Single-Storey Steel Buildings

STEEL BUILDINGS IN EUROPE
Single-Storey Steel Buildings

Part 1: Architects Guide


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FOREWORD
This publication is part one of the design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
The 11 parts in the Single-Storey Steel Buildings guide are:
Part 1: Architects guide
Part 2: Concept design
Part 3: Actions
Part 4: Detailed design of portal frames
Part 5: Detailed design of trusses
Part 6: Detailed design of built up columns
Part 7: Fire engineering
Part 8: Building envelope
Part 9: Introduction to computer software
Part 10: Model construction specification
Part 11: Moment connections
Single-Storey Steel Buildings is one of two design guides. The second design guide is
Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.
The two design guides have been produced in the framework of the European project
Facilitating the market development for sections in industrial halls and low rise
buildings (SECHALO) RFS2-CT-2008-0030.
The design guides have been prepared under the direction of Arcelor Mittal,
Peiner Trger and Corus. The technical content has been prepared by CTICM and SCI,
collaborating as the Steel Alliance.
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Contents
Page No
FOREWORD i
SUMMARY v
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Steel as a construction material 1
1.2 Steel in single storey buildings 7
2 ADVANTAGES OF CHOOSING A STEEL STRUCTURE 8
2.1 Low weight 8
2.2 Minimum construction dimensions 9
2.3 Speed of construction 9
2.4 Flexibility and adaptability 10
2.5 A sustainable solution 11
3 FORM OF PRIMARY STEEL STRUCTURE 12
3.1 Structure types 12
3.2 Connections between columns and beams 26
4 BUILDING ENVELOPE 28
4.1 Cladding systems 29
4.2 Secondary steelwork 30
4.3 Roofs 30
5 FIRE SAFETY 33
6 OVERHEAD CRANES 34
7 CONCLUSIONS 36
8 FURTHER READING 37

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SUMMARY
This publication presents an introduction for architects to the use of steel in single
storey steel-framed buildings. The primary application of such buildings is for industrial
use but single storey solutions are appropriate for many other applications. The
advantages of the use of steel, in terms of low weight, minimum construction
dimensions, speed of construction, flexibility, adaptability and sustainability are
explained. The primary forms of steel structure and the methods of cladding them are
introduced. It is noted that the requirements for fire resistance are usually modest, since
occupants can usually escape quickly in the event of fire. The influence of providing a
crane inside a single storey building, in terms of the structural design, is briefly
addressed.
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Steel as a construction material
Steel is synonymous with modern architecture. Throughout the twentieth
century, the material has inspired architects and engineers, for it combines
strength and efficiency with unparalleled opportunities for sculptural
expression.
The key attribute of steel is its high strength to weight
ratio, which gives remarkable spanning and load carrying ability. Steel lends
itself to prefabrication. Whole structures can be created in a factory
environment and then constructed quickly on site. Steel buildings are highly
adaptable, in that frames can be modified and altered. Costs are low, recycling
simple and aesthetic opportunities rich and varied. As designers, fabricators
and constructors continually advance the boundaries of steel design, both
technically and expressively, steel has a crucial role in modern architecture.
Steel is basically a simple alloy of iron and carbon, but its properties can be
enhanced and modified by the addition of other alloying elements and by the
manufacturing process. The material is then made into sections, plate, or sheet,
and these simple products used to produce structures and building
components.
Standard approaches have evolved for many types of single storey structures
but they are not constraining: departures from norms are commonplace, for
steel lends itself to creative solutions. Modern architecture is rich with
solutions that defy simple categorization, even in single storey structures.
These do not have to be utilitarian. They can be formed into gentle arcs or
startling expressed structure. Although greatest economy is often achieved with
regular grids and standardization, steel structures offer outstanding opportunity
for architectural expression and outstanding design opportunities. Some
illustrations of the dramatic structural forms that are possible in steel
construction are shown in Figure 1.1 to Figure 1.5.
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Figure 1.1 Single storey structure with curved roof

Figure 1.2 Single storey warehouse with exposed steelwork truss

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Figure 1.3 Single storey curved and cranked steelwork for an art gallery

Figure 1.4 Modern industrial building with curved steel roof

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Figure 1.5 Roof steelwork for a transport museum
Structural steel frames generally rely on the use of hot rolled steel sections:
for such sections, the material is heated and passed as a billet or blank through
heavy rollers that gradually reduce and shape the cross-section whilst at the
same time increasing the length; the final shape is generally in a standardised
range. Typical cross section ranges are shown in Figure 1.6.
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Section IPE UPE HD HE HL
Height (mm) 80 - 750 80 - 400 260 - 400 100 - 1000 620 - 1100

Figure 1.6 Typical hot rolled profiles
For larger spans, deep beams or other structural members can be fabricated
from hot rolled sections and plate to form geometrically complex members.
Hot rolled sections can be curved after manufacture, using bending
equipment, or be converted to perforated web profiles using a variety of
approaches, some of which split the beam into two in such a way that the two
parts can be welded together as a deeper beam, with its spanning ability much
increased.
Lighter steel sections can be formed by bending thin sheet steel into C or
Z profiles. Normally this is done using either a cold rolling line (for standard
sections) or by using a press or folding machine (for special sections).
Common structural profiles range from around 80 mm to 350 mm deep, as
shown in Figure 1.7, and are particularly suitable for roof purlins and side rails
that support cladding, for lightweight frames, and as support to internal walls
and partitions.
Wide thin sheets can be formed by cold rolling into profiled cladding for roofs
and walls (see typical profiles in Figure 1.8) and into profiled floor decking.
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Sheet thickness 1,5 3 mm
H
H

H 175 mm 195 mm 210 mm 240 mm 260 mm
Z shape
min. 30 mm max. 100 mm
max. 350 mm
min. 80 mm
H

C shape
max. 100 mm min. 30 mm
H
max. 350 mm
min. 80 mm

U shape

Figure 1.7 Typical cold-rolled section profiles

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Flat
Wide Profile
Narrow profile
Micro profile
Trapezoidal

Corrugated

Figure 1.8 Typical cladding profiles
Steel members can be joined using a wide variety of techniques including
welding and bolting; connection design is an important part of any structural
system. Connection arrangements can be highly standardised or unique to suit
a complex form. In expressed steelwork, connections often become important
architectural elements in their own right.
1.2 Steel in single storey buildings
A steel building for commercial, industrial or agricultural use is typically a
single storey, single span or multi-span building. Both building length and
building width are much larger than the height of the building. Building
functions include warehouses, distribution centres, retail outlets, exhibition
spaces, sports halls and a wide range of commercial premises.
Each building type has its own specific requirements with regard to the internal
space, though most require a space that is either entirely clear of structural
members, or has internal columns reduced to a minimum. Usually, the structure
is specifically designed for its purpose. For manufacturing and warehouse
structures, economics and flexibility often have a greater influence than the
appearance of the building. For other buildings, the appearance of the structure
is more important and fabricated steelwork may be used to form architecturally
appealing structures.
Buildings which are designed to be adaptable retain their value, as it is possible
to divide, combine or extend them in the future. The re-usability of the building
is a major factor when deciding between renovation and rebuilding.
Depending on the function of the building, the architects brief will determine
the basic layout of the structure. The structural engineer will have a wide
choice of structural concepts, including simple frames, portal frames, trusses
and arches. These solutions may range from the entirely functional for greatest
economy to rather more adventurous architecture and external appeal.
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2 ADVANTAGES OF CHOOSING A STEEL
STRUCTURE
A very large proportion of all industrial and commercial single storey buildings
utilise a steel structure, which demonstrates the cost-effectiveness of a steel
solution. Architects and engineers use steel not only as an economical solution
but also to achieve:
low structural weight
minimum construction dimensions
a short construction time
flexibility in use
a sustainable solution
2.1 Low weight
A steel structure has a relatively low self-weight compared to masonry or
concrete structures. This advantage not only reduces the foundations required
for the structure, but also means that the structure is lightweight, reducing
material delivery to the site. The off-site prefabrication of steel construction is
a significant contribution to reduced transport of materials to site and reduced
site activities, minimising construction disruption and environmental impact.

Figure 2.1 The relatively low self weight of steel structures reduces material
delivery to site
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2.2 Minimum construction dimensions
Steel enables large spans to be constructed with relatively small construction
depths. The typical construction solution of an insulated external envelope
supported on steel secondary members is a very well-developed solution,
optimised over many years, leading to a structurally efficient and cost effective
solution.
For pitched roofs or short span flat roofs, the construction depth of the roof
beams or rafters can be as low as 1/40 of the span between columns. If internal
columns are required for multi-span structures, they may be chosen to be small
members, or the internal columns may be provided on every second (or every
third) frame, maximising internal space and flexibility. Steelwork supporting
the external envelope may be very slender, as shown on Figure 2.2, providing
the opportunity for maximum natural lighting.

Figure 2.2 Slender construction takes up less space and results in
transparent buildings.
2.3 Speed of construction
Structural steel components are pre-fabricated off site by a steelwork
contractor; any protective coating that is required is applied at this stage. The
site activity is primarily an assembly operation, bolting steelwork parts
together, which leads to short construction periods. The building can be made
weather tight quickly, allowing the following trades early access to commence
their work.
Modern fabrication is achieved using numerically controlled machines, with
data from three-dimensional electronic models of the complete structure.
Modern fabrication is therefore extremely accurate, and errors that need
rectification on site are rare. Three-dimensional building models can be used
by other trades to ensure that their own contribution (for example, the cladding,
or the mechanical and electrical services) can be properly co-ordinated with the
structural frame before the building is constructed. All these facilities
contribute to minimizing the period from conception to completion.
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Figure 2.3 Prefabricated components are easily and rapidly connected on site
2.4 Flexibility and adaptability
A steel structure is both flexible and adaptable design in steel is certainly not
limited to rectangular grids and straight members, but can accommodate
dramatic architectural intent, as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Dramatic, expressed steelwork
Thanks to the numeric control of modern fabrication, components may be
designed and fabricated to almost any shape desired. In most cases, a structure
with an irregular floor plan or curved components is manufactured as easily as
a rectilinear design, although there will be cost implications of the more
complex fabrication.
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The building can also be made adaptable for future changes in use. Column-
free floor space facilitates future changes in internal layout, which is likely to
happen several times in the life of a structure. The building structure can be
modified, strengthened and extended. The facility to extend the structure at
some future stage can be incorporated into the original design and construction
details. The external envelope maybe renewed, upgraded or modified. Future
owners/users with different requirements can readily adapt a steel building to
their requirements.
2.5 A sustainable solution
Steel can be recycled any number of times without loss of quality or strength.
Significant quantities of recycled steel are used in the manufacture of new steel
products and there is a commercial value in scrap steel for this reason.
Figure 2.5 shows scrap material being recycled to make new steel.
Steel building components are fabricated under controlled conditions with
minimal waste (off-cuts are recycled as scrap). As the site activity is mainly
assembly, there is rarely any waste on site.
Steel structures can often be dissembled, as they are primarily bolted skeletal
structures. The steel members may reused in other structures portal frames
and similar structures are frequently dismantled and used at other locations.

Figure 2.5 Modern steel making technology has the ability to recycle scrap
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3 FORM OF PRIMARY STEEL STRUCTURE
Single storey steel buildings are generally built with an external cladding
envelope, supported in many cases on relatively short span secondary steel
members, which are in turn supported on the primary steel structure. This
Section describes the structural possibilities that may be considered and
comments on the type of structural sections that can be used.
3.1 Structure types
There are four basic structural configurations that provide a clear interior space
for a single storey building:
Rigid framed structures (portal frames and rigid-frame trusses)
Pinned frame beam-and-column structures
Cable-supported roofs
Arched roofs
For the first three configurations, the designer has the option of providing
either a flat roof or a pitched roof.
Typical spans and span/depth ratios for the primary roof members in pinned
and rigid framed buildings are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Typical spans and structural depths for single storey structures
Structure type Roof beam depth Typical span range
Pinned frames
Simple beam span/30 to span/40 Up to approximately 20 m
Fabricated Beam span/20 to span/25 Up to approximately 30 m
Perforated web beam span/20 to span/60 Up to approximately 45 m
Truss roof (pitched) span/5 to span/10 Up to approximately 20 m
Truss roof (flat) span/15 to span/20 Up to approximately 100 m
Rigid frames
Portal frame span/60 15 m 45 m
Truss roof (flat) span/15 to span/20 Up to approximately 100 m

3.1.1 Rigid-framed structures
Rigid frames are achieved by providing a rigid (moment resisting) connection
between the ends of the roof beams (or trusses) and the columns. The stiff
frame that is created is much more efficient in carrying the imposed loads on
the roof than a simply supported roof member (with nominally pinned
connections at its ends) and the frame also provides resistance against wind
forces on the sides of the building. Because the frames are self-supporting in
the plane of the frame, the bracing in the roof can be reduced, compared to a
structure with simply supported roof beams.
Rigid framed structures broadly fall into two categories, portal framed
structures and truss framed structures.
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Portal frames
Portal frames typically use hot-rolled I-section beams and columns for the roof
rafters and supporting columns, although cold formed sections may be
adequate for small span structures. Portal frames come in a variety of different
shapes and sizes, with flat and pitched roofs.
A typical configuration is shown in Figure 3.1. The roof and wall cladding is
supported on purlins and side rails that span between the portal frames. Bracing
is not needed between every frame but is needed in at least one bay to transfer
longitudinal forces (normal to the frames) to the side walls and thus to ground
level.
In some special design situations, the cladding can be used as the bracing this
is known as stressed skin design. The design of the cladding and the fixings to
the supporting members will be assessed by the structural engineer. In most
cases, bracing will be provided that does not rely on the sheeting.

Figure 3.1 Typical structural configuration of a portal frame structure

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25 - 40 m
6 m
6

6 m
25-30 m

(a) Portal frame medium span (b) Curved portal frame

8 m
8 m 9 m 8 m
3.5 m

25 m
8 m
6

(c) Portal frame with mezzanine floor (d) Portal frame with overhead crane
25 m
6 m
6

(e) Two bay portal
frame
10 m
8 m
3.5 m
6 6

(f) Portal frame with
integral office
40 m
6 m
10
3.00

(g) Mansard portal
frame

Figure 3.2 Forms of portal frame
Portal frames typically have straight rafters, as shown in Figure 3.3. The same
structural principles can be followed to form a portal frame with a curved
rafter, as shown in Figure 3.4. In each case, the connection of the rafter to the
column is substantial, and usually the rafter is haunched locally to the column.
The dimensions of the haunch should be allowed for when considering the
clear height requirements.
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Figure 3.3 Pitched roof portal frame

Figure 3.4 Curved roof portal frame

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Figure 3.5 Typical roof and wall bracing in portal framed structures
In most cases, the rafter (and possibly the column) will need local restraints, as
shown on Figure 3.6. In some countries, special provision must be made when
using this form of restraint, to ensure that the purlins align with the roof
bracing system. The location of these restraints will be specified by the
structural engineer.

Figure 3.6 Stabilizing the bottom flange of a roof beam
Rigid framed trusses
When flat trusses are used, both top and bottom chords can easily be connected
to the supporting columns, thus creating a rigid frame. For larger spans, roof
trusses provide an effective and economic alternative. Typical flat truss shapes
are shown in Figure 3.7, and a truss roof is illustrated in Figure 3.8.
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Figure 3.7 Typical truss shapes

Figure 3.8 Rigid frame flat truss (N-type)
In some situations, the columns are also of lattice form and then the building
configuration is typically as shown in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9 Rigid frame flat truss with lattice columns
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The lateral stability of the top chords of trusses is usually provided by the
purlins (and by one panel of bracing, as for portal frames) but where stressed
skin design is permitted, it may provide the restraint without bracing, as shown
in Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10 Roof cladding acting as stressed skin in a rigid-framed truss roof
3.1.2 Pinned frame beam and column structures
In a pinned frame beam and column structure, the basic configuration is a
series of parallel beams, each supported by columns at its ends, with a pinned
or flexible connection between the beam and the column. Bracing has to be
provided in the roof to transfer horizontal forces due to wind loads to the end
and side walls; the walls are braced to transfer the forces to the foundations.
(Alternatively, some countries allow the roof cladding to act as a stressed
skin, thus largely eliminating the need for separate bracing.) A typical
structural configuration is shown in Figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11 Typical structural configuration for a beam and column structure
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There are numerous options for the beams:
Hot rolled sections (I-beams)
Plate girders
Fabricated beams with holes in the webs
Trusses
Hot rolled I section beams
The most common type of beam and column structure uses hot rolled steel I
sections for both beams and columns. These sections are produced in
accordance with international standards and there are design tables available to
allow for an easy selection of section size to suit the loading. The most
common section sizes are readily available from stockists and can be ordered at
short notice.
Deep sections with relatively narrow flanges are preferred for roof beams, as
shown in Figure 3.12, where they primarily resist bending. Columns, which
primarily resist compression, are usually thicker, shallower sections with wider
flanges.
The span/depth ratio for the roof beams is typically 30 to 40 for spans up to
20 m.

