 64 65 66 67 69 70 70 71 71
155 60 61 62 62 63 65 66 66 67 67
160 57 58 59 59 60 62 62 63 63 63
165 54 55 56 56 57 59 59 59 60 60
170 52 52 53 53 54 56 56 56 57 57
175 49 50 50 51 51 53 53 53 54 54
180 47 47 48 48 49 50 51 51 51 51
185 45 45 46 46 46 48 48 48 49 49
190 43 43 44 44 44 46 46 46 46 47
195 41 41 42 42 42 43 44 44 44 44
200 39 39 40 40 40 42 42 42 42 42
210 36 36 37 37 37 38 38 38 39 39
220 33 33 34 34 34 35 35 35 35 36
230 31 31 31 31 31 32 32 33 33 33
240 28 29 29 29 29 30 30 30 30 30
250 26 27 27 27 27 28 28 28 28 28
5 – 108
REFERENCES
1 EN 1993-1-8:2005: Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures. Design of joints

2 EN 1991-1-7: 2006: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. General actions.
Accidental actions
3 Detailed European design guides to the Eurocode. (http://www.access-steel.com)
4 Joints in steel construction: Simple connections
Steel Construction Institute, 2002
5 CHENG, J. J. R. and YURA, J. A.
Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, October 1986
Local web buckling of coped beams
6 CHENG, J. J. R, YURA, J. A. and JOHNSON. C. P.
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Texas at Austin
Design and behaviour of coped beams
PMFSEL Report No. 841, July 1984
7 JARRETT, N. D.
Tests on beam/column web side plate connections
BRE Client Report CR 54/90
Building Research Establishment, Watford, September 1990.
8 JASPART, J.-P., DEMONCEAU, J.-F.,.RENKIN, S., and GUILLAUME, M. L.
European recommendation for the design of simple joints in steel structures
Publication n°126, First edition,
ECCS, 2009
9 RENKIN, S.
Development of a European process for the design of simple structural joint in
steel frames (in French): Diploma work,
University of Liege, June 2003.
10 BS 5950-1:2000 Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for
design. Rolled and welded sections
BSI, 2000
11 YURA, J. A., HANSEN, M. A. and FRANK, K. H.
Bolted splice connections with undeveloped fillers
Journal of the Structural Division
ASCE, December 1982
12 EN 1090-2:2008: Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures.
Technical requirements for the execution of steel structures
13 EN 1992-1-1:2004: Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures. General rules and
rules for buildings
Flow charts
Flow charts for End plate, Fin plate and Column bases are available on the
Access Steel web site (http://www.access-steel.com)
The document references for these joint types are as follows:
Partial depth end plate SF008a
Fin plate SF009a
Column bases SF010a
5 – 109

.
6 - ii
FOREWORD
This publication is the sixth part of a design guide, Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.

Part 3: Actions
6 - iii
6 - iv
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING 3
2.1 Definition of fire safety engineering 3
2.2 Objectives of fire safety 3
2.3 Approaches to structural fire engineering 5
3 FIRE PROTECTION SOLUTIONS 14
3.1 Active fire protection 14
3.2 Passive fire protection 15
3.3 Fire resisting construction 19
4 SIMPLE CALCULATION MODELS 26
4.1 Fire behaviour and thermal actions 26
4.2 Heat transfer 29
4.3 Structural Analysis 30
4.4 Simple structural fire design methods 31
5 TENSILE MEMBRANE ACTION 37
5.1 Cardington fire test 37
5.2 FRACOF fire tests 39
6 USE OF NATURAL FIRE EXPOSURE AND ADVANCED STRUCTURAL
MODELLING 42
6.1 General 42
6.2 Modelling fire severity 42
6.3 Modelling heat transfer 43
6.4 Advanced structural models 43
6.5 Validation/verification of advanced models 44
6.6 Regulatory approval 44
REFERENCES 45
FURTHER READING 45
Worked Example: Fire safety strategies and design approach of steel floor beam 49
6-v
SUMMARY
This publication provides engineers with a wide range of strategies and design
approaches for the fire safety design of multi-storey buildings. It contains background
information and the design basis of fire safety engineering. Forms of construction
covered in this publication include unprotected and protected steel members and
composite members. In terms of fire safety strategies the reader will find guidance on
active and passive fire protection as well as alternative structural solutions and structural
fire design.
Three different fire design approaches are covered in this guide:

 Use of established datasheets.
 Simple calculation models to EN 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2.
 Advanced calculation models.
Engineers may use pre-engineered datasheets to ensure the fire safety of multi-storey
buildings. More economic fire design solutions may be achieved by using the simple
calculation models given in EN 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2 or by carrying out advanced
analyses based on engineering fundamentals and finite element techniques. The latter
approach is generally applied by specialist fire engineers.
6 - vi
1 INTRODUCTION
Fire safety is one of the most critical issues in the design of modern multi-
storey buildings. The term fire safety describes the precautions to minimise the
likelihood and effect of a fire that may result in injury, death and loss of
property. Figure 1.1 shows examples of fires in multi-storey buildings.
The general objectives of fire design are to protect life, including building
occupants and fire fighters, and to minimise business disruption, damage to
building property, building contents and the surrounding environment.
Figure 1.1 Fires in multi-storey buildings
To achieve the above objectives, the Construction Products Directive

89/106/EEC[1] states in Annex I – Essential requirements, that for Safety in
case of fire:
“The construction works must be designed and built in such a way that in the
event of an outbreak of fire:
 the load bearing capacity of the construction can be assumed for a specified
period of time,
 the generation and spread of fire and smoke within the works are limited,
 the spread of fire to neighbouring construction works is limited,
 the occupants can leave the works or can be rescued by other means,
 the safety of rescue teams is taken into consideration.”
To meet the regulatory requirements, engineers have to work closely with

architects, contractors, manufacturers and suppliers in the design of multi-
storey buildings for the fire scenario. Although many issues are primarily
covered in the architectural design, engineers need to be aware of fire safety
with particular reference to structural fire engineering. In some circumstances,
engineers may have to use a wide range of fire safety strategies and design
6-1
approaches to ensure that a multi-storey building meets all mandatory fire

safety requirements.
The parts of the Eurocodes relevant to fire design of multi-storey steel-framed

buildings with composite floors, include:
 EN 1991-1-2, Eurocode 1. Actions on structures exposed to fire[2]
 EN 1993-1-2, Eurocode 3. Steel structures – Structural fire design[3]
 EN 1994-1-2, Eurocode 4. Composite structures – Structural fire design[4].
In addition to the general requirements, principles and rules, these documents

also recommend the partial factors and design effect of loads for fire design.
They provide a series of equations/models for the calculation of temperature
rise, critical temperature and load bearing resistance of a structural member in
fire conditions.
This guide provides engineers with a wide range of fire safety strategies for the
design of multi-storey buildings. For less experienced designers this
publication provides guidance on the use of datasheets to meet the legal fire
safety requirements. More experienced engineers will find that the simple
calculation models in the Eurocodes are straightforward to apply and will result
in a more economic solution.
6-2
2 FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING
This Section describes the basis of fire engineering design with particular
reference to structural fire resistance and design approaches for multi-storey
building structures to ensure adequate levels of life safety as required by
national regulations.
2.1 Definition of fire safety engineering

Fire safety engineering is a multi-disciplinary science which applies scientific
and engineering principles to protect people, property and the environment
from fire. Structural fire engineering or design for fire resistance is a small part
of fire safety engineering.
2.2 Objectives of fire safety

The objective of fire safety is to limit the risk of loss resulting from fire. Loss
may be defined in terms of death or injury to building occupants or fire-
fighters, financial loss due to damage of the building contents or disruption to
business and environmental loss due to polluted fire fighting water or the
release of hazardous substances into the atmosphere.
National regulations normally set minimum fire safety requirements to provide

an adequate level of life safety, but other stakeholders such as the client,
building insurer or the government’s environmental protection agency may
also require that the risks of financial or environmental losses are limited.
The level of safety required is specified in national regulations. Although these

regulations vary between member states, they aim to fulfil the following core
objectives, defined by the Construction Products Directive 89/106/EEC[1]:
“The construction works must be designed and built in such a way that in the
event of an outbreak of fire:
 The load bearing resistance of the construction can be assumed for a
specified period of time
 The generation and spread of fire and smoke within the works are limited
 The spread of fire to neighbouring construction works is limited
 The occupants can leave the works or can be rescued by other means
 The safety of rescue teams is taken into consideration.”
While structural fire resistance cannot fulfil all of these core fire safety
objectives, it is normally considered to be a key part of the fire safety strategy
for a building.
6-3
2.2.1 Structural fire engineering

Structural fire engineering can be classed as a specific discipline within fire
safety engineering, concerning the analysis of structural behaviour in fire
conditions.
The basis of fire design for building structures is set out in EN 1990, which
states that fire design should be based on a consideration of fire development,
thermal response and mechanical behaviour. The required performance of the
structure can be determined by global analysis, analysis of sub-assemblies or
member analysis, as well as the use of tabular data derived from analysis or
testing and individual fire resistance test results.
Considering the fire behaviour allows the designer to define the thermal actions
to which the structural members will be exposed. In the prescriptive approach,
the thermal action can be determined directly by use of a nominal
time-temperature curve defined in EN 1991-1-2. For building structures, the
standard time-temperature curve (the ISO curve) is normally used.
Having determined the thermal actions, the thermal response of the structure
should be considered using an appropriate method of heat transfer analysis to
determine the temperature-time history of the structure.
Finally, the mechanical behaviour of the member may be evaluated by analysis

or testing to determine the resistance of the member given its temperature-time
history.
Depending on the intended function of a structural element, the acceptability of

its mechanical behaviour may be assessed against one or more of the following
criteria, evaluated either on the basis of analysis or fire resistance test.
 Load bearing resistance (R) - the ability to resist specified actions without
collapse during the required period of time in fire.
 Insulation (I) - the ability to restrict the temperature rise on the unexposed
surface below the defined limits of 140C (average) and 180C (maximum)
to prevent the ignition of a fire within the adjacent spaces.
 Integrity (E) - the ability to limit the development of significant sized holes
through its thickness, to prevent the transfer of hot gas and spread of a fire
into the adjacent spaces.
The national regulations denote each of these three categories by using the
above reference letter followed by the time requirement. For example a
requirement of 60 minutes load bearing resistance for a given member would
be expressed as R60.
Note that load bearing resistance (R) is required for all load bearing structural
elements. However, insulation (I) and integrity (E) are only required for
separating elements, such as floor slabs and walls which form fire resisting
compartment boundaries.
6-4
2.3 Approaches to structural fire engineering

Structural fire engineering design can be carried out using a prescriptive
approach, where periods of fire resistance are defined by national regulations,
or a performance-based approach, where the designer must quantify the level
of risk and demonstrate that it is acceptable. It should be noted that the
acceptance of a performance-based approach is dependant on national
regulatory authority, who should be consulted at an early stage of the design
process. Table 2.1 provides a summary of the tools available for use when
adopting either of these approaches.
Table 2.1 Approaches for fire design

Fire effects
Fire loads Fire resistance
Approach Tools (Member
(Thermal actions) (Member resistance)
temperature)
Prescriptive Pre- Standard ISO fire Relevant information covered in:
approach engineered tests to:  information packages provided by fire
(standard fire datasheets  EN 1363-1, § 5 protection manufacturers
methods)  EN 1365-2, § 5  documents published in Access-Steel
 EN 1994-1-2, § 4.2
Simple rules Standard ISO fire Steel members to EN 1993-1-2
& models calculations to § 4.2.5 § 4.2.3
EN 1991-1-2, §3.2 § 4.2.4
Composite members to EN 1994-1-2
Annex D2, Annex E – F,
§ 4.3.4.2.2 § 4.3.1
§ 4.3.4.2.4
§ 4.3.4.2.3
Advanced Physical models for Physical models for
rules & heat transfer structural response
models Finite element Finite element
analysis analysis
Performance- Simple rules Parametric fire Steel members to EN 1993-1-2
based & models Localised fire § 4.2.5 § 4.2.3
approach § 4.2.4
(natural fire
methods) Advanced Consider interaction between structural members and tensile
rules & membrane action.
models Natural fire to Physical models Physical models for
EN 1991-1-2, § 3.3 for heat transfer structural response
Annex A to F Finite element Finite element analysis
Localised, zones, analysis
CFD
2.3.1 Prescriptive Approach

The prescriptive approach is the traditional and still most commonly used
method for fire engineering design. It aims solely to provide adequate levels of
life safety to meet the fire resistance requirements specified in the national
building regulations. Prescriptive regulations will contain requirements that
aim to satisfy the core objectives for fire safety set out in Section 2.2.
Structural fire resistance

Prescriptive regulations require that buildings are subdivided by fire resisting
construction. The requirements typically give limits for the maximum size of a
single compartment and recommend fire resistance requirements for the
6-5
structural elements separating one compartment from another. Dividing a

multi-storey building horizontally and vertically into a number of fire
compartments will help to limit the spread of fire and smoke inside the
building, giving occupants adequate time to escape. Some national regulations
permit a relaxation in the limits of compartment size if the building is fitted
with a sprinkler system.
Structural fire resistance requirements are normally defined in terms of time

periods during which a structure or structural member will perform adequately
when assessed against the load bearing, insulation and integrity criteria.
The requirements for fire resistance for multi-storey buildings are generally
specified with regard to the use and height of the building, as shown in
Table 2.2. Typically, the fire resistance requirements for multi-storey buildings
range from 60 minutes (R60) to 120 minutes (R120), but some national
regulations may require up to 4 hours fire resistance. If a building is fitted with
a sprinkler system, the fire resistance period required for the structural
elements by prescriptive regulations may be reduced.
Table 2.2 Typical fire resistance requirements

Fire resistance (min)
for height of top storey
(m)
<5 18 30 >30
Residential 30 60 90 120 Height of top storey excludes
roof-top plant areas
(non-domestic) Roof
Office 30 60 90 120*
Shops, commercial, 30 60 90 120*
assembly and recreation
Height of top
storey measured
Closed car parks 30 60 90 120 from upper floor
surface of top
Open-sided car parks 15 15 15 60 floor to ground
level on lowest
* Sprinklers are required, but the fire resistance of side of building
the floor may be 90 minutes only.
This table is based on UK practice; other European countries may have different requirements.
As an illustration of the differences in fire requirements, the German

regulations state that open multi-storey car parks in Germany do not require
any fire resistance (R0).
6-6
Figure 2.1 Unprotected open multi-storey car park in Germany (R0)
When adopting a prescriptive approach, fire behaviour modelling is not

required and thermal actions should be based on the standard temperature-time
curve (ISO curve).
The heat transfer calculations used to determine the temperature-time history of

the structure are iterative and usually require some form of automation. Simple
equations for protected and unprotected steel sections are provided by
EN 1993-1-2[3] and EN 1994-1-2[4]. Alternatively, there are a number of
commercially available software packages based on finite element or finite
difference analysis methods. For steel-concrete composite structural elements,
the design methods provided in the Informative Annexes to EN 1994-1-2 also
include tabular data which avoid the need for heat transfer analysis, but the
methods are restricted in scope.
Compliance with prescriptive requirements may be demonstrated using

analysis, tabulated results based on testing and/or analysis, or individual results
obtained from standard fire tests.
Structural analysis may be based on simple engineering models that consider

individual structural members or finite element models that allow structural sub
assemblies or full structures to be analysed.
Tabular Data
Tabular data on fire performance may provide generic or product specific data.
Generic tabular data for steel and steel-concrete composite structures is
available in EN 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2. The critical temperature method in
6-7
EN 1993-1-2 provides a table of critical temperature data expressed in terms of

the degree of utilisation. Data for the design of a range of steel concrete
composite beams and columns is also provided in tabular format in
EN 1994-1-2.
Product-specific tabular data is commonly available for fire protection

materials that can be applied to structural steelwork. The required thickness of
fire protection is usually expressed as a function of fire resistance period,
section factor and critical temperature. Many other building products, such as
steel decking for composite floors, also come with product specific design
tables.
Simple calculation models

As an alternative to tabular data, the designer may choose to carry out simple
calculations to determine the resistance of a member after a given period of fire
exposure. The fire action is taken as the standard temperature-time curve in the
Eurocodes. The resistance of the member depends on the level of applied load
and loss of material strength under fire conditions, and is calculated according
to the Eurocode rules.
Simple calculation models are most practical when used to justify the design of
unprotected steelwork, usually in circumstances where the fire resistance
requirement is R30 or lower. Where protected steelwork is required normal
tabular data provided by fire protection manufacturers is more efficient.
The disadvantage of these calculation models is that their application is limited

to individual structural members and does not allow for the interaction between
the structural member and the surrounding structure.
Advanced calculation models

Advanced calculation models use both engineering fundamentals and finite
element techniques to carry out structural fire design. Thermal and structural
responses to fire actions may be determined using advanced physical models.
This type of analysis normally leads to a more economic solution than both the
prescriptive approach and the simple calculation models. This method helps
designers to develop more innovative solutions for building structures and it
often proves that it is safe to leave some steel members unprotected without
compromising the fire resistance of the structure.
Advanced calculation models demand a considerable amount of calculations to

be carried out and require significant expertise from the designer in terms of
structural fire engineering and finite element techniques.
Classification of lining materials

National regulations impose controls on the materials used as lining for the
walls and ceilings of buildings. These materials must resist the spread of
flames across the surfaces and must not contribute significantly to the fire in
terms of heat release or smoke production. Lining materials are categorised on
the basis of the result of reaction to fire tests.
6-8
External fire spread

In order to control the size of a fire, national regulations normally require that
the potential for fire spread between buildings is considered. In some cases, the
fire resistance requirements for external walls will depend on the distance
between buildings reflecting the fact that radiated heat is the main fire risk for
the adjacent building. As the space between the buildings increases the
intensity of the heat flux diminishes.
Means of escape
Prescriptive regulations also require that escape routes are provided to allow
occupants to move to a place of safety outside the building in the event of fire.
Depending on the building usage and the likely number of occupants the
regulations may prescribe the number of exits required, the width of the stairs
or corridors used as fire escapes and the maximum distance that needs to be
travelled from the most remote point in the building.
Table 2.3 gives an appreciation of the importance of travel distances in the

design of escape stairs. Note that the value of the maximum travel distance in
different countries may vary.
Table 2.3 Typical maximum travel distances (m) to fire-protected areas or

escape stairs
Type of building One direction Multiple directions
Residential 9 18
Office 18 45
Shop 18 45
The design of means of escape influences the layout of the building plan in
terms of arrangements of doors, corridors and, in particular, the number and
locations of staircases in the building.
Access for emergency services

Prescriptive regulations require that access and facilities are provided for the
fire service, so that they can carry out fire-fighting and rescue operations. In
multi-storey buildings there may be a requirement for a fire-fighting shaft,
including a staircase and/or lifts to allow fire fighters a means of getting
personnel and equipment to the floor affected by fire. The fire-fighting shaft
may also contain a wet or dry water main running vertically up the building
which can be used to provide the necessary water supply for fire fighting
operations. The fire fighting shaft is designed to given fire-fighters a place of
relative safety from which they can launch fire-fighting operations into the
fire-affected compartment. Fire-fighting shafts usually take up more floor
space than a normal stairway and lift shaft, so these requirements can have a
significant impact on building design and need to be considered at an early
stage. The area around the building must also allow access for emergency
vehicles, usually to within reasonable proximity of the wet or dry water main
inlets.
6-9
2.3.2 Performance-based approach

A performance-based fire design procedure should be clearly documented so
that the philosophy and assumptions can be clearly understood by a third party.
The procedure may include the following main steps:
 Review the architectural design of the building
 Establish fire safety objectives
 Identify fire hazards and possible consequences
 Establish possible fire safety strategies
 Identify acceptance criteria and methods of analysis
 Establish fire scenarios for analysis.
Review of architectural design

This review should aim to identify any architectural or client requirements that
may be significant in the development of a fire safety solution, for example:
 The future use of the building and the anticipated building contents, as well
as the anticipated permanent, variable and thermal actions
 The type of structure and building layout
 The presence of smoke ventilation systems or sprinkler systems
 The characteristics of the buildings occupants, the number of people likely
to be in the building and their distribution
 The type of fire detection and alarm system
 The degree of building management throughout the life of the building (for
example, maintaining active fire safety measures or ensuring that
combustible materials are not allowed to accumulate in vulnerable areas).
Fire safety objectives

At an early stage of the design process, the fire safety objectives should be
clearly identified. This process will be undertaken ideally in consultation with
the client, regulatory authority and other stakeholders.
The main fire safety objectives that may be addressed are life safety, control of
financial loss and environmental protection.
Life safety objectives are already set out in prescriptive regulations, but should
include provisions to ensure that the building occupants can evacuate the
building in reasonable safety, that fire-fighters can operate in reasonable safety
and that collapse does not endanger people who are likely to be near the
building.
The effects of fire on the continuing viability of a business can be substantial

and consideration should be given to minimising damage to the structure and
fabric of the building, the building contents, the on-going business viability and
the corporate image. The level of precautions that are deemed necessary in a
particular building will depend on the size and nature of the business
undertaken in it. In some cases, it may be easy to relocate the business to
6 - 10
alternative premises without serious disruption; in other cases, business may

stop until the building is reinstated. Many businesses that experience fires in
their premises go bankrupt before resuming business following a fire.
A large conflagration which releases hazardous materials into the environment

may have a significant impact on the environment. The pollution may be air
borne or water borne, as a result of the large volumes of water required for fire
fighting operations.
Identification of fire hazards and possible consequences

A review of potential fire hazards may include consideration of ignition
sources, the volume and distribution of combustible materials, activities
undertaken in the building and any unusual factors. When evaluating the
significance of these hazards, consideration needs to be given to the likely
consequences and their impact on achieving the fire safety objectives.
Possible fire safety strategies

In order to quantify the level of fire safety achieved, one or more possible
safety strategies should be proposed for the building. These will normally be
the most cost-effective strategies that satisfy the fire safety objectives.
The fire safety strategy is an integrated package of measures in the design of

multi-storey buildings. The following should be considered when developing a
fire safety strategy:
 Automatic suppression measures (e.g. sprinkler systems) to limit the
likelihood of the spread of fire and smoke
 Automatic detection systems, which provide an early warning of fire
 Compartmentation of the building with fire resisting construction and the
provision of fire resisting structural elements, to ensure structural stability
 Means of escape-provision of adequate numbers of escape routes (of
reasonable travel distances and widths) considering the number of people
likely to occupy the building at any time
 Automatic systems, such as self-closing fire doors or shutters, to control the
spread of smoke and flames
 Automatic smoke control systems, to ensure smoke free escape routes
 Alarm and warning systems, to alert the building occupants
 Evacuation strategy
 First aid fire fighting equipment
 Fire service facilities
 Management of fire safety.
Establishing acceptance criteria and methods of analysis

The acceptable performance criteria for performance-based design will be
based on the global analysis of a given fire strategy. The criteria have to be
established and evaluated following a discussion between designers and clients,
using comparative, deterministic or probabilistic approaches.
6 - 11
A comparative approach evaluates the level of fire safety obtained from

performance-based design in relation to that from a prescriptive approach, to
ensure an equivalent level of fire safety is achieved. A deterministic approach
aims to quantify the effects of a worst case fire scenario and to demonstrate
that the effects will not exceed the acceptance criteria defined. A probabilistic
approach aims to show that the fire safety strategy makes the likelihood of
large losses occurring sufficiently small.
Establishing fire scenarios

The number of possible fire scenarios in any building can become large and
resources to analyse all of them are usually not available. Therefore detailed
analysis must be confined to the most significant fire scenarios or the worst
creditable case as it is sometimes referred to. The failure of protection systems
should also be included in the fire scenarios considered. In most buildings
more than one fire scenario will require detailed analysis.
2.3.3 Choice of optimum approach

The choice of an optimum approach for the fire design of multi-storey
buildings depends on various parameters, such as geometry, structural features,
service function and designers’ knowledge of fire design. Table 2.4 provides
some suggestions as to which approach may result in a more economic
solution.
Overall, for low-rise buildings with a small floor area, the pre-engineered
datasheet approach may be the optimum choice. For high-rise buildings with a
large floor area or to take into account the benefits of active protection
measures, economic benefits may be obtained using advanced calculation
models. For most medium size buildings, simple calculation models may result
in the most economic solution.
Table 2.4 Choice of optimum approach for fire engineering design

Simple Advanced
Features of building Datasheets calculation calculation
models models
1 Building size - floor area per storey, A
Small: 
A < 200 m2
Medium: 
200 m2 < A < 2000 m2
Large:   
A > 2000 m2
2 Building height – number of storeys, n
Low:  
n≤5
High:   
n>6
 Most economic solution
 Probably an economic solution
The use of active fire protection measures, such as detectors, alarms or

sprinklers, is beneficial if advanced calculation methods are used. It is noted
6 - 12
that some national regulations and/or local authorities allow a reduction in the
fire loads when these measures are present.
The ease of access to specialists in fire design will facilitate the use of
advanced methods. However, for those designers with no experience in the
field, the use of simple methods or the datasheets is likely to make the project
more economic, as important savings can be made in the design costs.
In this regard, Table 2.5 outlines the recommended approach to be used

depending on the skills of the designer and indicates which Section of this
guide covers the relevant information.
Table 2.5 Impact of the skills of the designer in the fire solution
Knowledge in fire engineering Recommended design approach (section of this
design guide which covers the method)
Non-specialist Active fire protection (3.1)
Passive fire protection (3.2)
Alternative fire resisting systems (3.3)
Limited knowledge Simple calculation methods (4)
Tensile membrane action (5)
Specialist Advanced calculation methods (6)
6 - 13
3 FIRE PROTECTION SOLUTIONS
3.1 Active fire protection

Active fire protection measures include installation of detectors, alarms and
sprinklers, which can detect fire or smoke and suppress the fire at its earliest
stage.
These fire protection systems can have a significant influence on the level of
life safety and property protection that can be achieved in a building.
Prescriptive regulations usually require detection and alarm systems to be
installed and these, along with sprinklers, often form an important part of the
fire safety strategy in performance-based designs.
3.1.1 Detectors and alarms

As part of a strategy based on active fire protection measures, a number of
detectors have to be installed in multi-storey buildings. These devices can
detect heat, smoke and flames. Fire alarm systems are designed to alert
occupants of the need to evacuate the building due to a fire outbreak.
Figure 3.1 shows a typical detector and alarm device.
Figure 3.1 Fire detector and alarm device
3.1.2 Sprinklers
Sprinklers are devices that automatically suppress a small fire, either on its
ignition or shortly after its ignition.
As shown in Figure 3.2, a sprinkler normally has a glass bulb, which contains a
volatile liquid and seals the water nozzle. In the event of fire, the heated liquid
expands, breaks the glass bulb and thus activates the sprinkler head.
Sprinklers contribute to both structural fire safety and building property

protection. In some countries use of sprinklers in a multi-storey building may
lead to a reduction in the required fire resistance period, but this should be
checked with the relevant national regulations.
6 - 14
Figure 3.2 Sprinkler and its activation
3.2 Passive fire protection

The high temperatures induced in a building by the outbreak of a fire affect all
construction materials, such that their strength and stiffness is reduced as the
temperature increases. It is often necessary to provide fire protection to
structural members in multi-storey steel buildings in order to delay the loss of
load bearing capacity. Structural members may be insulated by using fire
protection materials, such as boards, sprays and intumescent coatings. The
performance of these fire protection materials is tested and assessed in
accordance with EN 13381[5].
The thickness of protection required in a given building will depend on the fire
protection material selected, the fire resistance period required by national
building regulations, the section factor of the member to be protected, and the
critical temperature of the member.
3.2.1 Fire protection methods and materials

There are two types of passive protection materials, namely non-reactive and
reactive. Non-reactive protection materials maintain their properties when they
are exposed to a fire. Boards and sprays are the most common non-reactive
materials. Reactive protection materials are characterised by a change in their
properties when they are subject to fire. The most well known example of this
type of protection is the intumescent coating.
Boards
A variety of proprietary boards, with thicknesses ranging from 15 to 50 mm,
are widely used to protect steel members to achieve a 30 to 120 minute fire
resistance.
Boards are generally manufactured from either mineral fibres or naturally

occurring plate-like materials such as vermiculite and mica, using cement
and/or silicate binders. Boards may be fixed to steel members either
mechanically, using screws, straps and/or galvanized angles, or glued and
pinned.
6 - 15
60
50
Thickness(mm)
40
30
20
10
0
30 60 90 120
Fire resistance (mins)
(a) (b)
Figure 3.3 Board fire protection (a) Fixing of boards to steel column; (b) Fire
resistance
Boards are factory-manufactured and therefore, their thickness and quality can
generally be guaranteed. They offer a clean, boxed appearance, which may be
pre-finished or ready for further decoration. However, boards cannot easily be
fitted to members with complex shapes. Boards generally cost more than
sprayed and intumescent coatings, although non-decorative boards may be
cheaper than decorative ones. In addition, the time required to fix the boards is
significant compared to the application of intumescent coatings, which not only
increases the construction costs but it also affects the construction programme
of multi-storey buildings.
Sprayed non-reactive coatings

The process of applying this type of protection is shown in Figure 3.4(a).
Sprayed non-reactive coatings with thicknesses of 10 to 35 mm are widely used
to protect steel members, to achieve a fire resistance of between 30 and 120
minutes, as shown in Figure 3.4(b).
40
35
30
Thickness(mm)
25
20
15
10
5
0
30 60 90 120
Fire resistance (mins)
(a) Application (b) Fire resistance for a given thickness
Figure 3.4 Sprayed non-reactive fire protection (a) Application (b) Fire
resistance
6 - 16
Sprayed non-reactive coatings are mainly cement or gypsum based materials

that contain mineral fibre, expanded vermiculite and/or other lightweight
aggregates or fillers. This type of protection is applied in situ and it is
particularly suitable for members that have complex profiles and are not visible
in use. However, spraying the protection in situ may require extensive
shielding and affect the construction programme.
Intumescent coatings
In contrast with the non-reactive boards and sprays, intumescent coatings react
in fire, and change their properties from an initial decorative paint into an
intumescent layer of carbonaceous char, by swelling to about 50 times their
original thickness. Typical initial thicknesses of 0,25 to 2,5 mm can provide a
fire resistance of 30 to 120 minutes, as shown in Figure 3.5.
Intumescent coatings are similar in appearance to conventional paints, and may

be solvent based or water borne. They consist of three layers which include a
compatible primer, the intumescent coat and a top coat or sealer coat (often
available in a wide range of colours). Currently, most intumescent coatings are
applied off site to aid the construction programme.
5.0
4.0
Thickness (mm)
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
30 60 90
Fire resistance(mins)
Figure 3.5 Intumescent coatings
Some intumescent coatings are also used for external applications and for
heritage applications, where the appearance of the building must be
maintained.
3.2.2 Thickness of fire protection materials