Figure 3.12 Pinned frame beam and column structure
Plate girders
Plate girders are built up beams consisting of two flange plates, welded to a
web plate to form an I-section. This type of beam offers a solution when the
standard I and H beams are not suitable. The section dimensions are chosen to
suit the design bending moments and shear forces; the beams can be profiled in
elevation, as shown in Figure 3.13.
The span/depth ratio is typically 20 to 25 for spans up to 30 m.
An alternative that is sometimes used for large spans, to reduce the thickness of
the web plate, is the use of a corrugated plate (profiled in plan). The span/depth
ratio with a profiled web plate is typically 30 to 40 for spans up to 100 m.
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Figure 3.13 Tapered plate girders
Plate girders are likely to be more expensive than hot-rolled standard sections.
Beams with web openings
Because roof beams generally carry relatively light uniformly distributed loads,
beam sections that span large distances can be created by fabricating sections
with openings in the webs. Historically, the first beam of this type was the
castellated beam, with hexagonal holes. Now beams with circular openings are
commonly used.
In both cases, the beam is fabricated from a rolled I section by cutting along the
web, to a special profile, separating the two halves and then displacing one half
relative to the other and welding them back together. This is illustrated in
Figure 3.14. The major advantage of this type of beam is the weight reduction:
approximately 30% less than a beam with a solid web of similar depth and
bending resistance.
An example of the use of beams with circular openings is shown in
Figure 3.15.
Beams with web openings are less suitable for heavy concentrated loads.
The span/depth ratio is typically 30 for spans up to 50 m.

Hexagonal holes

Circular holes

Figure 3.14 Fabrication of beams with web openings

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Figure 3.15 Beams with circular web openings
Trusses
Trusses are a triangulated assembly of members. Two basic configurations are
used in single storey buildings pitched roof trusses and flat trusses of near
uniform depth.
Pitched roof trusses
A variety of pitched roof truss forms are used in pinned frames, as illustrated in
Figure 3.16.
The trusses illustrated in Figure 3.16 are commonly fabricated from T and
angle sections, and are used to create a sloped roof. The large (mostly unused)
space between the trusses may be considered a disadvantage, requiring heating
and raising the overall height of the structure, but it is a cost effective solution
for modest spans and provides space for services.
Because these trusses are used with a steeply sloping roof, the span/depth ratio
is typically 5 to 10 for spans up to 20 m
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Fink or Poloneau truss
(small span)
Fink or Poloneau truss
(large span)
Belgian truss
English truss
Mansard truss

Figure 3.16 Types of pitched roof truss
Flat trusses
Flat trusses are used mainly in rigid frames (see Section 0 for a more
comprehensive description) but they are also employed in pinned frames an
example is shown in Figure 3.17.

Figure 3.17 Flat truss in pinned frame building
Trusses typically have a greater depth than single beams or plate girders. The
deflection of a truss is modest, and can be controlled, making trusses especially
suitable when significant loads have to be supported from the roof structure, or
when a flat (or nearly flat) roof is to be provided. The larger depth of the
trusses increases the dimensions of the faade, but also provides space for
services to be placed in the roof structure instead of below.
The weight of a trussed roof structure per unit area of roof in general is less
than that of single beam girders, but the fabrication costs are higher. Trusses
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may be exposed in the completed structure, which may increase the fabrication
costs if, for example, hollow sections are used for the members.
The span/depth ratio for flat trusses is typically 15 to 20 for spans up to 100 m.
Trusses are usually planar and will generally require bracing of some form to
provide stability. As an alternative, three-dimensional trusses can be created, as
shown in cross section in Figure 3.18 and illustrated in Figure 3.19. This form
of truss is generally expensive to fabricate, because of the complex
intersections of the internal members.
The span/depth ratio for three-dimensional trusses is typically 16 to 20 for
spans over 50 m.

Triangular truss (with circular hollow sections) Triangular truss (with rectangular hollow
sections)

Figure 3.18 Three dimensional triangular trusses

Figure 3.19 Three-dimensional trusses supporting a roof
3.1.3 Cable stayed roofs
In a cable-stayed structure, tensile members (wire ropes or bars) are provided
to give intermediate support to members such as roof beams, thus allowing
those members to be reduced in size. The stays need to be supported by
columns or masts and those members need to be anchored or braced with other
stays. The bracing arrangement is usually very conspicuous and the aesthetics
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of the building must be considered carefully. An example of a cable stayed
building structure is shown in Figure 3.20.

Figure 3.20 Cable stayed roof beams of a storage facility
Alternative configurations for a flat roof building are shown in Figure 3.21.
Cable stayed configurations are most economical for spans between 30 m and
90 m.
As most of the structure is outside of the building, maintenance costs can be
high. Care must be taken in detailing the waterproofing where the stays pass
through the cladding.
1
2
3

1 2 3
Roof beam Bending
moment
+ ++ +
Compression
force
-- - +
Anchorage Tensile force ++ -- --

Figure 3.21 Comparison of the three main configurations for cable stayed
structures
The arrangement of the structure has a significant effect on the internal forces
and therefore the member sizes. The building arrangement should be developed
in collaboration with the structural engineer.
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3.1.4 Arches
Arches have a parabolic or circular form, as illustrated in Figure 3.22. Uniform
loading is carried by compression in the arch members; modest bending
moments are induced by non-uniform loading and point loads. The
compression forces must be resisted by horizontal forces in the foundation of
the building or by tie members between the foundations, as shown in
Figure 3.22.
Arch members can be formed by cold bending I-section beams.
The span/depth ratio for the arch members is typically between 60 and 75 for
spans up to 50 m.
An example of an arched roof building is shown in Figure 3.23.

Tie rod connecting supports

Both supports fixed

Figure 3.22 Methods of supporting arch members

Figure 3.23 Fire brigade station
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3.2 Connections between columns and beams
3.2.1 Moment-resisting connections
In a portal frame structure, the connections between beams and columns
transfer bending moments, as well as shear and axial forces, and they must be
designed as rigid connections.
A rigid connection typically has a full depth end plate. The roof beam is often
haunched locally and the column web is stiffened in order to resist the local
forces from the end of the roof beam. In general, stiffeners should be avoided if
possible, as they add significant fabrication cost.
1
2
3

1 Extended end plate
2 Extended end plate with stiffener
3 Haunched connection with
stiffener

Figure 3.24 Rigid bolted connections between roof beams and columns
Connections between trusses and columns are usually achieved by end plates
on the top and bottom chords, bolted to the face of the column. A typical
example is illustrated in Figure 3.25.
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Figure 3.25 Truss-column connection in a rigid framed structure

3.2.2 Nominally pinned connections
In a beam and column structure, the connections are nominally pinned and are
not assumed to transfer any moments between the connected members.
Externally applied actions, such as wind forces, must be resisted by bracing
systems. The bracing system may be steel bracing, or a stiff core. For single
storey structures, a system of steel bracing is almost universally adopted.
Pinned connections are relatively easy (and cheap) to fabricate. Typical
connections use partial depth end plates, fin plates or angle cleats; the members
are bolted together on site.
2

1
3

1 End plate connection
2 Angle cleat connection
3 Fin plate connection

Figure 3.26 Nominally pinned bolted connections
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4 BUILDING ENVELOPE
The steel structure of a single storey building generally comprises three
principal components: a primary construction (roof beams and columns, with
bracing); secondary steelwork, such as purlins and side rails that support the
roof panels and wall cladding; and the roof panels and cladding themselves.
The roof panels and cladding are generally referred to as the building envelope.
The building envelope provides a weather-tight enclosure to the building space.
In most cases, it also provides thermal insulation from the exterior
environment. The exterior appearance is often a major consideration in the
choice of the form of the envelope. The architect must therefore choose a
system that balances the demands of sustaining actions such as wind pressure
and (on flat or near-flat-roofs) imposed loads, of achieving thermal
performance that meets criteria for low energy use, and of producing an
appearance that meets the clients aspirations.
A single type of cladding system is often used for both roof and walls.
Detailing will be an important element of envelope design. Drainage systems
that do not block or leak are essential and the integration of openings (windows
and doors) with the cladding must not compromise thermal insulation.
A striking example of using coloured profiled sheeting is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Car repair workshop with steel roof and faade
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4.1 Cladding systems
The principal options for cladding systems are:
Profiled steel sheeting
- Single-skin
- Double-skin, built up on site from a liner panel, insulation and an outer
sheet
- Composite sandwich panels, pre-fabricated off site from an inner sheet,
and outer sheet and insulation.
Steel sheeting with insulation, covered by a waterproof membrane
commonly used on flat roofs.
Wooden panels/decking
Precast concrete slabs
Blockwork (for walls)
4.1.1 Profiled sheet cladding
The basic types of profiled steel sheeting system, used in roofs and walls, are
summarized in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Basic types of cladding system
System Insulated? Benefits
Built up
systems
yes
free choice for exterior profiled sheeting
high fire resistance
good sound proofing and good sound absorption
fast construction, with simple mechanical fasteners
Composite
panels
yes
fast construction
fully prefabricated
single
sheeting
no
cheap and fast construction
easy to dismantle
large freedom of form

4.1.2 Precast concrete slabs
For flat roofs with significant imposed loads, cellular concrete slabs provide
both a relatively easily installed building component and a thermal insulation
layer.
Precast concrete slabs (either hollow core or sandwich panel) provide the
necessary strength where there are heavy snow loads or a heavy roof is
required for safety reasons (e.g. resisting explosive pressures in accidental
situations). However, precast slabs are much heavier than profiled steel
cladding and the primary steel structure must be correspondingly stronger.
4.1.3 Blockwork
Blockwork construction is often used for the walls of single storey buildings,
either full height or partial height (with sheet cladding for the top of the wall).
The blockwork provides insulation and robustness; it may also be chosen for
appearance.
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4.2 Secondary steelwork
Secondary beams are used when the spacing of the main beams or trusses is too
large for the cladding or roof panels to span between them, or where the
cladding spans parallel to the main beams, which is usually the case with
pitched roofs.
For these secondary members, there is a choice between cold-formed and hot-
rolled steel sections. The profiles of typical cold formed sections are shown in
Figure 4.2. A cold formed section can be up to 30% lighter than a hot rolled
section.
1

2

3

4

C profile
max
= 10 m
140 mm < h < 300 mm
profile
max
= 12 m
140 mm < h < 300 mm
profile
max
= 16 m
250 mm < h < 420 mm
Z profile
max
= 12 m
120 mm < h < 400 mm

Figure 4.2 Typical cross sections of cold formed beams
Cold formed sections are manufactured from galvanized steel and this normally
provides sufficient protection against corrosion in the internal environment of
the building (an exception might be, for example, in aggressive environments
such as cattle sheds, where ammonia is present).
Secondary members of cold-formed sections are used at relatively low spacing,
typically between 1,6 m and 2,5 m. Very long secondary members can be
fabricated as small trusses.
4.3 Roofs
The choice between a flat roof and a pitched roof often depends on the
particular preferences in the local or national region. Some countries favour flat
roofs that are able to sustain significant imposed loading, other countries
favour pitched roofs that facilitate drainage and which are subject to only very
modest imposed loading. Clearly, the type of cladding that is appropriate
depends on those choices and circumstances.
4.3.1 Pitched roofs
The slope of a pitched roof also depends on local circumstances and custom. A
slope of at least 10% (6) is normally provided.
Where profiled sheeting is used, the profiles run down the slope, to facilitate
drainage. Insulation must therefore be below the outer sheeting (possibly as a
composite panel). The sheeting is supported on purlins spanning between the
1 - 31
roof beams and is fastened with screws or bolts. The lapped sheets do not
require a waterproof membrane; the panels are simply lapped, the higher above
the lower on the slope.
A typical arrangement of a pitched roof at the eaves is shown in Figure 4.3. It
is important that the drainage system is adequate for the run-off from the whole
roof.
1
1
3
2

1 Sandwich roof panel and sandwich faade panel
2 Roof slope > 6
3 Hot rolled or cold formed section

Figure 4.3 Insulated sloped roof
4.3.2 Flat roofs
Where the roof is flat, it must be fully watertight against standing water and it
is therefore usual to apply a waterproofing membrane on its top surface.
Where profiled steel sheeting is used, it is typically a deep profile, spanning
between the primary structural members. Insulation is then placed on top of the
sheeting, fixed with bolts or screws. The waterproof membrane is then applied
on top of the insulation. An example is shown in Figure 4.4.
Where flat roofs are provided, there is a risk of ponding. Water can accumulate
in the central area if the roof deflects significantly. If there is inadequate
drainage, water can also be retained by kerbs or other details around the edge
of the roof. It is vitally important to minimise the risk of ponding by
precambering the roof and providing adequate drainage.
1 - 32
1
2
3
7
6
5
4

1 Insulation
2 Liner panel
3 Exterior profiled sheeting
4 Screw

5 Insulation
6 Additional metal strip
7 Single roof sheeting

Figure 4.4 Insulated flat roof
1 - 33
5 FIRE SAFETY
Requirements for fire safety are defined by national regulations but there are
recognised international rules for assessing the fire resistance of steel
structures. The minimum level of safety for structural fire design aims to
provide an acceptable risk associated with the safety of building occupants, fire
fighters and people in the proximity of the building. Levels of safety can be
increased to protect the building contents, the building superstructure, heritage,
business continuity, corporate image of the occupants or owner, and the
environmental impact.
Requirements are usually expressed in relation to:
Spread of fire: combustibility of the materials expressed in relation to time
until flashover. It is classified as A1 (flashover not possible) down to E
(flashover in less than 2 minutes) and F (not tested).
Smoke intensity: materials are classified from class A2 to F depending on
the smoke produced on combustion.
Fire resistance: the period of time for which a structural component can
perform in a standardized fire test. The three criteria of load-bearing
capacity, integrity and insulation (commonly expressed as R, E and I) are
considered and the rating is expressed as R30, R60 etc. where the number
refers to the period in minutes.
In order to achieve the required fire safety level in a single storey building the
following items should be taken in account:
regulatory requirements
fire partitioning
fire spreading
escape routes
Single storey buildings often have very modest requirements for fire resistance
because occupants can escape quickly. The main requirement is often the
prevention of fire spread to adjacent properties.
To protect contents, especially in large production facilities and warehouses,
partitioning may be needed or, where that is not feasible, alternative measures
may be taken, such as the installation of a sprinkler system.
1 - 34
6 OVERHEAD CRANES
Certain industrial buildings require overhead cranes examples are printing
shops (for moving rolls of paper) and engineering shops (for moving heavy
equipment and components). An example is shown in Figure 6.1.
Most overhead cranes use single or twin beams spanning across the building
and with a hoist mounted on the beams. The crane beams are supported on
runway beams that run the length of the building. The crane serves the whole
floor by moving along the runway beams and by moving the hoist along the
crane beams (Figure 6.2).
Incorporating an overhead crane in a building always influences the design of
the building structure, even when the hoisting capacity is very modest. A key
design consideration is to limit the spread of the columns at the level of the
crane. For this reason, portal frames are not appropriate for heavy cranes as
limiting the column movement becomes uneconomic. Crane use also results in
horizontal forces from movement of the loads, so additional bracing is usually
provided.
A crane with a lifting capacity up to a safe working load of about 10 tons
(100 kN) can usually be carried on runway beams that are supported off the
columns that support the roof. For larger cranes, it is more economical to use
separate columns (or vertical trusses) to support the runway beams and avoid
excessive loads on the building structure.

Figure 6.1 Heavy crane in a large industrial building
1 - 35

2 1
3
7
6
4
5

13
8
9
10
12
11
min. 500 mm

1 Lifting
2 Hoist drive
3 Crane drive
4 Motor drive
5 Hoist

6 Crane beams
7 Wheel cabinet
8 Hoist
9 Crane beam
10 Runway beam
11 Console
12 Hook
13 Crane operation

Figure 6.2 Typical overhead crane with gantry and hoist
1 - 36
7 CONCLUSIONS
Steel is a versatile material that allows the architect and engineer to design any
type of structure, ranging from orthodox portal frames for industrial use to state
of the art buildings with architectural features, unorthodox shapes or any other
requirements the stakeholders might have.
Structural steel design is familiar and efficient, providing elegant cost effective
solutions. Structural steel can be combined with other materials to achieve the
desired look, properties or functionality.
Fabrication of a steel building is carried out in a workshop, ensuring a high
quality product and contributing to a low waste, sustainable solution.
Standardised details and forms of construction are available which allow fast
erection on site, with minimised disruption to the surroundings.
Steel has a very high resistance to weight ratio, resulting in a light, attractive
solution with minimal intrusion into the working area of the structure. The
transportation of highly prefabricated elements reduces deliveries to site, which
is especially important in congested areas, such as city centres. The structural
efficiency of steelwork results in lower loads being transferred to the
foundations, leading to further economy.
Long span buildings can easily be designed in steel, resulting in large clear
areas. This increases the functionality of the structure, offering flexibility of
building use. Steel buildings are adaptable and may be easily extended, making
refurbishment of the building a realistic solution for future use, instead of
demolition.
Steel has excellent sustainability credentials. Steel buildings can easily be
dismantled and reused. The steel can always be recycled without any loss of
strength, minimising the amount of raw material required.
Steels low weight, sustainability and versatility, make steel the optimum
choice for any type of building.
1 - 37
8 FURTHER READING
Best Practice in Steel Construction: Industrial Buildings, Guidance for
Architects, Designers and Constructors
RFCS project deliverable for Euro-Build
Available from the Steel Construction Institute, UK
It can be downloaded from www.eurobuild-in-steel.com


Part 2: Concept Design


2 - ii

2 - iii
FOREWORD
This publication is a second part of a design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
Part 3: Actions
The design guides have been prepared under the direction of Arcelor Mittal, Peiner
Trger and Corus. The technical content has been prepared by CTICM and SCI,
2 - iv

2 - v
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Hierarchy of design decisions 1
1.2 Architectural design 2
1.3 Choice of building type 6
1.4 Design requirements 9
1.5 Sustainability 12
2 CASE STUDIES ON SINGLE STOREY BUILDINGS 14
2.1 Manufacturing hall, Express Park, UK 14
2.2 Supermarket, Esch, Luxembourg 15
2.3 Motorway Service station, Winchester, UK 16
2.4 Airbus Industrie hanger, Toulouse, France 17
2.5 Industrial hall, Krimpen aan den Ijssel, Netherlands 17
2.6 Distribution Centre and office, Barendrecht, Netherlands 18
3 CONCEPT DESIGN OF PORTAL FRAMES 19
3.1 Pitched roof portal frame 20
3.2 Frame stability 22
3.3 Member stability 23
3.4 Preliminary Design 25
3.5 Connections 27
3.6 Other types of portal frame 29
4 CONCEPT DESIGN OF TRUSS BUILDINGS 35
4.1 Introduction 35
4.2 Truss members 36
4.3 Frame stability 38
4.4 Preliminary design 39
4.5 Rigid frame trusses 40
4.6 Connections 40
5 SIMPLE BEAM STRUCTURES 42
6 BUILT-UP COLUMNS 43
7 CLADDING 45
7.1 Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting 45
7.2 Double-skin system 45
7.3 Standing seam sheeting 47
7.4 Composite or sandwich panels 47
7.5 Fire design of walls 47
8 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF PORTAL FRAMES 49
8.1 Introduction 49
8.2 Estimation of member sizes 49
REFERENCES 52

2 - vi
SUMMARY
This publication presents information necessary to assist in the choice and use of steel
structures at the concept design stage in modern single storey buildings. The primary
sector of interest is industrial buildings, but the same information may also be used in
other sectors, such as commercial, retail and leisure. The information is presented in
terms of the design strategy, anatomy of building design and structural systems that are
relevant to the single storey buildings. Other parts in the guide cover loading, the
concept design of portal frames, the concept design of trusses and cladding.