For a given product, the thickness of fire protection depends on the required
fire resistance and on the section factor of the steel members. The section
factor varies with the choice of fire protection and with the type and size of
steel member. Figure 3.6 gives expressions to calculate the section factor,
based on the configuration of fire protection and on the geometric properties of
the steel section.
6 - 17
2b  h  t w bh
AV  AV 
b  t w tf  0,5ht w b  tw tf  0,5htw
(1) (2)
tf
tw
h
1,5b  h  t w 0,5b  h
AV  AV 
b  tw tf  0,5htw b  tw tf  0,5htw
(3) (4)
(1) – 4 sides profile protection (2) – 4 sides box protection

(3) – 3 sides profile protection (4) – 3 sides box protection
Figure 3.6 Protection configuration and section factor
The required fire resistance period is determined by the national building

regulations in each country. Based on datasheets, such as Table 3.1 for board
protection, Table 3.2 for sprayed non-reactive coating and Table 3.3 for
intumescent coating, the thickness of protection materials can be easily
defined.
Datasheets are usually published by manufacturers. In some countries

manufacturers’ datasheets have been consolidated into reference documents
published by the relevant body and agreed for use by the designers.
6 - 18
Table 3.1 Example of datasheet for board fire protection

Maximum Section factor Am/V (m-1)
for beams and columns
Thickness of board protection R30 R60 R90 R120
(mm)
20 260 260 125 70
25 198 110
30 260 168
35 232
40 256
45 260
Table 3.2 Example of datasheet for sprayed non-reactive coatings

Required thickness (mm) of sprayed non-reactive
coatings
Section factor Am/V (m-1) R30 R60 R90 R120
40 10 10 11 15
80 10 12 16 21
120 10 14 19 24
160 10 15 21 26
200 10 16 22 28
240 10 16 23 29
280 10 17 23 30
Table 3.3 Example of datasheet for intumescent coatings for R60

Section factor Am/V (m-1) 3 side- I beam 4 side- I beam 4 side– I column
40 0,25 0,26 0,26
80 0,31 0,39 0,39
120 0,39 0,53 0,53
160 0,48 0,66 0,66
200 0,69 0,83 0,83
240 0,90 1,00 1,00
280 1,08 1,74 1,74
3.3 Fire resisting construction

In recognition of the importance of structural fire resistance and the costs
associated with passive fire protection materials, some alternative structural
systems have been developed which utilize their inherent fire resistance and
avoid the need of dedicated fire protection. These systems include composite
floors, integrated beams and encased steelwork.
3.3.1 Composite floor

Precast concrete slabs have an inherent fire resistance of up to 120 minutes if
adequate provision and detailing of rebar is made. However, the slabs usually
rest on the top flange of a down stand beam (see Figure 3.7(a)), which is
exposed on three sides and requires fire protection.
6 - 19
As an alternative to precast concrete floors, composite floors, shown in

Figure 3.7(b), are popular in multi-storey buildings.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.7 (a) Precast concrete floor on down stand beam; (b) composite
floors with steel decking
Composite floors are constructed using either trapezoidal or re-entrant profiled

steel decking that supports the concrete on top. In a composite floor, the
concrete is reinforced using fibre or bar reinforcement to control cracks caused
by the flexural tension at the floor support, and by shrinkage and settlement of
the concrete. In addition to controlling cracks, the bar reinforcement also
provides the floor with bending resistance at its support in the fire condition.
For a composite floor with the bottom surface exposed, the insulation criterion
is usually satisfied by providing sufficient insulation depth of the concrete for
the required fire resistance period, as shown in Table 3.4. The longer the
required fire resistance period, the thicker the insulation concrete needs to be.
The integrity criterion is generally met by using continuous steel decking.
Table 3.4 Typical minimum insulation thickness (mm), h1, of concrete in

composite floors
Trapezoidal steel decking Re-entrant steel decking
h1 h1
Required Fire
Resistance h2
(minutes) h2
Normal weight Light weight Normal weight Light weight

concrete concrete concrete concrete
60 70 60 90 90
90 80 70 110 105
120 90 80 125 115
Table 3.5 shows typical depths and spans of composite floors with normal
weight concrete under a uniform applied load of 5,0 kN/mm2.
6 - 20
Table 3.5 Typical depths and spans of composite floors

Trapezoidal steel decking Re-entrant steel decking
Required fire d d
Resistance
(minutes)
Single span Double span Single span Double span
Depth Span Depth Span Depth Span Depth Span
(mm) (m) (mm) (m) (mm) (m) (mm) (m)
60 140 3,8 140 4,2 101 3,0 101 3,4
90 150 3,1 150 3,3 105 2,9 105 3,3
120 160 3,1 160 3,4 115 2,4 115 2,9
3.3.2 Integrated beams

Integrated beams are part of a floor construction system where the steel beams
are contained within the depth of an in-situ or pre-cast concrete slab, instead of
supporting the slab on the top flanges of the beams. Consequently, the overall
depth of the floor construction is minimized. The whole steel section, except
for its bottom flange or plate, is insulated from the fire by the surrounding
concrete.
Figure 3.8 ASB - Integrated beam (rolled asymmetric steel beam)
Figure 3.9 IFB - Integrated beam (I-section with a plate welded to its bottom
flange)
6 - 21
There are two types of open section integrated beams: asymmetric steel beam
(ASB) and integrated fabricated beam (IFB), as shown in Figure 3.8 and
Figure 3.9 respectively.
Generally, integrated beams can achieve up to 60 minutes fire resistance

without being fire-protected. With the inclusion of additional longitudinal
reinforcement, 90 minutes fire resistance is possible with an unprotected
bottom flange. The total structural depths and typical spans of integrated beams
are summarised in Table 3.6, which may be referred to at the preliminary
design of multi-storey buildings.
Table 3.6 Structural depth and typical span of integrated beams

Type of floor Depth (mm) Span (m)
ASB Integrated beam 280 to 400 6 to 9
IFB Integrated beam 250 to 450 6 to 9
3.3.3 Partially encased beams and columns

Partially encased beams and columns are constructed by filling the space
between the flanges of I-sections using plain or reinforced concrete, as shown
in Figure 3.10 and Figure 3.11.
Compared with the unprotected I-sections, which only have about 15 minutes
fire resistance, partially encased sections can achieve over 60 minutes, which
normally meets the fire resistance requirements of many multi-storey buildings.
The increase in fire resistance period is due to the coverage of most parts of the
surface area of the steelwork using concrete, which has a low thermal
conductivity. Longer periods of fire resistance can also be achieved by
increasing the amount of reinforcement embedded within the concrete, to
compensate the loss of the strength of the steelwork in fire.
beff
hc
Ac
h
As
A f = b x ef u1
ef
ew u2
Figure 3.10 Partially encased beam
EN 1994-1-2 offers relatively simple rules and established datasheets in clauses

§4.2.2 and §4.2.3 for fire design of composite beams and columns, including
partially encased steel sections. These rules relate the fire resistance of
6 - 22
composite members to their load level (the load level is denoted as fi,t and is
described in Sections 4.4.2 and 4.4.3 of this guide), the h/b ratio, the member
type and the area of reinforcement As.
Generally, an increase of the fire resistance or the load level requires larger
cross-sections and additional reinforcement for partially encased sections. The
datasheets can be used to determine the minimum cross-sectional dimensions
(such as the section width bmin) and reinforcement ratio As,min of partially
encased sections, to achieve the required fire resistance period.
ef
Ac
As h
us
ew us
Figure 3.11 Partially encased column
Table 3.7 shows a datasheet taken from EN 1994-1-2 for the fire design of
partially encased sections. When using this type of design data, the load level
ηfi,t may be calculated as follows:
Rfi,d, t   fi, t  Rd
where:
Rfi,d,t is the design resistance of the member in fire conditions at time, t.
Rd is the design resistance of the member for room temperature design.
When calculating the load level, EN 1994-1-2 recommends that the design
resistance for room temperature design, Rd, is calculated for a buckling length
that is twice the buckling length used for fire design.
6 - 23
Table 3.7 Typical datasheets for fire design of partially encased sections
Section Width bmin(mm)/Reinforcement As,min ratio (%) for
Member Ratio Load level the required fire resistance period (min)
h/b R30 R60 R90 R120 R180
Beam >1,5 fi,t ≤ 0,5 80/0,0 150/0,0 200/0,2 240/0,3 300/0,5
fi,t ≤ 0,7 80/0,0 240/0,3 270/0,4 300/0,6
>3,0 fi,t ≤ 0,5 60/0,0 100/0,0 170/0,2 200/0,3 250/0,3
fi,t ≤ 0,7 70/0,0 170/0,2 190/0,4 270/0,5 300/0,8
Column Minimum fi,t ≤ 0,47 160/- 300/4,0 400/4,0
h and b
fi,t ≤ 0,66 160/1,0 400/4,0
As an example, consider the case of a partially-encased beam with a ratio

h/b > 3, under moderate load (fi,t ≤ 0,5).
For a fire resistance period of 60 minutes (R60):

 The width should not be less than 100 mm, which leads to
h > 3b = 300 mm. So the minimum cross-sectional area is 100  300 mm
 No reinforcement is required, As = 0.
To achieve a fire resistance period of 120 minutes (R120):

 The width should not be less than 200 mm. Therefore the height
h > 3b = 600 mm and therefore the minimum cross-sectional area is
200  600 mm
 The reinforcement area, As, should not be less than 0,3% of the encased
concrete area Ac, i.e., As ≥ 0,003Ac.
3.3.4 External steelwork

In some circumstances, the main structural members, such as columns and
beams, may be located outside the building envelope without any fire
protection, as shown in Figure 3.12. The fire protection requirements of
external steelwork are significantly reduced, as the temperature of the external
steelwork is lower compared to members inside a compartment.
Further guidance on use of external steelwork for fire design can be found in
EN 1993-1-2, §4.2.5.4.
6 - 24
Figure 3.12 Use of external steelwork
3.3.5 Combined solutions for fire resistance

By careful selection of the structural solutions, up to 60 minutes of fire
resistance can be achieved for multi-storey buildings without applying fire
protection materials. Generally, this will demand the use of integrated beams
and partially encased or concrete filled columns. Table 3.8 shows the fire
resistance period that may be achieved for a structure using combinations of
beam and column construction discussed above. This table considers the fire
resistance of individual elements and less conservative results can generally be
achieved by considering fire design based on assemblies of structural elements
using methods such as FRACOF (see Section 5.2).
Table 3.8 Combined solution for steel frame with or without fire protection
Unprotected External Integrated Encased Protected
beam beam beams beam beam
Fire resistance period (min)
Unprotected steel column 15 15 15 15 15
External column 15 >30 >30 >30 >30
Encased column 15 >30 >60 >60 >60
Protected column 15 >30 >60 >60 >60
Note: Fire resistance period stated is the lower value for the beam or column construction.
6 - 25
4 SIMPLE CALCULATION MODELS
In previous Sections, the prescriptive approach to fire design through use of

datasheets has been shown to provide a safe solution. However, it does not
necessarily offer the most efficient design. By using the simple calculation
models described in the Eurocodes, the designer may be able to demonstrate
that less or no protection is required in some or all of the structural elements,
thus leading to a more economic solution to fire design.
There are two approaches to these simple calculations: the critical temperature
approach and the load bearing capacity approach. Based on these methods the
designer may reasonably decide whether or not fire-protection is required.
These methods, however, deal with individual members under standard fire
exposure, instead of an entire structure in natural fire. Hence, unlike the
performance-based analysis (see Section 6), they do not consider the actual
behaviour of the structural member in a real fire.
In order facilitate the understanding of the reasoning behind the simple

methods given in the Eurocode and described in Sections 4.4.2 and 4.4.3 of this
guide, an introduction to the thermal effects of fire is given in Section 4.1.
4.1 Fire behaviour and thermal actions

4.1.1 Fire action and standard fire
Fire is a very complex phenomenon that involves different kinds of chemical
reactions. Fire releases heat energy in the form of flames and smoke within the
building compartment, as shown in Figure 4.1 (a).
When a fire occurs, the temperature of the gas within the building compartment
rises rapidly. For the purpose of fire design, the fire action is represented by a
standard temperature-time curve, as defined in EN 1991-1-2. This curve is
denoted ‘standard fire’ in Figure 4.1(b).
(a) Fire (Cardington test) ( b) Standard fire curve and temperature rise of members
Figure 4.1 Fire action
6 - 26
The temperature rise of a member in fire is predominantly governed by

radiation and convection mechanisms, via a complex diffusion process. It
depends on the thermal properties of the materials and the thickness of the
protection layer, if it is fire-protected.
Due to the rapid increase of the gas temperature, the heat energy from the fire
(i.e. thermal action) flows into the member through the exposed surfaces, and
heats up the member. As a result, the temperature of the member rises,
typically following the curves shown in Figure 4.1 (b) for different scenarios of
protected and unprotected members.
4.1.2 Modelling fire behaviour

As a thermal action on building structures, a fire can be classified into localised
and fully-developed fires.
Localised fire
A localised fire is in the pre-flashover phase and occurs only in some part of a
compartment. A localised fire is unlikely to spread to the whole compartment
and to cause a flashover, due to its slow propagation and the low temperature
developed. A localised fire is generally modelled using plume, zones and
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models.
Plume model
Annex C of EN 1991-1-2 gives a so-called plume model to determine the
thermal action of a localised fire. If the flame remains below the ceiling, as
shown in Figure 4.2 (a), the model is used to calculate the corresponding
temperature along its vertical axis. However, if the flame impacts the ceiling,
as shown in Figure 4.2 (b) then the model determines the heat flux at the level
of the ceiling together with the flame length.
a) Flame remains below the ceiling (b) Flame impacts the ceiling
Figure 4.2 Plume model for a localised fire in EN 1991-1-2
4.1.3 Fully developed fire

A fire is fully developed when all the available fuels within a compartment are
burning simultaneously and the maximum heat is released. A fully developed
fire is commonly modelled using either standard or parametric fires, as shown
6 - 27
in Figure 4.3. The severity of a fully developed fire is governed by the

ventilation condition and quantity and nature of the fuel within the
compartment.
Gas Temperature (°C)
1200
Standard Fire
1000
800
600
Parametric fire
400
200
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (min)
Figure 4.3 Model of fully developed fire
4.1.4 Nominal temperature-time curve

Standard fire
EN 1991-1-2, §3.2 uses the standard temperature-time curve to represent the
thermal action of a fully developed fire. This ‘standard fire’ is used to classify
the fire performance of the structural materials and members in standard fire
furnace tests. It forms the basis on which the fire resistance time and load
bearing resistance of structural members are evaluated using the simple
calculation models from EN 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2. It is also used in the
performance-based analysis for fire design of a whole structure.
4.1.5 Natural fire model

Parametric fire
EN 1991-1-2, Annex A defines a parametric temperature-time curve for fire
compartments up to 500 m2 floor area. This ‘parametric fire’ consists of a
heating, cooling and residual phases. The heating phase is normally represented
using an exponential curve up to a maximum temperature. The cooling phase is
described by a sloping straight line until it reaches the residual phase. For a
parametric fire, the heating phase depends on ventilation conditions and the
thermal properties of the compartment boundary. The heating duration and
maximum temperature are governed by the density of the fire loads and the
ventilation condition. The cooling phase is controlled by the heating duration
and the maximum temperature that has been reached.
To some extent, the parametric fire represents the characteristics of a natural

fire. However, its accuracy for estimating the thermal response of fire depends
on the accuracy of the input data, such as fire load, ventilation condition,
compartment size and thermal properties of the boundary condition.
6 - 28
4.2 Heat transfer

This Section explains the fire actions and the evolution of the temperature in
structural members under a standard fire exposure, with an emphasis on the
concepts of standard fire and section factor.
Section factor Am/V

An important parameter in the rate at which the temperature of a member
increases is the ratio Am/V of the member, commonly known as the section
factor. The section factor is defined as the ratio of the exposed surface area of a
member to its volume per unit length.
The influence of the section factor is shown in Figure 4.1(b) for protected and
unprotected members. A larger section factor leads to a faster heating of the
member. For example, after 15 minutes of fire exposure, the temperature of an
unprotected member with a section factor of Am/V = 200 increases to about
580C, while that of the unprotected member with Am/V = 100 only reaches
380C.
This difference is due to the fact that a large value of the section factor
represents a large exposed surface area compared with its volume, and
therefore, the member receives more heat than that with a low section factor,
which represents a small exposed surface area. This is illustrated in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4 Definition of section factor Am/V of a member in fire
Member temperature at time t

The temperature θa,t of the member at time t can be calculated using the simple
models given in §4.2.5 of EN 1993-1-2 or §4.3.4.2 of EN 1994-1-2.
If the critical temperature exceeds the design temperature, i.e. θcr > θa,t then the
fire resistance of the unprotected member is adequate for that duration.
6 - 29
If the unprotected member is not adequate, measures have to be taken to

improve its fire resistance by:
 Choosing a larger cross-section for the steel member
 Selecting a higher grade of steel
 Providing the necessary fire protection.
4.3 Structural Analysis

Figure 4.5 illustrates the general behaviour of a structural member under the
effect of the standard fire and applied actions. As the gas temperature θg rises,
the member temperature θa,t increases and its load bearing resistance Rfi,d,t
decreases.
The critical temperature θcr is defined as the temperature at which a member

can no longer support the design effects of the applied actions. The effects of
actions (also called action effects) on a member are the internal forces or
moments induced by the actions. For example the wind blowing on a structure
is an action (the wind action) and the internal forces and bending moments
induced in a column are the effects.
Given a structure subject to various actions (e.g. wind, gravity), a member is

subject to the design value of an effect, Ed. Under the same actions but also
subject to fire, the effects on the member are modified, and denoted as Efi,d.
The critical temperature θcr is therefore defined as the temperature at the time
of failure, when the resistance of a member is equal to the effect on it:
Rfi,d,t = Efi,d.
Load resistance Temperature
Member resistance Rfi,d,t

Gas temperature θg
Critical
temperature
Effect of θcr
fire action
Efi,d
Member temperature θa,t
trequ tfi,d Time
Figure 4.5 Behaviour of a structural member in fire
6 - 30
To meet the requirements of fire safety engineering, the designer must ensure
that one of the following conditions is met:
 At tfi,requ the temperature of the member is lower than the critical
temperature: θcr ≥ θa,t or
 At tfi,requ the resistance of the members is greater than the design effects:
Rfi,d,t ≥ Efi,d.
4.4 Simple structural fire design methods

4.4.1 Introduction
The simple design methods follow the principle of ultimate limit design as for
normal temperature. Fire safety requirements are satisfied by providing a
design which will meet the above conditions.
Simple calculation models take account of the reduction of the action effects
for fire design and the variation of material properties at elevated temperature.
The simple calculation models have broader application than the prescriptive
approach, and can be applied to:
 Unprotected steel members, including tension members, steel beams and
steel columns.
 Unprotected composite members, including composite slabs and beams,
concrete encased beams and columns, concrete filled hollow columns.
 Protected steel and composite members.
Design effect of actions, Efi,d

The fire action is designated as an accidental action in the fire parts of
Eurocodes. Due to the low probability of both a major fire and full external
actions occurring simultaneously, the effect of actions for fire design can be
determined by reducing the design effects of external actions for normal design
using a reduction factor fi:
Efi,d = fi Ed
where:
Ed is the design effect of actions for normal design using EN 1990
fi is the reduction factor of the effect Ed for fire design, calculated as
Gk   fiQk,1
fi = for combination 6.10 from EN 1990
 G Gk   Q,1Qk,1
Gk is the characteristic value of the permanent action
Qk,1 is the characteristic value of the leading variable action
fi is the combination factor given by 1,1 or 2,1, see EN 1991-1-2
G is the partial factor for permanent actions
Q,1 is the partial factor for the leading variable action.
For the calculation of the reduction factor for use with combination 6.10a and
6.10b, the designer should refer to EN 1993-1-2 §2.4.2.
6 - 31
4.4.2 Critical temperature approach

The basis for this approach is to calculate the temperature of the member after
the required period of fire resistance and to compare it to the critical
temperature, at which the member would collapse. The steps that must be
followed to apply the critical temperature approach are shown in Figure 4.6.
Selection of
protected or
unprotected
member
Calculate
EN 1993 resistance for
No
Normal design, Rd
(M, N and V)
Design effect, Ed Rd > Ed ?
EN 1993-1-2, Tables Yes

4.2 and 4.3 Am / V
Calculate member
National regulations
tfi,requ temperature θa,t at
tfi,requ
EN 1993-1-2, §4.2.5
EN 1994-1-2, §4.3.4.2
EN 1993-1-2, §2.4.2 Degree of

utilisation, fi
EN 1993-1-2, §4.2.4 Calculate critical Add

θcr > θa,t ? No
temperature, θcr protection
Yes
Appropriate design
Figure 4.6 Fire design of members using the critical temperature approach
Critical temperature
The simple model with the critical temperature approach can only be used for
individual members, when their deformation criteria or stability considerations
do not have to be taken into account. This approach is only permitted for
6 - 32
tension members and for restrained beams, but not for unrestrained beams and
columns when buckling is a potential failure mode.
The critical temperature of a non-composite steel member can be calculated

using the simple model given in §4.2.4 of EN 1993-1-2. The critical
temperature decreases with the degree of utilisation of the member, μ0, which is
defined as the ratio of the design effect of actions at elevated temperature, Efi,d,
to the member resistance at normal temperature but using partial factors for fire
design Rfi,d,0 such that:
μ0 = Efi,d/Rfi,d,0
For Class 4 sections, a critical temperature of 350°C is recommended.
The critical temperature of composite members is given by §4.3.4.2.3 of

EN 1994-1-2.
4.4.3 Load bearing capacity approach

The basis for this approach is to calculate the resistance of the member after the
required period of fire resistance and to compare it to the design effect of the
actions at elevated temperature, Ed,fi. The steps that must be followed to apply
the load bearing capacity approach are shown in Figure 4.7.
Section classification
As for normal temperature design, cross-sections are classified according to
Table 5.2 from EN 1993-1-1.
The  coefficient is modified by applying a 0,85 factor, in order to account for

the reduction in yield strength and elastic modulus of the steel at elevated
temperatures, as specified in §4.2.2 of EN 1993-1-2. This modification lowers
the c/t limits for the various section classes, so some sections may have a more
onerous classification than for normal design.
Tension, shear and bending resistance of steel members in fire

The simple models to calculate the design tension, shear and bending
resistances of steel members under standard fire are given in §4.2.3.1, §4.2.3.3
and §4.2.3.4 of EN 1993-1-2.
These models are based on the assumption that the members have a uniform
temperature throughout, and make use of a reduced yield strength and the
relevant partial factors for fire design.
However, in reality the temperature across and along a member is hardly ever
uniform, which affects its mechanical behaviour. For example, if a steel beam
supports a concrete slab on its upper flange, the temperature in the top flange is
lower than in the bottom flange and therefore its ultimate moment resistance is
higher than for a uniform temperature equal to that of the bottom flange.
6 - 33
Selection of
protected or
unprotected
member
Calculate
EN 1993 resistance for
No
Normal design, Rd
(M, N and V)
Design effect, Ed Rd > Ed ?
EN 1993-1-2, Tables Yes

4.2 and 4.3 Am / V
Calculate member
National regulations
tfi,requ resistance Rfi,d at
tfi,requ
EN 1993-1-2, §4.2.3
EN 1994-1-2, §4.3.4.1
EN 1993-1-2, §2.4.2 Degree of

utilisation, fi
EN 1993-1-2, §2.4.2 Calculate effect of Add

Rfi,d > Efi,d ? No
actions in fire, Efi,d protection
Yes
Appropriate design
Figure 4.7 Fire design of members using the load bearing capacity approach
The benefits from such thermal gradient can be taken into account by dividing
the cross-section into a number of elements and allocating a reduced yield
strength to each element according to their temperature. The total resistance of
the cross-section can be calculated by adding up the resistances of each
element. Alternatively, the beneficial influence of thermal gradient on the
resistance of these members can be calculated conservatively using two
empirical adaptation factors, 1 and 2, as given in §4.2.3.3 of EN 1993-1-2.
6 - 34
Resistances of unrestrained beams and columns

The simple models for calculating the buckling resistances of unrestrained
beams and columns with a uniform temperature are given in §4.2.3.3, §4.2.3.4
and §4.2.3.2 of EN 1993-1-2. These rules were developed by imposing the
following modifications on the relevant models given in EN 1993-1-1 for
normal design to account for the effect of elevated temperature:
 Reduced yield strength for elevated temperature
 Use of partial factors for fire design
 Increased non-dimensional slenderness
 Buckling length of columns in fire is taken as 0,5 and 0,7 of the system
length for the top storey and for the other storeys, respectively
 Specific buckling curves for the fire condition.
Resistance of composite members in fire

The simple models to calculate the resistances of composite members in fire
are given in §4.3 and Annexes D, E, F, G and H of EN 1994-1-2 for composite
slabs, composite beams, encased beams, encased columns and filled columns.
Since the temperature generally is not uniformly distributed over the

cross-section, the design resistance of a composite member in fire generally has
to be calculated by dividing the section into a number of elements. The
temperature and the corresponding reduction factors for steel and concrete
strengths in each element are determined and the design resistance of all the
elements are added to calculate the resistance of the entire cross-section.
The simple models for composite members are more complex than the
calculation for bare steel members. For this reason, most calculations for
temperature rise and load bearing resistance of composite members are carried
out using computer software. In addition, the resistances of many fire design
solutions for composite members have been tabulated, as given in §4.2 of
EN 1994-1-2.
Resistance of composite slabs

The simple models for fire design of composite slabs are specified in §4.3.1,
§4.3.2 and §4.3.3 of EN 1994-1-2. As partition members, composite slabs are
required to meet the criteria of insulation ‘I’, integrity ‘E’ and the load bearing
resistance ‘R’. These must be demonstrated through fire tests, design
calculations or both.
The calculation of sagging and hogging moment resistances of slabs are based
on different assumptions and temperature distributions as given in D.2 and D.3
of EN 1994-1-2. The contribution of the steel decking is generally included in
the calculation of the sagging moment resistance, but conservatively ignored in
the calculation of the hogging moment resistance.
Resistance of composite beams

Composite beams comprise steel sections structurally attached through shear
connectors to a concrete or composite slab, with or without concrete
encasement. Generally, the voids created by the deck shape over the beam
6 - 35
flanges are filled, to ensure that the top flange of the steel beam remains
relatively cool in fire.
Composite beams may be simply supported or continuous. Their design

sagging and hogging moment resistances as well as their vertical and
longitudinal shear resistances can be determined by using the simple models
given in §4.3.1, §4.3.4 and Annex E of EN 1994-1-2.
Resistance of composite columns

The simple model for buckling resistance of composite columns is based on the
assumption that the building is braced and the column has no horizontal
displacement. The calculation rules are given in §4.3.5 and Annexes G and H
of EN 1994-1-2.
6 - 36
5 TENSILE MEMBRANE ACTION
Full scale fire tests and real fire investigations in multi storey buildings have
shown that when a floor develops tensile membrane action, it can achieve a
higher fire resistance than calculations and tests on isolated members indicate.
In order to take account of this beneficial behaviour of multi-storey buildings
in fire, a new design model has been developed, which allows for a more
economic solution to fire design. The model has been validated by tests.
5.1 Cardington fire test

The prescriptive approach and the simple calculation models described in this
guide are well-established methods to carry out the fire design of a multi-storey
building.
The application of such methods to an unprotected multi-storey steel building

determines the fire resistance period as no more than 30 minutes. However,
large-scale fire tests and real fire investigations over the years have
demonstrated that some savings can be achieved in the fire design of the frame,
and a new simple design method (BRE-BM) has been developed.
5.1.1 Full-scale fire tests

Following the investigations on real fire-damaged buildings in the UK at
Broadgate and Basingstoke, fire tests were conducted in Cardington (UK) on a
full-scale eight-storey steel-composite framed building with unprotected steel
beams and trapezoidal composite slab, as shown in Figure 5.1(a).
600 1200
Maximum vertical displacement Maximum temperature
Maximum vertical displacement (mm)
500 1000
400 800 Maximum steel temperature (°C)
300 600
200 400
100 200
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time (mins)
(a) Full-scale building tested in (b) Temperature and displacement of secondary beam
Cardington
Figure 5.1 Cardington fire tests
Observations from the tests and the real fire investigations have consistently
shown that the performance of a whole steel-framed building in fire is very
different from that of its individual members. Under applied actions and a real
fire, significant interactions between different types of structural members and
important changes of their load-carrying mechanisms take place in real
structures. The inherent fire performance of unprotected steel elements in
6 - 37
framed buildings, even in severe fires, is much better than standard fire tests
would demonstrate.
As shown in Figure 5.1(b), instead of full collapse, as expected from the

standard fire tests, a typical secondary beam in the Cardington fire test
maintained its stability even when its temperature reached 954C. Its vertical
displacement reached 428 mm at its peak temperature of 954C and recovered
to a permanent displacement of 296 mm after the cooling phase. This indicates
that there are large reserves of fire resistance in steel-framed buildings. The
amount of fire protection being applied to steel elements may, in some cases,
be excessive and unnecessary.
The main reason for the above large reserves of fire resistance of multi-storey
framed buildings comes from the tensile membrane action of their
steel-composite floors, as shown in Figure 5.2 and explained below.
Tension zone
Tension zone
Compression
zone (‘ring’)
Compression
zone (‘ring’)
Figure 5.2 Membrane action in a horizontally restrained concrete slab
As described in the Section 4, the simple calculation models for fire design
deal with each individual member. These simple models assume the floor slab
to be a one-way spanning beam, resisting actions through bending and shear.
Observations of the Cardington tests, however, show that as the steel beams
lose their load bearing capacity, the composite slab utilises its full bending
capacity in spanning between the adjacent, cooler members. As its
displacement increases, the slab acts as a tensile membrane, carrying loads in
tension, as shown in Figure 5.3.
If the slab is well supported against its vertical deflection along lines which
divide it into reasonably square areas, for example, by the primary and
secondary beams on the column grid-lines, then tensile membrane action can
be generated as a load bearing mechanism. The slab is then forced into double-
curvature and hangs as a tensile membrane in its middle regions. A peripheral
compressive ‘ring-beam’ is generated either around its supported periphery or
in its edge-beams, as shown in Figure 5.2.
6 - 38
Heated beam
Figure 5.3 Slab bridging by tensile membrane action
This forms a self-equilibrating mechanism and supports the slab loading. If the
temperature continues to increase, the structure may collapse due to either the
failure of the edge support of the slab, or the fracture of the slab at its edges, or
within its middle region.
5.1.2 Real fires compared with standard fire

In addition to the difference between the behaviour of isolated members and
the members in a whole structure, real fires are also different from the standard
fire that is used in the simple calculation models. A real fire in a building
comprises three phases – initial growth, full development and post-peak decay.
These phases are shown in Figure 5.4. The temperature increases most rapidly
when all organic materials in the compartment combust spontaneously. This
point in time is known as flashover point. The growth and decay phases of a
real fire depend on the quantity and type of fuel available, as well as on the
ventilation conditions of the compartment.
Temperature (°C)
Standard fire
Natural fire
Flashover
Start
fire Time
Figure 5.4 Real natural fire with the standard fire curve
The fire resistance time for a member, which is based on standard fire tests and
simple calculation models, does not reflect the actual fire performance of the
member as part of the whole building in a real fire. It does not indicate the
actual time for which the member will survive in a building in fire.
5.2 FRACOF fire tests