2 - 1
1 INTRODUCTION
Single storey buildings use steel framed structures and metallic cladding of all
types. Large open spaces can be created, which are efficient, easy to maintain
and are adaptable as demand changes. Single storey buildings are a core
market for steel. However, the use of steel in this type of construction varies in
each European country.
Single storey buildings tend to be large enclosures, but may require space for
other uses, such as offices, handling and transportation, overhead cranes etc.
Therefore, many factors have to be addressed in their design.
Increasingly, architectural issues and visual impact have to be addressed and
many leading architects are involved in modern single storey buildings.
This section describes the common forms of single storey buildings that may
be designed and their range of application. Regional differences may exist
depending on practice, regulations and capabilities of the supply chain.
1.1 Hierarchy of design decisions
The development of a design solution for a single storey building, such as a
large enclosure or industrial facility is more dependent on the activity being
performed and future requirements for the space than other building types, such
as commercial and residential buildings. Although these building types are
primarily functional, they are commonly designed with strong architectural
involvement dictated by planning requirements and client branding.
The following overall design requirements should be considered in the concept
design stage of industrial buildings and large enclosures, depending on the
building form and use:
Space use, for example, specific requirements for handling of materials or
components in a production facility
Flexibility of space in current and future use
Speed of construction
Environmental performance, including services requirements and thermal
performance
Aesthetics and visual impact
Acoustic isolation, particularly in production facilities
Access and security
Sustainability considerations
Design life and maintenance requirements, including end of life issues.
To enable the concept design to be developed, it is necessary to review these
considerations based on the type of single storey building. For example, the
requirements for a distribution centre will be different to a manufacturing
2 - 2
facility. A review of the importance of various design issues is presented in
Table 1.1 for common building types.
Table 1.1 Important design factors for single storey buildings
Type of single
storey buildings
S
p
a
c
e

r
e
q
u
i
r
e
m
e
n
t
s

F
l
e
x
i
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

u
s
e

S
p
e
e
d

o
f

c
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n

A
c
c
e
s
s

a
n
d

S
e
c
u
r
i
t
y

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
a
l

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

A
e
s
t
h
e
t
i
c
s

a
n
d

v
i
s
u
a
l

i
m
p
a
c
t

A
c
o
u
s
t
i
c

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

D
e
s
i
g
n

l
i
f
e
,

m
a
i
n
t
e
n
a
n
c
e

a
n
d

r
e
-
u
s
e

High bay
warehouses

Manufacturing facility
Distribution centres
Retail superstores
Storage/cold storage
Office and light
manufacturing

Processing facility
Leisure centres
Sports halls
Exhibition halls
Aircraft hangars
Legend: No tick = Not important = important = very important
1.2 Architectural design
Modern single storey buildings using steel are both functional in use and are
designed to be architecturally attractive. Various examples are presented below
together with a brief description of the design concept. A variety of structural
solutions are possible, which are presented in Sections 2 and 3.
1.2.1 Building form
The basic structural form of a single storey building may be of various generic
types, as shown in Figure 1.1. The figure shows a conceptual cross-section
through each type of building, with notes on the structural concept, and typical
forces and moments due to gravity loads.
2 - 3
Simple beam

Portal frame

Truss

Portal truss

Figure 1.1 Structural concepts
The basic design concepts for each structural type are described below:
Simple roof beam, supported on columns.
The span will generally be modest, up to approximately 20 m. The roof beam
may be pre-cambered. Bracing will be required in the roof and all elevations, to
provide in-plane and longitudinal stability.
Portal frame
A portal frame is a rigid frame with moment resisting connections to provide
stability in-plane. A portal frame may be single bay or multi bay as shown in
Figure 1.2. The members are generally plain rolled sections, with the resistance
of the rafter enhanced locally with a haunch. In many cases, the frame will
have pinned bases.
Stability in the longitudinal direction is provided by a combination of bracing
in the roof, across one or both end bays, and vertical bracing in the elevations.
If vertical bracing cannot be provided in the elevations (due to industrial doors,
for example) stability is often provided by a rigid frame within the elevation.
Trusses
Truss buildings generally have roof bracing and vertical bracing in each
elevation to provide stability in both orthogonal directions, as in Figure 1.4.
The trusses may take a variety of forms, with shallow or steep external roof
slopes.
2 - 4
A truss building may also be designed as rigid in-plane, although it is more
common to provide bracing to stabilise the frame.
Other forms of construction
Builtup columns (two plain beams, connected to form a compound column)
are often used to support heavy loads, such as cranes. These may be used in
portalised structures, but are often used with rigid bases, and with bracing to
provide in-plane stability.
External or suspended support structures may be used, as illustrated in
Figure 1.6, but are relatively uncommon.

Figure 1.2 Multi bay portal frame structure

2 - 5

Figure 1.3 Use of curved cellular beams in a portal frame

Figure 1.4 Roof trusses and built-up columns

2 - 6

Figure 1.5 Curved cellular beams used in a leisure centre

Figure 1.6 External structure supporting a single storey building
1.3 Choice of building type
Portal frames are considered to be a highly cost-effective way to provide a
single storey enclosure. Their efficiency depends on the method of analysis,
and the assumptions that are made regarding the restraint to the structural
members, as shown in Table 1.2. The assumptions about member stability may
vary between countries.
2 - 7
Table 1.2 Efficient portal frame design
Most Efficient Less Efficient
Analysis using elastic-plastic software Elastic analysis
Cladding considered to restrain the flange of
the purlins and side rails
Purlins and side rails unrestrained
Purlins and side rails used to restrain both
flanges of the hot-rolled steelwork
The inside flange of the hot rolled steelwork is
unrestrained
Nominal base stiffness utilised Nominal base stiffness ignored

The reasons for choosing simple beam structures, portal frames or trusses are
shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Comparison of basic structural forms for single storey buildings
Simple beam Portal frame Truss
Advantages
Simple design Long span Very long spans possible
Designed to be stable
in-plane
Heavy loads may be carried
Member sizes and haunches
may be optimised for
efficiency
Modest deflection
Disadvantages
Relatively short span Software required for efficient
design
Generally more expensive
fabrication
Bracing needed for in-plane
stability
Limited to relatively light
vertical loading, and modest
cranes to avoid excessive
deflections
Generally bracing is used for
in-plane stability
No economy due to continuity

1.3.1 Cladding types
The main types of roofing and wall cladding used in single storey buildings are
described as follows:
Roofing
Built-up or double layer roofing spanning between secondary members
such as purlins.
Composite panels (also known as sandwich panels) spanning between
purlins.
Deep decking spanning between main frames, supporting insulation, with
an external metal sheet or waterproof membrane.
Walls
Sheeting, orientated vertically and supported on side rails.
Sheeting or structural liner trays spanning horizontally between columns.
Composite or sandwich panels spanning horizontally between columns,
eliminating side rails.
Metallic cassette panels supported by side rails.
2 - 8
Different forms of cladding may be used together for visual effect in the same
faade. Examples are illustrated in Figure 1.7, Figure 1.8 and Figure 1.9.
Brickwork is often used as a dado wall below the level of the windows for
impact resistance, as shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.7 Horizontal spanning sheeting

Figure 1.8 Large windows and use of composite panels with dado brick
wall

2 - 9

Figure 1.9 Horizontal composite panels and ribbon windows
1.4 Design requirements
Design requirements for single-span buildings are presented as follows:
1.4.1 Actions
Permanent actions
Permanent actions are the self weight of the structure, secondary steelwork and
cladding. These may be calculated from EN 1991-1-1.
Typical weights of materials used in roofing are given in Table 1.4.
If a roof only carries normal imposed roof loads (i.e. no suspended machinery
or similar) the self weight of a steel frame is typically 0,2 to 0,4 kN/m
2
when
expressed over the plan area of the roof.
2 - 10
Table 1.4 Typical weights of roofing materials
Material Weight (kN/m
2
)
Steel roof sheeting (single skin) 0,07 0,12
Aluminium roof sheeting (single skin) 0,04
Insulation (boards, per 25 mm thickness) 0,07
Insulation (glass fibre, per 100 mm thickness) 0,01
Liner trays (0,4 mm 0,7 mm thickness) 0,04 0,07
Composite panels (40 mm 100 mm thickness) 0,1 0,15
Steel purlins (distributed over the roof area) 0,03
Steel decking 0,2
Three layers of felt with chippings 0,29
Slates 0,4 0,5
Tiling (clay or plain concrete tiles ) 0,6 0,8
Tiling (concrete interlocking) 0,5 0,8
Timber battens 0,1

Variable actions
Variable actions should be determined from the following Eurocode parts:
EN 1991-1-1 for imposed roof loads
EN 1991-1-3 for snow loads
EN 1991-1-4 for wind actions
EN 1991-1-1 recommends a uniform load of 0,4 kN/m
2
for roofs not accessible
except for normal maintenance and repair (category H). A point load of 1,0 kN
is also recommended, but this will only affect the design of the sheeting and
not the main structural elements.
EN 1991-1-3 includes several possible load cases due to snow, including
uniform snow and drifted snow, which typically occurs in valleys, behind
parapets etc. There is also the possibility of exceptional snow loads.
The value of the snow load depends on the buildings location and height
above sea level.
EN 1991-1-4 is used to determine wind actions, which depend on altitude,
distance from the sea and the surrounding terrain.
The determination of loads is covered in detail in a separate chapter of this
guidance.
Loading due to services will vary greatly, depending on the use of the building.
A typical service loading may be between 0,1 and 0,25 kN/m
2
as measured on
plan, depending on the use of the building. If air handling units or other
significant equipment loading is to be supported, the service load should be
calculated accurately.
1.4.2 Temperature effects
In theory, steel frames expand and contract with changes in temperature. Often,
the temperature change of the steelwork itself is much lower than any change
2 - 11
in the external temperature, because it is protected. It is generally accepted that
the movement available when using bolts in clearance holes is sufficient to
absorb any movement due to temperature.
It is recommended that expansion joints are avoided if possible, since these are
expensive and can be difficult to detail correctly to maintain a weather-tight
external envelope. In preference to providing expansion joints, the frame may
be analysed including the design effects of a temperature change. The
temperature actions may be determined from EN 1991-1-5, and combinations
of actions verified in accordance with EN 1990. In most cases, the members
will be found to be adequate.
Common practice for industrial buildings in Northern Europe, in the absence of
calculations, is that expansion joints do not need to be provided unless the
length of the building exceeds 150m. In warmer climates, common practice is
to limit the length to around 80m. Although it is good practice to position the
vertical bracing mid-way along the length of the structure, to allow free
expansion at both ends of the structure, this is not always possible or desirable.
Many orthodox industrial structures have bracing at each end, or at intervals
along the length of the structure, with no expansion joints, and perform
perfectly well.
1.4.3 Thermal performance and air-tightness
The thermal performance of single storey buildings and enclosures is
increasingly important because of their large surface area. Thermal
performance also includes prevention of excessive heat loss due to air
infiltration, known as air-tightness.
There is a strong inter-relationship between the types of cladding and thermal
performance. Modern steel cladding systems, such as composite panels, can
achieve U-values of less than 0,2 W/(m
2
K).
Air-tightness is assessed based on full-scale tests after completion of the
structure in which the internal volume is pressurised - generally to 50 Pa (this
may vary in different countries). The volume of air that is lost is measured and
must be less than a given figure typically 10m
3
/m
2
/hour.
1.4.4 Fire resistance
Fire resistance requirements are dependent on a wide range of issues, such as
the combustible contents of the building, effective means of escape and
occupation density (e.g. for public spaces). Generally, in single storey
buildings, the means of escape is good and most enclosures are designed for
fire resistance periods of 30 minutes or less. An exception may be office space
attached to these buildings.
National regulations are often more concerned to limit fire spread to adjacent
structures, rather than the performance of the particular structure, especially if
the structure is an industrial building. The determining factor is often the
distance to the adjacent boundary. If such regulations apply, the usual solution
is to ensure the integrity of the elevation that is adjacent to the boundary. This
is commonly ensured by providing cladding with fire resistance, and ensuring
that the primary supporting structure remains stable by protecting the
2 - 12
steelwork on that elevation, and designing the elevation steelwork to resist the
forces applied by any other parts of the structure that have collapsed.
For many building types, such as exhibition halls, fire engineering analysis
may be carried to out demonstrate that active protection measures are effective
in reducing fire temperatures to a level where the structure is able to resist the
applied loads in the fire scenario without additional fire protection.
1.5 Sustainability
Sustainable construction must address three goals:
Environmental criteria
Economic criteria
Social criteria
These three criteria are met by construction in steel:
Environmental criteria
Steel is one of the most recovered and recycled materials. Some 84% is
recycled with no loss of strength or quality, and 10% reused. Before
demolishing a structure, extending a buildings life is generally more
beneficial. This is facilitated by steel construction, since large column-free
spaces give flexibility for change in use. Advances in the manufacturing of raw
materials means that less water and energy is used in production, and allows
for significant reductions in noise, particle and CO
2
emissions.
Economic criteria
Steel construction brings together the various elements of a structure in an
integrated design. The materials are manufactured, fabricated and constructed
using efficient production processes. The use of material is highly optimised
and waste virtually eliminated. The structures themselves are used for all
aspects of modern life, including logistics, retail, commercial, and
manufacturing, providing the infrastructure on which society depends. Steel
construction provides low investment costs, optimum operational costs and
outstanding flexibility of building use, with high quality, functionality,
aesthetics and fast construction times.
Social criteria
The high proportion of offsite fabrication in steel buildings means that working
conditions are safer, controlled and protected from the weather. A fixed
location for employees helps to develop communities, family life and the skills.
Steel releases no harmful substances into the environment, and steel buildings
provide a robust, safe solution.
Single storey structures
The design of low-rise buildings is increasingly dependent on aspects of
sustainability defined by criteria such as:
Efficient use of materials and responsible sourcing of materials
Elimination of waste in manufacturing and in construction processes
2 - 13
Energy efficiency in building operation, including improved air-tightness
Measures to reduce water consumption
Improvement in indoor comfort
Overall management and planning criteria, such as public transport
connections, aesthetics or preservation of ecological value.
Steel framed buildings can be designed to satisfy all these criteria. Some of the
recognised sustainability benefits of steel are:
Steel structures are robust, with a long life. Properly detailed and
maintained, steel structures can be used indefinitely
10% of structural steel sections are re-used
[1]

Approximately 95% of structural steel sections are recycled
Steel products can potentially be dismantled and reused, particularly
modular components or steel frames
Steel structures are lightweight, requiring smaller foundations than other
materials
Steel is manufactured efficiently in factory controlled processes
All waste is recycled in manufacture and no steel waste is produced on site
Construction in steel maximises the opportunity and ease of extending
buildings and change of use
High levels of thermal insulation can be provided in the building envelope
Prefabricated construction systems are rapidly installed and are much safer
in terms of the construction processes.
Different sustainability assessment measures exist in various European
countries
[2]
.
2 - 14
2 CASE STUDIES ON SINGLE STOREY
BUILDINGS
The following case studies illustrate the use of steel in single storey buildings,
such as show rooms, production facilities, supermarkets and similar buildings.
2.1 Manufacturing hall, Express Park, UK

Figure 2.1 Portal frame during construction
The portal frame shows in Figure 2.1 forms part of a new production facility
for Homeseeker Homes, who manufacture portable homes for residential parks.
The project comprises a 150 m long production hall, an adjacent office
building and a separate materials storage building.
The production hall is a duo-pitch portal frame with a 35 m clear span and a
height of 9 m to the underside of the haunch. The production hall has to
accommodate four overhead gantry cranes, each with a safe working load of
5 t. Two cranes may be used in tandem, and the forces arising from this
loading case had to be carefully considered. The longitudinal surge from the
cranes is accommodated by bracing in the elevations, which also provides
longitudinal stability. There are no expansion joints in the production hall
the bracing was designed to resist any loads from thermal expansion.
To control the lateral deflection at the level of the crane rail, the frames, at 6 m
centres, are rather stiffer than an equivalent structure without cranes. The
columns are 762 mm deep and the rafters 533 mm deep.
The gable frames are portal frames instead of a braced gable frame constructed
from columns and simply-supported rafters, to reduce the differential
deflection between the end frame and the penultimate frame.
2 - 15
The facility is relatively close to the site boundary, which meant that the
boundary elevations had to have special consideration. A fire load case was
analysed and the column bases designed to resist the overturning moment from
grossly deformed rafters. The cladding on the boundary elevations was also
specified to prevent fire spread.
The 380 t of steelwork in the project was erected in six weeks.
2.2 Supermarket, Esch, Luxembourg

Figure 2.2 Supermarket in Esch , Luxembourg using curved cellular beams
Curved 20 m span cellular beams were used to provide an exposed steel
structure in a supermarket in Esch, Luxembourg, as shown in Figure 2.2. The
beams used HEB 450 sections that were cut and re-welded to form beams with
400 mm diameter openings. The curved cellular frames were placed 7,5 m
apart and the columns were also 7,5 m high and are illustrated in Figure 2.3.
The structure was designed using fire engineering principles to achieve an
equivalent 90 minutes fire resistance without additional fire protection.
2 - 16

Figure 2.3 Portal frame structure using curved cellular beams
2.3 Motorway Service station, Winchester, UK
Cellular beams provide an attractive solution for long span public spaces, as in
this motorway service restaurant in Winchester, UK, shown in Figure 2.4. The
600 mm deep doubly curved cellular beams spanned 18 m onto 1,2 m deep
cellular primary beams that spanned 20 m between H section columns. The
cellular beams also provided for service distribution above the kitchen area.