To demonstrate the actual behaviour and load bearing resistance of composite
floors under standard fire exposure, full scale fire tests were carried out in
Maizienes-les-Metz (France) in 2008 as part of the FRACOF project, which
was funded by ArcelorMittal and the Steel Alliance.
Figure 5.5 shows the composite floor, with an occupying area of more than
60 m² and the bottom surface exposed. All structural members of the composite
6 - 39
floor were designed in accordance with the relevant Eurocodes for normal
design. The floor was uniformly loaded using sand bags. The four steel
columns and four boundary beams were fire-protected, but the two
intermediate secondary beams were left unprotected.
Figure 5.5 Details of full-scale fire tests on composite floor used in FRACOF
1200 500
450
T em perature (°C )
Central part of
Vertical displacement (mm)
1000 the floor

400
800 350
300 Mid-span of unprotected

central secondary beams
600 Test 250
400 C A 200
Mid-span of protected
B 150 edge secondary beams
B Mid-span of protected
200 C 100
A primary beams
50
0
0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150
Time (min) Time (min)
(a) Temperature of secondary beam (b) Vertical displacements of the floor
Figure 5.6 Results of full-scale fire tests on composite floors
As shown in Figure 5.6, under the standard fire and applied loads, even when
the temperature of the unprotected beam rose to 1040°C and the central
deflection increased to 448 mm, the composite floor construction maintained
its structural stability for more than 120 minutes. This demonstrates that the
fire resistance of composite floors with unprotected secondary beams is much
better than the 15 minutes predicted by standard fire tests.
5.2.1 Design concepts

Based on the full-scale fire tests results and real fire observations, a new design
concept has been developed to assess the fire performance of multi-storey steel
framed buildings with composite floors.
6 - 40
5.2.2 Design models

This model uses a holistic, rather than an elemental approach. It calculates the
residual strength of the composite floors using yield line and membrane action,
as shown in Figure 5.7.
Vertical support
to edges of slab
Figure 5.7 Yield line and membrane action of a composite floor in fire
This design model takes account of the interaction between the components of
the composite floor, and concludes that some beams may remain unprotected
whilst maintaining the required level of fire safety. Thus, this design model
gives a more economic and site-specific fire safety solution, with a significant
number of steel beams of the composite floor left unprotected.
This design model was calibrated against the fire tests, and is complemented by
design tables and computer software. However, it demands expertise
knowledge for the fire design of multi-storey buildings. Further information
can be found in SCI publication P388 [6].
5.2.3 Applicability
The FRACOF design model may only be used to demonstrate the fire
resistance of a partially protected structure where national building regulations
permit the use of performance-based approach for fire design of buildings. In
addition, this design model is only applicable to composite steel-framed
buildings with the following limitations.
 The frame is braced and not sensitive to buckling in a sway mode
 Composite floor slabs comprise steel decking and reinforced concrete
 Floor beams are designed to act compositely with the floor slab
This model may not be used with precast concrete floor systems.
6 - 41
6 USE OF NATURAL FIRE EXPOSURE AND

ADVANCED STRUCTURAL MODELLING
This Section introduces advanced calculation models that are used to

demonstrate the actual behaviour of multi-storey buildings in fire and to
explore more economic solutions for their fire design.
6.1 General
To date, both the datasheet approach and the simple calculation models have
been widely used in the fire design of multi-storey buildings. They have been
shown to be adequate for the minimum life-safety requirements. However, they
do not account for the features of a real fire and the interaction between
structural members in a fire. In addition, increasing innovation in design,
construction and usage of modern buildings have made it difficult in some
situations to satisfy the legislative fire regulations economically using the
simple calculation models. Therefore, advanced calculation models have been
developed for fire design of multi-storey buildings.
The advanced calculation models are based on the fundamental physical

description of fire development, heat transfer and the structural response,
which are simulated using numerical models. Therefore, they are able to give a
more realistic and economic solution for the fire design of a structure. The
advanced calculation models may be used to represent the behaviour of
individual members, the whole structure or its sub-assemblies. They allow an
appreciation of how buildings actually behave in a fire and give the option to
design a more robust building.
Performance-based design involves establishing performance criteria, defining

fire actions, modelling heat transfer and simulating the structural response to
the subsequently derived elevated temperatures, as briefly described below.
6.2 Modelling fire severity

6.2.1 Two-zone model
Annex D of EN 1991-1-2 gives a two-zone model to determine the temperature
caused by a localised fire. It assumes that combustion products within a
compartment are accumulated in a layer beneath the ceiling. It divides the
whole compartment with different fire conditions into a number of separated
zones. Within each zone, the fire condition is assumed to be uniform, and the
gas temperature is defined as a function of time by considering the
conservation of mass and energy in the fire compartment. In each zone, the
relevant differential equations are solved for the value of the temperature, using
computer software.
6.2.2 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

Annex D of EN 1991-1-2 proposes a computational fluid dynamic model
(CFD) for a localised fire. CFD involves fluid flow, heat transfer and
6 - 42
associated phenomena. It uses a series of partial differential equations to

determine the temperature within the compartment due to a localised fire. The
CFD model is very demanding and requires expertise to define the input
parameters and to assess the appropriateness of the results.
6.2.3 Fully developed fire

The definition of the fully developed fire is given in Section 4.1.3, where the
description of the standard fire and the parametric fire are also given. These
fire curves are applicable to advanced models as well as to simple methods.
6.3 Modelling heat transfer

The temperature rise of a structural member in fire is due to the heat transfer
from the gas in the compartment to the member. The temperature rise of a
structural member in fire is predominantly controlled by radiation and
convection.
Advanced models aim to provide a more realistic solution of temperature rise

over the section of a structural member. Advanced models consider:
 Thermal actions given in EN 1991-1-2
 Non-uniform thermal exposure
 Non-uniform heat transfer
 Time-dependant boundary conditions
 Time and temperature-dependant material properties.
Advanced heat transfer models are developed based on 2D or 3D finite

difference or finite element techniques. Therefore, they can only be performed
by using commercial computer software packages.
6.4 Advanced structural models

Advanced models for structural responses to both the thermal actions and the
applied actions are based on the fundamentals of structural engineering and
carried out by means of finite element techniques.
The structure under consideration is generally divided into numerous small 2D

or 3D elements with different initial and boundary conditions. Although finite
element simulation clearly presents significant information to the designer,
such an approach should not be taken without due care. There are potential
problems associated with:
 The choice of software
 The options set within the software
 The way the structure is modelled
 The acceptance criteria used.
6 - 43
6.5 Validation/verification of advanced models

Since a number of advanced calculation models are available to model fire
action as well as the thermal and structural response of buildings, both
validation and verification must be performed to ensure that a sensible solution
is obtained.
Validation is the demonstration of the suitability of the design model or

approach for the intended purpose, which includes those for predictions of fire
severity, heat transfer and structural response.
Verification is the assessment of whether or not the design model has produced
valid results. It includes a careful check on the input data, on the consistence
between the results obtained from the model and the results anticipated on
qualitative analysis, and on the degrees of risk associated with possible errors.
Advanced models should be verified against relevant test results and other
calculation methods. They should be checked for compliance with normal
engineering principles by the use of sensitivity studies.
In the context of validation and verification of models and results, the standard
ISO 16730[7] provides a framework for assessment, verification and validation
of all types of calculation methods used as tools for fire safety engineering.
This international standard does not address specific fire models, but is
intended to be applicable to both simple methods and advanced methods.
6.6 Regulatory approval

The complexity of obtaining regulatory approval will vary from country to
country. However, regulatory bodies may require the designer to present a fire
design in a form that may be easily checked by a third party, with each design
step clearly documented, including any assumptions and approximations that
have been made. A checklist should be produced that covers the overall design
approach, the fire model, the heat transfer and the structural response.
6 - 44
REFERENCES
1. Council directive of 21 Dec 1988, On the approximation of laws,
regulations and administrative provisions of the member states relating to
construction products, 89/106/EEC.
2. EN 1991-1-2:2002 Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions.
Actions on structures exposed to fire
3. EN 1993-1-2:2005 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. General rules.
Structural fire design
4. EN 1994-1-2:2005 Eurocode 4. Design of composite steel and concrete
structures. General rules. Structural fire design
5. EN 13381 Test methods for determining the contribution to the fire
resistance of structural members.
EN13381-4 Applied passive protection to steel members
EN13381-8 Applied reactive protection to steel members
(both Parts to be published in 2010)
6. SIMMS, W. I. and ZHAO, B
Fire resistance assessment of partially protected composite floors
(FRACOF) design guide (P388)
The Steel Construction Institute, 2009.
7. ISO 16730: 2008 EDTN1, Fire safety engineering - Assessment,
verification and validation of calculation methods
FURTHER READING
1. One stop shop in structural fire engineering
http://www.mace.manchester.ac.uk/project/research/structures/strucfire/
2. Test methods for determining the contribution to the fire resistance of structural
members. Applied protection to steel members
3. Introduction to fire safety of structures
Institution of Structural Engineers,2003
4. HAM, S. J., NEWMAN, G. M., SMITH, C. I. and NEWMAN, L. C.
Structural fire safety - A handbook for architects and engineers (P197)
5. British Automatic Sprinkler Association Ltd (BASA), Information file, sprinklers
in warehouse, http://www.bafsa.org.uk/snews.php (accessed on 24th June, 2009).
6. ECCS, Fire design information sheets, Publication NO.82, Brussels, 1997
7. KIRBY, B. R.
Fire resistance of steel structure
British Steel, 1991
8. Fire protection for structural steel in buildings (4th edition )
Association for specialist fire protection, 2008
9. Fire resistance of steel-framed buildings
Corus, 2006
6 - 45
10. LAWSON, R. M. and NEWMAN, G. M.

Structural fire design to EC3 and EC4, and comparison with BS 5950 (P159)
11. RACKHAM, J. W., COUCHMAN, G. H. and HICKS, S. J.
Composite slabs and beams using steel decking: Best practice for design and
construction - Revised edition (P300),
12. LAWSON, R. M.
Design of composite slab (P055)
13. Comflor®, Composite floor decks
Corus, 2007
14. LAWSON, R. M. , MULLETT, D. L. and RACKHAM, J. W.
Design of asymmetric slimflor beam using deep composite decking (P175)
15. MULLETT, D. L. and LAWSON, R .M.
Design of slimflor fabricated beam using deep composite decking (P248)
16. MULLETT, D. L.
Slim floor design and construction (P110)
17. MULLETT, D. L.
Design of RHS Slimflor edge beam (P169)
18. BAILEY, C. G, NEWMAN, G. M, and SIMMS, W. I.
Design of steel framed buildings without applied fire protection (P186)
19. LAWSON, R. M. and O’BRIEN, T.
Fire safety of external steelwork (P009)
20. NEWMAN, G. M., ROBINSON, J. T. and BAILEY, C. G,
Fire safe design: A new approach to multi-storey steel-framed buildings - Second
Edition (P288)
21. BAILEY, C. G. and MOORE, D. B.
The structural behaviour of steel frames with composite floor slabs subject to fire,
Part 1: Theory
The Structural Engineer, 2000
22. BAILEY, C. G. and MOORE, D. B.
The structural behaviour of steel frames with composite floor slabs subject to fire,
Part 2: Design
The Structural Engineer, 2000
23. ZHAO, B. ROOSEFID, M. and VASSART, O.
Full scale test of a steel and concrete composite floor exposed to ISO fire and
corresponding numerical investigation
Eurosteel Conference 2008, 5th European conference on steel and composite
structures, Graz, Austria, 2008
6 - 46
24. PURKISS, J. A.
Fire safety engineering design of structures
Butterworth-Heineman, 1996
25. BAILEY, C. G and MOORE, D. B.
Membrane action of slab/beam composite floor systems in fire
Engineering Structures 26, Elsevier,2004
26. Guide to the advanced fire safety of structures
Institution of Structural Engineers, 2007
6 - 47
6 - 48
Worked Example – Fire safety strategies and
1 of 10
design approach of steel floor beam
Made by YGD Date 07/2009
Calculation sheet
Checked by DGB Date 07/2009
Worked Example: Fire safety strategies and

design approach of steel floor beam
This worked example illustrates the fire safety design of a simply-supported
steel beam using fire strategies and design approaches described in this
publication. Five different strategies are discussed to give the designer various
alternatives of fire safety solutions. These include passive protection,
alternative structural solutions, simple calculation models, tensile membrane
action and FRACOF software. The prescriptive approach and simple
calculation models were used to verify the fire resistance of the beam.
The figure below shows the floor system of a typical multi-storey office
building. The beams are simply supported and they are required to have a
60 minute fire resistance under the standard fire exposure, i.e. R60. This
example will focus on the design of one of the secondary beams. This beam
has to resist and transmit the load from the dashed area and is constructed
using an IPE300 in S275 steel.
IPE300
3.0 m
IPE300
3.0 m
IPE300
3.0 m
IPE300
7.0 m
Floor construction
1. Design Data
1.1. Steelwork properties
Yield strength: fy = 275 N/mm2
Elastic modulus: E = 210 kN/mm2
Unit mass: ρa = 7850 N/mm2
6 - 49
Title
Worked Example – Fire safety strategies and design approach of steel
2 of 10
floor beam
1.2. Applied actions

Permanent actions: gk = 3,5 kN/m2 (self-weight of beam and slab)
Variable actions: qk = 3,0 kN/m2 (imposed loads on the floor)
1.3. Partial safety factors

Permanent actions: γG = 1,35
Variable actions: γQ = 1,5
Cross-section design at normal temperature: γM0 = 1,0
Fire design: γM,fi = 1,0
1.4. Floor system

Beam spacing: B = 3,0 m
Beam span: L = 7,0 m
2. Verifications for normal temperature

2.1. Actions at normal temperature
Characteristic value of actions:
wk = 3,5 + 3,0 = 6,50 kN/m2
Design value of actions:
wd = 1,35  3,5 + 1,53,0 = 9,23 kN/m2
Bending moment:
MEd = wdBL2/8 = 9,23  3  72/8 = 169,5 kNm
Shear force:
VEd = wdBL/2 = 9,23  3  7/2 = 96,9 kN
2.2. Resistance at normal temperature

Based on the geometric properties of an IPE300 and according to the rules EN 1993-1-1,
given in section 5.5 of EN 1993-1-1, IPE300 is a Class 1 section. §5.5
2.2.2. Resistance calculation EN 1993-1-1, §6

The concrete floor is assumed to provide full lateral support to the
compression flange. Therefore, the lateral–torsional buckling of the beam
does not need to be considered. The cross-sectional checks are as follows:
Bending moment resistance:

Wpl,y f y 628  10 3  275
Mc,Rd = Mpl,Rd = =  10  3 =172,7 kNm > 169,5kNm  OK
 M0 1, 0
6 - 50
Title
3 of 10
floor beam
Shear resistance:
Av f y 2567  275
Vc,Rd = Vpl,Rd = = = 407,7 kN > VEd = 96,6 kN  OK
3 M0 3  1, 0
2.2.3. Deflection
5 w k BL 4 5 6 , 5  3000  7000 4 L
δ= =  10  3 = 34,7mm < = 35mm  OK
384 EI 384 210000  8356  10 4 200
Hence, the selected section IPE300 satisfies the requirements at normal
temperature.
3. Fire safety strategies and design methods

The objective of fire safety design is to demonstrate that the beam satisfies the
regulatory requirements of 60 minutes fire resistance, R60.
3.1. Passive fire protection

Passive protection includes board, sprayed and intumescent coatings
3.1.1. Section factor of unprotected / protected beam
tf
tw
h
1,5b  h  t w 0,5b  h
AV  AV 
b  t w tf  0,5ht w b  t w tf  0,5ht w
3 side protection possibilities and A/V ratios.
(a) 3 sides profile protection; (b) 3 sides box protection
For either the unprotected section or 3 sides profile protection using sprayed
or intumescent coatings, as shown in the above figure (a), the section factor is:
Am/V =
1,5b  h  tw  =
1,5  150  300  7,1 = 200 m-1
b  tw  tf  0,5ht w  150  7,110,7  0,5  300  7,1
For 3 sides box protection using fire board, as shown in (b) above, the section
factor is:
[Am/V]b =
0,5b  h  =
0,5  150  300  = 145 m-1
b  tw  tf  0,5ht w  150  7,110,7  0,5  300  7,1
6 - 51
Title
4 of 10
floor beam
3.1.2. Fire protection boards

The section factor of the beam section
Am/V = 200 m-1 < [Am/V]max = 260 m-1
 20mm thick fire board is adequate for R60. Table 3.1
3.1.3. Sprayed coatings

Am/V = 200 m-1, 16mm thick sprayed coating is adequate for R60. Table 3.2
3.1.4. Intumescent coatings
Am/V =200 m-1, 0,69 mm thick intumescent coating is adequate for R60. Table 3.3
3.2. Alternative structural solutions

To avoid the costs of protection materials and reduce the cost of construction,
it is preferred to use unprotected sections, as long as the R60 requirement is
satisfied, by using alternative structural solutions. These include encasing the
beam in concrete or using a composite slab. These options are discussed in
the sections that follow.
3.2.1. Partially encased beam

Load level: ηfi = 0,477 < 0,5 Table 3.7
Section ratio: h/b = 300/150 = 2,0 > 1,5.
Hence, for R60 fire resistance, a partially encased beam using concrete
without reinforcement can satisfy the R60 requirement.
Note that the extra weight of the concrete should be added to the permanent
action.
3.2.2. Integrated beams

Integrated construction makes use of asymmetric steel sections containing the Section 3.3.2
steel beam within the depth of the precast concrete slab. This solution may
satisfy the R60 requirement without the need of fire protection.
3.3. Simple calculation models

To verify the fire resistance of the beam at its fire ultimate limit state, the
simple model given in EN 1993-1-1 is used, following the flowchart given in
Section 4.4 of this publication. This model is applied to unprotected sections
and to sections protected with fire boards.
The next section presents the calculation using the load bearing resistance
approach. In order to obtain an optimised design, the worked example uses
different protection thicknesses until the optimal is found.
The critical calculation approach can only be used when the temperature
across the cross-section is uniform and it is not shown in this example.
6 - 52
Title
5 of 10
floor beam
3.3.1. Temperature of beam after 60 minutes fire exposure

The temperature rise of the unprotected and protected sections are determined
using the incremental calculation procedure and the following models given
in EN 1993-1-2; §4.5.2.1.
For unprotected section:
1 Am .
Δθa,t = k sh h net Δt
ca  a V
ksh is the correction factor for the shadow effect. For an IPE section it is given
as:
Am V 145
ksh = 0,9 = 0,9 = 0,652
 Am V b 200
For protected sections (assuming only protection boards are used):
p
Δθa,t =
d p ca  a
Ap  1 
   g.t   a.t Δt  e 
V  1   3 
 10

 1 Δ g.t
cp  p Ap
 = dp
ca  a V
. . .
The net heat flux is: h net = h net,c  h net,r
Convection:
.
h net, c =  c  g   m  = 25   g   at 
Radiation:
 
.
h net.r =   m  f   t  273 4   m  273 4

= 5,67  10  8  0,7  1,0  1,0   g  273 4   at  273 4 
The curve of the nominal standard fire is given by the following expression:
θg = 20  345 log 10 ( 8 t  1)
The equations above are evaluated based on the following thermal properties
of steel and board protection materials:
ca = 600 J/kgC cp = 1200 J/kgC dp,5 = 0,005 m
3 3
ρa = 7850 kg/m ρp = 300 kg/m dp,10 = 0,01 m
Δt = 5 sec λp = 0,1 W/m/C dp,20 = 0,02 m
With these data and equations, the graph in the Figure below can be drawn.
This shows the temperature change in the air, the unprotected section and the
protected section with 3 protection thicknesses: 5 mm, 10 mm and 20 mm.
6 - 53
Title
6 of 10
floor beam
Gas and member temperature rise
1000
900
800
700
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (minutes)
Gas Unprotected section 5mm board

protection
10mm board 20mm board Critical temperature

protection protection
Temperature rise of gas and beam due to exposure to natural fire
3.3.2. Load resistance

Design effects for fire design
In accordance with the simplified rule in EN 1991-1-2, the design effect of
actions for fire situation, can be determined by reducing those for normal
design by a factor fi.
For office buildings, the combination factor for accidental action of fire with
the variable action  fi   2.1 = 0,3, and the reduction factor:
Gk   fiQk 3, 5  0 , 3  3, 0
fi = = = 0,477
 G Gk   Q Qk 1, 35  3 , 5  1, 50  3 , 0
Therefore, the design effect of actions for fire:
Bending moment: Mfi,Ed = ηfi MEd = 0,477169,5 = 80,9 kNm
Shear force: Vfi,Ed = ηfi VEd = 0,47796,9 = 46,2 kN
Section classification
For fire design, the value of ε is equal to 85% of that for normal design EN 1993-1-2;
§4.2.2
235 235
ε = 0 , 85 = 0 , 85  = 0,72
fy 275
6 - 54
Title
7 of 10
floor beam
The ratios for local buckling of the section elements are:

Flange: cf/tf = 5,28 < [cf/tf]lim = 9ε = 7,07
Web: cw/tw = 35,01 < [cw/tw]lim = 72ε = 56,57
The section is class 1.
Resistance of beam after 60 minutes fire exposure

The moment resistance of a beam with non-uniform temperature along the
depth of its cross-section can be calculated as:
Mfi,Rd= Mfi,t,Rd = ky,θ Wpl,y fy/(κ1κ2)
Where
EN 1993-1-2;
ky,θ is the reduction factor for effective yield strength Table 3.1
κ1, κ2 are adaptation factors for non-uniform temperature across the EN 1993-1-2;
cross-section and along the beam §4.2.3.3
Unprotected beam
The temperature of the unprotected beam after 60 minutes fire exposure as
obtained from the figure on Sheet 6, is:
θat = 935C
The reduction factor for effective yield strength can be obtained for:
θa = 900C ky,θ= 0,060
θa = 1000C ky,θ= 0,040
By interpolating for θa = 935C, we obtain:
ky,θ = 0,052
For an unprotected beam exposed on three sides, with a composite or concrete
slab on side four:
κ1 = 0,70
for any case where the supports of the beam are not statically indeterminate:
κ2 = 0,85
Therefore the moment resistance of the beam is:
Mfi,Rd = 0,052  628  103  275/(0,7  1,0)  10-6 = 12,83 kNm < = 80.9 kNm
Therefore the unprotected section is not safe.  FAIL
10 mm board protection
Hence some protection is required for the beam. Following from the findings
of the previous simplified calculation based on the temperature, the first
option to be explored is the 10mm fire board protection. This solution has
already been found to be safe.
From the above Figure the temperature of this solution after 60 minutes of fire
exposure is:
θat = 594C
6 - 55
Title
8 of 10
floor beam
The reduction factor for effective yield strength can be obtained for:
θa = 500C ky,θ= 0,780
θa = 600C ky,θ= 0,470
By interpolating for θa = 594C,
ky,θ = 0,46
The κ1 and κ2 factors are as previously obtained.
The moment resistance of the fully restrained beam with non-uniform
temperature along the depth of its cross-section:
 OK
Wpl,y f y 628  10 3  275
Mfi,Rd = k y,θ = 0,46  10  6 = 113 kNm > 80,9
 1 2 0,7  1,0
kNm
The shear resistance can be obtained as follows:
Av f y 2567  275  OK
Vfi,Rd = k y,θ = 0 , 46 = 187,5kN > 96,6 kN
3 M0 3  1, 0
The 3 side box protected section with 10 mm fire boards, is safe.  OK
3.4. Make use of tensile membrane action

Full size fire tests and real fire investigations have resulted in the conclusion Section 8.
that the use of composite floors with steel decking leads to a much higher fire
resistance than predicted by the simple calculations adopted by the Eurocode
and shown in this example.
As long as the slab is well supported against its vertical deflection along lines
which divide it into reasonably square areas, it is has been shown that tensile
membrane action can be developed as a load bearing mechanism,
consequently providing a reserve load carrying resistance that simplified
models do not account for.
As a result, it could be assumed that the beam in this example could be left
unprotected, while maintaining the level of safety required by EC3. This
construction system has been shown to provide a higher fire resistance for
secondary beams but not for primary beams, and therefore care must be taken
when adopting this solution.
3.5. FRACOF
The FRACOF software can be used to determine whether or not unprotected
secondary steel beams are adequate when composite construction is used.
6 - 56
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9 of 10
floor beam
For illustration purposes, the IPE300 S275 beam used in this example is used
as a composite beam, with the following assumptions for use in Fracof:
 IPE550 S275 primary beams
 Cofrastra 40 deck
 130 mm deep slab, using C25/30 concrete
 ST 40 C mesh, 500 N/mm2
 All beams assumed to have 100% shear connection.
The design value of the actions for normal temperature is 9,23 kN/m2. The
reduction factor for fire has been calculated as 0,477, which gives a fire
action of 4,4 kN/m2.
For these input details, Fracof determines that it is adequate to use
unprotected IPE300 secondary beams for R60 fire resistance. The details are
summarised in the table below and graphically shown in the figure below.
According to the data shown in the table, after 20 minutes fire exposure, the
beam capacity is 3,36 kN/m2 < 4,4 kN/m2 fire action.
Considering the slap capacity, the total resistance remains over 9 kN/m2 after
60 minutes fire exposure, which means that the beam doesn not need to be
protected.
6 - 57
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10 of 10
floor beam
6 - 58

Part 7: Model Construction
Specification
Part 7: Model Construction
Specification
7 - ii
Part 7: Model Construction Specification
FOREWORD
This publication is the second part of the design guide, Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.

Part 3: Actions
7 - iii
7 - iv
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Scope 2
2 NORMATIVE REFERENCES 4
3 BASIS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN 9
3.1 General assumptions according to EN 1990 9
4 ACTIONS ON STRUCTURES 10
4.1 Self-weight and imposed loads for buildings 10
4.2 Snow loads 10
4.3 Wind loads 11
4.4 Thermal actions 11
4.5 Actions during execution 11
4.6 Accidental actions 13
4.7 Seismic actions 14
5 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 16
5.1 Rules for multi-storey buildings – EN 1993-1-1 16
5.2 Design of joints – EN 1993-1-8 17
5.3 Material toughness and through-thickness properties – EN 1993-1-10 17
5.4 Composite steel and concrete structures – EN 1994-1-1 18
6 EXECUTION SPECIFICATION 19
6.1 General 19
6.2 Execution classes 19
6.3 Preparation grades 19
6.4 Geometrical tolerances 19
7 CONSTITUENT PRODUCTS 21
7.1 Identification, inspection documents and traceability 21
7.2 Structural steel products 21
7.3 Welding consumables 21
7.4 Mechanical fasteners 21
7.5 Grouting materials 21
8 PREPARATION AND ASSEMBLY 22
8.1 Identification 22
8.2 Handling and storage 22
8.3 Cutting 22
8.4 Shaping 22
8.5 Holing 22
8.6 Assembly 22
9 WELDING 23
9.1 General 23
9.2 Qualification of welding procedures 23
9.3 Welders and welding operators 23
9.4 Welding coordination 23
9.5 Preparation and execution of welding 23
9.6 Acceptance criteria 25
7-v
10 MECHANICAL FASTENING 26
11 ERECTION 27
12 CONSTRUCTOR’S DOCUMENTATION 30
13 INTERFACES OF THE STEEL STRUCTURE 31
13.1 Interface to concrete surfaces 31
13.2 Interface to neighbouring constructions 32
Appendix A MODEL PROJECT SPECIFICATION 33
7 - vi
SUMMARY
This guide is a Model Construction Specification to be used in contract documents for a
typical construction project of a multi-storey building. Its main objectives are to achieve
greater uniformity in steelwork contract specifications in Europe and to provide a guide
to specification of appropriate standards for the design, fabrication and erection of
steelwork structures for buildings.
It deals with structural steelwork designed in accordance with applicable parts of the
Eurocode Standards, to be executed in accordance with applicable parts of EN 1090. All
the relevant Sections of the model specification are included in an appendix that can be
directly copied and used in contracts, with any additional project-specific information
that may be required.
7 - vii
7 - viii
1 INTRODUCTION
This guide is a Model Construction Specification to be used in contract

documents for a typical construction project of a multi-storey building. Its main
objectives are:
 To achieve greater uniformity in steelwork contract specifications in
Europe.
 To provide a guide to specification of appropriate standards for the design,
fabrication and erection of steelwork structures for buildings.
It is essential that the designer and the steelwork contractor receive, on time, all
information necessary for them to carry out the contract. This Model
Construction Specification gives guidance on the items and information that
should be included in the Project Specification.
The Member States of the EU and EFTA recognise that Eurocodes serve as
reference documents for the following purposes:
 As a means to prove compliance of building and civil engineering works
with the essential requirements of Construction Products Directive
89/106/EEC of 21 December 1988 (amended by Directive 93/68/EEC of 22
July 1993), particularly Essential Requirement No. 1 – Mechanical
resistance and stability – and Essential Requirement No. 2 – Safety in case
of fire.
 As a basis for specifying contracts for construction works and related
engineering services.
 As a framework for drawing up harmonised technical specifications for
construction products (ENs and ETAs).
The Eurocodes, as far as they concern the construction works themselves, have
a direct relationship with the Interpretative Documents referred to in Article 12
of the Construction Products Directive, although they are of a different nature
from harmonised product standards. There is a need for consistency between
the harmonised technical specifications for construction products and the
technical rules for works.
The steel construction industry in Europe will have to use CE marked products.
The performances of these products can be declared by reference to
requirements given in:
 The harmonised European Standards such as the standards EN 10025 and
EN 1090. Parts 1 of these Standards (i.e. EN 10025-1 and EN 1090-1
respectively) include a special Annex ZA relating to CE marking.
 A European Technical Approval (ETA).
CE Marking of steel products to EN 10025 has been mandatory since 2006.

The use of CE marked products according to EN 1090 will be mandatory from
the first semester 2011 for most of the European countries. Once it appears in
the European Official Journal, the standard will be in the application phase.
7-1
In EN 1090-1, for some special types of construction products (modular

construction for example), reference is made to the Eurocodes. In this case, it
shall be mentioned which Nationally Determined Parameters have been taken
into account.
Much of the information noted in this Model Construction Specification is

based upon that given in these Standards, but it must not be inferred that the
full details of the standards are not relevant.
References to applicable parts of European Standards have been made

throughout this Model Construction Specification.
1.1 Scope
This Model Construction Specification deals with structural steelwork designed
in accordance with applicable parts of the Eurocode Standards and executed in
accordance with applicable parts of EN 1090.
It can be used for all types of multi-storey building construction designed for
static loading, including cases where the dynamic effects are assessed using
equivalent quasi-static loads and dynamic amplification factors, including wind
actions and actions induced by hoists and cranes and cranes on runway beams.
It is not intended to be used for steelwork in dynamically loaded structures.
This Model Construction Specification covers structural steelwork produced

from hot rolled structural steel products only. It does not cover structural
steelwork produced from cold formed structural steel (only cold formed
profiled steel sheeting and cold formed stressed-skin sheeting used as a
structural diaphragm are herein covered), structural hollow sections, channels
and tubes, and stainless steel products.
This Model Construction Specification should be introduced into a steelwork

contract by a Project Specification, the contents of which are detailed in
Appendix A of this document and completed with project-specific information.
The Project Specification should also include any additions or modifications
that may be required by the National Structural Steelwork Specification by the
Client for a particular contract if the form of behaviour or other aspects of the
structure are unorthodox.
Contract documents (which include architectural and/or structural design

drawings, specifications and addenda) vary considerably in intricacy and
completeness. Nonetheless, the designer, the fabricator and the erector must be
able to rely upon the accuracy of the contract documents, in order to allow
them to provide the Client with bids that are adequate and complete. It also
enables the preparation of the general arrangement drawings and the shop and
erection drawings, the ordering of materials and the timely fabrication and
erection of construction components.
Critical requirements that are necessary to protect the Client’s interest, that
affect the integrity of the structure or that are necessary for the designer, the
7-2
fabricator and the erector to proceed with their work, must be included in the
contract documents. Non-exhaustive examples of critical information include:
 Standard specifications and codes that govern structural steel design and
construction, including bolting and welding
 Material specifications
 Welded-joint configuration and weld-procedure qualification
 Surface preparation and shop painting requirements
 Shop and field inspection requirements
 If any, non-destructive testing (NDT) requirements, including acceptance
criteria
 Special requirements on delivery and special erection limitations.
7-3
2 NORMATIVE REFERENCES
The European Standards incorporate, by dated or undated reference, provisions

from other publications. These normative references are cited at the appropriate
places in the text and the publications are listed in Tables 2.1 to 2.3.
Table 2.1 Design and structural engineering

Title
EN 1990:2002 Basis of structural design
EN 1991-1-1:2003 Actions on structures – Part 1-1: General actions – Densities, self-

weight, imposed loads for buildings
EN 1991-1-2:2002 Actions on structures – Part 1-2: General actions – Actions on
structures exposed to fire
EN 1991-1-3:2003 Actions on structures – Part 1-3: General actions – Snow loads
EN 1991-1-4:2005 Actions on structures – Part 1-4: General actions – Wind loads
EN 1991-1-5:2003 Actions on structures – Part 1-5: General actions – Thermal actions
EN 1991-1-6:2005 Actions on structures – Part 1-6: General actions – Actions during

execution
EN 1991-1-7:2006 Actions on structures – Part 1-7: General actions – Accidental
actions
EN 1993-1-1:2005 Design of steel structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings
EN 1993-1-2:2005 Design of steel structures – Part 1-2: General rules – Structural fire
design
EN 1993-1-8:2005 Design of steel structures – Part 1-8: Design of joints
EN 1993-1-10:2005 Design of steel structures – Part 1-10: Material toughness and

through-thickness properties
EN 1994-1-1:2004 Design of composite steel and concrete structures – Part 1-1:
General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1998-1:2004 Design of structures for earthquake resistance – Part 1: General
rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings
For each European country, each part of the Eurocode applies with its National
Annex when the latter is available.
7-4
Table 2.2 Execution, fabrication and erection

Title
EN 1090-1:2009 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures.
Part 1: Requirements for conformity assessment of structural
components
EN 1090-2:2008 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures.
Part 2: Technical requirements for steel structures
EN ISO 12944 Paints and varnishes – Corrosion protection of steel structures by
protective paint systems
EN 1461 Hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated iron and steel articles –
specifications and test methods
EN ISO 17659:2004 Welding – Multilingual terms for welded joints with illustrations
EN ISO 14555:1998 Welding – Arc stud welding of metallic materials
EN ISO 13918:1998 Welding – Studs for arc stud welding
EN ISO 15609-1:2004 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic

materials – Part 1: Welding procedure specification for arc welding of
steels
EN ISO 15614-1:2004 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic
materials – Welding procedure test – Part 1: Arc and gas welding of
steels and arc welding of nickel and nickel alloys
EN 1011-1:1998 Welding – Recommendations for welding of metallic materials
Part 1: General guidance for arc welding
EN 1011-2:2001 Welding – Recommendations for welding of metallic materials
Part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels
EN ISO 25817:2003 Arc-welded joints in steel – Guidance for quality levels for
imperfections
ISO 286-2:1988 ISO system of limits and fits – Part 2: Tables of standard tolerance
grades and limit deviations for hole and shafts
7-5
Table 2.3 Products

Title
EN 10025-1:2004 Hot-rolled products of structural steels – Part 1: General delivery
conditions.
EN 10025-2:2004 Hot-rolled products of structural steels – Part 2: Technical delivery
conditions for non-alloy structural steels.
conditions for normalized rolled weldable fine grain structural steels.
conditions for thermo-mechanical rolled weldable fine grain structural
steels.
conditions for structural steels with improved atmospheric corrosion
resistance.
conditions for flat products of high yield strength structural steels in
the quenched and tempered condition.
EN 10164:2004 Steel products with improved deformation properties perpendicular to
the surface of the product – Technical delivery conditions.
EN 10210-1:2006 Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain
structural steels – Part 1: Technical delivery requirements.
EN 10219-1:2006 Cold formed hollow sections of structural steel
Part 1: Technical delivery requirements.
EN 10029:1991 Hot rolled steel plates 3 mm thick or above – Tolerances on
dimensions, shape and mass
EN 10034:1993 Structural steel I- and H-sections – Tolerances on shape and
dimensions
EN 10051:1991 Continuously hot-rolled uncoated plate, sheet and strip of non-alloy
and alloy steels – Tolerances on dimensions and shape
EN 10055:1995 Hot rolled steel equal flange tees with radiused root and toes –
Dimensions and tolerances on shape and dimensions
EN 10056-1:1995 Structural steel equal and unequal leg angles
Part 1: Dimensions
EN 10056-2:1993 Structural steel equal and unequal leg angles
Part 2: Tolerances on shape and dimensions
EN 14399-1:2002 High strength structural bolting for preloading
Part 1 : General Requirements
Part 2 : Suitability Test for preloading
Part 3 : System HR – Hexagon bolt and nut assemblies
Part 4 : System HV – Hexagon bolt and nut assemblies
7-6
Table 2.3 Continued…

Title
Part 5 : Plain washers for system HR
Part 6 : Plain chamfered washers for systems HR and HV
EN ISO 898-1:1999 Mechanical properties of fasteners made of carbon steel and alloy
steel - Part 1: Bolts, screws and studs (ISO 898-1:1999)
EN 20898-2:1993 Mechanical properties of fasteners
Part 2: Nuts with special proof load values - Coarse thread (ISO
898-2:1992)
EN ISO 2320:1997 Prevailing torque type steel hexagon nuts - Mechanical and
performance requirements (ISO 2320:1997)
EN ISO 4014:2000 Hexagon head bolts - Product grades A and B (ISO 4014:1999)
EN ISO 4016:2000 Hexagon head bolts - Product grade C (ISO 4016:1999)
EN ISO 4017:2000 Hexagon head screws - Product grades A and B (ISO 4017:1999)
EN ISO 4018:2000 Hexagon head screws - Product grade C (ISO 4018:1999)
EN ISO 4032:2000 Hexagon nuts, style 1 - Product grades A and B (ISO 4032:1999)
EN ISO 4033:2000 Hexagon nuts, style 2 - Product grades A and B (ISO 4033:1999)
EN ISO 4034:2000 Hexagon nuts - Product grade C (ISO 4034:1999)
EN ISO 7040:1997 Prevailing torque hexagon nuts (with non-metallic insert), style 1 -
Property classes 5, 8 and 10
EN ISO 7042:1997 Prevailing torque all-metal hexagon nuts, style 2 - Property classes 5,
8, 10 and 12
EN ISO 7719:1997 Prevailing torque type all-metal hexagon nuts, style 1 - Property
classes 5, 8 and 10
ISO 1891:1979 Bolts, screws, nuts and accessories - Terminology and nomenclature
– Trilingual edition
EN ISO 7089:2000 Plain washers- Nominal series- Product grade A
EN ISO 7090:2000 Plain washers, chamfered - Normal series - Product grade A
EN ISO 7091:2000 Plain washers - Normal series - Product grade C
EN ISO 10511:1997 Prevailing torque type hexagon thin nuts (with non-metallic insert)
EN ISO 10512:1997 Prevailing torque type hexagon nuts thin nuts, style 1, with metric fine
pitch thread - Property classes 6, 8 and 10
EN ISO 10513:1997 Prevailing torque type all-metal hexagon nuts, style 2, with metric fine
pitch thread - Property classes 8, 10 and 12
When manufactured construction products, with Harmonised Standards (i.e.

EN 10025, EN 1090), are to be used, CE marking shall be placed on the
products according to the relevant European Harmonised Standards.
Harmonised Standards are European Standards adopted by the European
Committee for Standardisation (CEN), following a mandate issued by the
European Commission (mandate M/120 for structural metallic products). Not
all European Standards (ENs) are harmonised - only those which have been
listed in the Official Journal.
7-7
When manufactured construction products, without Harmonized Standards, are

to be used (i.e. metal anchors, fire protective products, metal frame building
kits, fire stopping and fire sealing products, prefabricated building units, etc.),
European Technical Approval Guidelines (ETAG) require manufacturers to
place CE marking on their products in accordance with the relevant European
Technical Approval (ETA).
The relevant ETAs shall be specified in the contract documents.
A full list of valid ETAs is available on the official website of the European
Organisation for Technical Approvals (EOTA): www.eota.be.
The latest edition of the publication referred to applies.
National Standards Bodies publish up-to-date versions on their official

websites.
Table 2.4 National Standards Bodies

Country Standards body Web site
Belgium NBN www.nbn.be
France AFNOR www.afnor.org
Germany DIN www.din.de
Italy UNI www.uni.com
Netherlands NEN www.nen.nl
Poland PKN www.pkn.pl
Spain AENOR www.aenor.es
Switzerland SNV www.snv.ch
Luxembourg ILNAS www.ilnas.lu
Austria ASI www.as-institute.at
7-8
3 BASIS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN
EN 1990 establishes the Principles and Requirements for safety, serviceability

and durability of structures, describes the basis for their design and verification
and gives guidelines for related aspects of structural reliability.
For the design of new structures, EN 1990 is intended to be used, for direct
application, together with Eurocodes EN 1991 to 1999.
EN 1990 is applicable for the structural appraisal of existing construction, in
developing the design of repairs and alterations or in assessing changes of use.
Design of steel structures shall conform to the basic requirements of § 2.1 of
EN 1990.
Reliability, durability and quality management shall conform to § 2.2, § 2.4
and § 2.5 of EN 1990.
National choice is allowed through clauses listed in the Foreword to EN 1990.
3.1 General assumptions according to EN 1990

 The choice of structural system and the design of the structure is made by
appropriately qualified and experienced personnel
 Execution is carried out by personnel having the appropriate skill and
experience
 Adequate supervision and quality control is provided during the execution
of the work, i.e. in design offices, factories, plants and on site
 The construction materials and products are used as specified in EN 1990
or in the relevant execution standards or reference material or product
specifications
 The structure will be adequately maintained
 The structure will be used in accordance with the design assumptions.
Additional contract document requirements

According to § 2.1(4)P of EN 1990, relevant additional specific events (impact,
explosion, etc.), defined by the Client and the relevant authority, must be taken
into account in the design and the execution of a structure.
According to § 2.3 of EN 1990, the contract documents should specify the
design working life of the structure.
According to § 3.3(2) of EN 1990, the contract documents should state any
relevant additional specific circumstances where the limit states that concern
the protection of the contents are to classified as ultimate limit states.
According to § 3.4(1) of EN 1990, the contract documents shall specify the
serviceability requirements of the project.
7-9
4 ACTIONS ON STRUCTURES
4.1 Self-weight and imposed loads for buildings

EN 1991-1-1 gives design guidance and actions for the structural design of
buildings, including the following aspects:
 Densities of construction materials and stored materials
 Self-weight of construction elements
 Imposed loads for buildings.
National choice is allowed through clauses listed in the Foreword to

EN 1991-1-1.

According to § 3.3.2(4) of EN 1991-1-1, the contract documents shall specify
the imposed loads to be considered for serviceability limit state verifications, in
accordance with the service conditions and the requirements concerning the
performance of the structure.
According to Clauses 4.1(1) and 4.1(2) of EN 1991-1-1, characteristic values

of densities of construction and stored materials shall be specified in the
contract documents, especially for materials which are not covered by the
Tables in Appendix A.
According to § 6.1(4) of EN 1991-1-1, loads for heavy equipment (e.g. in

communal kitchens, radiology rooms, boiler rooms, etc.) shall be agreed
between the Client and the relevant authority and specified in the contract
documents.
4.2 Snow loads

EN 1991-1-3 gives guidance to determine the values of loads due to snow, to
be used for the structural design of buildings.

EN 1991-1-3.

According to § 1.5 of EN 1991-1-3, in some circumstances tests and proven
and/or properly validated numerical methods may be used to obtain snow loads
on the construction works. These circumstances are those agreed with the
Client and the relevant authority, and specified in the contract documents.
According to § 4.1(1) of EN 1991-1-3, to cover unusual local conditions, the

National Annex may additionally allow the Client and the relevant authority to
agree upon different characteristic values of snow load which have to be
specified in the contract documents.
7 - 10
4.3 Wind loads

EN 1991-1-4 gives guidance on the determination of natural wind actions for
the structural design of buildings (with heights up to 200 m) for each of the
loaded areas under consideration.

EN 1991-1-4.

According to § 7.2.2 of EN 1991-1-4, the rules for the velocity pressure
distribution for leeward wall and sidewalls may be given in the National Annex
or be defined for the individual project and specified in the contract documents.
4.4 Thermal actions

EN 1991-1-5 gives design guidance, principles and rules for calculating
thermal actions arising from climatic and operational conditions for the
structural design of buildings. Principles needed for cladding and other
appendages of buildings are also provided.
EN 1991-1-5 describes the changes in the temperature of structural elements.

Characteristic values of thermal actions are presented for use in the design of
structures which are exposed to daily and seasonal climatic changes. For
structures not exposed to climatic conditions, thermal actions may not need to
be considered.

EN 1991-1-5.

According to § 5.2(2)P of EN 1991-1-5, operational effects (due to heating,
technological or industrial processes) shall be considered in accordance with
the particular project, and thus specified in the contract documents.
According to § 5.2(3)P of EN 1991-1-5, values of TM and Tp may be

provided for the particular project, and thus specified in the contract
documents.
4.5 Actions during execution

EN 1991-1-6 gives principles and general rules for the determination of actions
to be taken into account during the execution of buildings. EN 1991-1-6 can be
used as guidance for the determination of actions to be taken into account
during structural alterations, reconstruction, partial or full demolition, and for
the determination of actions to be used for the design of auxiliary construction
works (false-work, scaffolding, propping system etc.) needed for the execution
phases. Rules and additional information are given in Annexes A1 and B, and
can also be defined in the National Annex or in the contract documents for the
individual project.
7 - 11

EN 1991-1-6.

The rules concerning the safety of persons, on and around the construction site,
shall be specified in the contract documents for the individual project, and are
outside the scope of EN 1991-1-6.
EN 1991-1-6 also provides rules for determining the actions that can be used
for the calculation of auxiliary construction works needed for the execution
phases.
The contract documents shall classify construction loads in accordance with

Tables 2.2 and 4.1 of EN 1991-1-6.
Loads due to construction equipments, cranes and/or auxiliary structures can be

classified as fixed or free loads, depending on their possible spatial variation;
contract documents shall specify the loads and their classification.
If construction loads are classified as fixed, then the contract documents shall
define tolerances for the possible deviations to the theoretical position.
If construction loads are classified as free, then the contract documents shall
define the limits of the potential area of spatial variation.
In the absence of any specific requirement in the National Annex, the contract
documents shall specify:
 Return periods for the assessment of the characteristic values of variable
(climatic, seismic, etc.) actions during execution phases (see § 3.1(5) of
EN 1991-1-6)
 A minimum wind velocity during execution phases (see § 3.1(5) of
EN 1991-1-6)
 Rules of combination of snow loads and wind action with the construction
loads (see § 3.1(7) of EN 1991-1-6)
 Geometric imperfections of the structure and the structural elements, for the
selected design situations during execution (see § 3.1(8) of EN 1991-1-6)
 Criteria associated with serviceability limit states during execution (see
§ 3.3(2) of EN 1991-1-6)
 When appropriate, frequent values of particular loads to be taken into
account (see § 3.3(5) of EN 1991-1-6)
 Requirements of suitability for service of auxiliary structures in order to
avoid excessive deformation and/or deflection that affect the durability,
fitness for use or aesthetic appearance in the final stage (see § 3.3(6) of
EN 1991-1-6).
Concerning the wind actions, the contract documents shall specify, whether or
not a procedure is needed for calculating dynamic response of the structure,
during the various stages of execution, taking into account the degree of
7 - 12
completion and stability of the structure and its components (see § 4.7(1) of
EN 1991-1-6).
The contract documents shall specify the maximum allowable wind velocity
during crane operations or other short term execution stages (see § 4.7(1) of
EN 1991-1-6).
The contract documents shall specify, when relevant, accidental design

situations due to cranes or exceptional conditions applicable to the structure or
its exposure, such as impact, local failure and subsequent progressive collapse,
fall of structural or non-structural parts, and abnormal concentrations of
building equipment and/or building materials, water accumulation on steel
roofs, fire, etc. (see Clauses 4.12(1) and (3) of EN 1991-1-6).
The contract documents shall specify, when relevant, the design values of the
ground acceleration as well as the importance factor I to be taken into account
for the assessment of seismic actions, given the reference period of the
considered transient situation (see § 4.13 of EN 1991-1-6).
The contract documents shall specify the characteristic values of horizontal

actions due to imperfections or deformations related to horizontal
displacements to be taken into account during execution phases (see § A1.3(1)
of EN 1991-1-6).
4.6 Accidental actions

EN 1991-1-7 describes Principles and Application rules for the assessment of
accidental actions on buildings and bridges. The following actions are
included:
 Impact forces from vehicles, rail traffic, ships and helicopters
 Actions due to internal explosions
 Actions due to local failure from an unspecified cause.
EN 1991-1-7 does not specifically deal with accidental actions caused by

external explosions, warfare and terrorist activities, or the residual stability of
buildings damaged by seismic action or fire.

EN 1991-1-7.

According to § 2(2)P of EN 1991-1-7, the contract documents may specify the
treatment of accidental actions which are not classified as free actions.
According to § 3.1(2) of EN 1991-1-7, the contract documents shall specify the

strategies and rules to be considered for accidental design situations.
According to § 3.1(2) of EN 1991-1-7, notional values for identified accidental

actions may be specified in the contract documents.
7 - 13
According to § 3.4(1) of EN 1991-1-7, the strategies for accidental design

situations may be based on the Consequence Classes as set out in EN 1990.
Thus, these Consequence Classes shall be specified in the contract documents.
According to § 4.3.1(2) of EN 1991-1-7, the contract documents shall specify

whether or not the equivalent static design forces due to vehicular impact on
members supporting structures over or adjacent to roadways, Fdx and Fdy, act
simultaneously.
According to § 4.5.1.2 of EN 1991-1-7, if the building may be subject to

impact from derailed railway traffic, the contract documents shall define
whether it is a Class A or Class B structure.
According to § 4.5.1.2(1) of EN 1991-1-7, frontal and lateral dynamic design

forces due to impact from river and canal traffic, as well as the height of
application of the impact force and the impact area shall be specified in the
contract documents.
4.7 Seismic actions

EN 1998-1 applies to the design and construction of buildings and civil
engineering works in seismic regions. Its purpose is to ensure that in the event
of earthquakes:
 Human lives are protected
 Damage is limited
 Structures important for civil protection remain operational (special
structures such as nuclear power plants, offshore structures and large dams,
are beyond the scope of EN 1998-1).
One fundamental issue in EN 1998-1 is the definition of the seismic action.

Given the wide difference of seismic hazard and seismo-genetic characteristics
in the various member countries, the seismic action is herein defined in general
terms. The definition allows various Nationally Determined Parameters which
shall be confirmed or modified in the National Annexes.

EN 1998-1.

According to § 2.1(2) and (3) of EN 1998-1, target reliabilities for the
no-collapse requirement and for the damage limitation requirement are
established by the National Authorities for different types of buildings on the
basis of the consequences of failure. Contract documents shall specify the
Importance Class of the individual project (see 4.2.5 of EN 1998-1).
Depending on the Importance Class of the structure and the particular

conditions of the project, contract documents shall specify whether or not
ground investigations and/or geological studies shall be performed to identify
the ground type (A, B, C, D, E, S1 or S2), according to Table 3.1 of
EN 1998-1.
7 - 14
Contract documents shall specify the seismic zone of the individual project
(according to the zonation map, decided by the National Authority, and found
in the National Annex to EN 1998-1).
Contract documents shall specify according to which concept earthquake

resistant steel buildings shall be designed to (DCL, DCM or DCH).
According to 6.2(8) of EN 1998-1, the required toughness of steel and welds

and the lowest service temperature adopted in combination with the seismic
action shall be defined in the contract documents.
7 - 15
5 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Eurocode 3 is intended to be used in conjunction with:
 EN 1990 Basis of structural design

 EN 1991 Actions on structures
 ENs, ETAGs and ETAs for construction products relevant for steel
structures
 EN 1090 Execution of Steel Structures – Technical requirements
 EN 1992 to EN 1999 when steel structures or steel components are referred
to.
Eurocode 3 is concerned only with requirements for resistance, serviceability,

durability and fire resistance of steel structures. Other requirements, e.g.
concerning thermal or sound insulation, are not covered.
5.1 Rules for multi-storey buildings – EN 1993-1-1

EN 1993-1-1 gives basic design rules for steel structures with material
thicknesses t > 3 mm. It also gives supplementary provisions for the structural
design of multi-storey steel buildings.
Material properties for steels and other construction products and the
geometrical data to be used for design shall be those specified in the relevant
ENs, ETAGs or ETAs unless otherwise indicated.

EN 1993-1-1.

The design working life shall be taken as the period for which a building
structure is expected to be used for its intended purpose. For the specification
of the intended design working life of a permanent building see Table 2.1 of
EN 1990.
The effects of deterioration of material, corrosion or fatigue where relevant

shall be taken into account by appropriate choice of material, see EN 1993-1-4
and EN 1993-1-10, and details, see EN 1993-1-9, or by structural redundancy
and by the choice of an appropriate corrosion protection system.
The dimensional and mass tolerances of rolled steel sections and plates shall
comply with the relevant product standard, ETAG or ETA unless more severe
tolerances are specified.
Any semi-finished or finished structural product used in the structural design of

buildings shall comply with the relevant EN Product Standard or ETAG or
ETA.
7 - 16
With reference to Annex A1.4 of EN 1990, limits for vertical deflections

according to Figure A1.1, for horizontal deflections according to Figure A1.2
and for vibrations of structures on which the public can walk, shall be specified
in the contract documents and agreed with the Client.
5.2 Design of joints – EN 1993-1-8

EN 1993-1-8 gives design methods for the design of joints subject to
predominantly static loading using steel grades S235, S275, S355 and S460.

EN 1993-1-8.

According to § 3.4.1 of EN 1993-1-8, the Category of bolted connections
(Category A, B or C for joints loaded in shear, and Category D or E for joints
loaded in tension) shall be specified in the contract documents.
According to § 3.9 of EN 1993-1-8, the contract documents shall specify the

class of friction surfaces for slip-resistant connections using pre-loaded 8.8 or
10.9 bolts.
According to § 4.1 of EN 1993-1-8, the contract documents shall specify the

quality level of welds according to EN ISO 25817. The frequency of inspection
of welds shall be specified in the contract documents and shall conform to the
requirements of EN 1090-2.
5.3 Material toughness and through-thickness

properties – EN 1993-1-10
EN 1993-1-10 contains design guidance for the selection of steel for fracture
toughness and for through-thickness properties of welded elements where there
is a significant risk of lamellar tearing during fabrication, for constructions
executed in accordance with EN 1090-2.
The guidance given in Section 2 of EN 1993-1-10 shall be used for the

selection of material for new construction. The rules shall be used to select a
suitable steel grade from the European Standards for steel products listed in
EN 1993-1-1.
The choice of Quality Class shall be selected from Table 3.1 EN 1993-1-10
depending on the consequences of lamellar tearing.
Depending on the Quality Class selected from Table 3.1, either:

 through thickness properties for the steel material shall be specified from
EN 10164, or
 post-fabrication inspection shall be used to identify whether lamellar
tearing has occurred.
7 - 17
Guidance on the avoidance of lamellar tearing during welding is given in

EN 1011-2.

EN 1993-1-10
5.4 Composite steel and concrete structures –

EN 1994-1-1
EN 1994-1-1 describes the Principles and requirements for safety,
serviceability and durability of composite steel and concrete structures,
together with specific provisions for multi-storey buildings.

EN 1994-1-1.

According to § 4.2 of EN 1994-1-1, the exposed surfaces of profiled steel
sheeting for composite slabs in multi-storey buildings shall be adequately
protected to resist the particular atmospheric conditions. A zinc coating of total
mass 275 g/m² (both sides) is sufficient for internal floors in a non-aggressive
environment, unless otherwise specified in the contract documents, depending
on service conditions.
According to § 7.3.1(8) of EN 1994-1-1:2004, the effect of curvature due to

shrinkage of normal weight concrete need not be included when the ratio of
span to overall depth of the beam is not greater than 20, unless specifically
required by the contract documents.
7 - 18
6 EXECUTION SPECIFICATION
6.1 General
The necessary information and technical requirements for execution of each
part of the works shall be agreed and complete before commencement of
execution of that part of the works. Execution of works shall comply with the
requirements of EN 1090-2.
6.2 Execution classes

Execution Classes (EXC1 to EXC4) may apply to the whole structure or to a
part of the structure or to specific details. A structure can include several
Execution Classes. A detail or group of details will normally be ascribed one
Execution Class. However, the choice of an Execution Class does not
necessarily have to be the same for all requirements.
If no Execution Class is specified EXC2 shall apply.
The list of requirements related to Execution Classes is given in Annex A.3 of

EN 1090-2.
Guidance for the choice of Execution Classes is given in Annex B of

EN 1090-2.
The choice of Execution Classes is related to Production Categories and

Service Categories, with links to Consequence Classes as defined in Annex B
of EN 1990.
6.3 Preparation grades

Preparation grades (P1 to P3 according to ISO 8501-3) are related to the
expected life of the corrosion protection and corrosivity category as defined in
§ 10 of EN 1090-2.
Preparation grades may apply to the whole structure or to a part of the structure
or to specific details. A structure can include several preparation grades.
A detail or group of details will normally be ascribed one preparation grade.
6.4 Geometrical tolerances

Two types of geometrical tolerances are defined in § 11 of EN 1090-2:
a) Essential tolerances shall be in accordance with Annex D.1 of EN 1090-2.