Figure 2.4 Double curved cellular beams and primary beams
2 - 17
2.4 Airbus Industrie hanger, Toulouse, France
The Airbus production hall in Toulouse covers 200000 m
2
of floor space and is
45 m high with a span of 117 m. It consists of 8 m deep lattice trusses
composed of H sections. Compound column sections provide stability to the
roof structure. The building is shown in Figure 2.5 during construction. Sliding
doors create a 117 m 32 m opening in the end of the building. Two parallel
rolling cranes are installed each of 50 m span and 20 tonnes lifting capacity.

Figure 2.5 View of Airbus Industrie hanger during construction
2.5 Industrial hall, Krimpen aan den Ijssel,
Netherlands
This production hall is 85 m in length, 40 m wide and 24 m high with full
height doors at the end of the building, as shown in Figure 2.6. The roof
structure consists of an inclined truss. Because of the lack of bracing in the end
walls, the structure was designed to be stabilised through the columns assisted
by in-plane bracing in the roof and side walls.

Figure 2.6 View of doors being lifted into place in Hollandias building in
Krimpen aan den Ijssel
2 - 18
2.6 Distribution Centre and office, Barendrecht,
Netherlands
This 26000 m
2
distribution centre for a major supermarket in the Netherlands
comprises a conventional steel structure for the distribution area and a two
storey high office area that is suspended above an access road, as shown in
Figure 2.7. This 42 m long office building comprises a 12 m cantilever
supported by a two storey high internal steel structure with diagonal bracing.
The structure uses H section beams and columns with tubular bracing.
Both the warehouse and office buildings are provided with sprinklers to reduce
the risk of fire, and the steelwork has intumescent coating so that it can be
exposed internally. The warehouse internal temperature is 2C and the
steelwork of the office is thermally isolated from the warehouse part.

Figure 2.7 Distribution centre, Barendrecht, NL showing the braced cantilever
office structure
2 - 19
3 CONCEPT DESIGN OF PORTAL FRAMES
Steel portal frames are widely used because they combine structural efficiency
with functional form. Various configurations of portal frame can be designed
using the same structural concept as shown in Figure 3.1.
1 2
4 3
5
6
1 Duo-pitch portal frame
2 Curved portal frame (cellular beam)
3 Portal with internal offices
4 Portal with crane
5 Two-span portal frame
6 Portal with external offices

Figure 3.1 Various types of portal frame
2 - 20
3.1 Pitched roof portal frame
A single-span symmetrical portal frame (as illustrated in Figure 3.2) is
typically of the following proportions:
A span between 15 m and 50 m (25 m to 35 m is the most efficient)
An eaves height (base to rafter centreline) of between 5 and 10 m (7,5 m is
commonly adopted). The eaves height is determined by the specified clear
height between the top of the floor and the underside of the haunch.
A roof pitch between 5 and 10 (6 is commonly adopted)
A frame spacing between 5 m and 8 m (the greater frame spacings being
used in longer span portal frames)
Members are I sections rather than H sections, because they must carry
significant bending moments and provide in-plane stiffness.
Sections are generally S235 or S275. Because deflections may be critical,
the use of higher strength steel is rarely justified.
Haunches are provided in the rafters at the eaves to enhance the bending
resistance of the rafter and to facilitate a bolted connection to the column.
Small haunches are provided at the apex, to facilitate the bolted connection
1
3
4
5
6
7
2

1 Eaves
2 Roof pitch
3 Apex
4 Rafter
5 Eaves haunch
6 Apex haunch
7 Column

Figure 3.2 Single-span symmetric portal frame
The eaves haunch is typically cut from the same size rolled section as the
rafter, or one slightly larger, and is welded to the underside of the rafter. The
length of the eaves haunch is generally 10% of the span. The length of the
haunch means that the hogging bending moment at the sharp end of the
haunch is approximately the same as the maximum sagging bending moment
towards the apex, as shown in Figure 3.3.
2 - 21
3
h
h
1
2

1 Moment at the sharp end of the haunch
2 Maximum sagging moment
3 Haunch length

Figure 3.3 Rafter bending moment and haunch length
The final frames of a portal frame are generally called gable frames. Gable
frames may be identical to the internal frames, even though they experience
lighter loads. If future extension to the building is envisaged, portal frames are
commonly used as the gable frames, to reduce the impact of the structural
works. A typical gable frame is shown in Figure 3.4.
4
3
5
1
2

1 Rafter
2 Column
3 Personnel door
4 Roller shutter door
5 Dado wall (brickwork)

Figure 3.4 Typical details of an end gable of a portal frame building
2 - 22
Alternatively, gable frames can be constructed from columns and short rafters,
simply supported between the columns as shown in Figure 3.5. In this case,
gable bracing is required, as shown in the figure.

Figure 3.5 Gable frame (not a portal frame)
3.2 Frame stability
In-plane stability is provided by frame continuity. In the longitudinal direction,
stability is provided by vertical bracing in the elevations. The vertical bracing
may be at both ends of the building, or in one bay only. Each frame is
connected to the vertical bracing by a hot-rolled member at eaves level.
A typical bracing arrangement is shown in Figure 3.6.
1
2
2
3

1 Vertical bracing in the gable
2 Vertical bracing in the walls
3 Roof bracing

Figure 3.6 Typical bracing in a portal frame
The gable columns span between the base and the rafter, where the reaction is
carried by bracing in the plane of the roof, back to the eaves level, and to the
foundations by the vertical bracing.
2 - 23
If diagonal bracing in the elevations cannot be accommodated, longitudinal
stability can be provided by a rigid frame on the elevation, as shown in
Figure 3.7.
1
2

1 Eaves strut
2 Rigid frame

Figure 3.7 Rigid frame alternative to vertical bracing
3.3 Member stability
Member stability should be checked using expressions 6.61 and 6.62 of
EN 1993-1-1. For economic design, restraints to the rafter and column must be
considered. The purlins and side rails are considered adequate to restrain the
flange that they are attached to, but unless special measures are taken, the
purlins and side rails do not restrain the inside flange. Restraint to the inside
flange is commonly provided by bracing from the purlins and side rails, as
shown in Figure 3.8. The bracing is usually formed of thin metal straps,
designed to act in tension, or from angles designed in compression if bracing is
only possible from one side.
If the bracing shown in Figure 3.8 is not permitted by national regulations,
restraint may be provided by a system of hot-rolled members.
This form of bracing will be required whenever the inside flange is in
compression. This situation arises:
On the inside of the column and the inside of the rafter in the haunch
region, in the gravity load combination
Towards the apex of the rafter, in the uplift combination.
2 - 24

1
2

1 Restraint to inside flange
2 Purlin or side rail

Figure 3.8 Typical bracing to the inside flange
The arrangement of restraints to the inside flange is generally similar to that
shown in Figure 3.9. In some instances, it may not be possible to restrain the
inside of the column flange. In these circumstances, a larger column section
may have to be chosen, which is stable between the underside of the haunch
and the base.
1
1

1 Restraint to inside flange of rafter and column

Figure 3.9 General arrangement of restraints to the inside flange
In all cases, the junction of the inside face of the column and the underside of
the haunch, as shown in Figure 3.10, must be restrained. The restraint may be
of the form shown in Figure 3.8, or may be by a hot-rolled member provided
for that purpose.
1

1 Restraint position

Figure 3.10 Restraint at the haunch / column junction
2 - 25
3.4 Preliminary Design
3.4.1 Main frames
Although efficient portal frame analysis and design will use bespoke software,
preliminary design is simple. In most circumstances, a reasonable estimate of
the maximum bending moments will be obtained by considering only the
vertical loads. Combinations of actions including wind actions must be
validated in the final design, and may be important for preliminary design if the
wind actions are onerous (e.g. near the sea, or if the portal frame is tall).
Based on the vertical load alone, charts that provide initial sizes are given in
Section 8.
As an alternative to the sizes given in Section 8, the bending moment at the
eaves and apex can be calculated based on an elastic analysis.
L
S
M
I
I
I
I
f
h
M
W
WL
32
E
C
R
R
C
2
A
/ m

Figure 3.11 Details of a pinned base portal frame
For the pinned base frame shown in Figure 3.11, the bending moment at the
eaves, M
E
and at the apex M
A
can be calculated as follows:

N
m wL
M
16
5 3
2
E
and
E
2
A
8
M m
wL
M
where:
N = B + mC
C = 1 + 2m
B = 2(k + 1) + m
m = 1 +
=
h
f

s
h
I
I
k
C
R

2 - 26
It may be assumed for preliminary design that I
C
= 1,5 I
R

Given the bending moments around the frame, the rafter should be chosen so
that the moment resistance exceeds both the moment at the sharp end of the
haunch and the maximum sagging moment (a little larger than the moment at
the apex).
3.4.2 Gable columns
Gable columns are generally designed as simply supported from base to rafter.
The primary loads are the wind actions. The internal pressure or suction will
contribute to the loading on the gable column. Often, the critical design case
will be pressure inside the building and suction on the outside, when the inside
flange of the gable post is unrestrained. If national regulations allow, a restraint
to the inside flange may be provided from a sheeting rail to increase the
buckling resistance.
3.4.3 Bracing
At the preliminary design stage, it is convenient to calculate the overall
longitudinal load on the structure. This shear must be the horizontal component
of the load carried by the vertical bracing. The most heavily loaded roof
bracing will be the member nearest the eaves. The longitudinal eaves member
carries the load from the roof bracing to the vertical bracing. Bracing members
may be hollow sections, angle sections or flat steel. Flat steel is assumed to
resist tension forces only.
2 - 27
3.5 Connections
3.5.1 Eaves connection
A typical eaves connection is shown in Figure 3.12. In almost all cases a
compression stiffener in the column (as shown, at the bottom of the haunch)
will be required. Other stiffeners may be required to increase the bending
resistance of the column flange, adjacent to the tension bolts, and to increase
the shear resistance of the column web panel. The haunch is generally
fabricated from a similar size beam to the rafter (or larger), or fabricated from
equivalent plate. Typically, the bolts may be M24 8.8 and the end plate 25 mm
thick S275.
2
1

1 Haunch
2 Compression stiffener

Figure 3.12 Typical eaves connection
3.5.2 Apex connection
A typical apex connection is shown in Figure 3.13. The apex connection
primarily serves to increase the depth of the member to make a satisfactory
bolted connection. The apex haunch is usually fabricated from the same
member as the rafter, or from equivalent plate. Typically, the bolts may be
M24 8.8 and the end plate 25 mm thick S275.

Figure 3.13 Typical apex connection
2 - 28
3.5.3 Bases
A typical pinned base is shown in Figure 3.14. The base plate is generally at
least as thick as the flange of the column. Most authorities accept that even
with four holding down bolts as shown in Figure 3.14, the base is still pinned.
Alternatively, the base may have only two holding down bolts, on the axis of
the column, but this may make the erection of the steelwork more difficult.
Columns are normally located on a number of steel packs, to ensure the
steelwork is at the correct level, and the gap between the foundation and the
steelwork filled with cementicious grout. Large bases should be provided with
an air hole to facilitate complete grouting.
Holding down bolts are generally embedded in the foundation, with some
freedom of lateral movement (tubes or cones) so that the steelwork can be
aligned precisely. The holes in the base plate are usually 6 mm larger than the
bolt diameter, to facilitate some lateral alignment.
~
5
4
3
2
1

1 Holding down bolts
2 Base plate
3 Grout
4 Tube (or cone)
5 Anchor plate

Figure 3.14 Typical portal base detail
3.5.4 Bracing Connections
Forces in portal frame bracing are generally modest. Typical connections are
shown in Figure 3.15. Gusset plates should be supported on two edges, if
possible.
2 - 29

Figure 3.15 Typical bracing connections
3.6 Other types of portal frame
The features of an orthodox portal frame were described in Sections 3.1 to 3.5.
The basic structural concept can be modified in a number of ways to produce a
cost effective solution, as illustrated below.
3.6.1 Portal frame with a mezzanine floor
1

1 Mezzanine

Figure 3.16 Portal frame with internal mezzanine floor
Office accommodation is often provided within a portal frame structure using a
mezzanine floor (as illustrated in Figure 3.17). The mezzanine floor may be
partial or full width. It can be designed to stabilise the frame. Often, the
internal floor of the office space requires fire protection.
2 - 30

Figure 3.17 Portal frame with intermediate floor
3.6.2 Portal frame with external mezzanine
1

1 Mezzanine

Figure 3.18 Portal frame with external mezzanine
Offices may be located externally to the portal frame which creates an
asymmetric portal structure (as illustrated in Figure 3.18). The main advantage
of this framework is that large columns and haunches do not obstruct the office
space. Generally, this additional structure depends on the portal frame for its
stability (the members often have nominally pinned connections to the main
frame) and the members can be relatively lightweight.
2 - 31
3.6.3 Portal frame with overhead crane

Figure 3.19 Crane portal frame with column brackets
For cranes of relatively low capacity (up to say 20 tonnes), portal frames can
be used to support the crane beam and rail, as illustrated in Figure 3.19. The
outward movement (spread) of the frame at the level of the crane rail is likely
to be of critical importance. Use of a horizontal tie member or fixed column
bases may be necessary to reduce this spread.
For larger cranes, a structure with a roof truss will be appropriate (see
Section 4) as the column spread is minimised. For very heavy loads, built-up
columns are appropriate, as introduced in Section 6. Detail design guides cover
both the design of trusses
[3]
and the design of built-up columns
[4]
.
3.6.4 Tied portal frame
1
2

1 Tie
2 Hangers (required for longer spans)

Figure 3.20 Tied portal frame
In a tied portal frame, as illustrated in Figure 3.20, the spread of the eaves and
the bending moments in the frame are greatly reduced. Large compression
forces will develop in the rafters, which reduce the stability of the members.
Second-order software must be used for the design of tied portals.
2 - 32
3.6.5 Mansard or curved portal frames

Figure 3.21 Mansard portal frame
A mansard portal frame consists of a series of rafters and haunches, as
illustrated in Figure 3.21, which creates a pseudo-curved frame. The
connections between the members may also have small haunches to facilitate
the bolted connections.
Curved rafter portals as illustrated in Figure 3.22 are often used for
architectural applications. The rafter can be curved to a radius by cold bending.
For spans greater than approximately 18 m, splices may be required in the
rafter because of limitations of transport.
Alternatively, a curved external roof must be produced by varying the lengths
of purlin brackets supported on a rafter fabricated as a series of straight
elements, as shown in Figure 3.23.

Figure 3.22 Curved beams used in a portal frame

2 - 33

Figure 3.23 Quasi- curved portal frame
3.6.6 Multi bay portal frame
Multi-bay portal frames may be designed by using intermediate columns, as
shown in Figure 3.24. If the number of internal columns must be minimised it
is possible to remove every second internal column, or to only leave one
internal column every third frame. Where the internal column is removed, a
deep beam (often known as a valley beam) is designed to span between the
remaining columns. Continuity of the rafters is achieved by using a haunch
connection to the valley beam, as shown in Figure 3.25.