The values specified are permitted deviations.
- Manufacturing tolerances are described in § 11.2.2 of EN 1090-2
- Erection tolerances are described in § 11.2.3 of EN 1090-2.
7 - 19
b) Functional tolerances in terms of accepted geometrical deviations shall be in

accordance with one of the following two options:
- The tabulated values described in § 11.3.2 and Annex D.2 of EN 1090-2
- The alternative criteria defined in § 11.3.3 of EN 1090-2.
If no option is specified the tabulated values shall apply.
Tolerances on products are defined in the standards:

- EN 10034 for structural steel I and H sections,
- EN 10056-2 for angles,
- EN 10210-2 for hot-finished structural hollow sections,
- EN 10219-2 for cold formed hollow sections.
7 - 20
7 CONSTITUENT PRODUCTS
7.1 Identification, inspection documents and

traceability
If constituent products that are not covered by the European Standards listed in
Table 2 of EN 1090-2, are to be used, their properties shall be specified in the
contract documents.
The properties of supplied constituent products shall be documented in a way
that enables them to be compared to the specified properties. Their conformity
with the relevant product standard shall be checked in accordance with § 12.2
of EN 1090-2.
For metallic products, the inspection documents according to EN 10204 shall
be as listed in Table 1 of EN 1090-2.
For Execution Classes EXC3 and EXC4, constituent products shall be traceable
at all stages from receipt to hand over after incorporation in the works.
For Execution Classes EXC2, EXC3 and EXC4, if differing grades and/or
qualities of constituent products are in circulation together, each item shall be
designated with a mark that identifies its grade.
Methods of marking shall be in accordance with that for components given in
§ 6.2 of EN 1090-2.
7.2 Structural steel products

Structural steel products shall conform to the requirements of the relevant
European product standards as listed in Table 2 of EN 1090-2, unless otherwise
specified. Grades, qualities and, if appropriate, coating weights and finishes,
shall be specified together with any required options permitted by the product
standard, including those related to suitability for hot dip zinc-coating, if
relevant.
7.3 Welding consumables

All welding consumables shall conform to the requirements of EN 13479 and
the appropriate product standard, as listed in Table 5 of EN 1090-2. The type of
welding consumables shall be appropriate to the welding process (defined in
§ 7.3 of EN 1090-2), the material to be welded and the welding procedure.
7.4 Mechanical fasteners

All mechanical fasteners (connectors, bolts, fasteners) shall conform to the
requirements of § 5.6 of EN 1090-2.
7.5 Grouting materials

The grouting materials to be used shall conform to the requirements of § 5.7 of
EN 1090-2.
7 - 21
8 PREPARATION AND ASSEMBLY

This Section specifies the requirements for cutting, shaping, holing and
assembly of constituent steel components.
Structural steelwork shall be fabricated considering the surface treatment
requirements in § 10 of EN 1090-2, and within the geometrical tolerances
specified in § 11 of EN 1090-2.
8.1 Identification
At all stages of manufacturing, each piece or package of similar pieces of steel
components shall be identifiable by a suitable system, according to the
8.2 Handling and storage

Constituent products shall be handled and stored in conditions that are in
accordance with product manufacturer's recommendations. Structural steel
components shall be packed, handled and transported in a safe manner, so that
permanent deformation does not occur and surface damage is minimized.
Handling and storage preventive measures specified in Table 8 of EN 1090-2
shall be applied as appropriate.
8.3 Cutting
Known and recognized cutting methods are sawing, shearing, disc cutting,
water jet techniques and thermal cutting. Hand thermal cutting shall be used
only if it is not practical to use machine thermal cutting. Cutting shall be
carried out in such a way that the requirements for geometrical tolerances,
maximum hardness and smoothness of free edges as specified in § 6.4 of
EN 1090-2 are met.
8.4 Shaping
Steel may be bent, pressed or forged to the required shape either by the hot or
by the cold forming processes, provided the properties are not reduced below
those specified for the worked material.
Requirements of § 6.5 of EN 1090-2 shall be applied as appropriate.
8.5 Holing
Dimensions of holes, tolerances on hole-diameters and execution of holing
shall comply with the requirements of § 6.6 of EN 1090-2.
8.6 Assembly
Assembly of components shall be carried out so as to fulfil the specified
tolerances. Precautions shall be taken so as to prevent galvanic corrosion
produced by contact between different metallic materials.
Requirements of § 6.9 and § 6.10 of EN 1090-2 shall be applied as appropriate.
7 - 22
9 WELDING
9.1 General
Welding shall be undertaken in accordance with the requirements of the
relevant part of EN ISO 3834 or EN ISO 14554 as applicable.
A welding plan shall be provided as part of the production planning required

by the relevant part of EN ISO 3834. The content of a welding plan is
described in § 7.2.2 of EN 1090-2.
Welding may be performed by the welding processes defined in EN ISO 4063,

that are listed in § 7.3 of EN 1090-2.
9.2 Qualification of welding procedures

Welding shall be carried out with qualified procedures using a Welding
Procedure Specification (WPS) in accordance with the relevant part of
EN ISO 15609 or EN ISO 14555 or EN ISO 15620. If specified, special
deposition conditions for tack welds shall be included in the WPS.
Qualifications of welding procedures, depending on welding processes, are

described in § 7.4.1.2 and § 7.4.1.3 of EN 1090-2.
9.3 Welders and welding operators

Welders shall be qualified in accordance with EN 287-1 and welding operators
in accordance with EN 1418. Records of all welder and welding operator
qualification tests shall be kept available.
9.4 Welding coordination

For Execution Class EXC2, EXC3 and EXC4, welding coordination shall be
maintained during the execution of welding by welding coordination personnel
suitably qualified for, and experienced in the welding operations they supervise
as specified in EN ISO 14731.
With respect to the welding operations being supervised, and for structural
carbon steels, welding coordination personnel shall have a technical knowledge
according to Table 14 of EN 1090-2.
9.5 Preparation and execution of welding

Precautions shall be taken to avoid stray arcing, and if stray arcing does occur
the surface of the steel shall be lightly ground and checked. Visual checking
shall be supplemented by penetrant or magnetic particle testing.
Precautions shall be taken to avoid weld spatter. For Execution Class EXC3
and EXC4, it shall be removed.
7 - 23
Visible imperfections such as cracks, cavities and other not permitted

imperfections shall be removed from each run before deposition of further
runs.
All slag shall be removed from the surface of each run before each subsequent
run is added and from the surface of the finished weld.
Particular attention shall be paid to the junctions between the weld and the
parent metal.
Any requirements for grinding and dressing of the surface of completed welds
shall be specified.
Joint preparation shall be appropriate for the welding process. If qualification

of welding procedures is performed in accordance with EN ISO 15614-1,
EN ISO 15612 or EN ISO 15613, joint preparation shall comply with the type
of preparation used in the welding procedure test. Tolerances for joints
preparations, and fit-up shall be given in the WPSs.
Joint preparation shall be free from visible cracks. Visible cracks shall be
removed by grinding and the joint geometry corrected as necessary.
If large notches or other errors in joint geometry are corrected by welding, a

qualified procedure shall be used, and the area shall be subsequently ground
smooth and feathered into the adjacent surface.
All surfaces to be welded shall be dry and free from material that would
adversely affect the quality of the welds or impede the process of welding (rust,
organic material or galvanizing).
Prefabrication primers (shop primers) may be left on the fusion faces only if
they do not adversely affect the welding process. For Execution Class EXC3
and EXC4, prefabrication primers shall not be left on the fusion faces, unless
welding procedure tests in accordance with EN ISO 15614-1 or EN ISO 15613
have been completed using such prefabrication primers.
Other special requirements are described in EN 1090-2, as indicated in

Table 9.1.
7 - 24
Table 9.1 Special requirements

Clause
Storage and handling of welding consumables 7.5.2
Weather protection 7.5.3
Assembly for welding 7.5.4
Preheating 7.5.5
Temporary attachments 7.5.6
Tack welds 7.5.7
Fillet welds 7.5.8
Butt welds 7.5.9
Stud welding 7.5.12
Slot and plug welds 7.5.13
9.6 Acceptance criteria

Welded components shall comply with the requirements specified in § 10 and
§ 11 of EN 1090-2.
The acceptance criteria for weld imperfections shall conform to the

7 - 25
10 MECHANICAL FASTENING
Section 8 of EN 1090-2 covers requirements for shop and site fastening,

including the fixing of profiled sheeting; it refers to bolting assemblies
consisting of matching bolts, nuts and washers (as necessary).
Contract documents shall specify if, in addition to tightening, other measures

or means are to be used to secure the nuts.
Minimum nominal fastener diameter, bolt length, length of protrusion, length

of the unthreaded bolt shaft and clamp length shall comply with the
requirements of § 8.2.2 of EN 1090-2.
Requirements given in § 8.2.3 of EN 1090-2 for washers shall apply.
Tightening of non-preloaded bolts shall comply with the requirements of § 8.3

of EN 1090-2.
Precautions and preparation of contact surfaces in slip resistant connections

shall comply with the requirements of § 8.4 and Table 18 of EN 1090-2. Slip
factor shall be determined by test as specified in Annex G of EN 1090-2.
Tightening methods of preloaded bolts shall comply with the requirements of

§ 8.5 of EN 1090-2, and shall be specified in the contract documents.
7 - 26
11 ERECTION
Section 9 of EN 1090-2 gives requirements for erection and other works

undertaken on site including grouting of bases as well as those relevant to the
suitability of the site for safe erection and for accurately prepared supports.
Erection shall not commence until the site for the construction works complies
with the technical requirements with respect to the safety of the works. Safety
items related to site conditions are listed in § 9.2 of EN 1090-2.
If the structural stability in the part-erected condition is not evident, a safe

method of erection, on which the design was based, shall be provided. Items
related to the design basis method of erection are listed in § 9.3.1 of
EN 1090-2.
A method statement describing the steelwork contractor's erection method shall

be prepared and checked in accordance with design rules. The erection method
statement shall describe procedures to be used to safely erect the steelwork and
shall take into account the technical requirements regarding the safety of the
works. The erection method statement shall address all relevant items in § 9.3.1
of EN 1090-2; additional items are listed in § 9.3.2 of EN 1090-2.
Erection drawings or equivalent instructions, in accordance with the

requirements of § 9.6.1 of EN 1090-2, shall be provided and form part of the
erection method statement.
Site measurements for the works shall be in accordance with the survey
The condition and location of the supports shall be checked visually and by
appropriate measurement before the commencement of erection. If supports are
unsuited to erection, they shall be corrected prior to the commencement of
erection. Nonconformities shall be documented.
All foundations, foundation bolts and other supports for the steelwork shall be
suitably prepared to receive the steel structure. Installation of structural
bearings shall comply with the requirements of EN 1337-11. Erection shall not
commence until the location and levels of the supports, anchors or bearings
comply with the acceptance criteria in § 11.2 of EN 1090-2, or an appropriate
amendment to the specified requirements.
If foundation bolts are to be pre-stressed, arrangements shall be made that the

upper 100 mm of the bolt, as a minimum, has no adhesion to the concrete.
Foundation bolts intended to move in sleeves shall be provided with sleeves
three times the diameter of the bolt, with a minimum of 75 mm.
Whilst erection is proceeding, the supports for the steelwork shall be

maintained in an equivalent condition to their condition at the commencement
of erection.
7 - 27
Areas of supports that require protection against rust staining shall be identified
and appropriate protection provided.
Compensation for settlement of supports is acceptable, unless otherwise

specified in the contract documents. This shall be done by grouting or packing
between steelwork and support. The compensation will generally be placed
beneath the bearing.
Shims and other supporting devices used as temporary supports under base
plates shall be placed in accordance with the requirements of § 8.3, 8.5.1, 9.5.4
and 9.6.5.3 of EN 1090-2.
Grouting, sealing and anchoring shall be set in accordance with their

specification and the requirements of § 5.8, 9.5.5 and 9.5.6 of EN 1090-2.
Components that are individually assembled or erected at the site shall be

allocated an erection mark, in accordance with the requirements of § 6.2 and
9.6.2 of EN 1090-2.
Handling and storage on site shall comply with the requirements of § 6.3 and
9.6.3 of EN 1090-2.
Any site trial erection shall be performed in accordance with the requirements
of Clauses 6.10 and 9.6.10 of EN 1090-2.
The erection of the steelwork shall be carried out in conformity with the
erection method statement and in such a way as to ensure stability at all times.
Foundation bolts shall not be used to secure unguyed columns against

overturning unless they have been checked for this design situation.
Throughout the erection of the structure, the steelwork shall be made safe
against temporary erection loads, including those due to erection equipment or
its operation and against the effects of wind loads on the unfinished structure.
At least one third of the permanent bolts in each connection should be installed
before that connection can be considered to contribute to stability of the part
completed structure.
All temporary bracing and temporary restraints shall be left in position until
erection is sufficiently advanced to allow its safe removal.
All connections for temporary components provided for erection purposes shall
be made in accordance with the requirements of EN 1090-2 and in such a way
that they do not weaken the permanent structure or impair its serviceability.
If backing bars and draw cleats are used to support the structure during
welding, it shall be ensured that they are sufficiently strong and that their
retaining welds are appropriate for the erection load conditions.
If the erection procedure involves rolling or otherwise moving the structure, or

part of the structure, into its final position after assembly, provision shall be
7 - 28
made for controlled braking of the moving mass. Provision for reversing the
direction of movement may need to be considered.
All temporary anchoring devices shall be made secure against unintentional

release.
Only jacks that can be locked in any position under load shall be used unless
other safety provisions are made.
Care shall be taken that no part of the structure is permanently distorted or

over-stressed by stacking of steelwork components or by erection loads during
the erection process.
Each part of the structure shall be aligned as soon as practicable after it has
been erected and final assembly completed as soon as possible thereafter.
Permanent connections shall not be made between components until sufficient

of the structure has been aligned, levelled, plumbed and temporarily connected
to ensure that components will not be displaced during subsequent erection or
alignment of the remainder of the structure.
Alignment of the structure and lack-of-fit in connections may be adjusted by

the use of shims (see above). If lack-of-fit between erected components cannot
be corrected by the use of shims, components of the structure shall be locally
modified in accordance with the methods specified in EN 1090-2. The
modifications shall not compromise the performance of the structure in the
temporary or permanent state. This work may be executed on site. Care shall
be taken with structures built of welded latticed components and space
structures to ensure that they are not subjected to excessive forces in an attempt
to force a fit against their inherent rigidity.
Unless otherwise prohibited in the contract documents, drifts may be used to

align connections. Elongation of holes for bolts used for transmission of loads
shall not be more than the values given in § 6.9 of EN 1090-2.
In case of misalignment of holes for bolts, the method of correction shall be

checked for consistency with the requirements of § 12 of EN 1090-2.
Realigned holes may be proven to comply with the oversize or slotted hole
requirements specified in 8.1 of EN 1090-2, provided the load path has been
checked.
Correction of misalignment by reaming or using a hollow milling cutter is

preferred, but if the use of other cutting methods is unavoidable the internal
finish of all holes formed by these other methods shall be specifically checked
for consistency with the requirements of § 6 of EN 1090-2.
Completed site connections shall be checked in accordance with 12.5 of

EN 1090-2.
Erection tolerances are detailed in § 11.2.3 and Tables D.1.11 to D.1.15 and
Tables D.2.19 to D.2.28 of Annex D of EN 1090-2.
7 - 29
12 CONSTRUCTOR’S DOCUMENTATION
Quality documentation, mandatory for Execution Classes EXC2 to EXC4, is

defined in § 4.2.1 of EN 1090-2.
If required, a quality plan (defined in EN ISO 9000) for the execution of the
works is described in § 4.2.2 of EN 1090-2. Annex C of EN 1090-2 gives a
check-list for the content of a quality plan recommended for the execution of
structural steelwork with reference to the general guidelines in ISO 10005.
Method statements giving detailed work instructions shall comply with the
technical requirements relating to the safety of the erection works as given in
§ 9.2 and § 9.3 of EN 1090-2.
Sufficient documentation shall be prepared during execution and as a record of

the as-built structure to demonstrate that the works have been carried out
according to the execution specification.
Design and structural engineering documentation shall be prepared before

execution of the works, and approved by any approval body designated by the
Owner. The documentation should contain:
 Design assumptions
 Software used (if any)
 Member and joint design verification
 General Arrangement drawings and joint details.
7 - 30
13 INTERFACES OF THE STEEL STRUCTURE
13.1 Interface to concrete surfaces

Information showing holding-down bolts and the interface of steelwork
components to foundations shall include a Foundation Plan showing the base
location, position and orientation of columns, the marks of all columns, any
other components in direct contact with the foundations, their base location and
level, and the datum level.
Similar information shall also be provided for components connecting to walls

and other concrete surfaces.
Complete details of fixing steel and bolts to the foundations or walls, method
of adjustment and packing space shall be provided.
Before erection of steelwork starts, the steelwork contractor shall inspect the
prepared foundations and holding-down bolts for position and level; if he finds
any discrepancies which are outside the deviations specified in § D.2.20 of
EN 1090-2, he shall request that remedial work be carried out before erection
commences.
Shims and other supporting devices used as temporary supports under base
plates shall present a flat surface to the steel and be of adequate size, strength
and rigidity to avoid local crushing of the substructure concrete or masonry.
If packings are subsequently to be grouted, they shall be placed so that the

grout totally encloses them with a minimum cover of 25 mm unless otherwise
specified.
If packings are left in position after grouting, they shall be made from materials
with the same durability as the structure.
If adjustment to the position of the base is achieved using levelling nuts on the
foundation bolts under the base plate, these may be left in position unless
otherwise specified. The nuts shall be selected to ensure that they are suitable
to maintain the stability of the part-erected structure but not to jeopardize the
performance of the foundation bolt in service.
If spaces under base plates are to be grouted, fresh material shall be used in
accordance with § 5.8 of EN 1090-2.
Grouting shall not be carried out under column base plates until a sufficient
portion of the structure has been aligned, levelled, plumbed and adequately
braced.
Grouting material shall be used as follows:

 The material shall be mixed and used in accordance with product
manufacturer's recommendations notably regarding its consistency when
used. Material shall not be mixed or used below 0°C unless the
manufacturer's recommendations permit it.
7 - 31
 The material shall be poured under a suitable head so that the space is
completely filled.
 Tamping and ramming against properly fixed supports shall be used if
specified and/or recommended by the grout manufacturer.
 Vent holes shall be provided as necessary.
Immediately before grouting, the space under the steel base plate shall be free
from liquids, ice, debris and contaminants.
If treatment of steelwork, bearings and concrete surfaces is required before

grouting, it shall be specified in the contract documents.
Care shall be taken that the external profile of grouting allows water to be
drained away from structural steel components. If there is a danger of water or
corrosive liquid becoming entrapped during service, the grout around base
plates shall not be surcharged such that it rises above the lowest surface of the
base plate and the geometry of the concrete grout shall form an angle from the
base plate.
If no grouting is needed, and the edges of the base plate are to be sealed, the
method shall be specified.
Anchoring devices in concrete parts of the structure or adjacent structures shall

be set in accordance with their specification. Suitable measures shall be taken
to avoid damage to concrete in order to achieve the necessary anchoring
resistance.
Foundations shall be adequately designed by a qualified foundation engineer to

support the building reactions and other loads which may be imposed by the
building use. The design shall be based on the specific soil conditions of the
building site.
13.2 Interface to neighbouring constructions

The mutual influence of neighbouring constructions for wind or snow actions
must be carefully considered. Design wind and snow loads may vary
considerably regarding the site and the construction environment, hence,
precise indications shall be given, in the contract documents, concerning the
surrounding constructions.
7 - 32
APPENDIX A MODEL PROJECT SPECIFICATION
The execution of steelwork for multi-storey buildings in Europe will generally

be specified to be in accordance with EN 1090-2, and the design to be in
accordance with applicable parts of the Eurocode Standards. These Standards,
which cover technical requirements for a wide range of steel structures, include
clauses where the execution/design specification for the works is required to
give additional information or where it has the option to specify other
requirements.
Appendix A offers a set of clauses that may be used for multi-storey steel
building projects to supplement and quantify the rules of the Europeans
Standards.
The clauses are arranged in a two-column format. The left column contains the
proposed clauses. The right column gives a commentary to several clauses, for
the information of the person drawing up project documents; those
commentaries are not intended to be included within the execution
specification. The model specification must be made specific to the
construction project by completing the relevant clauses with appropriate
information.
The model project specification proposed in this Appendix covers structural

steelwork produced from hot rolled structural steel products only. It does not
cover structural steelwork produced from cold formed structural steel (only
cold formed profiled steel sheeting and cold formed stressed-skin sheeting used
as a structural diaphragm are herein covered), structural hollow sections,
channels and tubes and stainless steel products. This model project
specification relates principally to conventional construction using constituent
products to the standards referenced in EN 1090-2. If more complex forms of
construction are involved or other products are used, designers need to consider
any modifications that might be needed to the execution specification to ensure
that the desired quality and/or functionality are achieved.
For consistency, in Appendix A, those clause headings that are numbered and
in bold, correspond to the Section headings of this document.
7 - 33
Proposed Clauses Commentary

3 BASIS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN
3.1 Design of steel structures shall conform
to the basic requirements of § 2.1 of
EN 1990.
3.2 Reliability, durability and quality
management shall conform to Clauses
2.2, 2.4 and 2.5 of EN 1990.
3.3 The following additional specific events § 2.1(4) of EN 1990.
shall be taken into account for the
design and the execution of the
structure: (insert list)
3.4 The design working life of the structure § 2.3 of EN 1990.
shall be equal to ... years. For the specification of the intended design
working life of a permanent building, see
Table 2.1 of EN 1990.
A working life of 50 years will provide
adequate durability for common multi--storey
buildings.
3.5 For the following additional specific § 3.3(2) of EN 1990.
circumstances, the limit states that
concern the protection of the contents
shall be classified as ultimate limit
states: (insert list)
3.6 The serviceability requirements of the § 3.4(1) of EN 1990.
project shall be as follows: (insert
requirements)
4. ACTIONS ON STRUCTURES
4.1 Self-weight and imposed loads
4.1.1 The following imposed loads shall be § 3.3.2(4) of EN 1991-1-1.
considered for serviceability limit state In accordance with the service conditions
verifications: (insert list) and the requirements concerning the
performance of the structure.
4.1.2 The characteristic values of densities of Clauses 4.1(1) and 4.1(2) of EN 1991-1-1.
construction and stored materials shall Especially for materials which are not
be taken as follows: (insert list) covered by the Tables in Annex A of
EN 1991-1-1.
4.1.3 Loads of heavy equipments shall be as § 6.1(4) of EN 1991-1-1.
specified on the relevant drawings. e.g. in communal kitchens, radiology rooms,
boiler rooms, etc.
4.2 Snow loads
4.2.1 In the following circumstances, tests § 1.5 of EN 1991-1-3.
and proven and/or properly validated These circumstances should be agreed upon
numerical methods may be used to with the Client and the relevant authority.
obtain snow loads on the construction
works: (insert particular circumstances,
if any)
4.2.2 Particular snow loads shall comply with § 4.1(1) of EN 1991-1-3.
the following requirements: (insert To cover unusual local conditions, the
special requirements, if any) National Annex may additionally allow the
Client and the relevant authority to agree
upon different characteristic values of snow
load.
7 - 34

4.3 Wind loads
4.3.1 (Optional) The following rules for the § 7.2.2 of EN 1991-1-4.
velocity pressure distribution for leeward Certain rules may also be given in the
wall and sidewalls shall apply: (insert National Annex.
rules)
4.4 Thermal actions
4.4.1 The following specific operational § 5.2(2)P of EN 1991-1-5.
thermal effects shall apply: (insert list of due to heating, technological or industrial
specific thermal actions) processes.
4.4.2 The following specific values of TM and § 5.2(3)P of EN 1991-1-5.
TP shall apply: (insert values) TM : linear temperature difference
component;
TP : temperature difference between
different parts of a structure given by the
difference of average temperatures of these
parts.
4.5 Actions during execution
4.5.1 The following rules concerning the These rules are outside the scope of
safety of persons, on and around the EN 1991-1-6.
construction site, shall apply: (insert
rules)
4.5.2 Construction loads shall be as specified See Tables 2.2 and 4.1 of EN 1991-1-6.
in the relevant drawings
4.5.3 Tolerances for the possible deviations to If construction loads are classified as fixed
the theoretical position of construction loads.
loads shall be as specified in the
relevant drawings
4.5.4 The limits of the potential area of spatial If construction loads are classified as free
variation of construction loads shall be loads.
as specified in the relevant drawings
4.5.5 The following minimum wind velocity § 3.1(5) of EN 1991-1-6.
during execution phases shall apply: ... In the absence of any choice in the National
Annex.
4.5.6 The following rules of combination of § 3.1(7) of EN 1991-1-6.
snow loads and wind action with the In the absence of any choice in the National
construction loads shall apply: (insert Annex.
rules)
4.5.7 The geometric imperfections of the § 3.1(8) of EN 1991-1-6.
structure and the structural elements In the absence of any choice in the National
during execution shall be as follows : Annex.
(insert values)
4.5.8 Criteria associated with serviceability § 3.3(2) of EN 1991-1-6.
limit states during execution shall be as In the absence of any choice in the National
follows: (insert criteria) Annex.
4.5.9 The maximum allowable wind velocity § 4.7(1) of EN 1991-1-6.
during crane operations shall be ...
4.6 Accidental actions
4.6.1 The following notional accidental loads Equivalent static design forces due to
shall apply: (insert accidental actions) vehicular impact;
Frontal and lateral dynamic design forces
due to impact from river and canal traffic, as
well as the height of application of the impact
force and the impact area;
Classification of structures subject to impact
from derailed railway traffic (§ 4.5.1.2 of
EN 1991-1-7);
7 - 35

4.7 Seismic actions
4.7.1 The Importance Class of the project Table 4.3 of EN 1998-1.
shall be (insert class) Ordinary buildings (other than schools, fire
stations, power plants, hospitals, etc.)
correspond to Importance Class II;
4.7.2 The Ground Type shall be as specified Table 3.1 of EN 1998-1.
on the relevant documents. Depending on the particular conditions of the
project, contract documents should specify
whether ground investigations and/or
geological studies should be performed to
identify the ground type;
4.7.3 The seismic zone of the project shall be According to the seismic zone map, decided
(insert zone) by the National Authority, and found in the
National Annex of EN 1998-1
4.7.4 Earthquake resistant steel building shall DCL, DCM or DCH.
be designed according to ... concept
(insert concept)
5. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

5.1 General rules
5.1.1 To ensure durability, the building and its § 2.1.3.3(1)B of EN 1993-1-1.
components shall either be designed for
environmental actions (and fatigue if
relevant) or else protected from them.
5.1.2 The effects of deterioration of material § 2.1.3.3(2)B of EN 1993-1-1.
and corrosion (and fatigue where
relevant) shall be taken into account by
appropriate choice of material (see
EN 1993-1-4 and EN 1993-1-10), and
details (see EN 1993-1-9), or by
structural redundancy and by the choice
of an appropriate protection system.
5.1.3 For the following components, the § 2.1.3.3(3)B of EN 1993-1-1.
possibility of their safe replacement
shall be verified as a transient design
situation (insert list of the components of
the building that need to be replaceable)
5.1.4 With reference to Annex A1.4 of § 7 of EN 1993-1-1.
EN 1990, vertical deflections (according
to Figure A1.1), horizontal deflections
(according to Figure A1.2) and
vibrations of structures on which the
public can walk shall comply with the
following limits: (insert serviceability
limits states)
5.2 Design of joints
5.2.1 Bolted connections Category shall be as § 3.4.1 of EN 1993-1-8.
specified on the relevant documents.
5.2.2 Friction surfaces for slip-resistant § 3.9 of EN 1993-1-8.
connections using pre-loaded 8.8 or
10.9 bolts shall be as specified on the
relevant documents.
5.2.3 According to EN ISO 25817, the quality § 4.1 of EN 1993-1-8.
level of welds shall be as specified on
the relevant documents.
7 - 36

5.2.4 The frequency of inspection of welds § 4.1 of EN 1993-1-8.
shall conform to the requirements of
EN 1090-2 and shall be as specified on
5.3 Material toughness and through
thickness properties
5.3.1 The guidance given in section 2 of EN
1993-1-10:2005 shall be used for the
selection of materials for fracture
toughness.
5.3.2 The guidance given in section 3 of EN
1993-1-10:2005 shall be used for the
selection of materials for through-
thickness properties
5.4 Composite steel and concrete
structures
5.4.1 The exposed surfaces of the profiled Clause 4.2 of EN 1994-1-1:2004.
steel sheeting for composite slabs shall A zinc coating of total mass 275 g/m²
be adequately protected to resist the (including both sides) is sufficient for the
particular atmospheric conditions as internal floors in a non-aggressive
specified on the relevant documents. environment.
5.4.2 The effect of curvature due to shrinkage Clause 7.3.1(8) of EN 1994-1-1:2004.
shall be as specified on the relevant When the ratio of span to overall depth of the
documents beam is not greater than 20, the effect of
curvature due to shrinkage (of normal weight
concrete) need not be included.
6. EXECUTION SPECIFICATION
6.1 General
6.1.1 The requirements for the execution of Insert a list of the relevant drawings and
structural steelwork for the project are other documents, including reference to
given in the following documents: (Insert EN 1090-2.
list)
6.2 Execution Class
6.2.1 For building structures, EXC2 shall The use of EXC2 as the default class will
generally apply, except where specified provide adequate reliability for most elements
otherwise on the drawings. of ordinary buildings. For some structures, a
greater scope of inspection and testing
and/or higher quality level acceptance criteria
may be required, either generally or for
particular details. Particular details where this
is required, such as where special inspection
and testing is required, should be indicated
on the drawings.
Table A.3 of EN 1090-2 gives a list of
requirements related to execution classes;
Annex B of EN 1090-2 gives guidance for the
choice of execution classes;
The choice of execution classes is related to
production categories and service categories,
with links to consequence classes as defined
in Annex B of EN 1990.
7 - 37

6.3 Preparation grades
6.3.1 The preparation grade of all surfaces to Preparation grades (P1 to P3 according to
which paints and related products are to ISO 8501-3) are related to the expected life
be applied shall be ... of the corrosion protection and corrosivity
Otherwise, category as defined in § 10 of EN 1090-2.
The expected life of the corrosion
protection shall be ... years or corrosivity
category shall be ...
6.4 Geometrical tolerances
6.4.1 For essential tolerances, the tabulated Manufacturing tolerances are described in
values in Annex D.1 of EN 1090-2 shall § 11.2.2 of EN 1090-2;
apply. Erection tolerances are described in § 11.2.3
If the steelwork is not within tolerance, it of EN 1090-2;
shall be reported to the designer of the
permanent works and shall be adjusted,
if necessary, to maintain the structural
adequacy in accordance with the design
rules.
6.4.2 For functional tolerances (in terms of
accepted geometrical deviations), either
the tabulated values in § 11.3.2 and
Annex D.2 of EN 1090-2 shall apply, or,
the alternative criteria defined in
§ 11.3.3 of EN 1090-2 shall apply.
7. CONSTITUENT STEEL PRODUCTS

7.1 Identification, inspection documents
and traceability
7.1.1 Properties for (...) shall comply with the § 5.1 of EN 1090-2
requirements given in (...). Insert details for any constituent product not
covered by the European Standards listed in
Table 2 of EN 1090-2.
7.1.2 The inspection documents (according to § 5.2 of EN 1090-2.
EN 10204) shall be as listed in Table 1
of EN 1090-2.
(Optional clause) § 5.2 of EN 1090-2.
7.1.3 For Execution Classes EXC3 and
EXC4, constituent products shall be
traceable at all stages from receipt to
hand over after incorporation in the
works.
7.1.4 For Execution Classes EXC2, EXC3 § 5.2 of EN 1090-2.
and EXC4, if different grades and/or Methods of marking should be in accordance
qualities of constituent products are in with that for components given in § 6.2 of
circulation together, each item shall be EN 1090-2.
designated with a mark that identifies its If marking is required, unmarked constituent
grade. products should be treated as non
conforming product.
7.2 Structural steel products
7.2.1 The grade and quality of structural steel
shall be as specified on the drawings.
7.2.2 For structural steel plates, thickness § 5.3.2 of EN 1090-2.
tolerances class A, in accordance with Class A is usually sufficient, even where
EN 10029, shall be used. EXC4 is specified, but if class C is required
by the technical authority or for other
reasons, that class should be specified
instead.
7 - 38

7.2.3 Structural carbon steels shall conform to § 5.3.1 of EN 1090-2.
the requirements of the relevant
European product standards as listed in
Table 2 of EN 1090-2, unless otherwise
specified on the drawings. Grades,
qualities and, if appropriate, coating
weights and finishes, together with any
required options permitted by the
product standard, including those
related to suitability for hot dip zinc-
coating, if relevant, shall be as specified
on the drawings.
7.2.4 For carbon steels, surface condition § 5.3.3 of EN 1090-2.
shall be as follows:
Class A2, for plates in accordance with
the requirements of EN 10163-2;
Class C1, for sections in accordance
with the requirements of EN 10163-3.
If relevant, surface imperfections (such
as cracks, shell or seams) or repair of
surface defects by grinding in
accordance with EN 10163, shall
comply with the following restrictions :
(insert list of special restrictions)
(Optional clause) § 5.3.4 of EN 1090-2.
7.2.5 For EXC3 and EXC4, the locations (and Especially for welded cruciform joints
width) where internal discontinuity transmitting primary tensile stresses through
quality class S1 of EN 10160 is the plate thickness, and for areas close to
required, are specified on the relevant bearing diaphragms or stiffeners.
drawings.
7.2.6 Areas where material shall comply with § 5.3.4 of EN 1090-2.
requirements for improved deformation Consideration should be given to specifying
properties perpendicular to the surface such material for cruciform, T and corner
(according to EN 10164) are specified joints. Should only be invoked where
on the drawings. necessary; specify only those parts of the
structure which need these properties.
7.3 Welding consumables
7.3.1 All welding consumables shall conform § 5.5 of EN 1090-2.
to the requirements of EN 13479 and
the appropriate product standard, as
listed in Table 5 of EN 1090-2. The type
of welding consumables shall be
appropriate to the welding process
(defined in § 7.3 of EN 1090-2), the
material to be welded and the welding
procedure.
7.4 Mechanical fasteners
7.4.1 All mechanical fasteners (connectors,
bolts, fasteners) shall conform to the
Studs for arc stud welding including
shear connectors for steel/concrete
composite construction shall comply
with the requirements of EN ISO 13918.
7.4.2 The property classes of non-preloaded
bolts and nuts, and surface finishes,
7.4.3 The property classes of preloaded bolts HV bolts are sensitive to over-tightening, so
and nuts, and surface finishes, shall be they require a greater level of site control.
as specified on the drawings. It is not advisable to use both HR and HV
assemblies on the same project.
7 - 39

7.4.4 The chemical composition of weather
resistant assemblies shall comply with
the requirements for Type 3 Grade A
fasteners to ASTM standard A325, or
equivalent.
7.4.5 Reinforcing steels may be used for
foundation bolts. In this case, they shall
conform to EN 10080 and the steel
grade shall be as specified on the
drawings.
(Optional clause)
7.4.6 Where locking devices are specified on
the drawings, they shall comply with the
relevant standards listed in § 5.6.8 of
EN 1090-2, and additionally ... (Insert
any particular requirements for locking
devices).
7.5 Grouting materials
7.5.1 Grouting materials to be used shall be
as specified on the relevant drawings.
8. PREPARATION AND ASSEMBLY