Figure 3.24 Multi-bay portal frame

2 - 34
1
2

1 Valley beam
2 Rafter

Figure 3.25 Connection to valley beam

2 - 35
4 CONCEPT DESIGN OF TRUSS BUILDINGS
4.1 Introduction
Many forms of truss are possible. Some of the common types of truss for single
storey buildings are shown in Figure 4.1.
Trusses are used for long spans, and particularly when significant loads must
be carried by the roof structure, as the vertical deflection can be controlled by
varying the member sizes.
For industrial buildings, the W-truss N-truss and duo-pitch truss are common.
The Fink truss is generally used for smaller spans. Comparing the W-truss and
N-truss:
The W-truss has more open space between the internal members
The internal members of the W-truss may be larger, because a long
diagonal member must carry compression the compression members in
the N-truss are short.
1 2
3 4
5

1 W-truss
2 N-truss
3 Duo-pitch truss
4 Fink truss
5 Curved truss

Figure 4.1 Various forms of lattice truss used in industrial buildings
2 - 36
4.2 Truss members
Unless there are special architectural requirements, truss members are chosen
to produce a simple connection between the chords and the internal members.
Common combinations as shown in Figure 4.2 are:
Tees used as chords, with angles used as web members. The angles may be
welded or bolted to the stem of the Tee.
Double angle members as chords, and single (or double) angles as internal
members. The connections are made with a gusset plate welded between
the angles forming the chords.
Rolled sections as chords, with the web in the plane of the truss. The
internal members are usually angle members, connected via a gusset plate
welded to the chord.
Rolled sections as chords, but with the web perpendicular to the plane of
the truss. The connections to the chord members may be via gusset plates
welded to the web, although the connections will need careful detailing.
A simple, effective alternative is to choose chords that have the same
overall depth, and connect the internal members to the outside of both
flanges, generally by welding.
For heavily loaded trusses, rolled I or H sections, or channel sections may
be used as the internal members. In such a large truss, developing economic
connections will be important and both the members and internal members
should be chosen with this in mind.
The detailed design of trusses is covered in Single-storey steel buildings.
Part5: Detailed design of trusses
[3]
.
2 - 37
1
2

3
4

3

3

1 Tee section
2 Angle members
3 Gusset plate
4 Double angle chord

Figure 4.2 Typical truss members
A truss fabricated from rolled sections is illustrated in Figure 4.3.
2 - 38

Figure 4.3 Truss fabricated from rolled sections
4.3 Frame stability
In most cases, frame stability is provided by bracing in both orthogonal
directions, and the truss is simply pinned to the supporting columns. To realise
a pinned connection, one of the chord members is redundant, as shown in
Figure 4.4, and the connection of that redundant member to the column is
usually allowed to slip in the direction of the axis of the chord.

1

1 Redundant member
Figure 4.4 Redundant member in a simply supported truss
In the longitudinal direction, stability is usually provided by vertical bracing.
2 - 39
4.4 Preliminary design
At the preliminary design stage, the following process is recommended:
1. Determine the loading on the truss. See Section 1.4.1. At the preliminary
design stage it is sufficient to convert all loads, including self weight, to
point loads applied at the nodes and assume that the entire truss is
pin-jointed. This assumption is also generally adequate for final design. As
an alternative, the roof loads may be applied at the purlin positions and the
chords assumed to be continuous over pinned internal members, but the
precision is rarely justified.
2. Determine a truss depth and layout of internal members. A typical
span : depth ratio is approximately 20 for both W- and N-trusses. Internal
members are most efficient between 40 and 50.
3. Determine the forces in the chords and internal members, assuming the
truss is pin-jointed throughout. This can be done using software, or by
simple manual methods of resolving forces at joints or by taking moments
about a pin, as shown in Figure 4.5.
d
d
d
p
p
p
V
V
V
V
L
L
L
L
x
x

Resolving forces at joints
V
L
A B C
D
C
1
p

Taking moments around node D determines the force CB

Figure 4.5 Calculation of forces in a pin-jointed truss
A very simple approach is to calculate the maximum bending moment in
the truss assuming that it behaves as a beam, and divide this moment by the
distance between chords to determine the axial force in the chord.
4. Select the compression chord member. The buckling resistance is based on
the length between node points for in-plane buckling. The out-of-plane
2 - 40
buckling is based on the length between out-of-plane restraints usually the
roof purlins or other members.
5. Select the tension chord member. The critical design case is likely to be an
uplift case, when the lower chord is in compression. The out-of-plane
buckling is likely to be critical. It is common to provide a dedicated system
of bracing at the level of the bottom chord, to provide restraint in the
reversal load combination. This additional bracing is not provided at every
node of the truss, but as required to balance the tension resistance with the
compression resistance.
6. Choose internal members, whilst ensuring the connections are not
complicated.
7. Check truss deflections.
4.5 Rigid frame trusses
The structures described in Sections 4.1 and 4.4 are stabilised by bracing in
each orthogonal direction. It is possible to stabilise the frames in-plane, by
making the truss continuous with the columns. Both chords are fixed to the
columns (i.e. no slip connection). The connections within the truss and to the
columns may be pinned. The frame becomes similar to a portal frame. For this
form of frame, the analysis is generally completed using software. Particular
attention must be paid to column design, because the in-plane buckling length
is usually much larger than the physical length of the member.
4.6 Connections
Truss connections are either bolted or welded to the chord members, either
directly to the chord, or via gusset plates, as shown in Figure 4.6.
3

Figure 4.6 Truss connections
Trusses will generally be prefabricated in the workshop, and splices maybe
required on site. In addition to splices in the chords, the internal member at the
splice position will also require a site connection. Splices may be detailed with
cover plates, or as end plate type connections, as shown in Figure 4.7.
2 - 41

Figure 4.7 Splice details
Ordinary bolts (non-preloaded) in clearance holes may give rise to some slip in
the connection. If this slip is accumulated over a large number of connections,
the defection of the truss may be larger than calculated. If deflection is a
critical consideration, then friction grip assemblies or welded details should be
used.
2 - 42
5 SIMPLE BEAM STRUCTURES
For modest spans, (up to approximately 20 m) a simple beam and column
structure can be provided, as illustrated in Figure 5.1. The roof beam is a
single rolled section, with nominally pinned connections to the columns. The
roof beam may be straight, precambered, perforated or curved. The roof may
be horizontal, or more commonly with a modest slope to assist drainage.
Ponding of water on the roof should be avoided with a slope, or precambered
beam.

Figure 5.1 Simple beam and column frame
Frame stability for this form of structure is provided by bracing in each
orthogonal direction. The beam is designed as simply supported, and the
columns as simple struts, with a nominal moment applied by the beam
connection. It is common to assume that the shear force from the beam is
applied 100 mm from the face of the column.
2 - 43
6 BUILT-UP COLUMNS
Heavily loaded columns, or columns in tall industrial buildings may be in the
form of built-up sections. Built-up columns often comprise HE or UPE sections
in which battens (flat plate) or lacing (usually angles) are welded across the
flanges, as shown in Figure 6.1.
Built-up columns are not used in portal frames, but are often used in buildings
supporting heavy cranes. The roof of the structure may be duo-pitch rafters, but
is more commonly a truss, as illustrated in Figure 1.4.

Figure 6.1 Cross-sections of built-up columns
To support the roof above the level of the crane, a single member may project
for several meters. This is often known as a bayonet column. The projecting
member may be a continuation of one of the two primary sections in the
built-up section, or may be a separate section located centrally to the built-up
section. Examples of built-up columns are shown in Figure 6.2. Buildings that
use built-up columns are invariably heavily loaded, and commonly subjected to
moving loads from cranes. Such buildings are heavily braced in two orthogonal
directions.
The detailed design of built-up columns is covered in Single-storey steel
buildings. Part 6: Detailed design of built-up columns
[4]
of this guide.
2 - 44
Laced column Battened column Column with
crane girder

Figure 6.2 Examples of built-up columns in single storey buildings
2 - 45
7 CLADDING
There are a number of generic types of cladding that may be used in single
storey buildings, depending on the building use. These fall into four broad
categories, which are described in the following sections.
7.1 Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting
Single-skin sheeting is widely used in agricultural and industrial structures
where no insulation is required. It can generally be used on roof slopes as low
as 4 providing the laps and sealants are as recommended by the manufacturers
for shallow slopes. The sheeting is fixed directly to the purlins and side rails, as
illustrated in Figure 7.1 and provides positive restraint. In some cases,
insulation is suspended directly beneath the sheeting.

Figure 7.1 Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting
7.2 Double-skin system
Double skin or built-up roof systems usually use a steel liner tray that is
fastened to the purlins, followed by a spacing system (plastic ferrule and spacer
or rail and bracket spacer), insulation and the outer profiled sheeting. Because
the connection between the outer and inner sheets may not be sufficiently stiff,
the liner tray and fixings must be chosen so that they alone will provide the
required level of restraint to the purlins. This form of construction using plastic
ferrules is shown in Figure 7.2.
As insulation depths have increased, there has been a move towards rail and
bracket solutions as they provide greater lateral restraint to the purlins. This
system is illustrated in Figure 7.3.
With adequate sealing of joints, the liner trays may be used to form an airtight
boundary. Alternatively, an impermeable membrane on top of the liner tray
should be provided.
2 - 46
2
4
3
1
5

1 Outer sheeting
2 Z spacer
3 Insulation
4 Liner tray (inner sheet)
5 Plastic ferrule

Figure 7.2 Double-skin construction using plastic ferrule and Z spacers

4
2
3
5
1

1 Outer sheet
2 Insulation
3 Rail
4 Liner tray (inner sheet)
5 Bracket

Figure 7.3 Double-skin construction using rail and bracket spacers
2 - 47
7.3 Standing seam sheeting
Standing seam sheeting has concealed fixings and can be fixed in lengths of up
to 30 m. The advantages are that there are no penetrations directly through the
sheeting that could lead to water leakage and fixing of the roof sheeting is
rapid. The fastenings are in the form of clips that hold the sheeting down but
allow it to move longitudinally (see Figure 7.4). The disadvantage of this
system is that less restraint is provided to the purlins than with a conventionally
fixed system. Nevertheless, a correctly fixed liner tray should provide adequate
restraint.
3
1
2

1 Outer sheet
2 Insulation
3 Standing seam clip

Figure 7.4 Standing seam panels with liner trays
7.4 Composite or sandwich panels
Composite or sandwich panels are formed by creating a foam insulation layer
between the outer and inner layer of sheeting. Composite panels have good
spanning capabilities due to composite action of the core with the steel sheets.
Both standing seam (see Figure 7.4) and direct fixing systems are available.
These will clearly provide widely differing levels of restraint to the purlins.
The manufacturers should be consulted for more information.
7.5 Fire design of walls
Where buildings are close to a site boundary, most national Building
Regulations require that the wall is designed to prevent spread of fire to
adjacent property. Fire tests have shown that a number of types of panel can
perform adequately, provided that they remain fixed to the structure. Further
guidance should be sought from the manufacturers.
2 - 48
Some manufacturers provide slotted holes in the side rail connections to allow
for thermal expansion. In order to ensure that this does not compromise the
stability of the column by removing the restraint under normal conditions, the
slotted holes are fitted with washers made from a material that will melt at high
temperatures and allow the side rail to move relative to the column under fire
conditions only. Details of this type of system are illustrated in Figure 7.5.
3
1
2

1 Side rail
2 Slotted hole for expansion
3 Cleat

Figure 7.5 Typical fire wall details showing slotted holes for expansion in fire
2 - 49
8 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF PORTAL
FRAMES
8.1 Introduction
The following methods of determining the size of columns and rafters of
single-span portal frames may be used at the preliminary design stage. Further
detailed calculations will be required at the final design stage. It should be
noted that the method does not take account of:
Requirements for overall stability
Deflections at the Serviceability Limit State.
8.2 Estimation of member sizes
The guidance for portal frames is valid in the span range between 15 to 40 m.
and is presented in Table 8.1. The assumptions made in creating this table are
as follows:
The roof pitch is 6.
The steel grade is S235. If design is controlled by serviceability conditions,
the use of smaller sections in higher grades may not be an advantage. When
deflections are not a concern, for example when the structure is completely
clad in metal cladding, the use of higher grades may be appropriate.
The rafter load is the total factored permanent actions (including self
weight) and factored variable actions and is in the range of 8 to 16 kN/m.
Frames are spaced at 5 to 7,5 m.
The haunch length is 10% of the span of the frame.
A column is treated as restrained when torsional restraints can be provided
along its length (these columns are therefore lighter than the equivalent
unrestrained columns).
A column should be considered as unrestrained when it is not possible to
restrain the inside flange.
The member sizes given by the tables are suitable for rapid preliminary design.
However, where strict deflection limits are specified, it may be necessary to
increase the member sizes.
In all cases, a full design must be undertaken and members verified in
accordance with EN 1993-1-1.

2

-

5
0
P
a
r
t

2
:

C
o
n
c
e
p
t

D
e
s
i
g
n

Table 8.1 Member sizes for single-span portal frame with 6roof pitch
Span of frame (m) Rafter load
(kN/m)
Eaves height
(m)
15 20 25 30 35 40
Rafter 8
8
8

6
8
10

IPE 240
IPE 240
IPE 240

IPE 330
IPE 330
IPE 330

IPE 360
IPE 360
IPE 360

IPE 400
IPE 400
IPE 400

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 450

Restrained
column
8
8
8

6
8
10

IPE 300
IPE 300
IPE 300

IPE 360
IPE 360
IPE 400

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 550
IPE 550
IPE 550

IPE 550
IPE 600
IPE 600

IPE 600
IPE 600
IPE 750 137

Unrestrained
column
8
8
8

6
8
10

IPE 360
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 450
IPE 550
IPE 550

IPE 550
IPE 600
IPE 600

IPE 550
IPE 600
IPE 750 137

IPE 0 600
IPE 750 137
IPE 750 173

IPE 750 137
IPE 750 173
HE 800

Rafter 10
10
10

6
8
10

IPE 270
IPE 270
IPE 270

IPE 330
IPE 330
IPE 360

IPE 400
IPE 400
IPE 400

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 0 450
IPE 0 450
IPE 0 450

IPE 550
IPE 550
IPE 550

Restrained
column
10
10
10

6
8
10

IPE 360
IPE 360
IPE 360

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 450
IPE 550
IPE 550

IPE 550
IPE 550
IPE 600

IPE 600
IPE 600
IPE 600

IPE 750 137
IPE 750 137
IPE 750 173

Unrestrained
column
10
10
10

6
8
10

IPE 400
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 450
IPE 550
IPE 600

IPE 550
IPE 600
IPE 750 137

IPE 600
IPE 750 137
IPE 750 173

IPE 750 137
IPE 750 173
HE 800

IPE 750 137
HE 800
HE 800

Rafter 12
12
12

6
8
10

IPE 270
IPE 270
IPE 270

IPE 360
IPE 360
IPE 60

IPE 400
IPE 400
IPE 400

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 550
IPE 550
IPE 550

IPE 550
IPE 550
IPE 600

Restrained
column
12
12
12

6
8
10

IPE 360
IPE 360
IPE 360

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 550
IPE 550
IPE 550

IPE 600
IPE 600
IPE 600

IPE 750 137
IPE 750 137
IPE 750 137

IPE 750 173
IPE 750 173
IPE 750 173

Unrestrained
column
12
12
12

6
8
10

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 550

IPE 550
IPE 600
IPE 600

IPE 600
IPE 600
IPE 750 173

IPE 600
IPE 750 173
HE 800

IPE 750 137
HE 800
HE 800

IPE 750 173
HE 800
HE 900

2

-

5
1
P
a
r
t

2
:

C
o
n
c
e
p
t

D
e
s
i
g
n

Table 8.1 (Continued) Single-span portal frame with 6roof pitch
Span of frame (m)

Rafter load
(kN/m)
Eaves height
(m)
15 20 25 30 35 40
Rafter 14
14
14

6
8
10

IPE 330
IPE 330
IPE 330

IPE 400
IPE 400
IPE 400

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 550
IPE 550
IPE 550

IPE 600
IPE 600
IPE 600

Restrained
column
14
14
14

6
8
10

IPE 360
IPE 400
IPE 400

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 550
IPE 550
IPE 600

IPE 600
IPE 600
IPE 750 137

IPE 750 173
IPE 750 173
IPE 750 173

IPE 750 173
HE 800
HE 800

Unrestrained
column
14
14
14

6
8
10

IPE 450
IPE 550
IPE 550

IPE 550
IPE 600
IPE 750 137

IPE 600
IPE 750 137
IPE 750 173

IPE 750 137
IPE 750 173
HE 800

IPE 750 173
HE 800
HE 800

HE 800
HE 800
HE 900

Rafter 16
16
16

6
8
10

IPE 330
IPE 330
IPE 330

IPE 400
IPE 400
IPE 400

IPE 450
IPE 450
IPE 450

IPE 550
IPE 550
IPE 50

IPE 550
IPE 600
IPE 600

IPE 600
IPE 600
IPE 600

Restrained
column
16
16
16

6
8
10

IPE 400
IPE 400
IPE 450

IPE 550
IPE 550
IPE 550

IPE 600
IPE 600
IPE 600

IPE 750 137
IPE 750 137
IPE 750 137

IPE 750 173
IPE 750 173
HE 800

HE 800
HE 800
HE 800

Unrestrained
column
16
16
16

6
8
10

IPE 450
IPE 550
IPE 600

IPE 550
IPE 600
IPE 750 137

IPE 600
IPE 750 173
HE 800

IPE 750 137
HE 800
HE 800

IPE 750 173
HE 800
HE 900

HE 800
HE 900
HE 900

2 - 52
REFERENCES

1 SANSOM, M. and MEIJER, J.
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) for steel construction
European commission, 2002
2 Several assessement methods are used. For example:
BREEAM in the UK
HQE in France
DNGB in Germany
BREEAM-NL, Greencalc+ and BPR Gebouw in the Netherlands
Valideo in Belgium
Casa Clima in Trento Alto Adige, Italy (each region has its own approach)
LEED, used in various countries
3 Steel Buildings in Europe
Single-storey steel buildings. Part 5: Design of trusses
Single-storey steel buildings. Part 6: Design of built-up columns


Part 3: Actions

Part 3: Actions

3 - ii

Part 3: Actions
3 - iii
FOREWORD
This publication is part three of a design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
Part 3: Actions

Part 3: Actions
3 - iv

Part 3: Actions
3 - v
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 SAFETY PHILOSOPHY ACCORDING TO EN 1990 2
2.1 General format of the verifications 2
2.2 Ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states 2
2.3 Characteristic values and design values of actions 3
3 COMBINATIONS OF ACTIONS 4
3.1 General 4
3.2 ULS combinations 4
3.3 SLS combinations 6
4 PERMANENT ACTIONS 8
5 CONSTRUCTION LOADS 9
6 IMPOSED LOADS 10
6.1 General 10
6.2 Actions induced by cranes according to EN 1991-3 10
6.3 Horizontal loads on parapets 15
7 SNOW LOADS 16
7.1 General 16
7.2 Methodology 16
8 WIND ACTIONS 22
8.1 General 22
8.2 Methodology 22
8.3 Flowcharts 31
9 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE 32
REFERENCES 33
Appendix A Worked Example: Snow load applied on a single-storey building 35
Appendix B Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey building 45

Part 3: Actions
3 - vi
SUMMARY
This document provides guidelines for the determination of the actions on a
single-storey building according to EN 1990 and EN 1991. After a short description of
the general format for limit state design, this guide provides information on the
determination of the permanent loads, the variable actions and the combinations of
actions. The determination of the snow loads and the calculation of the wind action are
described and summarized in comprehensive flowcharts. Simple worked examples on
the snow loads and the wind action are also included.