8.1 Identification
8.1.1 Soft or low stress stamps may be used, Soft or low stress stamp marks can easily be
except in any areas specified on the obliterated by the protective system. The
drawings. fabricator will usually mask the stamped area
after application of primer and complete the
coating locally after erection.
8.1.2 Areas where identification marks are not
permitted or shall not be visible after
completion are specified on the
drawings.
8.2 Handling and storage
8.2.1 Structural steel components shall be
packed, handled and transported in a
safe manner, so that permanent
deformation does not occur and surface
damage is minimized.
Handling and storage preventive
measures specified in Table 8 of
EN 1090-2 shall be applied as
appropriate.
8.3 Cutting
8.3.1 Hand thermal cutting shall be used only
if it is not practical to use machine
thermal cutting.
Cutting shall be carried out in such a
way that the requirements for
geometrical tolerances, maximum
hardness and smoothness of free
edges, as specified in § 6.4 of
EN 1090-2, are met.
8.4 Shaping
8.4.1 Requirements of § 6.5 of EN 1090-2
shall be applied as appropriate.
7 - 40

8.5 Holing
8.5.1 Dimensions of holes, tolerances on
hole-diameters and execution of holing
shall comply with the requirements of
§ 6.6 of EN 1090-2.
8.5.2 Where specified on the drawings, holes
with special dimensions shall be
provided for connections of movement
joints.
8.5.3 Special tolerances on hole diameters Special tolerances would only be needed in
shall be as specified on the drawings. exceptional conditions.
If pins are used, tolerances should be
specified for both holes and pins.
8.5.4 Holes for fasteners shall be formed by
drilling or by punching followed by
reaming.
8.5.5 Long slotted holes shall be executed as This option is only needed for special cases,
specified on the drawings. such as slotted holes for pins in movement
joints. Details must then be given on the
drawings.
8.6 Assembly
8.6.1 Requirements of Clauses 6.9 and 6.10
of EN 1090-2 shall be applied as
appropriate.
8.6.2 Holes for which elongation is not This option is needed for fit bolts for instance.
permitted are shown on the relevant
drawings.
8.6.3 The acceptability of the addition of any If there are any restrictions on positioning of
welded temporary attachments and the temporary attachments, they should be
making of any butt welds additional to specified, either in this clause or on the
those specified on the drawings shall be drawings.
verified according to the design rules. In general, temporary welded attachments
A record of the details of such are not acceptable within 25 mm of the
attachments and butt welds shall be edges of flange plates.
provided as part of the constructor’s
execution documentation.
Areas where temporary attachments
have been made shall be made good.
If weld repairs are necessary these shall
be carried out in accordance with the
requirements of the appropriate
Standard.
9. WELDING
9.1 General
9.1.1 Welding shall be undertaken in
accordance with the requirements of the
relevant part of EN ISO 3834 or
EN ISO 14554 as applicable.
9.1.2 A welding plan shall be provided as part The content of a welding plan is described in
of the production planning required by § 7.2.2 of EN 1090-2.
the relevant part of EN ISO 3834.
9.1.3 Welding may be performed by the Welding processes are listed in § 7.3 of
welding processes defined in EN 1090-2.
EN ISO 4063.
7 - 41

9.2 Qualification of welding procedures
9.2.1 Welding shall be carried out with Qualifications of welding procedures,
qualified procedures using a Welding depending on welding processes, are
Procedure Specification (WPS) in described in Clauses 7.4.1.2 and 7.4.1.3 of
accordance with the relevant part of EN 1090-2.
EN ISO 15609 or EN ISO 14555 or
EN ISO 15620.
9.3 Welders and welding operators
9.3.1 Welders shall be qualified in accordance
with EN 287-1 and welding operators in
accordance with EN 1418.
Records of all welder and welding
operator qualification tests shall be kept
available.
9.4 Welding coordination
9.4.1 Welding coordination shall be This option is needed for Execution Class
maintained during the execution of EXC2, EXC3 and EXC4.
welding by welding coordination With respect to the welding operations being
personnel suitably qualified for, and supervised, and for structural carbon steels,
experienced in the welding operations welding coordination personnel should have
they supervise as specified in a technical knowledge according to Table 14
EN ISO 14731. of EN 1090-2.
9.5 Preparation and execution of welding
9.5.1 Precautions shall be taken to avoid
stray arcing, and if stray arc do occur
the surface of the steel shall be lightly
ground and checked. Visual checking
shall be supplemented by penetrant or
magnetic particle testing.
9.5.2 Precautions shall be taken to avoid weld For Execution Class EXC3 and EXC4, weld
spatter. spatter should be removed.
9.5.3 Visible imperfections such as cracks,
cavities and other not permitted
imperfections shall be removed from
each run before deposition of further
runs.
9.5.4 All slag shall be removed from the
surface of each run before each
subsequent run is added and from the
surface of the finished weld.
9.5.5 Particular attention shall be paid to the
junctions between the weld and the
parent metal.
9.5.6 Special requirements for grinding and
dressing of the surface of completed
welds are shown on the relevant
drawings.
9.5.7 Joint preparation shall be free from
visible cracks. Visible cracks shall be
removed by grinding and the joint
geometry corrected as necessary.
9.5.8 If large notches or other errors in joint
geometry are corrected by welding, a
qualified procedure shall be used, and
the area shall be subsequently ground
smooth and feathered into the adjacent
surface.
7 - 42

9.5.9 All surfaces to be welded shall be dry Such as rust, organic material or galvanizing.
and free from material that would
adversely affect the quality of the welds
or impede the process of welding.
9.5.10 Requirements of § 7.5.1 to 7.5.16 of
EN 1090-2 shall be applied as
appropriate.
9.6 Acceptance criteria
9.6.1 Welded components shall comply with
the requirements specified in Clauses
10 and 11 of EN 1090-2.
9.6.2 The acceptance criteria for weld
imperfections shall conform to the
10. MECHANICAL FASTENING

10.1 General
10.1.1 Minimum nominal fastener diameter,
bolt length, length of protrusion, length
of the unthreaded bolt shaft and clamp
length shall comply with the
requirements of § 8.2.2 of EN 1090-2.
10.1.2 Requirements given in § 8.2.3 of
EN 1090-2 for washers shall apply.
10.1.3 Tightening of non-preloaded bolts shall
comply with the requirements of § 8.3 of
EN 1090-2.
The bolt shall protrude from the face of
the nut, after tightening, not less than
one full thread pitch.
10.1.4 Precautions and preparation of contact
surfaces in slip resistant connections
§ 8.4 and Table 18 of EN 1090-2. Slip
factor shall be determined by test as
specified in Annex G of EN 1090-2.
10.1.5 Tightening methods of preloaded bolts
§ 8.5 of EN 1090-2; special
requirements are specified on the
relevant documents.
10.2 Bolts
10.2.1 Bolt sizes for structural bolting shall be
as specified on the drawings.
10.2.2 Where the structure has been designed The locations and dimensions must be given
to utilise the shear resistance of the on the drawings. Reliance on the resistance
unthreaded shank of bolts, this is of the unthreaded shank, rather than the
specified on the drawings and the threaded part, is inadvisable because it
dimensions of the bolts are given. requires a higher level of control on bolt
supply and installation to ensure that only
unthreaded parts exist in the part of the
connection where the resistance to shear is
required.
10.3 Nuts
10.3.1 Nuts shall be assembled so that their
designation markings are visible for
inspection after assembly.
7 - 43

10.3.2 Nuts shall run freely on their partnering Any nut and bolt assembly where the nut
bolt, which is easily checked during does not run freely should be discarded.
hand assembly.
10.4 Washers
10.4.1 Washers shall be provided under the
nut or the bolt head of non-preloaded
bolts, whichever is to be rotated.
10.4.2 For preloaded bolts :
- for 8.8 bolts, a washer shall be used
under the bolt head or the nut,
whichever is to be rotated;
- for 10.9 bolts, washers shall be used
under both the bolt head and the nut.
10.5 Preparation of contact surfaces in
slip-resistant connections
10.5.1 The area of contact surfaces in
preloaded connections shall be as
specified on the drawings.
For contact surfaces in slip-resistant
connections shown on the relevant
drawings, the following particular
treatment shall apply: ... (Insert
requirements).
The treated surfaces shall be
adequately protected until they are
brought together.
10.5.2 Preparation of contact surfaces in slip-
resistant connections shall comply with
the requirements of § 8.4 of EN 1090-2;
special requirements are specified on
10.6 Tightening of preloaded bolts
10.6.1 The nominal minimum preloading force Usually, Fp,C = 0,7.fub.As.
Fp,C shall be taken as indicated on the
relevant drawings.
10.6.2 The following tightening method(s) shall The different tightening methods are
be used: ... (insert specific tightening described in Table 20 of EN 1090-2.
methods)
10.6.3 As an alternative to Table 20 of
EN 1090-2, calibration to Annex H of
EN 1090-2 may be used:
- for all tightening methods;
- for all tightening methods, except for
the torque method.
(choose one of the above options)
10.6.4 When bolts are tightened by rotation of
the bolt head, the following special
precautions shall be taken: ... (insert
special precautions depending on the
tightening method adopted).
10.6.5 For thick surface coatings shown on the If torque method is used, this may be by
relevant drawings, the following retightening after a delay of some days.
measures shall be taken to offset
possible subsequent loss of preloading
force: ... (insert specific measures,
depending on the tightening method
adopted).
7 - 44

10.6.6 For the combined method, when using
the value Mr,1 for the first tightening
step, the simplified expression of Mr,1 (in
§ 8.5.4 of EN 1090-2) may (or may not)
be used. (choose one of the above
options)
10.6.7 For the combined method, values other
than those given in Table 21 of
EN 1090-2 shall not be used unless
calibrated in accordance with Annex H
of EN 1090-2.
10.6.8 For the HRC method, the first tightening This first step should be completed for all
step shall be repeated as necessary if bolts in one connection prior to
the pre-tightening is relaxed by the commencement of the second step.
subsequent tightening of the remainder Guidance of the equipment manufacturer
of the bolts in the connection. may give additional information on how to
identify if pre-tightening has occurred, e.g.
sound of shear wrench changing, or if other
methods of pre-tightening are suitable.
10.7 Fit bolts
10.7.1 Where permitted on the drawings, the Insert this clause if such permission is to be
length of the threaded portion of the given and specify on the drawings for which
shank of a fit bolt may exceed 1/3 of the bolts the longer thread length is permitted.
thickness of the plate, subject to the
following requirements: ... (Insert
details)
11. ERECTION
11.1 The design is based on the construction Insert list of relevant drawings and other
method and/or sequences given in the documents. Information should include,
following documents: (Insert list). amongst other things, allowances for
permanent deformations (pre-camber),
11.2 Requirements for temporary bracing
settlement of supports, assumptions for
compatible with the construction method
temporary stability and assumptions about
and/or sequences are specified on the
propped/un-propped conditions in staged
following drawings: (Insert list)
construction.
The designer has the duty to ensure that the
permanent works can be built safely. The
drawings will show a construction method
and/or sequences and will show either in
detail or indicatively the nature and positions
of temporary bracings compatible with those
sequences. These temporary bracings will
normally be those required to provide stability
in the ‘bare steel’ and ‘wet concrete’
conditions. The elements of the temporary
bracing would normally be designed by the
permanent works designer; if that is not the
case, it should be stated in the contract
documents (preferably on the drawings) that
their design is the constructor’s responsibility.
7 - 45

11.3 The allowances for permanent It is the designer’s responsibility to determine
deformation and other associated the allowances (i.e. the addition to the
dimensions specified on the relevant nominal profile) required to offset the effects
drawings allow for the quasi-permanent of permanent actions, including shrinkage
effects of the following actions, using effects. These allowances have often been
the design basis method of erection: termed, somewhat loosely, ‘pre-camber’.
i) after steelwork erection:
- Self weight of structural steelwork;
ii) after completion of structure:
- Self weight of structural steelwork;
- Self weight of structural concrete;
- Self weight of non-structural parts;
- The effects of shrinkage modified
by creep.
11.4 If the constructor proposes to adopt an For major multi-storey structures, the design
alternative construction method and/or basis method of erection will normally be
sequences to that referred to in 11.1, produced through a close working between
the constructor shall verify, in the designer and the constructor because the
accordance with the design rules, that method of erection will often dictate aspects
the alternative method and/or of the design.
sequences can be used without Even for lesser or minor structures, the
detriment to the permanent works. fundamental issue is that the constructor's
The constructor shall allow a period of erection method must be compatible with the
at least ... (insert number) weeks for the design basis method of erection or, if it is
verification of the erection method in different, for whatever reason, the design of
accordance with the design rules, to the the permanent works must be re-verified, for
satisfaction of the permanent works that erection method.
designer.
11.5 The steelwork dimensions on the The steelwork contractor will make
drawings are specified for a reference adjustments to suit the calibration
temperature of ... °C (Insert reference temperature of his measuring equipment.
temperature)
11.6 Compensation for settlement of The designer should state the range of
supports shall be made by the settlement of the supports (including
constructor if such settlement differs temporary supports) that was considered in
from the design assumptions. the design.
11.7 The finished cover to steel packings It is normal practice to remove steel
(comprising a total thickness of grout packings. Softer packings may be left in
and any concrete) shall comply with the place.
cover requirements of EN 1992.
11.8 Packings and levelling nuts may be left The implications of introducing a hard spot
in position, provided that it can be into the bearing area should be checked with
verified, in accordance with the design respect to both steel and concrete elements.
rules, that there is no detriment to the
permanent works.
11.9 The treatment of steelwork, bearings
and concrete surfaces before grouting
11.10 Areas where the edges of the base If grouting is not specified in bearing areas,
plate are to be sealed, without grouting, the perimeter of base plates should be
are specified on the drawings. sealed. The locations for sealing must be
shown on the drawings.
11.11 Surfaces that are to be in contact with Additional requirements are given in § 10.7 of
concrete, including the undersides of EN 1090-2.
baseplates, shall be coated with the
protective treatment applied to the
steelwork, excluding any cosmetic
finishing coat, for the first ...mm (insert
length, minimum 50 mm) of the
embedded length, and the remaining
surfaces need not be coated (or shall be
coated, choose one option).
7 - 46

Part 8: Description of member
resistance calculator
Part 1: Description of member
resistance calculator
8 - ii
FOREWORD
This publication is part eight of the design guide, Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.

Part 3: Actions
8 - iii
8 - iv
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Visual Basic 1
1.2 Scope 1
1.3 Design rules 2
2 OPERATION OF THE WORKBOOK 3
2.1 Introduction worksheet 3
2.2 Localisation Worksheet 3
2.3 Functionalities on the member resistance worksheets 3
2.4 Bending Worksheet 4
2.5 N-M (combined axial force and bending moment) Worksheet 5
2.6 Tension Worksheet 6
2.7 Compression Worksheet 7
2.8 Web resistance (bearing and buckling) Worksheet 8
2.9 Compare worksheet 8
3 SCREENSHOTS 10
APPENDIX A Worked Examples 15
8-v
SUMMARY
This document describes the member resistance calculator, created in Excel, for
members in axial compression, in bending, in combined axial compression and bending
and in tension, used in steel buildings. It explains the scope of the workbook and lists
the National Annexes and languages that are supported in the workbook. A description
is given of each of the worksheets and the input information on each sheet. A screenshot
of typical output is presented.
8 - vi
1 INTRODUCTION
This document provides an introduction to the Excel workbook that calculates
the design resistance of steel members (beams and columns) in accordance
with EN 1993-1-1, as part of the design guide Multi-storey steel buildings. The
workbook offers the alternative of different languages, and selection of
National Annex values.
The operation of the spreadsheet is described in the following Section 2.

Screenshots of the various sheets in the workbook are given in Section 3.
1.1 Visual Basic

The spreadsheet depends on extensive visual basic code. Some users may have
security settings set to disable such code.
The security level can be changed by selecting: “Tools”, “Options”. Select the
“Security” tab and select “Macro security”. The setting must be at least
“Medium”. Usually, Excel must be closed and re-started for the changes in
security levels to become effective.
1.2 Scope
The spreadsheet calculates resistances of steel members subject to the
following types of forces and moments:
 Axial compression
 Bending
 Combined axial compression and bending
 Tension
 Shear
 Point load (Web bearing and buckling)
Each worksheet provides a cross-sectional view of the selected section as well

as the main geometric data. In the case of tension and web bearing and
buckling resistance, it also provides a graphic illustration drawn to scale
showing what the detail looks like.
Member resistances and drawn details are immediately updated as input data is
modified by the user.
1.2.1 National Annex

The workbook includes National Annex values for M0, M1 and M2. for the
following countries:
 Belgium
 France
 Germany
 Italy
8-1
 Netherlands
 Poland
 Spain
 United Kingdom
The user has the option to overwrite the in-built National Annex values,
allowing flexibility should the values be modified by the national standards
body. If this option is selected, then the calculation procedure reverts to the
recommended options for all engineering methods, such as design strength of
steel, buckling curves or imperfection factors, rather than those in the National
Annex.
1.2.2 Language
The language for input and output may be set by the user. The following
languages are supported:
 French
 German
 Italian
 Polish
 Spanish
 English
1.3 Design rules

The design resistances of members are evaluated in accordance with
EN 1993-1-1 and EN 1993-1-5 and the selected National Annexes.
8-2
2 OPERATION OF THE WORKBOOK

2.1 Introduction worksheet
The “introduction” sheet merely records the scope of the spreadsheet. On the
initial loading of the spreadsheet, this is the only tab visible. Choosing to
“continue” reveals the remaining tabs.
2.2 Localisation Worksheet

The “localisation” worksheet allows the user to select the language and the
National Annex (which determines the Nationally Determined Parameters
(NDPs) that are to be used in calculations).
Checking the “overwrite” option allows the user to enter partial factor values of
their choice. The engineering functionality which is set by the National Annex
is taken from the recommended options in the Eurocodes.
Deselecting the “overwrite” option leaves the National Annex selection as a

blank – the user must select National Annex from the drop down menu.
Default settings of Language and National Annex may be saved. The values
are written to a simple text file, stored in the same folder as the workbook.
Subsequent saving will merely overwrite this file.
Loading defaults will import whatever settings of language and National

Annex that had previously been saved.
User Information
User name, project name and job number may be entered. Any data entered
will appear on the printed output.
2.3 Functionalities on the member resistance

worksheets
Each of the worksheets for axial compression, bending, combined axial
compression and bending, tension, shear and point load have three buttons –
“Print”, “Create new comparison file” and “Add to comparison file”.
2.3.1 Print
A new sheet will open, where the user information (see section 2.2) and the
details of the calculated resistance will appear. The print window will open up,
where the user can select a printer and print.
2.3.2 Add to comparison file

By clicking on this button, a compare worksheet will open up where the main
details of the resistance calculated are registered (see Section 2.9).
8-3
2.3.3 Create new comparison file

This option deletes any existing calculations in the comparison file and adds
the most recent values. Therefore when this option is selected, a single
calculation will appear in this file.
2.4 Bending Worksheet

The following data may be selected:
Section type
Section data is included for the following section types (profiles):
 IPE
 HD
 HE
 HL
 UPE
Section
All the standard sections within each section type are available for selection
from the drop-down menu.
Beam grade
The steel grade for the beams may be selected from the following:
 S235
 S275
 S355
 S460
C1 factor
The C1 factor related to the bending moment diagram may be selected from the
following:
 1,13
 1,21
 1,23
 1,35
 1,49
 1,68
 Linear
A diagram shows which bending moment diagram corresponds to a given C1

factor. If the option “linear” is selected then two additional input boxes appear
where the user must input:
 The maximum bending moment
 The minimum bending moment
8-4
Buckling length
The calculated resistance that is displayed is the design value of the lateral
torsional buckling (LTB) resistance in kNm.
The figure shows a cross-section of the selected section, to scale, and the main
geometric properties.
2.5 N-M (combined axial force and bending moment)

Worksheet
Section type
 IPE
 HD
 HE
 HL
Section
Beam grade
 S235
 S275
 S355
 S460
The internal moments and forces

 Maximum bending moment about the major axis, My,Ed,max
 Minimum bending moment about the major axis, My,Ed,min
 Maximum bending moment about the minor axis, Mz,Ed,max
 Minimum bending moment about the minor axis, Mz,Ed,min
 Axial force, NEd
Buckling lengths
 Major axis buckling length, Ly
 Minor axis buckling length, Lz
 Torsional buckling length, LT
 Lateral torsional buckling length, LLTB
Choice of Annex A or Annex B

The result that is displayed is the unity factor from the interaction
equations 6.61 and 6.62 from EN 1993-1-1 and according to the chosen
National Annex.
8-5
2.6 Tension Worksheet

Section type
 IPE
 HE
 UPE
 Equal Angles
 Unequal Angles (long leg attached)
 Unequal Angles (short leg attached)
Section
Beam grade
 S235
 S275
 S355
 S460
Number of bolts
When designing an angle, the number of bolts may be selected from the
following :
 No bolt (weld)
 1 bolt
 2 bolts
 3 bolts
Bolt size
The bolt size may be selected from the following:
 M12
 M14
 M16
 M18
 M20
 M22
 M24
 M27
8-6
The output is the tension resistance, calculated as the resistance of the gross
section at yield for I sections or the minimum resistance of the gross section at
yield and the net section at ultimate for angles, all given in kN.
The top figure shows a cross-section of the selected section, to scale and the
main geometric properties.
The bottom figure shows the bolted detail, only when angle sections are
selected.
2.7 Compression Worksheet

Section type
 IPE
 HD
 HE
 HL
 UPE
 Equal Angles
 Unequal Angles
Section
Beam grade
 S235
 S275
 S355
 S460
Buckling lengths
 Major axis buckling length, Ly
 Minor axis buckling length, Lz
 Torsional buckling length, LT
The calculated resistances are the design values of compression resistance, for
flexural buckling resistance about the major axis and the minor axis (Nb,y,Rd and
Nb,z,Rd) as well as the torsional buckling resistance (Nb,T,Rd), all given in kN for
the relevant buckling lengths. In addition, the worksheet displays the minimum
of these values.
The figure shows a cross-section of the selected section, to scale and the main
geometric properties.
8-7
2.8 Web resistance (bearing and buckling) Worksheet

Section type
 IPE
 HD
 HE
 HL
 UPE
Section
Beam grade
 S235
 S275
 S355
 S460
Position of the transverse load

 d: distance from the end of the load to the member end.
 ss: stiff bearing length.
The output is the web bearing and buckling resistance, calculated as per
EN 1993-1-5, given in kN.
The top figure shows a cross-section of the selected section, to scale and the
main geometric properties.
The bottom figure shows the detail of the transverse load with respect to the
end of the member.
2.9 Compare worksheet

The compare worksheet will display in a single line the main details of the
resistance calculated. This sheet also shows any previously added calculations
for any members, so it serves as a summary of all calculations.
Additional calculations can be added to this worksheet by selecting the “Add to

comparison file” button on any other member resistance worksheets (see
section 2.3.2).
Note that the compare worksheet is hidden if no details have been added to
comparison file.
8-8
2.9.1 Print comparison file

This button formats the comparison file and opens up the print window, where
the user can select a printer and print.
8-9
3 SCREENSHOTS
Figure 3.1 Introduction worksheet
Figure 3.2 Localisation worksheet
8 - 10
Figure 3.3 Bending worksheet
Figure 3.4 N-M worksheet
8 - 11
Figure 3.5 Tension worksheet
Figure 3.6 Compression worksheet
8 - 12
Figure 3.7 Web resistance worksheet
Figure 3.8 Compare worksheet
8 - 13
8 - 14
APPENDIX A Worked Examples

The worked examples show the design procedure used by the member
resistance calculator for members in multi-storey building according to the
Eurocodes.
The worked examples cover different type of designs:

1. Bending moment resistance
 Supplementary calculations to demonstrate the influence of the French
National Annex
2. Combined axial force and bending moment (N-M interaction)
3. Tension resistance
4. Compression resistance
5. Web resistance
Note that supplementary calculations are included to show that the influence of
the French National Annex has been incorporated into the calculation routines.
8 - 15
Worked Example 1:
1 of 3
Bending moment resistance
Calculation sheet
1. Bending moment resistance References are to

EN 1993-1-1
This example presents the method used in the member resistance calculator for unless otherwise
calculating the bending moment resistance, adopting the recommended values stated
of EN 1993-1-1.
Section: IPE 500
Steel grade: S355
L = 3,8 m
1.1. Cross-section classification

1.1.1. The web
c 426 Table 5.2
= = 41,8 (Sheet 1)
tw 10 , 2
The limit for Class 1 is : 72ε = 72  0,81 = 58,3
c
Then : = 41,8 < 58,3
tw
 The web is class 1.
1.1.2. The flange

c 73 , 9 Table 5.2
= = 4,6 (Sheet 2)
tf 16
The limit for Class 1 is : 9ε = 9 0,81 = 7,3
c
Then : = 4,6 < 8,3
tf
 The flange is Class 1
Therefore the section is Class 1. The verification of the member will be based
on the plastic resistance of the cross-section.
1.2. Lateral-torsional buckling resistance, Mb,Rd

444 kNm
3800
0 Appendix C of
  0  C 1  1, 77 Single-Storey
444
Steel Building,
Part 4
8 - 16
Title Worked Example: Bending moment resistance 2 of 3
 2 EI z I w L2 GI t
Mcr = C1 
L2 I z  2 EI z
 2  210000  2142  10 4 Appendix C of

= 1, 77  Single-Storey
3800 2 Steel Building,
Part 4
1249  10 9 3800 2  81000  89 , 3  10 4
 
2142  10 4  2  210000  2142  10 4
Mcr = 1556  106 Nmm
Wy f y §6.3.2.2
2194  10 3  355
 LT  = = 0,708
M cr 1556  10 6
For hot rolled sections §6.3.2.3
 
LT = 0 , 5 1   LT  LT   LT,0    LT 2  
 LT,0  0,4 and   0,75
h Table 6.3
 2,5 Table 6.5
b
 Curve c for hot rolled I sections
 LT  0,49
LT = 0 , 5 1  0 , 49  0 , 708  0 , 4   0 , 75  0 , 708 2  = 0,763

1 §6.3.2.3
LT =
 LT   LT 2    LT 2
1
LT = = 0,822
0 , 763  0 , 763 2  0 , 75  0 , 708 2
1 1
2
= = 1,99
 LT 0 , 708 2
Therefore LT = 0,822
f = 1 – 0,5 (1 - kc) [1 – 2,0 (  LT  0,8) 2 ]
1 1
kc = = = 0,75
1,33  0,33  1,33  0,33  0
f = 1 – 0,5 (1 – 0,75) [1 – 2,0 (0,708 – 0,8)2] = 0,877
 LT 0 , 822
χLT mod =   0 , 937
f 0 , 877
 LT W pl,y f y 0,937  2194  10 3  355
Mb,Rd = =  10 6 = 730 kNm
 M1 1,0
8 - 17
Title Worked Example: Bending moment resistance 3 of 3
The French National Annex requires alternative values for LT,0 , LT and .
The revised calculations are demonstrated below.
b 1 French NA
LT,0  0,2  0,1  0,2  0,1 = 0,24
h 2,5
 = 1,0 French NA
b 1 French NA
 LT  0,4  0,2 LT 2  0,4  0,2   0,7082 = 0,36
h 2,5
LT = 0,51  0,360,708  0,24   0,708 2  = 0,835

1
LT = = 0,783
0,835  0,8352  0,7082
 LT 0,783
χLT mod =   0,892
f 0,877
0,892  2194 103  355

Mb,Rd = 10 6 = 695 kNm
1,0
8 - 18
Worked Example 2: Combined axial force and
1 of 5
bending moment (N-M Interaction)
Calculation sheet
1. Combined axial force and bending moment References are to

EN 1993-1-1
This example presents the method used in the member resistance calculator unless otherwise
for calculating the out-of-plane buckling resistance and in-plane buckling stated
resistance, adopting the recommended values of EN 1993-1-1.
Section: IPE 450
Steel grade: S355
NEd  127 kN
My,Ed  356 kNm (bending moment constant along the beam)
Mz,Ed  0 kNm
Ly = Lz = LLT = Lcr = 1,7 m

1.1.1. The web
c = 378,8 = 40,3 Table 5.2
9,4 (Sheet 1)
tw
N Ed 127000
dN = = = 38
tw fy 9 , 4  355
dw dN 378 , 8  38
= = = 0,55 > 0,50
2d w 2  378 , 8
396 396  0 , 81
The limit between Class 1 and Class 2 is : = = 52,1
13  1 13  0 , 55  1
c
Then : = 40,3 < 52,1
tw
1.1.2. The flange

c 69 , 3 Table 5.2
= = 4,7 (Sheet 2)
tf 14 , 6
The limit between Class 1 and Class 2 is : 9 ε = 9  0,81 = 7,3
c
Then : = 4,7 < 7,3
tf
 The flange is Class 1
Therefore, the section is Class 1. The verification of the member will be based
on the plastic resistance of the cross-section.
8 - 19
Worked Example: Axial compression and bending interaction (N-M
Title 2 of 5
Interaction)
1.2. Buckling verification

The buckling checks due to the interaction of axial compression and bending Expressions
moment are carried out using expressions 6.61 and 6.62 from EN 1993-1-1. (6.61) and (6.62)
N Ed M y,Ed  M y,Ed M z,Ed  M z,Ed

 k yy  k yz  1, 0
 y N Rk M y,Rk M z,Rk
 LT
 M1  M1  M1
N Ed M y,Ed  M y,Ed M z,Ed  M z,Ed
 k zy  k zz  1, 0
 z N Rk M y,Rk M z,Rk
 LT
 M1  M1  M1
These expressions can be simplified as follows:
 M y,Ed = 0 and M z,Ed = 0 for Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3 sections.
 Mz,Ed = 0
Therefore expressions (6.61) and (6.62) can be written as:
N Ed M y,Ed N Ed M y,Ed
 k yy  1,0 and  k zy  1,0
N b,y,Rd M b,Rd N b,z,Rd M b,Rd
1.3. Equation 6.61 (EN 1993-1-1)

1.3.1. Flexural buckling resistance about the major axis, Nb,y,Rd
h 450
  2,37
b 190
tf  14,6 mm
buckling about y-y axis: Table 6.1
Table 6.2
 Curve a for hot rolled I sections
 y  0,21
E 210000 §6.3.1.3
1 =  = = 76,4
fy 355
L cr 1 1700 1
y = =  = 0,12
i y 1 185 76,4
 
y = 0 , 5 1   y  y  0 , 2   y 2   §6.3.1.2
y = 0 , 5 1  0 , 21 0 ,12  0 , 2   0 ,12 2  = 0,50

1 1
y = = = 1,0
y  y  y 2 2 0,50  0,50 2  0,12 2
8 - 20
Title 3 of 5
Interaction)
 y Af y 1,0  9880  355

Nb,y,Rd = =  10 3 = 3507 kN
 M1 1,0
NEd = 127 kN < 3507 kN OK
1.3.2. Lateral-torsional buckling resistance for bending, Mb,Rd

In order to determine the critical moment of the rafter, the C1 factor takes
account of the shape of the bending moment diagram.
In this case the bending moment diagram is constant along the segment in
consideration, so  = 1,0. Therefore: Appendix C of
Single-Storey
 C 1 = 1,0 Steel Building,
Part 4
 2 EI z I w L2 GI t
Mcr = C 1  Appendix C of
L2 I z  2 EI z Single-Storey
Steel Building,
 2  210000  1676  10 4 Part 4
= 1, 0 
1700 2
791  10 9 1700 2  81000  66 , 9  10 4

  2
1676  10 4   210000  1676  10 4
Mcr = 2733  106 Nmm
W pl, y f y §6.3.2.2
1702  10 3  355
 LT  = = 0,470
M cr 2733  10 6
 
 LT  0 , 5 1   LT  LT   LT,0    LT 2   §6.3.2.3
 LT,0  0,4 and   0,75

h
 2,37
b
 Curve c for hot rolled I sections
Table 6.3
 LT  0,49
Table 6.5
 LT  0 , 5 1  0 , 49  0 , 470  0 , 4   0 , 75  0 , 470 2  = 0,60
1 §6.3.2.3
LT =
 LT   LT 2    LT 2
1
LT = = 0,961
0 , 60  0 , 60 2  0 , 75  0 , 470 2
1 1
= = 4,53
0 , 470 2
2
 LT
Therefore LT = 0,961
8 - 21
Title 4 of 5
Interaction)
 LT W pl, y f y 0 , 961  1702  10 3  355

Mb,Rd = =  10 6 = 581 kNm
 M1 1, 0
MEd = 356 kNm < 581 kNm OK
1.3.3. Interaction of axial force and bending moment

The interaction factor, kyy, is calculated as follows:
    

kyy = min  C my  1   y  0 , 2
N Ed

N b, y, Rd
 ; C my

 1  0,8

N Ed
N b, y, Rd


     
The expression for Cmy depends on the values of h and . Annex B Table
B.3
 = 1,0.
Therefore Cmy is calculated as:
Cmy = 0,6 + 0,4 ψ = 0,4 + 0,4  1,0 = 1,0
  127   127  Annex B
kyy = min 1,01  0,12  0,2 ; 11,0  0,8 
3507 
Table B.2
  3507  
= min [0,997; 1,029] = 0,997
N Ed M y, Ed 127 356
 k yy =  0,997 = 0,647 < 1,0 OK
N b, y, Rd M b, Rd 3507 581
The member satisfies the in-plane buckling check.
1.4. Expression 6.62 (EN 1993-1-1)

1.4.1. Flexural buckling resistance about minor axis bending,
Nb,z,Rd
h 450
  2,37
b 190
tf  14,6 mm
buckling about z-z axis Table 6.1
Table 6.2
 Curve b for hot rolled I sections
 z  0,34
E 210000 §6.3.1.3
1 =  = = 76,4
fy 355
L cr 1 1700 1
z = =  = 0,540
i z 1 41, 2 76 , 4
  
z = 0 , 5 1   z  z  0 , 2   z 2  §6.3.1.2
z = 0 , 5 1  0 , 34  0 , 540  0 , 2   0 , 540 2  = 0,704
8 - 22
Title 5 of 5
Interaction)
1 1
z = = = 0,865
z  z   z2 2
0 , 704  0 , 704  0 , 540
2 2
 z Af y 0 , 865  9880  355

Nb,z,Rd = = 10 3 = 3034 kN
 M1 1, 0
NEd = 127 kN < 3034 kN OK
1.4.2. Interaction of axial force and bending moment §6.3.3(4)

The interaction factor, kzy is calculated as follows:
For  z  0,4 :
 0 ,1  z N Ed   0 ,1 N Ed 
kzy = max   1  ; 1 
   C mLT  0 , 25  N b,z,Rd 


  C mLT  0 , 25  N b,z,Rd 
 
The bending moment is linear and constant. Therefore CmLT is 1,0. Annex B Table
B.3
 0 ,1  0 , 540 127   0 ,1 127   Annex B Table
kzy = max   1  ;  1  
1  0 , 25  3034  
B.2
 1  0 , 25  3034  
= max (0,997, 0,994) = 0,997
N Ed M y,Ed 127 356
 k zy =  0 , 997 = 0,653 < 1,0 OK
N b,z,Rd M b,Rd 3034 581
8 - 23
Worked Example 3: Tension Resistance 1 of 1

Calculation sheet
1. Tension Resistance References are to

EN 1993-1-8
for calculating the tension resistance, adopting the recommended values of the stated
EN 1993-1-8.
p p
1 1
Section: L 120 × 80 × 12
Steel grade: S235
Area: A = 2270 mm2
Bolts: M20, grade 8.8
Spacing between bolts p1 = 70 mm
Total number of bolts n =3
Diameter of the holes d0 = 22 mm
Partial safety factors

M0 = 1,0
M2 = 1,25 (for shear resistance of bolts)
1.2. Angle in tension

 3 Anet f u §3.10.3
N Rd 
 M2
2,5 d0 = 2,5  22 = 55 mm
5 d0 = 5  22 = 110 mm
2,5 d0 < p1 < 5 d0
Table 3.8
 3 can be determined by linear interpolation:
Therefore  3  0,59
Anet  A  t ac d 0  2270  12  22  2006 mm 2

0,59  2006  360
N Rd   10 3 = 341 kN
1,25
8 - 24
Worked Example 4: Compression Resistance 1 of 3

Calculation sheet
1. Compression Resistance References are to

EN 1993-1-1
for calculating the flexural and the torsional buckling resistance of members stated
subject to pure compression, adopting the recommended values of
EN 1993-1-1.
Section: IPE 500
Steel grade: S235
Ly = 3,8 m
Lz = 3,8 m

1.1.1. The web
c 426 Table 5.2
= = 41,8 (Sheet 1)
tw 10 , 2
The limit between Class 3 and Class 4 is : 42ε = 42  1,0 = 42
c
Then : = 41,8 < 42
tw
1.1.2. The flange

c 73 , 9 Table 5.2
= = 4,6 (Sheet 2)
tf 16
The limit between Class 1 and Class 2 is : 9ε = 9  1,0 = 9
c
Then : = 4,6 < 9
tf
 The flange is Class 1.
Therefore the section is Class 3.
1.2. Flexural buckling resistance about the major axis,

Nb,y,Rd
Ly = 3,8 m
h 500
  2,5
b 200
tf = 16 mm
Buckling about y-y axis:
8 - 25
Title Worked Example: Compression Resistance 2 of 3
 Curve a for hot rolled I sections Table 6.2
 y  0,21 Table 6.1
E 210000 §6.3.1.3
1 =  = = 93,9
fy 235
Lcr 1 3800 1
y = =  = 0,198
iz 1 204 93,9
 
y = 0 , 5 1   y  y  0 , 2   y 2   §6.3.1.2
y = 0 , 5 1  0 , 21 0 ,198  0 , 2   0 ,198 2  = 0,519

1 1
y = = = 1,0
y  y 2   y 2 0,519  0,519 2  0,198 2
χ y Af y 1,0  11600  235

Nb,y,Rd = =  10 3 = 2726 kN
 M1 1,0
1.3. Flexural buckling resistance about the minor

axis, Nb,z,Rd
Lz = 3,8 m
h 500
  2,5
b 200
tf = 16 mm
Buckling about z-z axis:
 Curve b for hot rolled I sections Table 6.1
Table 6.2
 z  0,21
E 210000 §6.3.1.3
1 =  = = 93,9
fy 235
Lcr 1 3800 1
 y = =  = 0,94
iz 1 43,1 93,9
 
z = 0,5 1   z  z  0,2   z 2   §6.3.1.2
z = 0,51  0,340,94  0,2  0,94  = 1,07 2
1 1
z = = = 0,632
z  z 2   z 2 1,07  1,07 2  0,942
 z Af y 0,632  11600  235

Nb,z,Rd = =  10 3 = 1723 kN
 M1 1,0
8 - 26
Title Worked Example: Compression Resistance 3 of 3
1.4. Torsional buckling Nb,T,Rd

LT = 3,8 m
1   2 EI w 
NcrT = z  2
 GI T


i0  LT 
i02 = iy2 + iz2 = 2042 + 43,12 = 43474
1   2  210000 1249  109 
NcrT =  2
 81000 89,3  104   10-3 = 5787 kN
43474  3800 
A fy 11600  235
 T = = = 0,686
N crT 5787  103
2
T = 0,5 [1 + αT ( T – 0,2) +  T ]
The buckling curve for torsional buckling is the same as for minor axis
buckling, therefore choose buckling curve b
αz = 0,34
T = 0,5 (1 + 0,34 (0,686 - 0,2) + 0,6862] = 0,818
1 1
χT = = = 0,791
   2  2T 0,818  0,8182  0,6862
 T Af y 0,791  11600  235

Nb,T,Rd = =  10-3 = 2156 kN
 M1 1,0
8 - 27
Worked Example 5: Web Resistance 1 of 2

Calculation sheet
1. Web Resistance
This example presents the method used in the member resistance calculator
for calculating the web resistance and the shear resistance, adopting the
recommended values of the EN 1993-1-5 and EN 1993-1-1.
Section: IPE 500
Steel grade: S355
c = 10 mm
ss = 100 mm
1.1. Shear resistance

In the absence of torsion, the shear plastic resistance depends on the shear
area, which is given by:
Av = A – 2 b tf + (tw + 2 r) tf EN 1993-1-1
Av = 11600 – 2 × 200 × 16 + (10,2 + 2 × 21) × 16 = 6035 mm 2 § 6.2.6 (3)
Av f y 6035  355  10 3 EN 1993-1-1

Vpl,Rd = = = 1237 kN § 6.2.6 (2)
3 M0 3  1,0
Vpl,Rd = 1237 kN
1.2. Design resistance to local buckling

c = 10 mm
ss = 100 mm
bf 200
m1 =   19,6
tw 10,2
2
h 
m2 = 0,02  w  if  F  0,5
 tf 
m2 =0 if  F  0,5
First assume that  F  0,5

2
 468 
m2 = 0,02   = 17,11
 16 
2
s c
kF = 2 + 6  s  but kF ≤ 6
h
 w 
 100  10 
kF =2+6  
 468 
8 - 28
Title Worked Example: Web Resistance and Shear Resistance 2 of 2
kF = 3,41 < 6
kF E tw
2 EN 1993-1-5
ℓe = but ≤ ss + c Eq (6.13)
2 f y hw
3,41 210000  10,2 2

ℓe = = 224 ≤ 100 + 10 = 110
2  355  468
therefore ℓe = 110
ℓy1    
= ss + 2 tf 1  m1  m2 = 100 + 2  16 1  19,6  17,11 = 325 mm EN 1993-1-5
Eq (6.10)
2 2 EN 1993-1-5
m1   e  19,6  110  Eq (6.11)
ℓy2 = ℓe + tf     m2 = 110 + 16    17,11
2  tf  2  16 
= 248 mm
ℓy3 = ℓe + tf m1  m 2 = 110 + 16 19,6  17,22 = 207 mm EN 1993-1-5
Eq (6.12)
ℓy = min (ℓy1; ℓy2; ℓy3) = min (325; 248; 207) = 207 mm
3
tw 10,23
Fcr = 0,9 kF E = 0.9  3,41  210000  = 1461406 N
hw 468
 ytw f y 207  10,2  355

F = = = 0,72
Fcr 1461406
F = 0 , 72 > 0,5
Therefore the initial assumption was correct and the web resistance can be
calculated based on this value of  F. Should the calculated value of  F be less
than 0,5 then the calculation would need to be carried out again, using the
appropriate expression for M2
0,5 0,5
χF =  = 0,69
 F 0,72
χF = 0,69
Leff = χF ℓy
Leff = 0,69  207 = 143 mm
f y Leff tw 355  143  10,2 EN 1993-1-5
FRd = = = 518 kN § 6.2 (1)
 M1 1,0
8 - 29
Multi-storey Steel Buildings

Part 9: Description of simple
connection resistance calculator
Part 9: Description of simple
connection resistance calculator
9 - ii
FOREWORD
This publication is part nine of the design guide, Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.

Part 3: Actions
Part 10: Guidance to developers of software for the design of composite
beams
Multi-Storey Steel Buildings is one of two design guides. The second design
guide is Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
The two design guides have been produced in the framework of the European
project “Facilitating the market development for sections in industrial halls and
low rise buildings (SECHALO) RFS2-CT-2008-0030”.
The design guides, and the associated software to which this document refers
have been prepared under the direction of Arcelor Mittal, Peiner Träger and
Corus. The technical content has been prepared by CTICM and SCI,
9-1
9-2
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD 1
SUMMARY 4
1 INTRODUCTION 5
1.1 Visual Basic 5
1.2 Scope 5
1.3 Design rules 7
2 OPERATION OF THE WORKBOOK 8
2.1 Introduction worksheet 8
2.2 Localisation worksheet 8
2.3 Input worksheet 8
2.4 Functionalities on the connections worksheets 10
2.5 Splice worksheet 10
2.6 Fin Plate worksheet 11
2.7 End Plate worksheet 11
2.8 Cleats worksheet 12
2.9 Baseplate worksheet 12
3 SCREENSHOTS 14
4 OUTPUT 19
9-3
SUMMARY
This document describes the connection resistance calculator, created in Excel,
for typical, nominally pinned joints used in braced steel frames. It explains the
scope of the workbook and lists the National Annexes and languages that are
supported in the workbook. A description is given of each of the worksheets
and the input information on each sheet. A screenshot of typical output is
presented.
9-4
1 INTRODUCTION
This document provides an introduction to the Excel workbook that covers the
design of nominally pinned joints in accordance with EN 1993-1-8, as part of
the design guide Multi-storey steel buildings. The workbook offers the
alternative of different languages, and selection of National Annex values.
The operation of the workbook is described in Section 2. Screenshots of the

various sheets in the workbook are contained in Section 3.
1.1 Visual Basic

The spreadsheet depends on extensive visual basic code. Some users may have
security settings set to disable such code.
The security level can be changed by selecting: “Tools”, “Options”. Select the
“Security” tab and select “Macro security”. The setting must be at least
“Medium”. Usually, Excel must be closed and re-started for the changes in
security levels to become effective.
1.2 Scope
1.2.1 Joint types
The workbook covers nominally pinned joints that are commonly used in
multi-storey steel structures. The types of connections covered in separate
worksheets within the workbook are:
 Partial depth flexible end plates (also known as header plates)
 Fin plates
 Double angle cleats
 Column splices (bearing type)
 Column bases.
For the beam connections, the resistance to both vertical shear and a horizontal
tying force is calculated. The splice connections are all “bearing type”,
meaning that there is no calculation of their resistance to axial compression.
For splices, only the tensile resistance is calculated, for tying calculations. Only
the resistance to axial compression is calculated for baseplates.
Each joint type is covered on a different worksheet. The default connection

detail will be the recommended standardised detail.
Connection details are also drawn on each worksheet.
Connection resistances and drawn connection details are immediately updated

as input data is modified by the user. The standardised details can be restored
at any stage.
9-5
If warnings are displayed on the diagrams because of some geometrical check

not being satisfied, the drawing will not update. An updated drawing will only
appear once the geometric warning has been resolved. Resolving one warning
may then reveal a second problem, which must again be resolved before the
drawing will update.
A more detailed table of the resistance of each connection component can be

viewed and printed.
Connection classification
Beam and baseplate connections are assumed to be nominally pinned
connections. Although the connections possess some rotational stiffness and
some rotational strength, these are assumed to be sufficiently small that their
influence can be ignored, and the assumption of pinned behaviour is valid.
EN 1993-1-8 requires connections to be classified. Connection classification

may be made on the basis of calculations, or based on previous satisfactory
experience. For each connection covered by the spreadsheet, standardised
connections are proposed, which have sufficient use in practice to justify
classification as nominally pinned on the basis of previous satisfactory
experience.
Within each connection type, the user may modify a large range of variables,
and thus produce a non-standardised connection. Designers should note that if
connections other than the standardised solutions are adopted, the
connection should be classified in accordance with EN 1993-1-8.
1.2.2 National Annex

The workbook includes National Annex values for M0, M1, M2 and c for the
following countries:
The National Annexes covered are:

 Belgium
 France
 Germany
 Italy
 Netherlands
 Poland
 Spain
 United Kingdom
For tying resistance, the spreadsheet adopts a value of Mu = 1.1.
The user has the option to overwrite the in-built National Annex values,
allowing flexibility should the values be modified by the national standards
body.
1.2.3 Languages
The language for input and output may be set by the user. The following
languages are supported:
9-6
 French
 German
 Italian
 Polish
 Spanish
 English
1.3 Design rules

The design resistance of each connection is evaluated in accordance with the
Eurocodes and the guidance given in Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 5 Joint
design.
9-7
2 OPERATION OF THE WORKBOOK
2.1 Introduction worksheet

The “introduction” sheet merely records the scope of the spreadsheet. On the
initial loading of the workbook, this is the only worksheet tab visible. Choosing
to “continue” reveals the remaining worksheet tabs.
2.2 Localisation worksheet

The “localisation” sheet allows the user to select the language for the
workbook and the National Annex (which determines the Nationally
Determined Parameters (NDPs) that are to be used in calculations).
Checking the “overwrite” option allows the user to enter values of their choice.
Deselecting this option leaves the National Annex selection as a blank – the
user must select National Annex from the drop down menu.
Default settings of Language and National Annex may be saved. The values
are written to a simple text file, stored in the same folder as the workbook file.
Subsequent saving will merely overwrite this file.
Loading defaults will import whatever settings of language and National

Annex that had previously been saved.
2.2.1 Material strength

The steel design strength is taken from Table 3.1 of EN 1993-1-1, or the
product Standard, according to the choice in the National Annex.
Table 3.1 of EN 1993-1-1 covers material up to 80 mm thick. For thicknesses

above 80 mm, the design strength is taken from the product Standard.
2.3 Input worksheet

2.3.1 Input information
Basic selection of section type, section, grade of main member, plates and bolts
is made on the "Input" sheet. The options are described in the following
Sections.
Section type
 IPE
 HE
 HL
 HD
9-8
Section
from a drop-down menu.
Beam grade
 S235
 S275
 S355
 S460
Plate grade
The steel grade for end plates, fin plates, angle cleats and baseplates may be
selected from the following:
 S235
 S275
 S355
 S460
Bolt class
The bolt class may be selected from the following:
 4.6
 5.6
 8.8
 10.9
Notes:
1. 8.8 bolts and S275 plates are considered standard. Connections may need to
be classified in accordance with EN 1993-1-8 if other grades are selected.
2. The National Annex may restrict the choice of bolt class. Therefore the user
has to choose a bolt class in accordance with national standards body.
User Information
The user may enter the following details:
 User name
 Project name
 Job number
Any data entered will appear on the printed output.
2.3.2 Operation
Selecting a different section, changing grade of beam or plate, or changing the
bolt class triggers a re-calculation of the connection resistances.
In every case, a standardised connection is presented as the default.
9-9
If a very small section is selected, where the section is simply too shallow for a
standardised end plate, fin plate, double angle cleat and splice connection, a
warning appears, and only the baseplate tab remains visible.
The remaining tabs will appear once a sufficiently large member is selected.
2.4 Functionalities on the connections worksheets

Each of the worksheets for splice, fin plate, end plate, cleats and baseplate have
two buttons – “Review Summary” and “Use Std detail”.
2.4.1 Review summary

This button opens a further sheet, containing fuller details of the resistances
calculated for each component of the connection. From this new sheet, the
summary may be printed, or the user may return to the main spreadsheet.
2.4.2 Use Std Detail

This button restores the standardised connection.
2.5 Splice worksheet

A standardised connection is presented, displaying values of tying resistance
(axial tension). The critical design criterion is noted. The splices are “bearing
type” transferring compression by direct bearing.
If the serial sizes are identical, a second splice option is displayed, with internal
splice plates, and a second resistance is displayed.
Sections may be chosen for both top and bottom columns – they must however
be the same section type.
The top section cannot be deeper (h) than the lower section. If an attempt is
made to choose this configuration, the spreadsheet warns the user, and then
adopts the latest section chosen for both top and bottom columns.
The top section cannot be significantly smaller than the bottom section. When
the user attempts to choose a top section that is significantly smaller than the
bottom section, a warning is displayed. The difference in section depths (h)
must be less than 100 mm. The section may be drawn, but no resistance is
displayed if the difference in section depth exceeds 100 mm. If the section
depths are significantly different, several warnings may be displayed.
The following details of the standardised connection may be changed:

 Section type
 Section (top and bottom)
 Grade
 Plate grade
 Cover plate thickness
 Cover plate width
 Bolt diameter
 Number of bolt rows
9 - 10
 Gauge (horizontal bolt spacing)

 Pitch (vertical bolt spacing)
 End distance (end distance on plate, from top and bottom pair of bolts)
In some cases, the member flange is so thick that the standard offset distance is
insufficient, and a standardised connection is not possible. A warning will
appear with this information.
End, edge and geometrical distances are checked, and warnings appear as
required.
2.6 Fin Plate worksheet

A standardised connection is presented, displaying values of vertical shear
resistance and tying resistance. The critical design criterion is noted for both
shear and tying.

 Plate thickness
 Bolt diameter
 Bolt rows
 Lines of bolts (a single or double line)
 Gauge (horizontal bolt spacing – only relevant if two columns of bolts are
chosen)
 Edge distance (on the fin plate)
 Beam end distance
 Plate offset (distance from top of beam to top of plate)
required.
The weld is sized to be full strength – no adjustment by the user is possible.
2.7 End Plate worksheet

A standardised connection is presented, displaying design values of vertical
shear resistance and tying resistance. The critical design criterion is noted for
both shear and tying.

 Plate thickness
 Bolt diameter
 Bolt rows
9 - 11

 Plate width
 Offset (distance from top of beam to top of plate)
required.
The weld is sized to be full strength – no adjustment by the user is possible.
2.8 Cleats worksheet

A standardised connection is presented, displaying values of vertical shear
resistance and tying resistance. The critical design criterion is noted for both
shear and tying.

 Angle thickness
 Bolt diameter
 Bolt rows
 Leg length
 Back mark (bolt distance from heel of the angle)
 Lines of bolts (a single or double line)
 Gauge (horizontal bolt spacing – only if two columns of bolts are chosen)
 Beam end distance
 Plate offset (distance from top of beam to top of plate)
required.
2.9 Baseplate worksheet

A standardised connection is presented, displaying the value of the axial
resistance.
The calculation of the design bearing strength, fjd assumes that  = 1,5. The
foundation joint material coefficient, j is taken as 2/3.

 Grade of concrete
9 - 12
 Plate thickness
 Plate length
 Plate width
 Bolt diameter
9 - 13
3 SCREENSHOTS
Figure 3.1 Introduction worksheet
Figure 3.2 Localisation worksheet
9 - 14
Figure 3.3 Input worksheet
Figure 3.4 Splice worksheet
9 - 15
Figure 3.5 Fin plate worksheet
9 - 16
Figure 3.6 End plate worksheet
Figure 3.7 Cleats worksheet
9 - 17
Figure 3.8 Baseplates worksheet
9 - 18
4 OUTPUT
The following worksheet will appear when clicking on “Review summary” on

the end plate worksheet. From this new sheet, the summary may be printed, or
the user may return to the main spreadsheet.
Figure 4.1 End summary worksheet
9 - 19

Part 10: Guidance to developers of
software for the design of
composite beams
Part 10: Guidance to developers of
software for the design of
composite beams
10 - ii
FOREWORD
This publication is a second part of a design guide, Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.

Part 3: Actions
10 - iii
10 - iv
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 SCOPE 7
2 BASIC DATA 8
2.1 General parameters of the beam 8
2.2 Steel section 9
2.3 Concrete slab 9
2.4 Shear connection 10
2.5 Loads 11
2.6 Partial factors 12
2.7 Other design parameters 12
3 MATERIAL PROPERTIES 13
3.1 Structural steel 13
3.2 Reinforcement steel bars 13
3.3 Concrete 13
4 CALCULATION OF INTERNAL FORCES AND MOMENTS 14
4.1 General 14
4.2 Effects of a point load 14
4.3 Effects of a uniformly distributed surface load 15
4.4 Combinations of actions 15
5 CONSTRUCTION STAGE 16
5.1 General 16
5.2 ULS verifications 16
5.3 SLS Calculations 20
6 FINAL STAGE 21
6.1 Effective width of the slab 21
6.2 Shear connection 21
6.3 Cross-section resistance 24
6.4 Longitudinal shear resistance 29
6.5 Serviceability limit states 31
7 LIST OF THE MAIN OUTPUTS 33
REFERENCES 34
Appendix A Overall flowchart 35
10 - v
SUMMARY
This guide provides guidance to developers of software for the design of composite
beams used in multi-storey buildings, according to the Eurocodes. It covers simply
supported beams connected to the concrete slab using shear studs and gives technical
requirements. The ULS verifications are to be based on plastic design.
10 - vi
Part 10: Guidance to developers of software for the design of
composite beams
1 SCOPE
This document is aimed at software developers to enable them to develop a

simple software tool for the design of composite beams in multi-storey
buildings, according to EN 1994-1-1[1]. This document can also been regarded
as a guide to understand the functioning of existing software in the same field
of application.
This guide does not contain programming code; it only contains detailed
technical requirements.
This document covers simply supported composite beams comprising a rolled

profile connected by welded shear studs to a concrete slab. Several options are
considered:
 Primary or secondary beams
 Plain slab or slab with profiled steel sheeting
 Fully propped or unpropped beams during construction.
These technical requirements include:

 The calculation of internal forces and moments
 The verifications of the beam for ULS
 The calculations for SLS
 The calculation of the composite beam is based on the plastic resistance
using full or partial connection.
The design procedure is summarized in the flowcharts given in Appendix A.
10 - 7
composite beams
2 BASIC DATA
2.1 General parameters of the beam

2.1.1 Dimensions
The general dimensions include:
L is the span length
BL, BR are the distances between beam axes
Li defines the positions of the secondary beams
The user can choose either a primary beam or a secondary beam. For a
secondary beam, the loads are assumed to be uniformly distributed.
For a primary beam, the loads are transferred by one or two secondary beams
to the primary beam under consideration.
S S S
P P
BR BR
BL BL
L1 L2 L1 L2 L3
L L
P Primary beam
S Secondary beam
Figure 2.1 Primary beam and secondary beams
The following condition must be satisfied:

Li > L/5
2.1.2 Propping and lateral restraint

Propping of the beam at the construction stage: fully propped or unpropped.
If the beam is fully propped, no calculation is performed at the construction

stage.
If the beam is not propped at the construction stage, the user has to choose
between a full lateral restraint against LTB at the construction stage and lateral
restraints at the end supports only.
10 - 8
composite beams
2.2 Steel section

The structural steel section is a hot rolled I-section defined by its geometry:
h is the depth of the structural steel section
b is the flange width
tf is the flange thickness
tw is the web thickness
r is the root radius.
The following section properties can be obtained from an appropriate database:

A is the section area
Av,z is the shear area, according to EN 1993-1-1 § 6.2.6(3)
Iy is the second moment of area about the strong axis
Iz is the second moment of area about the weak axis
It is the torsion constant
Iw is the warping constant
Wel,y is the elastic modulus about the strong axis
Wpl,y is the plastic modulus about the strong axis.
The steel grade can be selected from the following list:

S235, S275, S355, S420, S460
2.3 Concrete slab

The concrete slab is defined by:
The type of slab: either plain slab or slab with profiled steel sheeting
hf is the slab thickness
 is the concrete density
The concrete class can be chosen from:
- C20/25
- C25/30
- C30/37
- C35/45
- C40/50
- C45/55
- C50/60
- C55/67
- C60/75
10 - 9
composite beams
The profiled steel sheeting, if used, is defined by its section geometry

(Figure 2.2):
hp is the overall depth of the profiled steel sheeting
tp is the sheeting thickness
bs is the distance between centres of adjacent ribs
br is the width of rib
bb is the width of the bottom of the rib.
bs
tp br
hp
bb
Figure 2.2 Cross-section of a profiled steel sheeting
One of the following options has to be selected:

 Ribs perpendicular to the beam
 Ribs parallel to the beam axis.
When the profiled steel sheeting is perpendicular to the beam axis, one of the
following options has to be selected:
 Studs welded through the profiled steel sheeting
 Profiled steel sheeting with holes for studs
 Profiled steel sheeting interrupted on the beam (free positioning of the studs
along the beam axis).
2.4 Shear connection

2.4.1 Description of a stud
The connectors are headed studs welded on the upper flange of the steel
profile. For a given beam, all the studs are identical.
A stud is defined by:

hsc is the overall nominal height.
d is the shank diameter that can be selected from the following list:
– 16 mm
– 19 mm
– 22 mm
fu,sc is the ultimate limit strength of the stud material.
10 - 10
composite beams
2.4.2 Positioning of the connectors

The position of the connectors can be defined over 1, 2 or 3 segments of the
beam. For more than one segment, the length of each segment has to be given.
The sum of these lengths should be equal to the length of the beam.
For each segment, the following parameters have to be defined:

 The number of rows: 1 or 2
 The distance between two consecutive connectors along the beam.
When a profiled steel sheeting is perpendicular to the beam, the distance

between studs is n  bs, where n can be equal to 1, 2 or 3.
2.5 Loads
The software allows the user to define elementary load cases that are used in
the combinations of actions for ULS and SLS according to EN 1990[2].
Only gravity loads are considered (downwards).
Up to three elementary load cases are considered within these specifications:

 1 permanent load case, denoted G
 2 variable load cases, denoted Q1 and Q2
For each load case, it is possible to define a uniformly distributed surface load
qsurf. For a beam defined as “secondary beam”, a linear distributed load is
derived:
qlin = qsurf (BL + BR)/2
where:
BL and BR are the distances between beams (left and right).
For a beam defined as “primary beam”, one or two point loads are derived
from the distributed surface load.
The self weight of the rolled profile and the weight of the concrete slab are
automatically calculated.
For each variable load case, the combination factors 0, 1 and 2 have to be
defined.
When the beam is unpropped at the construction stage, a construction load

should be defined by the user. The default value is 0,75 kN/m2.
10 - 11
composite beams
2.6 Partial factors

2.6.1 Partial factors on actions
Within the field of application of the software, the partial factors on actions for
the ULS combinations are:
G applied on the permanent actions
Q applied on the variable actions
2.6.2 Partial factors on resistances

Expressions for design resistance refer to the following partial factors:
M0 is used for the resistance of the structural steel
M1 is used for the resistance of the structural steel, for an ultimate limit
state related to a buckling phenomenon
c is used for the compression resistance of the concrete
V is used for the resistance of headed studs
s is used for the resistance of the reinforcement steel bars
The values of the partial factors are given in the National Annexes.
Recommended values are given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Recommended values for the partial factors

Partial factors G Q M0 M1 c s V
Eurocode EN 1990 EN 1993-1-1 EN 1992-1-1 EN 1994-1-1
Recommended values 1.35 1.50 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.15 1.25
2.7 Other design parameters