Part 3: Actions
3 - 1
1 INTRODUCTION
This guide provides essential information on the determination of the design
actions on a single-storey building. It describes the basis of design with
reference to the limit state concept in conjunction with the partial factor
method, according to the following parts of the Eurocodes:
- EN 1990: Basis of structural design
[1]
.
- EN 1991: Actions on structures
- Part 1-1: General actions Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for
buildings
[2]
.
- Part 1-3: General actions Snow loads
[3]

- Part 1-4: General actions Wind actions
[4]

- Part 1-5: General actions Thermal actions
[5]

- Part 3: Actions induced by cranes and machinery.
[6]

The guide is a comprehensive presentation of the design rules applied to
single-storey buildings with reference to the appropriate clauses, tables and
graphs of the Eurocodes.
Additional information can be found in the references
[7][8]
.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 2
2 SAFETY PHILOSOPHY ACCORDING TO
EN 1990
2.1 General format of the verifications
A distinction is made between ultimate limit states (ULS) and serviceability
limit states (SLS).
The ultimate limit states are related to the following design situations:
- Persistent design situations (conditions of normal use)
- Transient design situations (temporary conditions applicable to the
structure, e.g. during execution, repair, etc.)
- Accidental design situations (exceptional conditions applicable to the
structure)
- Seismic design situations (conditions applicable to the structure when
subjected to seismic events). These events are dealt within EN 1998
[9]
, and
are outside the scope of this guide.
The serviceability limit states concern the functioning of the structure under
normal use, the comfort of people and the appearance of the construction.
The verifications shall be carried out for all relevant design situations and load
cases.
2.2 Ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states
2.2.1 Ultimate limit states (ULS)
The states classified as ultimate limit states are those that concern the safety of
people and /or the safety of the structure. The structure shall be verified at ULS
when there is:
- Loss of equilibrium of the structure or any part of it (EQU)
- Failure by excessive deformation, rupture, loss of stability of the structure
or any part of it (STR)
- Failure or excessive deformation of the ground (GEO)
- Failure caused by fatigue or other time-dependent effects (FAT).
2.2.2 Serviceability Limit States (SLS)
The structure shall be verified at SLS when there is:
- Deformations that affect the appearance, the comfort of users or the
functioning of the structure
- Vibrations that cause discomfort to people or that limit the functional
effectiveness of the structure
- Damage that is likely to adversely affect the appearance, the durability or
the functioning of the structure.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 3
2.3 Characteristic values and design values of
actions
2.3.1 General
Actions shall be classified by their variation in time as follows:
- Permanent actions (G), e.g. self-weight of structures, fixed equipment, etc.
- Variable actions (Q), e.g. imposed loads, wind actions, snow loads, etc.
- Accidental actions (A), e.g. explosions, impact from vehicles, etc.
Certain actions may be considered as either accidental and/or variable actions,
e.g. seismic actions, snow loads, wind actions with some design situations.
2.3.2 Characteristic values of actions
The characteristic value (F
k
) of an action is its principal representative value.
As it can be defined on statistical bases, it is chosen so as to correspond to a
prescribed probability of not exceeding on the unfavourable side, during a
reference period taking into account the design working life of the structure.
These characteristic values are specified in the various Parts of EN 1991.
2.3.3 Design values of actions
The design value F
d
of an action F can be expressed in general terms as:
F
d
=
f
F
k

where:
F
k
is the characteristic value of the action
f
is a partial factor for the action
is either 1,00,
0
,
1
or
2

2.3.4 Partial factors
Partial factors are used to verify the structures at ULS and SLS. They should be
obtained from EN 1990 Annex A1, or from EN 1991 or from the relevant
National Annex.
2.3.5 factors
In the combinations of actions, factors apply to variable actions in order to
take into account the reduced probability of simultaneous occurrence of their
characteristic values.
The recommended values for factors for buildings should be obtained from
EN 1990 Annex A1 Table A1.1, or from EN 1991 or from the relevant
National Annex.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 4
3 COMBINATIONS OF ACTIONS
3.1 General
The individual actions should be combined so as not to exceed the limit state
for the relevant design situations.
Actions that cannot occur simultaneously, e.g. due to physical reasons, should
not be considered together in a same combination.
Depending on its uses and the form and the location of a building, the
combinations of actions may be based on not more than two variable actions
See Note 1 in EN 1990 A1.2.1(1). The National Annex may provide
additional information.
3.2 ULS combinations
3.2.1 Static equilibrium
To verify a limit state of static equilibrium of the structure (EQU), it shall be
ensured that:
E
d,dst
E
d,stb

where:
E
d,dst
is the design value of the effect of destabilising actions
E
d,stb
is the design value of the effect of stabilising actions
3.2.2 Rupture or excessive deformation of an element
To verify a limit state of rupture or excessive deformation of a section, member
or connection (STR and/or GEO), it shall be ensured that:
E
d
R
d

where:
E
d
is the design value of the effect of actions
R
d
is the design value of the corresponding resistance
Each combination of actions should include a leading variable action or an
accidental action.
3.2.3 Combinations of actions for persistent or transient design
situations
According to EN 1990 6.4.3.2(3), the combinations of actions can be derived
either from expression (6.10) or from expressions (6.10a and 6.10b
whichever is more onerous). The choice between these two sets of expressions
may be imposed by the National Annex.
In general, expression (6.10) is conservative in comparison to the pair of
expressions (6.10a and 6.10b), but it leads to a reduced number of
combinations to consider.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 5

Permanent
actions

Leading
variable action

Accompanying
variable actions

E
d
=
>1
j k, j G,
j
G
+
k,1 Q,1
Q
+

>1
i k, i 0, i Q,
i
Q
(6.10)

E
d
=
>1
j k, j G,
j
G
+
k,1 Q,1 0,1
Q
+

>1
i k, i 0, i Q,
i
Q
(6.10a)
E
d
=
>1
j k, j G,
j
G
+
k,1 Q,1
Q
+

>1
i k, i 0, i Q,
i
Q
(6.10b)

G
k
and Q
k
are found in EN 1991 or its National Annex.
G
and
Q
are found in Table A1.2(A) for static equilibrium (EQU);
Tables A1.2(B) and A1.2(C) for rupture (STR and/or GEO) of EN 1990 or in
the National Annex. Table 3.1 gives the recommended values of the partial
factors.
Table 3.1 Recommended values of partial factors
Table
(EN 1990)
Limit state
Gj,inf

Gj,sup

Q,1
=
Q,I

Q,1
=
Q,I

A1.2(A) EQU 0,90 1,10 1,50 1,50
A1.2(B) STR/GEO 1,00 1,35 1,50 1,50
A1.2(C) STR/GEO 1,00 1,00 1,30 1,30

0
factors are found in EN 1990 Table A1.1 or in its National Annex. This
factor varies between 0,5 and 1 except for roofs of category H (
0
= 0).
is a reduction factor for permanent loads. According to EN 1990
Table A1.2(B), the recommended value for buildings is = 0,85. The National
Annex may specify a different value.
For example, according to expression 6.10:
1. With snow as the leading variable action:
E
d
= 1,35 G + 1,5 S + (1,5 0,6) W = 1,35 G + 1,5 S + 0,9 W
2. With wind as the leading variable action:
E
d
= 1,35 G + 1,5 W + (1,5 0,5) S = 1,35 G + 1,5 W + 0,75 S
3.2.4 Combinations of actions for accidental design situations
Combinations of actions for accidental design situations should either involve
an explicit accidental action or refer to a situation after an accident event.

Permanent
actions

Accidental
action

Leading variable
action

Accompanying
variable actions
E
d
=

>1
j k,
j
G
+ A
d

+
(
1,1
or
2,1
)
k,1
Q
+
>1
i k, i 0, i Q,
i
Q
Part 3: Actions
3 - 6

The choice between
1,1
Q
k,1
or
2,1
Q
k,1
should be related to the relevant
accidental design situation. Guidance is given in EN 1990 or in the National
Annex to EN 1990.
3.3 SLS combinations
3.3.1 Serviceability Limit State
To verify a serviceability limit state, it shall be ensured that:
E
d
C
d

where:
E
d
is the design value of the effects of actions specified in the
serviceability criterion,
C
d
is the limiting design value of the relevant serviceability criterion.
3.3.2 Characteristic combination
The characteristic combination is normally used for irreversible limit states.

Permanent
actions

Leading
variable action

Accompanying
variable actions
E
d
=
>1
j k,
j
G
+
k,1
Q
+

>1
i k, i 0,
i
Q

For example:
E
d
= G + S + 0,6 W
E
d
= G + W + 0,5 S
3.3.3 Frequent combination
The frequent combination is normally used for reversible limit states.

Permanent
actions

Leading
variable action

Accompanying
variable actions
E
d
=
>1
j k,
j
G
+
k,1 1,1
Q
+

>1
i k, i 2,
i
Q

For example:
E
d
= G + 0,2 S (
2
= 0 for the wind action)
E
d
= G + 0,2 W (
2
= 0 for the snow load)
Part 3: Actions
3 - 7
3.3.4 Quasi-permanent combination
The quasi-permanent combination is normally used for long-term effects and
the appearance of the structure.

Permanent
actions

Variable
actions
E
d
=
>1
j k,
j
G
+

>1
i k, i 2,
i
Q

For example:
E
d
= G (since
2
= 0 for both the wind action and the snow load)
Part 3: Actions
3 - 8
4 PERMANENT ACTIONS
The self-weight of construction works is generally the main permanent load. It
should be classified as a permanent fixed action. In most cases, it should be
represented by a single-characteristic value.
The total self-weight of structural and non-structural members, including fixed
services, should be taken into account in combinations of actions as a single
action.
Non-structural elements include roofing, surfacing and coverings, partitions
and linings, hand rails, safety barriers, parapets, wall claddings, suspended
ceilings, thermal insulation, fixed machinery and all fixed services (heating,
ventilating, electrical and air conditioning equipment, pipes without their
contents, cable trunking and conduits).
The characteristic values of self-weight should be defined from the dimensions
and densities of the elements.
Values of densities of construction materials are provided in EN 1991-1-1
Annex A (Tables A.1 to A.5).
For example:
Steel: = 77,0 to 78,5 kN/m
3

Aluminium: = 27,0 kN/m
3

For manufactured elements (faades, ceilings and other equipment for
buildings), data may be provided by the manufacturer.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 9
5 CONSTRUCTION LOADS
EN 1991-1-6 gives rules for the determination of the actions during execution.
Verifications are required for both serviceability limit states and ultimate limit
states.
Table 4.1 defines construction loads that have to be taken into account:
- Personnel and hand tools (Q
ca
)
- Storage of movable items (Q
cb
)
- Non permanent equipment (Q
cc
)
- Moveable heavy machinery and equipment (Q
cd
)
- Accumulation of waste material (Q
ce
)
- Loads from parts of structure in a temporary state (Q
cf
).
Recommended values are provided in the same table but values may be given
in the National Annex.
In single-storey buildings, an example of construction load would be the
weight of cladding bundles on the structure prior to fitting.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 10
6 IMPOSED LOADS
6.1 General
Generally, imposed loads on buildings shall be classified as variable actions.
They arise from occupancy. They include normal use by persons, furniture and
moveable objects, vehicles, anticipating rare events (concentrations of persons
or of furniture, momentary moving or stacking of objects, etc.). Movable
partitions should be treated as imposed loads.
Imposed loads are represented by uniformly distributed loads, line loads or
point loads applied on roofs or floors, or a combination of these loads.
Floor and roof areas in buildings are sub-divided into categories according to
their use (EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.1). The characteristic values q
k
(uniformly
distributed load) and Q
k
(concentred load) related to these categories are
specified in EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.2 or in the relevant National Annex.
For the design of a single floor or a roof, the imposed load shall be taken into
account as a free action applied at the most unfavourable part of the influence
area of the action effects considered.
For imposed loads for floors and accessible roofs, the characteristic value q
k

may be multiplied by reduction factors due to the loaded area and the number
of storeys (EN 1991-1-1 6.3.1.2). More information is provided in Section 6
of Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 3: Actions
[10]
.
Characteristic values of imposed loads are specified in EN 1991-1-1
Section 6.3 as follows:
6.3.1 Residential, social, commercial and administration areas
6.3.2 Areas for storage and industrial activities
6.3.3 Garages and vehicle traffic areas
6.3.4 Roofs.
6.2 Actions induced by cranes according to
EN 1991-3
6.2.1 General
Most industrial buildings have to be equipped with handling devices to allow
movement and carriage of loads through the building. A typical crane used in
industrial buildings is shown in Figure 6.1 with the main technical terms.
One of the convenient solutions is the installation of cranes. The structure is
subject to loads acting both vertically and laterally. Such actions can become
the dominant ones for the structure.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 11
The determination of the actions induced by cranes is complex, as they include
many parameters such as:
- Weight of the crane and safe working load
- Stiffness of both the crane structure and the runway girders
- Speed and acceleration of the crane
- Design of the crane (wheel drives, guidance systems, etc.).
The characteristics of the crane generally have to be supplied by the crane
manufacturers.
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
7
7
7
7
1
8
8

1 Axis of wheels
2 Bogies
3 Main girders of the crane
4 Crab
5 motor drive unit
6 Hook
7 Axes of runway beams
8 Axis of track wheels

Figure 6.1 Main components of a crane
The relevant standard which specifies these actions is EN 1991-3 Actions on
structures Actions induced by cranes and machinery.
The variable crane actions are separated into:
- Variable vertical crane actions caused by self weight of the crane and the
hoist load
- Variable horizontal actions caused by acceleration or deceleration or by
skewing or other dynamic effects.
6.2.2 Vertical actions
Vertical actions include dead loads (self weight of the crane, safe working load,
hook block, etc.)
The distribution of these dead loads is generally assumed on the basis of
simply supported beams, considering both the main girders and the secondary
beams over the bogies.
Two positions of the crab are generally considered to obtain the worst load
arrangement on the crane runway: crab located in the middle of the crane span
or crab located at the minimum distance of hook approach from the runway.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 12
Considering both crab positions leads to the maximum and minimum loads per
wheel acting on the crane runway.
An eccentricity of application for these loads, generally taken as of the rail
head, also has to be considered.
In order to consider some features such as impact of wheels at rail joints, wear
of rail and wheels, release or lifting of the working load etc., dynamic factors
are applied to the above static action values.
For vertical action, the dynamic factors are called
1
to
4
(refer to Table 2.4 of
EN 1991-3).
6.2.3 Horizontal actions
The following types of horizontal forces should be taken into account:
- Horizontal forces caused by acceleration and deceleration of the crane in
relation to its movement along the runway beams
- Horizontal forces caused by acceleration and deceleration of the crab in
relation to its movement along the crane bridge
- Horizontal forces caused by skewing of the crane in relation to its
movement along the runway beam
- Buffer forces related to crane movement
- Buffer forces related to movement of the crab.
Only one of the 5 types of the above horizontal forces should be considered at
the same time. The third one is generally assumed to be covered by the fifth
one. The two last ones are considered as accidental forces.
The following details considering the first two types are generally those that
lead to dimensioning configurations for the crane runway:
1. Forces that result from acceleration and deceleration of the crane
along its crane way.
They act at the contact surface between the rail and the wheel. They have to
be amplified by a dynamic factor
5
(see Table 2.6 of EN 1991-3) whose
value may vary from 1,0 to 3,0, the value 1,5 being generally relevant.
These forces consist of longitudinal forces (K
1
and K
2
) and transverse
forces (H
T,1
and H
T,2
) as shown in Figure 6.2.
The longitudinal forces correspond to the resultant drive force K; such force
must be transmitted through the driven wheels without skidding even when
the crane carries no working load.
The resultant of the drive force does not pass through the centre of mass
S, generating a couple that causes a skewing moment each time the crane
accelerates or brakes. This moment is distributed on each runway according
to their distance from the centre of mass.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 13
1 2
l
1
l
2
l
H
T,1