The values of the following design parameters have to be given:
 is a coefficient for the shear resistance as defined in EN 1993-1-5
§ 5.1. The value should be taken from the National Annex. The
recommended value is 1.2.
The percentage of imposed loads for the evaluation of the natural frequency
(SLS) has to be given by the user.
10 - 12
composite beams
3 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
3.1 Structural steel

The steel properties are defined by EN 1993-1-1[3]:
E is the modulus of elasticity (E = 210000 N/mm2)
G is the shear modulus (G = 80770 N/mm2)
fy is the yield strength that is derived from Table 3.1 of EN 1993-1-1,
depending on the steel grade and the material thickness. For
simplicity, the yield strength may be derived from the flange
thickness.
fyw is the yield strength of the web, derived from the web thickness.
 is the material parameter defined as:
   235 / f y
fy is the yield strength in N/mm2.
3.2 Reinforcement steel bars

The properties of reinforcing steel are defined by EN 1992-1-1:
fyr,k is the yield strength of the transverse reinforcement bars.
3.3 Concrete
The concrete properties are defined by EN 1992-1-1[4]. They are derived from
the concrete class.
fck is the characteristic compressive strength at 28 days, as given in
Table 3.1 of EN 1992-1-1.
fcd is the design compressive strength (EN 1994-1-1 § 2.4.1.2(2)):
fcd = fck / c
Ecm is the secant modulus of elasticity, as given in Table 3.1 of
EN 1992-1-1.
10 - 13
composite beams
4 CALCULATION OF INTERNAL FORCES AND

MOMENTS
4.1 General
The section resistance of the composite beam has to be checked by taking into
account the variation of the shear force and the bending moment, the variation
of the bending resistance due to the effective width of the slab, the degree of
connection and the influence of the shear force. Therefore the shear force and
the bending moment should be calculated at several design points along the
beam, for each elementary load case (i.e. G, Q1, Q2). Then the design internal
forces and moments will be obtained for each combination of actions.
The design points are the supports and both sides of a point load. Additional
design points are determined between the previous ones in order to get the
critical section with sufficient accuracy. To this purpose, it is suggested that the
distance between two consecutive design points is less than L/20.
4.2 Effects of a point load

Vertical reaction at the left support:
RVL = –F (L – xF) / L
Vertical reaction at the right support:

RVR = F – RVL
Shear force at the abscissa x from the left support:

If x  xF: V(x) = RVL
Else: V(x) = RVL + F
Bending moment at the abscissa x from the left support:

If x  xF: M(x) = RVL x
Else: M(x) = RVL x + F (x – xF)
xF
x
L
Figure 4.1 Point load applied to the beam
10 - 14
composite beams
4.3 Effects of a uniformly distributed surface load

Vertical reaction at supports:
RVL = RVR = –Q (BL + BR) L / 4
Shear force at the abscissa x from the left support:

V(x) = RVL + Q (BL + BR) x / 2
Bending moment at the abscissa x from the left support:

M(x) = RVL x + Q (BL + BR) x2 /4
4.4 Combinations of actions

4.4.1 Ultimate Limit States (ULS)
The combinations of actions for the ULS verifications are the fundamental
combinations as defined in EN 1990 § 6.4.3.2:
G G + Q Q1 + Q 0,2 Q2
G G + Q Q2 + Q 0,1 Q1
4.4.2 Serviceability Limit States (SLS)

The combinations of actions for the SLS verifications (deflection, vibration)
can be either the characteristic or the frequent combinations, depending on the
National Annex:
Characteristic combinations (EN 1990 § 6.5.3 a):
G + Q1 + 0,2 Q2
G + Q2 + 0,1 Q1
Frequent combinations (EN 1990 § 6.5.3 b):

G + 1,1 Q1 + 2,2 Q2
G + 1,2 Q2 + 2,1 Q1
10 - 15
composite beams
5 CONSTRUCTION STAGE
5.1 General
When the beam is unpropped at the construction stage, ULS verifications have
to be carried out. The following actions are considered at this stage:
 Self-weight of the steel profile (G)
 Weight of the concrete (Qcf)
 A construction load considered as variable action (Qca)
The internal forces and moments are calculated according to Section 4 of this
guide, for the following ULS combination of actions:
G G + Q (Qcf + Qca)
The ULS verifications include:

 Bending resistance
 Shear resistance
 Shear buckling resistance
 Bending moment and shear force interaction
 Lateral torsional buckling
Regarding Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB), it is up to the user to select the

design assumption, either the beam is fully laterally restrained to prevent LTB,
or the beam is laterally restrained at the supports only. The LTB verification is
performed accordingly.
5.2 ULS verifications

5.2.1 General
Different criteria are calculated at each design point along the beam. A
criterion is the ratio of a design force to the relevant design resistance.
Therefore the verification is satisfactory when the criterion, denoted , does
not exceed the unity:
  1,0
5.2.2 Classification of the cross-section

The bending resistance of the cross-section depends on the class of the cross-
section.
If 0,5 (b – tw – 2 r)/tf 9 then the flange is Class 1,
If 0,5 (b – tw – 2 r)/tf  10  then the flange is Class 2,
If 0,5 (b – tw – 2 r)/tf  14  then the flange is Class 3,
Otherwise the flange is Class 4.
10 - 16
composite beams
If (h – 2 (tf + r))/tw  72  then the web is Class 1,

Otherwise the web is Class 4.
The class of the cross-section is the highest class of the compressed flange and
the web.
5.2.3 Vertical shear resistance

The criterion for the vertical shear resistance is calculated according to 6.3.3 of
this guide. For shear buckling, refer to Section 6.3.4 of this guide.
5.2.4 Bending resistance

The criterion for the bending resistance is calculated from:
M = MEd / Mc,Rd
where:
MEd is the maximum design moment along the beam
Mc,Rd is the design bending resistance depending on the class of the cross-
section:
Mc,Rd = Wpl,y fy / M0 for Class 1 or 2
Mc,Rd = Wel,y fy / M0 for Class 3
Mc,Rd = Weff,y fy / M0 for Class 4
5.2.5 M-V interaction

When the web slenderness hw/tw exceeds 72/, the shear buckling criterion
bw is calculated according to Section 6.3.4 as above mentioned in
Section 5.2.3. When this criterion is higher than 0,5 and when the bending
moment exceeds the bending resistance of the flanges, M-V interaction must be
considered. The interaction criterion is (EN 1993-1-5 § 7.1(1)):
 M f,Rd 
 MV   1  1   
 2 3  1 2
M pl,Rd 
if MEd > Mf,Rd

where:
1 = MEd / Mpl,Rd
3 = bw
Mpl,Rd = Wpl,y fy / M0
Mf,Rd = b tf (h - tf) fy / M0
10 - 17
composite beams
When shear buckling does not need to be considered and the shear criterion V
is higher than 0,5, M-V interaction must be checked using the following
criterion (EN 1993-1-1 § 6.2.8):
M Ed
 MV 
M V, Rd
where:
  Aw2 
M V,Rd 
 Wpl,y   f y /  M0
 4t w 
2
 2V 
   Ed  1
V 
 pl,Rd 
Aw = (h – 2 tf) tw
5.2.6 Resistance to Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB)

Design criterion
If the beam is assumed to be fully laterally restrained, no LTB verification is
performed. If the beam is restrained at the supports only, the LTB criterion is
calculated as follows:
LT = MEd / Mb,Rd
where:
MEd is the maximum design moment along the beam
Mb,Rd is the design LTB resistance that is determined according to the
appropriate LTB curve and the LTB slenderness as described below.
Elastic critical moment

The elastic critical moment is determined from the following equation:
 2 EI z  I w 
M cr  C1 
GI L2
 2 t  C2 zg  2  C2 zg 
L2  I z  EI z 
where:
zg = +h/2 (the transverse loading is assumed to be applied above the
upper flange)
The C1 and C2 factors can be taken from Table 5.1.
10 - 18
composite beams
Table 5.1 C1 and C2 factors

Loading C1 C2
1,35 0,59
L L
1 + 2,92 3 (2,44 – 3,24 ) C1
1,13 0,45
LTB slenderness
The LTB slenderness is calculated as:
Wy f y
 LT 
M cr
where:
Wy = Wpl,y for a class 1 or 2 cross-section
Wy = Wel,y for a class 3 cross-section
Wy = Weff,y for a class 4 cross-section
Reduction factor
The reduction factor is calculated according to EN 1993-1-1 § 6.3.2.3 for rolled
profiles:
1
 LT  but:  LT  1
2
LT  LT
2
   LT
1
and:  LT  2
 LT
where:
  
LT  0,5 1   LT  LT   LT,0    LT
2

The parameters  LT,0 and  may be given in the National Annex to
EN 1993-1-1. The recommended values are:
 LT,0  0,4
 = 0,75
LT is the imperfection factor depending on the LTB curve to be considered for
hot rolled profiles, according to EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.5:
If h/bf  2 Curve b LT = 0,34
If h/bf > 2 Curve c LT = 0,49
10 - 19
composite beams
LTB Resistance
The LTB Resistance is given by:
Mb,Rd = LT,mod Wy fy / M1
where:
LT,mod is the modified reduction factor calculated according to
EN 1993-1-1 § 6.3.2.3 (2). As simplification, it can be taken
equal to LT.
LT,mod = LT / f but: LT,mod  1
1
and:  LT, mod  2
 LT
 
f  1  0,51  k c 1  2  LT  0,8 
2
but: f  1
kc is a correction factor that can be determined by the following

expression:
1
kc 
C1
5.3 SLS Calculations

At the construction stage, the deflection can be calculated using the formula
given in Section 6.5.3 of this guide, where the second moment of area is the
one of the steel section.
10 - 20
composite beams
6 FINAL STAGE
6.1 Effective width of the slab

The effective width of the concrete slab is determined according to
EN 1994-1-1 § 5.4.1.2. The following expressions are limited to the field of
application of these specifications.
be = Min(L/8;B/2) where: B = (BL + BR)/2
 = (0,55 + 0,025 L/be)
If  > 1,0 then  = 1,0
For a given design section, located at an abscissa x, the effective width beff(x) is
obtained from:
If x  0,25 L: beff(x) = 2 be [ + 4(1 – ) x/L]
If x  0,75 L: beff(x) = 2 be [ + 4(1 – ) (L – x)/L]
Otherwise: beff(x) = 2 be
Note that, by simplification, as stated in EN 1994-1-1 § 5.4.1.2(9), the distance

b0 between 2 rows of studs is taken equal to 0 for the determination of the
effective width of the slab.
6.2 Shear connection

6.2.1 Resistance of a headed stud
Design resistance
According to EN 1994-1-1 § 6.6.3.1, the design resistance of a headed stud is
the minimum value of the two following expressions:
0,8 f u,scd 2 / 4
PRd 
V
0,29d 2 f ck Ecm
PRd 
V
where:
 hsc 
  0,2  1 for 3  hsc/d  4
 d 
  1 ,0 for hsc/d > 4
fu,sc is the ultimate tensile strength of the stud material. The maximum
value is 500 N/mm2.
10 - 21
composite beams
Steel sheeting with ribs parallel to the beam axis

When the ribs are parallel to the beam axis, a factor k applies to the design
resistance of a headed stud. It depends on the distance b0 determined as
follows:
If br > bb: b0 = (br + bb)/2
Otherwise: b0 = br
b h 
k  0.6 0  sc  1
hp  hp 

The maximum value of hsc is hp + 75 mm.
The maximum value of k is 1,0.
Steel sheeting with ribs perpendicular to the beam axis

When the ribs are perpendicular to the beam axis, a factor kt applies to the
design resistance of a headed stud:
0.7 b0  hsc 
kt   1
nr hp  hp 

where:
b0 is defined in Section 6.1.3
nr is the number of connectors in one rib at a beam intersection, not to
exceed 2 in computations.
The reduction factor kt should not exceed the maximum values given in
Table 6.1 (EN 1994-1-1 Table 6.2).
The values of the reduction factor kt are valid when:

hp  85 mm
b0  hp
Table 6.1 Maximum values of the reduction factor kt
Studs welded through Profiled steel sheeting
profiled steel sheeting with holes
Diameter 16 19 22 16 19 22
tp  1 mm 0,85 0,75
in EN 1994-1-1
Not accepted
nr = 1
Not covered
by EN 1994
tp > 1 mm 1,00 0,75
tp  1 mm 0,70 0,60
nr = 2
tp > 1 mm 0,80 0,60
10 - 22
composite beams
6.2.2 Degree of connection

At a given design point along the beam, the degree of connection  can be
calculated as follows:
Fsc

Min N pl,Rd ; N c,Rd 
where:
Fsc is the design resistance of the shear connection at the design
point
Nc,Rd is the design compression resistance of the concrete slab at the
design point
Npl,Rd is the design axial resistance of the structural steel.
Resistance of the connection

At a given design point of the beam, the resistance of the connection, Fsc, is:
Fsc  Min (nsc, left ; nsc, right ) k PRd
where:
nsc,left is the number of connectors between the left support and the
design point
nsc,right is the number of connectors between the right support and the
design point
k =1 for a plain slab
= k for a slab made of a profiled steel sheeting with ribs
parallel to the beam axis
= kt for a slab made of a profiled steel sheeting with ribs
perpendicular to the beam axis.
Resistance of the concrete slab

At a design point along the beam, defined by the abscissa x, the design
resistance of the concrete slab is given by:
Nc,Rd = (hf – hp) beff(x)  0,85 fcd
For a plain slab, hp is taken equal to 0.
Resistance of the structural steel

The design axial resistance of the steel section is given by:
Npl,Rd = A fy / M0
10 - 23
composite beams
6.2.3 Minimum degree of connection

The minimum degree of connection, min, is calculated according to
EN 1994-1-1 § 6.6.1.2, as follows:
If L  25 m: min = 1 – (355/fy) (0,75 – 0,03 L)
But min  0,4
Otherwise: min = 1
where:
L is the span length in meters
fy is the yield strength in N/mm2
6.2.4 Verification of the degree of connection

At the point of maximum bending moment, if the degree of connection is lower
than the minimum degree of connection ( < min), the plastic theory does not
apply (EN 1994-1-1 § 6.1.1(7)). In this case, the following message should
display: “Insufficient degree of connection: you should increase the resistance
of the shear connection”.
6.3 Cross-section resistance

6.3.1 General
Different criteria are calculated at each design point along the beam. A
criterion is the ratio of a design force to the relevant design resistance.
Therefore the verification is satisfactory when the criterion, denoted , does
not exceed the unity:
  1,0 Verification OK
6.3.2 Classification of the cross-section

It is reminded that the field of application of these specifications is limited to
the plastic design of the cross-section. So it shall be checked that each
cross-section is Class 2 (or class 1).
The class of the cross-section is the maximum of the class of the compressed
flange (upper flange) and the class of the web.
The limit of slenderness depends on the material parameter  as defined in

Section 3.1 of this guide.
The first step is to determine the position ypl,a of the Plastic Neutral Axis in the
structural steel section, measured from the bottom of the section. For the
calculation of ypl,a, refer to Section 6.3.7 where no influence of the shear force
is taken into account (i.e.  = 0 in the expressions of ypl,a).
Class of the compressed upper flange

If ypl,a > h – tf The upper steel flange is not fully in compression. So
the flange has not to be classified.
10 - 24
composite beams
For the classification, the flange slenderness is: f = 0,5 (b – tw – 2 r)/tf
If f  10  The flange is class 2 (or 1) (EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2).
When f > 10 , the following requirements shall be fulfilled to conclude that

the flange is Class 2 (EN 1994-1-1 § 5.5.2(1) and § 6.6.5.5):
 For plain slabs or slabs with profiled steel sheeting parallel to the beam
axis, the longitudinal spacing between the connectors is lower than 22  tf.
 For slabs with profiled steel sheeting perpendicular to the beam axis, the
longitudinal spacing between the connectors is lower than 15  tf.
 The longitudinal spacing between the connectors is lower than 6 times the
slab depth (6 hf).
 The longitudinal spacing between the connectors is lower than 800 mm.
 The clear distance from the edge of the flange to the nearest line of
connectors is not greater than 9  tf.
Class of the web

If ypl,a > h – tf – r The web is fully in tension. So the web has not to
classified.
For the classification, the flange slenderness is: w = (h – 2tf – 2r)/tw
The compression part of the web is estimated by the  ratio:

h  tf  r  ypl,a

h  2tf  2r
Here the  ratio is supposed to be lower than 0,5.
456
If w  The web is class 2 (or 1).
13  1
6.3.3 Vertical shear resistance

The vertical shear resistance of a cross-section is calculated according to
EN 1993-1-1 § 6.2.6. The contribution of the concrete slab is neglected.
Av, z f y
Vpl, Rd 
3 M0
The criterion is calculated by:

VEd
V 
Vpl, Rd
10 - 25
composite beams
6.3.4 Shear buckling resistance

When the web slenderness hw/tw exceeds 72/, the shear buckling resistance
Vbw,Rd has to be calculated according to EN 1993-1-5 § 5.2, with the following
assumptions:
 Only the contribution of the web is considered
 The end posts are non rigid
Therefore the design resistance for shear buckling is obtained from:

 w hw t w f yw
Vbw, Rd 
3 M1
where:
hw is the height of the web: hw = h – 2 tf
w is the reduction factor for shear buckling that depends on the web
slenderness  w
The web slenderness is:
hw
w 
37,4 t w  w k
where:
w  235 / f yw
k = 5,34
The reduction factor w is calculated as follows:

If  w < 0,83/: w = 
Otherwise w = 0,83/  w
Then the criterion is calculated by:

VEd
 Vb 
Vbw, Rd
6.3.5 Bending resistance

The bending resistance MRd of a cross-section is calculated according to 6.3.7,
by taking the parameter  equal to 0 (i.e. no influence of the shear force). The
criterion is obtained from:
M Ed
M 
M Rd
10 - 26
composite beams
6.3.6 M-V interaction

When the web slenderness hw/tw exceeds 72/, the shear buckling criterion
bw is calculated according to 6.3.4. When this criterion is higher than 0,5,
M-V interaction shall be considered. The interaction criterion is:
M Ed
 MV 
M V, Rd
The bending resistance MV,Rd is calculated according to 6.3.7 with the

parameter  obtained from:
2
 2V 
   Ed  1
 Vbw, Rd 
When shear buckling has not to be considered, Vbw,Rd is replaced by Vpl,Rd. If
the shear criterion V is higher than 0,5, interaction must be considered and
MV,Rd is calculated according to 6.3.7 with the parameter  obtained from:
2
 2V 
   Ed  1
 Vpl, Rd 
 
6.3.7 General expression of the bending resistance

The following procedure allows the user to calculate the design bending
resistance, including the reduction due to the shear force. When the effect of
the shear force can be neglected, the parameter  is taken equal to 0.
The plastic stress distribution is shown in Figure 6.1.
beff(x) ypl,c
+0,85 fcd
+fy / M0
+(1-)fy / M0
ypl,a -(1-)fy / M0
-fy / M0
Figure 6.1 Plastic stress distribution with partial connection
10 - 27
composite beams
Contribution of the concrete slab

At each design point located at abscissa x, the bending resistance depends on
the shear resistance of the connection, Fsc, determined according to § 6.2.2.
The position of the plastic neutral axis in the slab is obtained from the
following expression (see Figure 6.1):
Min ( N pl,V,Rd ; Fsc )
ypl,c 
beff ( x)  0,85 f cd
But: ypl,c  hf – hp
For a plain slab: hp = 0
Npl,V,Rd is the plastic resistance to the axial force of the steel section,
reduced by the effect of the shear force:
Npl,V,Rd = [A –  ((h – 2 tf ) tw + (4 – )r2)] fy / M0
Therefore, the resulting compression force in the concrete slab is:

Nc = ypl,c beff(x)  0,85 fcd
It applies at ypl,c/2 from the top of the slab.
Position of the plastic neutral axis in the steel section

The plastic neutral axis in the steel section has to be determined. It can be
located in one of the three following parts of the cross-section:
1. In the web if: Nc  Npl,1
with: Npl,1 = (h – 2 tf – 2 c) tw (1 – ) fy / M0
1  Nc 

ypl,a  h
2  t w 1 -   f y / M0 
2. In the fillets if: Npl,1 < Nc  Npl,2

with: Npl,2 = (A – 2 b tf) (1 – ) fy / M0
1   h  
 Nc 
ypl,a  h  tf  c   t w2  4 t w   tf  c   
 wt
2   2  21    f y / M0  

3. In the upper flange if: Npl,2 < Nc  Npl,V,Rd

N pl, V, Rd  N c
ypl,a  h 
2 b f y / M0
where:
c  r  2  /2
10 - 28
composite beams
Plastic moment resistance

Depending on the position of the plastic neutral axis, the expression of the
design plastic moment resistance is given hereafter:
1. In the web:
   1   t w  f y
2
 1   Wpl, y  bf t f h  tf  
  Nc  
M Rd  M slab
  t w 1    f y / M0  4   M0
   
2. In the fillets:
  Nc  1   t w  f y
2
M Rd  1   Wpl, y  bf t f h  t f       M slab

  t 1    f /  4   M0
  w y M0  
3. In the upper flange:
M Rd  h  y pl,a by pl,a

fy
 M slab
 M0
where:
 h  ypl, c 
M slab  N c  hf  
 2 
6.4 Longitudinal shear resistance

6.4.1 Minimum transverse reinforcement ratio
According to EN 1994-1-1 § 6.6.6.3, the minimum transverse reinforcement
ratio can be obtained from EN 1992-1-1 § 9.2.2(5):
0,08 f ck
 w, min 
f yr,k
where:
fck is the characteristic value of the compression resistance in N/mm2
fyr,k is the yield strength of the reinforcement bars in N/mm2
6.4.2 Calculation of the transverse reinforcement ratio

The transverse reinforcement ratio is obtained from (EN 1992-1-1 § 6.2.4(4)):
Asf f yd vEd hf

sf cot f
where:
Asf/sf is the transverse reinforcement ratio (in cm2/m for example)
fyd is the design value of the yield strength of the reinforcement bars:
fyd = fyr,k / s
10 - 29
composite beams
f is the angle between concrete compression struts and tension chords.

This can be defined by the National Annex. Here it is proposed to
take: f = 45°
vEd is the longitudinal shear action defined by:
ΔFd
vEd 
hf Δx
Fd is the variation of the compression axial force in the slab along a
distance x between two given sections.
The calculation is performed along a segment close to each end of the beam.
Then:
Fd = (Nc – 0)/2 = Nc/2
Nc is calculated according to 6.3.7.
For uniform distributed loads, the calculation is performed between the section
located at mid span and the support (x = L/2).
For a beam with point loads, the calculation has to be performed along a
segment between the section under the point load and the closest support.
x 2
F d
Figure 6.2 Determination of Fd
6.4.3 Concrete strength in the compression struts

The criterion for the concrete strength of the compression struts is calculated
by the following expression:
vEd
 Vh 
 f cd sin f cos f
This criterion is calculated for each segment considered in 6.4.2 and then the
maximum value is derived.
10 - 30
composite beams
6.5 Serviceability limit states

6.5.1 General
For the serviceability limit states, there is no stress limitation in the buildings.
The limit states are:
 The deflection of the beam
 The natural frequency of the beam that is derived from the deflection.
6.5.2 Inertia of the composite beam

The deflection is estimated from the combination of actions under
consideration and from the stiffness of the composite beam. The stiffness
depends on the second moment of area of the composite section that is
determined using a modular ratio n between the structural steel and the
concrete.
As stated by EN 1994-1-1 § 5.4.2.2(11), the deflection in buildings under both

permanent actions and variable actions is calculated using:
n = 2 Ea / Ecm
For the estimation of the natural frequency, the deflection has to be calculated
using the short term modular ratio:
n = Ea / Ecm
The position of the elastic neutral axis is calculated from:
yel 
 
Ah / 2  beff hf  hp  h  hf  hp  / 2 / n
A  beff hf  hp  / n
The second moment of area of the composite cross-section is calculated from:
beff hf  hp  beff hf  hp 

3
I eq  I y 
12  n
 A y el  h / 2 
2
n
h  h
f  hp / 2  y el 
2
Note that:
beff is the effective width at mid-span.
For a plain slab, hp = 0.
6.5.3 Deflections
General
The deflection can be calculated at the various key points along the beam for
each combination of actions under consideration. Then the maximum value can
be derived.
The deflection should be calculated for each variable load case, Q1 and Q2, and
for each SLS combination of actions, either characteristic or frequent
combination depending on the National Annex.
When the beam is fully propped at the construction stage, the deflection under
the self-weight (steel profile and concrete) is calculated with composite action.
10 - 31
composite beams
When the beam is unpropped, this deflection is calculated with no contribution

of the concrete slab – the second moment of area of the steel profile is then
considered: Ieq = Iy.
Deflection under a distributed load

The deflection w at the abscissa x, under a uniformly distributed load denoted
Q, is calculated by:
QL3 x x x 

3 4
w(x) =   2     
24 EI eq  L  L   L  
Deflection under a point load

The deflection w of a section located at the abscissa x, under a point load
denoted F located at xF, is calculated by (see Figure 4.1):
w(x) =
F
6 EI eq L
 2

L2  L  xF   x 2 L  xF x if x < xf
w(x) =
F
6 EI eq L
 2

L2  L  x   xF2 L  x xF if x > xf
6.5.4 Vibrations
The natural frequency (in Hz) of the composite beam can be estimated from the
following equations:
18,07
f  for a uniformly distributed load
w
15,81
f  for a concentrated load at mid span
w
where:
w is the deflection in millimetres calculated with the short term modular
ratio for a combination of actions including only a percentage of the
imposed loads. Depending on the National Annex, the combination
can be either the characteristic or the frequent one.
10 - 32
composite beams
7 LIST OF THE MAIN OUTPUTS
The following list is a summary of the main results of the calculations:

At the construction stage:
 The maximum bending moment and its location along the beam
 The maximum criterion for the bending resistance (M,max)
 The maximum vertical shear force and its location along the beam
 The maximum criterion for the vertical shear resistance (V,max)
 The maximum criterion for the shear buckling resistance, when necessary
(Vb,max)
 The criterion for the LTB resistance (LT)
 The maximum deflection under self-weight of the beam and under the
weight of the concrete
 The maximum deflection under the construction loads.
At the final stage:

 The effective width of the concrete slab
 The shear resistance of headed studs
 The maximum bending moment and its location along the beam
 The maximum vertical shear force and its location along the beam
 The degree of connection
 The minimum degree of connection
 The maximum criterion for vertical shear resistance (V,max)
 The maximum criterion for shear buckling resistance (Vb,max)
 The maximum criterion for bending resistance (M,max)
 The maximum criterion for bending resistance reduced by the influence of
the vertical shear force (MV,max)
 The maximum criterion for the resistance to the horizontal shear force in
the concrete slab (Vh,max)
 The transverse reinforcement ratio
 The maximum deflection under each variable load case Q1 and Q2
 The maximum deflection under each SLS combination
 The natural frequency under each SLS combination.
10 - 33
composite beams
REFERENCES
1 EN 1994-1-1:2004 Eurocode 4 Design of composite steel and concrete structures.

General rules and rules for buildings.
2 EN 1990:2002 Eurocode Basis of structural design.
3 EN 1993-1-1:2005 Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures. General rules and rules
for buildings
4 EN 1992-1-1:2004 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and
rules for buildings.
10 - 34
composite beams
APPENDIX A Overall flowchart
Start
Basic data
§ 5… Calculations at the construction stage Flowchart A.2
§ 6.1… Effective width of the slab beff(x)
§ 4.1… Determination of Design Points (DP) Position of DPs
§ 4… Calculation of internal forces and M, V

moment at each DP for load case
§ 6.2.2… Degree of shear connection 
§ 6.2.3… Minimum degree of shear connection min
No “Increase the degree

  min ?
of shear connection”
Yes
§ 6.3… Cross-section resistance Criteria M, V…
§ 6.4… Longitudinal shear resistance Design criterion

Transverse reinf.
§ 6.5… SLS Calculations Deflections

Natural frequency
End
Figure A.1 Overall flowchart of the calculations
10 - 35
composite beams
Start
Basic data for

construction stage
No
Beam unpropped
Yes
§ 4… Calculation of internal forces and

moments M, V
§ 5.2… Cross-section resistance Criteria M, V…
No
Beam unrestrained
§ 5.2.5…
Yes
LTB resistance Criteria LT
§ 5.3…
SLS Calculations Deflection
End
Figure A.2 Calculations at the construction stage
10 - 36

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STEEL BUILDINGS IN EUROPE

The 10 parts in the Multi-Storey Steel Buildings guide are:

Of course, the transformation from iron used as structural reinforcement and

Figure 1.1 Crystal Palace, London

This document, which is aimed at architects, provides an overview of the

Figure 1.2 Office building in Paris

Illustration of the many opportunities for using steel in building construction

2.1 Architectural creativity and flexibility

Figure 2.1 Energy efficient design at GLA building, London

Designers can give free reign to their imagination and creativity.

Within the overall architectural concept, the structural steelwork may be

Figure 2.2 ING Bank Headquarters in Amsterdam

Steel provides the flexibility needed to enable a building to evolve throughout

It is advisable to adopt the principle of load-bearing columns, rather than

In multi-storey steel buildings, the vertical bracing systems must be arranged

In order to design in steel, it is essential to understand the different aspects in

Each aspect involves various products assembled in a specific order (see

2.2 Prefabrication – Industrialised building systems

All structural steel components are manufactured by steelmakers or fabricators

Figure 2.3 Multi-storey industrial building during construction, in Monaco

Intelligent use of steel products and components produced by manufacturers

2.3 An evolving art

2.4 Extending and refurbishment

In order to extend an existing steel structure, it is reasonable to retain the same

Figure 2.4 Extending building upwards

An extension is often carried out in parallel with complete refurbishment of the

Depending on the load-bearing structure of the extension, and in the case of a

2.4.2 Extending width of buildings

Figure 2.5 Extension of a multi-storey building

A number of technical solutions are possible, depending on the structural

2.4.3 Conversion and refurbishment of industrial buildings

Structures made of steel frames lend themselves particularly well to such

It is easy to remove components, to replace and modify spans, to change beam

It is also worth noting that the lightness of steel structures is a distinct

Figure 2.6 Headquarters of Nestlé France, Noisiel

3 STEEL – MATERIAL AND PRODUCTS

3.1 Steel the material

Steel products must demonstrate specific characteristics according to their

Full information can be found on steel producers’ web sites:

3.2 Steel products

Figure 3.1 Main categories of steel products used in construction

3.2.1 Hot rolled long products

I, H and channel sections

Equal legs Unequal legs

Circular hollow sections Square hollow sections Rectangular hollow sections

Figure 3.2 Hot rolled long products used in steel construction

Sections undergo various transformations through cutting, welding, bending

Figure 3.3 Cellular beams fabricated from hot rolled sections

3.2.2 Cold formed long products

Figure 3.4 Cold formed products – Typical sections

3.2.3 Flat products

Steel decking for floors

Steel sheeting for roofs

Steel sheeting for cladding

Figure 3.5 Use of flat products in steel construction

4 BASIS OF GOOD DESIGN: THE STRUCTURE

4.1 The load-bearing system

4.1.1 Load-bearing framework