H
T,1

H
T,2

H
T,2

K
1
K
2

K=K
1+
K
2
S
M
l
s

3 3

1 Rail
2 Rail
3 Driven wheels

Figure 6.2 Acceleration forces
2 Forces that result from skewing of the crane in relation to its
movement along the runway beam
The forces described hereunder are due to the oblique travel of the crane
when it assumes a skew position, for any reason, and then continues
obliquely until the guidance mean comes in contact with the side of the rail.
The lateral force on the side of the rail increases to reach a peak value S;
due to the action of this force, the crane returns to its proper course, at least
temporarily.
Guidance systems can be either specific guide roller or the flanges of the
track wheels.
The calculation of the corresponding forces depends on the type of drive
system (drive units without synchronisation of the driven track wheels or
central drive unit coupled to the wheels), the fixing of wheels according to
lateral movement and the location of the instantaneous centre of rotation.
Forces resulting from skewing consist of longitudinal and transverse forces
such as indicated in Figure 6.3.
These loads act at each wheel (H
S,i,j,k
) and a guide force S (also called steering
force) acts at the guidance system.
In the forces H
S,i,j,k
the indexes refer to:
- S for skewing
- i for beam runway
- j for wheel pair (the number 1 refers to the farthest from the centre of
rotation)
- k for direction of the force, L if acting longitudinally or T if acting
transversally.
The force S equilibrates the sum of the transverse forces.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 14
i=1
x
h

H
S,2,j,T

y
H
S,2,j,L
H
S,1,j,L

H
S,1,j,T

a
e
x
t

e
j

i=2
j
o
1
l
2
l
1
1
x
2
3

i = 1
H
S,1,1,T

6
i = 2
j = 1
j = 2
H
S,1,2,T

H
S,2,1,T
H
S,2,2,T
H
S,1,2,L
H
S,2,2,L
4
5
o
S

1 Guidance system
2 Direction of motion
3 Instantaneous centre of
rotation
o is the skew angle
i = Rails
j = Pairs of wheels

Figure 6.3 Forces resulting from skewing
6.2.4 Other loads or forces
To give an overall picture of the loads induced by cranes, it is necessary to
mention:
1. The wind actions on the structure of the crane and on the payload
The wind is generally considered at a speed of 20 m/s if considered together
with the payload (external use).
2. Test loads
- Dynamic test load: at least 110% of the nominal hoist load, amplified by
a dynamic factor
6
(see EN 1991-3 2.10 (4)).
- Static test load: at least 125% of the nominal hoist load without dynamic
factor.
3. Accidental forces
- Tilting force: when the load or lifting attachments collides with an
obstacle.
- And if relevant: Mechanical failure (failure of a single brake, wheel axle
failure, etc.).
Part 3: Actions
3 - 15
6.2.5 Multiple crane action
There is often more than one crane in one building; they can move either on the
same runway or on several levels in a same bay or in multi-bay buildings.
Multiple cranes have to be considered in the most unfavourable position for:
- The crane runway
- The supporting structure.
Table 6.1 Recommended maximum number of cranes to be considered in
the most unfavourable position
Cranes to
each runway
Cranes in each
shop bay
Cranes in
multi-bay buildings
Crane action

Vertical 3 4 4 2
Horizontal 2 2 2 2

For horizontal crane actions, it is acceptable to limit the number of cranes
acting with their payload to two; for vertical actions, the number of cranes
varies from two to four.
The cranes which are unloaded have nevertheless to be considered, if
unfavourable.
6.3 Horizontal loads on parapets
The characteristic values of the line loads q
k
acting at the height of the partition
walls or parapets but not higher than 1,20 m should be taken from EN 1991-1-1
Table 6.12 or from the National Annex.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 16
7 SNOW LOADS
7.1 General
This document gives guidance to determine the values of loads due to snow to
be used for a typical single-storey building according to EN 1991-1-3. The
design procedure is summarized in a flowchart (Figure 7.5). A worked example
dealing with the determination of the snow loads on a single-storey building is
given in Appendix A.
The guidance does not apply to sites at altitudes above 1500 m (unless
otherwise specified).
Snow loads shall be classified as variable, fixed actions, unless otherwise
stated in EN 1991-1-3. For particular conditions like exceptional snow loads
and/or loads due to exceptional snow drifts, they may be treated as accidental
actions depending on geographical locations.
Snow loads should be classified as static actions.
Two design situations may need to be considered:
- Transient/persistent situation should be used for both the undrifted and
drifted snow load arrangements for locations where exceptional snow falls
and exceptional snow drifts are unlikely to occur.
- Accidental design situation should be used for geographical locations where
exceptional snow falls and/or exceptional snow drifts are likely to occur.
The National Annex may define which design situation to apply.
7.2 Methodology
7.2.1 Snow load on the ground
Different climatic conditions will give rise to different design situations. The
possibilities are:
- Case A: Normal case (non exceptional falls and drifts)
- Case B1: Exceptional falls and no exceptional drifts
- Case B2: Exceptional drift and no exceptional falls (in accordance with
EN 1991-1-3 Annex B)
- Case B3: Exceptional falls and exceptional drifts (in accordance with
EN 1991-1-3 Annex B)
The National Authority may choose the case applicable to particular locations
for their own territory.
The National Annex specifies the characteristic value s
k
of snow load on the
ground to be used.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 17
For locations where exceptional snow loads on the ground can occur, they may
be determined by:
s
Ad
= C
esl
s
k

where:
s
Ad
is the design value of exceptional snow load on the ground for the
given location
C
esl
is the coefficient for exceptional snow loads (the recommended value
is = 2,0)
s
k
is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground for the given
location.
The National Annex may recommend another value of C
esl
, or the design value
of exceptional snow load on the ground s
Ad
.
7.2.2 Snow load on roofs
The load acts vertically and refers to a horizontal projection of the roof area.
Snow can be deposited on a roof in many different patterns.
Two primary load arrangements shall be taken into account:
- Undrifted snow load on roofs
- Drifted snow load on roofs.
Snow loads on roofs are derived from the snow loads on the ground,
multiplying by appropriate conversion factors (shape, exposure and thermal
coefficients). They shall be determined as follows:
- Persistent (conditions of normal use)/transient (temporary conditions)
design situations:
s =
i
C
e
C
t
s
k

- Accidental (exceptional conditions) design situations where exceptional
snow load is the accidental action:
s =
i
C
e
C
t
s
Ad

- Accidental design situations where the accidental action is the exceptional
drift and where EN 1991-1-3 Annex B applies:
s =
i
s
k

where:
i
is the snow shape coefficient. It depends on the angle of pitch of roof
o (Table 6.1)
C
e
is the exposure coefficient (C
e
= 1,0 is the default value)
C
t
is the thermal coefficient (C
t
1; C
t
= 1,0 is the default value).
The National Annex may give the conditions of use for C
e
and C
t
.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 18
Table 7.1 Snow load shape coefficients
Angle of pitch of roof o 0 s o s 30 30 < o < 60 o > 60
1
0.8 0.8 (60 o)/30 0
2
0.8 + 0.8 o/30 1.6 -

These values
1
and
2
apply when the snow is not prevented from sliding off
the roof (no snow fences or other obstructions like parapets). If obstructions
exist, the snow load shape coefficient should not be reduced below 0.8.
The snow load shape coefficient that should be used for monopitch roofs is
shown in Figure 7.1, where
1
is given in Table 7.1.
The load arrangement should be used for both the undrifted and drifted load
arrangements.
o
1
(o)

Figure 7.1 Snow load shape coefficient Monopitch roof
The snow load shape coefficients that should be used for pitched roofs are
1
is given in Table 7.1.
Case (i) corresponds to the undrifted load arrangement.
Cases (ii) and (iii) correspond to the drifted load arrangements.
1
(o
1
)
0,5
1
(o
1
)
1
(o
2
)
1
(o
2
)
1
(o
1
) 0,5
1
(o
2
)
o
1
o
2

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

(i) Undrifted load arrangement
(ii) and (iii) Drifted load arrangement

Figure 7.2 Snow load shape coefficient Pitched roof
Part 3: Actions
3 - 19
The snow load shape coefficients that should be used for multi-span roofs are
1
and
2
are given in Table 7.1.
Case (i) corresponds to the undrifted load arrangement.
Case (ii) corresponds to the drifted load arrangement.

o
1
o
2
(i)
(ii)
1
(o
1
)
1
(o
2
)
1
(o
1
)
1
(o
2
)
o
1
o
2

1
(o
1
)
2
[(o
1
+o
2
)/2]
1
(o
2
)

(i) Undrifted load arrangement
(ii) Drifted load arrangement

Figure 7.3 Snow load shape coefficient Multi-span roof
The snow load shape coefficients that should be used for roofs abutting to taller
construction works are shown in Figure 7.4, where
1
,
2
,
s
,
w
are given by
the following expressions:
1
= 0,8 This value assumes that the lower roof is flat. If it is not, a
specific study should be carried out by taking into account the
direction of the slope.
2
=
s
+
w

where:
s
is the snow shape coefficient due to sliding of snow from the upper
roof.
For o 15,
s
= 0
For o > 15,
s
= half the snow load on the adjacent slope of the
upper roof
w
is the snow load shape coefficient due to wind

w
= (b
1
+ b
2
)/2h with
w
h / s
k

And the recommended range is (it may be given in the National
Annex):
0,8
w
4
b
1
, b
2
and h are defined in Figure 7.4
is the weight density of snow for this calculation (2 kN/m
3
)
Part 3: Actions
3 - 20
l
s
is the drift length determined as :
l
s
= 2 h
The recommended limits of the drift length are (they may be given in the
National Annex):
5 m l
s
15 m
If b
2
< l
s
, the coefficient
2
is truncated at the end of the lower roof.
The cases (i) corresponds to with the undrifted load arrangement.
The cases (ii) corresponds to with the drifted load arrangements.
o
h
b
2
b
1

h
b
1
b
2
< l
s

o
(i)
(ii)
1
(i)
(ii)
s

s

w

l
s

l
s

Figure 7.4 Snow load shape coefficient Roofs abutting to taller construction
works
7.2.3 Local effects
The design situations to be considered are persistent/transient. EN 1991-1-3
Section 6 gives forces to be applied for the local verifications of:
- Drifting at projections and obstructions (EN 1991-1-3 6.2)
- The edge of the roof (EN 1991-1-3 6.3)
- Snow fences (EN 1991-1-3 6.4).
Part 3: Actions
3 - 21
7.2.4 Flowchart

Characteristic value of the snow load
sk on the ground
Shape coefficients i
Location of the construction
National map
P
e
r
s
i
s
t
e
n
t

/

t
r
a
n
s
i
e
n
t

d
e
s
i
g
n

s
i
t
u
a
t
i
o
n
s

Snow load on the roof: s = I Ce Ct sk
A
c
c
i
d
e
n
t
a
l

d
e
s
i
g
n

s
i
t
u
a
t
i
o
n
s

N
o

d
r
i
f
t

d
u
e

t
o

l
o
c
a
l

e
f
f
e
c
t

Exceptional load on the ground
sAd = Cesl sk
Coefficient Cesl for
exceptional snow load
Snow load on the roof:
s = I Ce Ct sAd
(including drifts, except local effects)
Exceptional drifts
Snow load on the roof:
s = I sk
Shape of the roof
Exposure coefficient Ce
Thermal coefficient Ct
Location of the construction
National map
National Annex
EN 1991-1-3
5.3
EN 1991-1-3
5.2(3) a)
EN 1991-1-3
Annex B
EN 1991-1-3
4.3
EN 1991-1-3
4.3
EN 1991-1-3
5.2(3) b)

Figure 7.5 Determination of the snow loads

Part 3: Actions
3 - 22
8 WIND ACTIONS
8.1 General
This Section provides guidance to determine the values of the wind action to be
used for the design of a typical single-storey building according to
EN 1991-1-4. The design procedure is summarized by a flowchart in Figure 8.6
and Figure 8.7. A worked example dealing with the determination of the wind
action on a single-storey building is given in Appendix B.
The rules apply to the whole structure or part of the structure, e.g. components,
cladding units and their fixings.
A simplified set of pressures or forces whose effects are equivalent to the
extreme effects of the turbulent wind represent the wind action.
Wind actions should be classified as variable fixed actions.
The relevant wind actions shall be determined for each design situation
identified.
Where, in design, windows and doors are assumed to be shut under storm
conditions, the effect of these being open should be treated as an accidental
design situation.
8.2 Methodology
The response of the structure to the effect of wind depends on the size, shape
and dynamic properties of the structure. This response should be calculated
from the peak velocity pressure q
p
and from the force and/or pressure
coefficients.
8.2.1 Peak velocity pressure
The peak velocity pressure q
p
(z) is the velocity pressure used in the
calculations.
It depends on the wind climate, the reference height, the terrain roughness and
orography. It is equal to the mean velocity pressure plus a contribution from
short-term pressure fluctuations.
The peak velocity pressure can be calculated using the following procedure.
1. Fundamental value of the basic wind velocity v
b,0

The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity is the characteristic 10
minutes mean wind velocity, irrespective of wind direction and time of year, at
10 m above ground level, in open country terrain. It corresponds to a mean
return period of 50 years (annual probability of exceedence of 0,02).
The National Annex specifies the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 23
2. Basic wind velocity v
b

v
b
= c
dir
c
season
v
b,0

where:
c
dir
is the directional factor
c
season
is the seasonal factor
The recommended value is 1,0 for both c
dir
and c
season
but the National Annex
may give other values.
3. Basic velocity pressure
The basic velocity pressure q
b
is calculated as follows:
q
b

2
b
2
1
v =
where:
is the air density
= 1,25 kg/m
3
(recommended value but the National Annex may give
another value)
4. Terrain factor k
r

07 , 0
II , 0
0
r
19 , 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
z
z
k
where:
z
0
is the roughness length according to the terrain category
z
0,II
is the roughness length for the terrain category II:
z
0,II
= 0,05 m
z
max
= 200 m
Terrain categories and terrain parameters are defined in EN 1991-1-4
Table 4.1, but the National Annex may give other values.
5. Roughness factor c
r
(z)
c
r
(z) = k
r
ln(z/z
0
) for z
min
z z
max

c
r
(z) = c
r
(z
min
) for z z
min

where:
z is the reference height defined by EN 1991-1-4 Figure 7.4.
z
min
depends on the terrain category, EN 1991-1-4 Table 4.1.
6. Orography factor c
o
(z)
The orography consists of the study of the shape of the terrain in the vicinity of
the construction.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 24
The effects of orography may be neglected when the average slope of the
upwind terrain is less than 3. The recommended value of c
o
(z) is 1,0, but the
National Annex may give the procedure to calculate the orography factor.
Annex A3 of EN 1991-1-4 gives the recommended procedure to determine c
o

for hills, cliffs, etc.
7. Turbulence factor k
l

The recommended value is 1,0 but the National Annex may give other values.
8. Peak velocity pressure q
p
(z)
| | ) (
2
1
) ( 7 1 ) (
2
m v p
z v z I z q + =
where:
I
v
(z) is the turbulence intensity which allows to take into account the
contribution from short-term fluctuations

) / ln( ) (
) (
0 o
l
v
z z z c
k
z I = for z
min
z z
max

) ( ) (
min v v
z I z I = for z < z
min
z
max
= 200 m
v
m
(z) is the mean wind velocity at height z above the terrain:
v
m
(z) = c
r
(z) c
o
(z) v
b

Alternative for step 8:
For single-storey-buildings, the determination of the mean wind velocity v
m
(z)
is not absolutely necessary. The peak velocity pressure can be directly obtained
from the exposure factor c
e
(z):
b e p
) ( ) ( q z c z q =
where:
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
7
1 ) (
2
r
2
o
r o
r l
e
z c z c
z c z c
k k
z c
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
For flat terrain (c
o
(z) = 1) and for turbulence factor k
l
= 1, the exposure factor
c
e
(z) can be directly obtained from Figure 4.2 of EN 1991-1-4, as a function of
the height above terrain and a function of terrain category.
8.2.2 Wind pressure on surfaces Wind forces
There are three types of wind forces acting on a building:
- External forces F
w,e
(see 8.2.2.1)
- Internal forces F
w,i
(see 8.2.2.2)
- Friction forces F
fr
(see 8.2.2.3).
Part 3: Actions
3 - 25
The external and internal forces result in pressures perpendicular to the walls
(vertical walls, roofs, etc.). By convention, pressure directed towards the
surface is taken as positive, and suction, directed away from the surface as
negative (Figure 8.1).

q < 0 q > 0

Figure 8.1 Sign convention for the pressure
As stated in EN 1991-1-4 5.3(2), the resulting wind force F
w
acting on a
structure, or a structural component, can be determined by the vector
summation of F
w,e
, F
w,i
and F
fr
. It can be globally expressed as follows:
F
w
= c
s
c
d
c
f
q
p
(z
e
) A
ref

where:
c
s
c
d
is the structural factor (for buildings with a height less than 15 m, it
may be taken as 1)
Note: the mean wind velocity v
m
(z) is necessary to calculate the
structural factor c
s
c
d
.
c
f
is the force coefficient for the structure (or structural element)
A
ref
is the reference area of the structure (or structural element). Here it
can be defined as the area of the projection of the structure or the
structural component, on a vertical plan perpendicular to the wind
direction.
Practical approach
In practice, the designer needs to evaluate the resulting pressure on the walls in
order to determine the actions on the structural members. The resulting
pressure can be expressed as follows:
F
w
/A
ref
= c
s
c
d
w
e
w
i

where:
w
e
is the wind pressure acting on the external surface (see 7.2.1.2),
w
i
is the wind pressure acting on the internal surface (see 7.2.1.3).
In addition the effects of the friction forces (see 7.2.1.4) have to be considered
when necessary.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 26
8.2.2.1 External forces
The external forces are obtained from:
=
surfaces
ref e d s e w,
A w c c F

where:
c
s
c
d
is the structural factor (see 7.2.1.1)
w
e
is the wind pressure acting on the external surface:
w
e
= q
p
(z
e
) c
pe

q
p
(z
e
) is the peak velocity pressure at the reference height z
e

z
e
is the reference height for the external pressure (generally, the height
of the structure). It depends on the aspect ratio h/b, where h is the
height of the building and b is the crosswind dimension.
Generally, h is lower than b for single-storey buildings. In this case, z
e

is taken equal to the height of the building and the velocity pressure
q
p
(z) is uniform on the whole structure: q
p
(z
e
) = q
p
(h).
c
pe
is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure. See 8.2.3 for
vertical walls and 8.2.4 for roofs.
A
ref
is the reference area. Here it is the area of the surface under
consideration for the design of the structure or the structural
component.
8.2.2.2 Internal forces
The internal forces are obtained from:
=
surfaces
ref i i w,
A w F
where:
w
i
is the wind pressure acting on the internal surface:
w
i
= q
p
(z
i
) c
pi

z
i
is the reference height for the internal pressure (generally: z
i
= z
e
)
q
p
(z
i
) is the peak velocity pressure at the height z
i
(generally: q
p
(z
i
) = q
p
(z
e
))
c
pi
is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure, see 8.2.5.
8.2.2.3 Friction forces
The friction force results from the friction of the wind parallel to the external
surface. Friction is allowed for when the total area of all surfaces parallel to the
wind is higher than four times the total area of all external surfaces
perpendicular to the wind (windward and leeward), which is the case for long
structures.
Part 3: Actions
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W
d
b
h
Min(2b ; 4h)

Figure 8.2 Friction forces
The friction forces are obtained from:
( )
fr e p fr fr
A z q c F =

where:
c
fr
is the friction coefficient. It can be taken equal to:
0,01 for smooth surface (steel, smooth concrete, etc.)
0,02 for rough surface (rough concrete, tar-boards, etc.)
0,03 for very rough surface (ripples, ribs, folds, etc.).
q
p
(z
e
) is the peak velocity pressure at the reference height z
e
.
A
fr
is the reference area. Friction forces are applied on the part of the
external surfaces parallel to the wind A
fr
, located beyond a distance
from the upwind eaves or corners, equal to the smallest value of 2b or
4h, b and h as defined in Figure 8.2.
8.2.3 External pressure coefficients on vertical walls
The values of the external pressure coefficients, given in tables in the Eurocode
are attached to defined zones. The coefficients depend on the size of the loaded
area A that produces the wind action in the zone under consideratiion. In the
tables, the external pressure coefficients are given for loaded areas of 1 m
2

(c
pe,1
) and 10 m
2
(c
pe,10
). In this guide, only the values c
pe,10
are taken into
account, because they are used for the design of the overall load bearing
structure of buildings.
Zones for vertical walls are defined in EN 1991-1-4 Figure 7.5 and the external
pressure coefficients c
pe,10
are given in EN 1991-1-4 Table 7.1. For
intermediate values of h/d, linear interpolation may apply.
The values of the external pressure coefficients may be given in the National
Annex.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 28

b
d
D E
1
2

Plan

h A B C
e/5 4/5 e d e
1
h A B C
1

Elevation for e < d

h A B
e/5 d e/5
1
h A B
1

Elevation for e d
1 Wind direction
2 Elevation

h A
d
1
h A
1

Elevation for e 5d
e = min(b ; 2h)
b is the crosswind dimension

Figure 8.3 Key for vertical walls
For buildings with h/d > 5, the total wind loading may be determined by the
force coefficients c
f
.
In cases where the wind force on building structures is determined by
application of the pressure coefficient c
pe
on windward and leeward side (zones
D and E) of the building simultaneously, the lack of correlation of wind
pressures between the windward and leeward side may have to be taken into
account as follows:
- For buildings with h/d 5, the resulting force is multiplied by 1
- For buildings with h/d 1, the resulting force is multiplied by 0,85
- For intermediate values of h/d, linear interpolation may be applied.
8.2.4 External pressure coefficients on roofs
Zones for roofs and external coefficients c
pe,10
attached to these zones are
defined in EN 1991-1-4 as follows:
- Flat roofs: Figure 7.6 and Table 7.2
- Monopitch roofs: Figure 7.7 and Tables 7.3a and 7.3b
- Duopitch roofs: Figure 7.8 and Tables 7.4a and 7.4b
- Hipped roofs: Figure 7.9 and Table 7.5
Part 3: Actions
3 - 29
- Multispan roofs : Figure 7.10 and the coefficients c
pe
are derived from
Tables 7.3 to 7.4.
Figure 8.4 of this guide shows the zones for duopitch roofs.

b
e/10
G
F
1
e/10
F
H J I
2 4
e/4
e/4
3

b
e/10
G
F
1
e/2
F
H I
I
2
e/4
e/4
G
H

Wind on the long side
(perpendicular to the ridge line)
1 Wind direction
2 Ridge line
3 Upwind face
4 Downwind face
Wind on the gable
(parallel to the ridge line)
e = min(b ; 2h)
b is the crosswind dimension

Figure 8.4 Zones for duopitch roofs
8.2.5 Internal pressure coefficients
The internal pressure coefficient c
pi
depends on the size and distribution of the
openings in the building envelope.
When in at least two sides of the building (faades or roof) the total area of
openings in each side is more than 30 % of the area of that side, the structure
should be considered as a canopy roof and free-standing walls.
A face of a building should be regarded as dominant when the area of openings
in that face is at least twice the area of openings in the remaining faces of the
building considered.
Where an external opening would be dominant when open but is considered to
be closed in the ultimate limit state, during severe windstorms (wind used for
the design of the structure), the condition with the opening open should be
considered as an accidental design situation.
For a building with a dominant face, the internal pressure should be taken as a
fraction of the external pressure at the openings of the dominant face:
- Area of the openings on the dominant face = 2 area of openings in the
remaining faces:
c
pi
= 0,75 c
pe

- Area of the openings in the dominant face = 3 area of openings in the
remaining faces:
c
pi
= 0,90 c
pe

Part 3: Actions
3 - 30
- Area of the openings at the dominant face between 2 and 3 times the area of
the openings in the remaining faces:
Linear interpolation for calculating c
pi
.
When the openings are located in zones with different values of c
pe
, an area
weighted average value should be used.
For buildings without a dominant face, the coefficient c
pi
should be determined
from a function of the ratio h/d and the opening ratio for each direction, as
shown in Figure 8.5.
where:
s
=
openings all of area
0 where openings of area

pe
c

Figure 8.5 Internal pressure coefficients for uniformly distributed openings
For values between h/d = 0,25 and h/d = 1,0, linear interpolation may be used.
Where it is not possible or not considered justified to estimate for a particular
case, then c
pi
should be taken as the more onerous of + 0,2 and 0,3.
The reference height z
i
for the internal pressures should be equal to the
reference height z
e
for the external pressures on the faces which contribute by
their openings to the creation of the internal pressure. Generally, for
single-storey buildings, z
i
= z
e
= h and the velocity pressure q
p
(z):
q
p
(z
i
) = q
p
(z
e
) = q
p
(h)
Part 3: Actions
3 - 31
8.3 Flowcharts

Fundamental value
of the basic wind velocity vb,0
Construction location
National map
Directional factor cdir
Season factor cseason
Basic wind velocity vb
Terrain category
Roughness factor cr(z)
Peak velocity pressure qp(z)
Orography factor co(z)
Basic velocity pressure qb
Air density
Terrain factor kr
Turbulence factor kl
EN 1991-1-4
4.2(1)
(See National Annex)
EN 1991-1-4
4.5(1)
EN 1991-1-4
4.3.2
EN 1991-1-4
4.3.3 and A.3
EN 1991-1-4
4.4
Reference height z
EN 1991-1-4
4.5(1)

Figure 8.6 Flowchart A: calculation of the peak velocity pressure

Type of surface
External pressure coefficients cpe
on vertical walls
Wind forces Fw,e and Fw,i
Peak velocity pressure qp(z)
Friction coefficient cfr
Reference area Afr
External pressure coefficients cpe
on roof
Internal pressure coefficients cpi
See Flowchart A
EN 1991-1-4
5.3
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.9
EN 1991-1-4
7.5
Table 7.10
EN 1991-1-4
7
Structural factor cs cd
EN 1991-1-4
6 and Annexes B, C, D
Friction forces Ffr
EN 1991-1-4
5.3
Dimensions
of the building

Figure 8.7 Flowchart B: Calculation of the wind forces

Part 3: Actions
3 - 32
9 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
Buildings not exposed to daily or seasonal climatic changes may not need to be
assessed under thermal actions. For large buildings, it is generally good
practice to design the building with expansion joints so that the temperature
changes do not induce internal forces in the structure. Information about the
design of expansion joints is given in Section 1.4.2 of Single-storey steel
buildings Part 2: Concept design
[11]
.
When the effects of temperature have to be taken into account, EN 1993-1-5
provides rules to determine them.
Part 3: Actions
3 - 33
REFERENCES

1 EN 1990:2002: Eurocode Basis of structural design
2 EN 1991-1-1:2002: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. General actions. Densities,
self-weight, imposed loads for buildings.
3 EN 1991-1-3:2003: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. General actions. Snow
loads
4 EN 1991-1-4:2005: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. General actions. Wind
actions
5 EN 1991-1-5:2003: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. General actions. Thermal
actions
6 EN 1991-3:2006: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. Actions induced by cranes
and machinery
7 CLAVAUD, D.
Exemple de dtermination des charges de neige selon lEN 1991-1-3. Revue
Construction Mtallique n2-2007.
CTICM.
8 CLAVAUD, D.
Exemple de dtermination des actions du vent selon lEN 1991-1-4. Revue
Construction Mtallique n1-2008.
CTICM.
9 EN 1998-1:2004: Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake resistance.
General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings.
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 3: Actions
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 2: Concept design

Part 3: Actions
3 - 34
Part 3: Actions
3 - 35
APPENDIX A

Worked Example: Snow load applied on a
single-storey building

3 - 36
APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Snow load
applied on a single-storey building
1 of 8
Made by DC Date 02/2009
Calculation sheet
Checked by AB Date 03/2009

1. Data

This worked example deals with the single-storey building shown below.
B
A
A
25,00 m
B

Plan view

3,00 m
10%
25,00 m
15%
b
2
= 10,00 m b
1
= 40,00 m
1
1,25 m
6,00 m
10,25 m
0,75 m
1

Cross-section BB Cross-section AA
1 Parapets

Figure A.1 Geometry of the building
2. Snow load on the ground

Characteristic value s
k
of snow load on the ground:
s
k
= 0,65 kN/m
2

Coefficient for exceptional snow load:
C
esl
= 2
EN 1991-1-3
4.3
Exceptional snow on the ground:
s
Ad
= C
esl
s
k
= 2 0,65 = 1,30 kN/m
2

Title
APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Snow load applied on a single-storey
building
2 of 8

3 - 37
3. Snow load on the roof

3.1. General
The loads act vertically and refer to a horizontal projection of the roof area.
Two primary load arrangements shall be taken account:
- undrifted snow load on roofs
- drifted snow load on roofs
EN 1991-1-3
5.2(1)
Snow loads on roofs are determined as follows:
- Persistent (conditions of normal use)/transient (temporary conditions)
design situations:
s =
i
C
e
C
t
s
k

EN 1991-1-3
5.2(3) a)
- Accidental design situations (exceptional snow fall) where exceptional
snow load is the accidental action:
s =
i
C
e
C
t
s
Ad

5.2(3) b)
- Accidental design situations (exceptional snow drift) where the accidental
action is the exceptional drift and where Annex B applies:
s =
i
s
k

5.2(3) c)
where:
i
is the snow shape coefficient

EN 1991-1-3
5.3
C
e
is the exposure coefficient, C
e
= 1,0
5.2(7)
C
t
is the thermal coefficient, C
t
= 1,0
5.2(8)
3.2. Upper roof (duo pitch roof)

Angle of the roof (15%):
o = arc tan (0,15) = 8,5
0 s o s 30

- Persistent /transient design situations
- Case (i) : undrifted load arrangement

1
(o = 8,5) = 0,8
s = 0,8 0,65 = 0,52 kN/m
2

EN 1991-1-3
5.3.3
Figure 5.3
- Case (ii): Drifted load arrangement
0,5
1
(o = 8,5) = 0,4
s = 0,4 0,65 = 0,26 kN/m
2

- Case (iii): Drifted load arrangement
The case (iii) is symmetrical about the case (ii) because of the
symmetry of the roof (o
1
= o
2
= 8,5).

Title
building
3 of 8

3 - 38
0,52 kN/m
2
o
Case (i)
0,26 kN/m
2

0,52 kN/m
2
Case (ii)
0,52 kN/m
2

0,26 kN/m
2
Case (iii)

Figure A.2 Snow load arrangements on the upper roof in persistent design
situation
EN 1991-1-3
Figure 5.3
- Accidental design situations exceptional load on the ground
- Case (i): Undrifted load arrangement

1
(o = 8,5) = 0,8
s = 0,8 1,30 = 1,04 kN/m
2

0,5
1
(o = 8,5) = 0,4
s = 0,4 1,30 = 0,52 kN/m
2

- Case (iii): Drifted load arrangement
The case (iii) is symmetrical about the case (ii) because of the
symmetry of the roof (o
1
= o
2
= 8,5)

1,04 kN/m
2
o
Case (i)
0,52 kN/m
2

1,04 kN/m
2
Case (ii)
1,04 kN/m
2

0,52 kN/m
2
Case (iii)

Figure A.3 Snow load arrangements on the upper roof in accidental design
situation

- Accidental design situations exceptional drift:
This case is not applicable. There are no parapets or valleys.

Title
building
4 of 8

3 - 39
3.3. Lower roof: duo pitch roof abutting to taller
construction works
Angle of the roof (10%):
o = arc tan (0,10) = 5,7
0 s o s 30

EN 1991-1-3
5.3.6(1)
- Persistent /transient design situations

1
(5,7) = 0,8
s = 0,8 0,65 = 0,52 kN/m
2

0,52 kN/m
2

0,52 kN/m
2

Figure A.4 Undrifted snow load arrangement on the lower roof in persistent
design situation

- Case (ii): drifted load arrangement

1
(5,7) = 0,8
s = 0,8 0,65 = 0,52 kN/m
2

2
=
s
+
w

where:

s
is the snow shape coefficient due to sliding of snow from the
upper roof.
For o s 15:
s
= 0

w
is the snow load shape coefficient due to wind

w
= (b
1
+ b
2
) / 2h
with:
w
s h/s
k

b
1
= 10 m
b
2
= 40 m
h varies between 3 m at ridge to 4,25 m at eaves
= 2 kN/m
3

Title
building
5 of 8

3 - 40
The recommended range is: 0,8 s
w
s 4

At ridge: h/s
k
= 2 3/0,65 = 9,2

w
= (10 + 40)/(2 3) = 8,3 s h/s
k

At eave: h/s
k
= 2 4,25/0,65 = 13,1

w
= (10 + 40)/(2 4,25) = 5,9 s h/s
k

But
w
should be maximum 4, so:

w
= 4

Therefore:
s = 4 0,65 = 2,60 kN/m
2

l
s
is the drift length determined as:
l
s
= 2h
This drift length varies between 6 m at ridge to 8,50 m at eaves.
The recommended restriction is: 5 m l
s
15 m
EN 1991-1-3
5.3.6(1)
2,60 kN/m
2
6,00 m
8,50 m
2,60 kN/m
2
0,52 kN/m
2
0,52 kN/m
2

Figure A.5 Drifted snow load arrangement on the lower roof in the case of
abutting to taller construction works in persistent design situation
EN 1991-1-3
Figure 5.7
- Accidental design situations exceptional load on the ground:

1
(5,7) = 0,8
s = 0,8 1,3 = 1,04 kN/m
2

The arrangement is the same as Figure A.4 with: s = 1,04 kN/m
2

The arrangement is the same as Figure A.5 with: s
1
= 1,04 kN/m
2

Title
building
6 of 8

3 - 41
where:

1
= 0,8
and s
2
= 5,20 kN/m
2
where
w
= 4

3.4. Lower roof: drifting at obstructions (parapets)

Only persistent/transient design situations are to be considered.
Angle of the roof (10%): o = 5,7

1
(5,7) = 0,8
s = 0,8 0,65 = 0,52 kN/m
2

EN 1991-1-3
6.2(2)

2
= h/s
k

where:
h is the height of parapet. It varies between 0 m at ridge and 1,25 m at
low eaves.
= 2 kN/m
3

At ridge:
2
= 0
At low eaves:
2
= 2 1,25/0,65 = 3,8

With the restriction: 0,8
2
2

2
varies between 0,8 at ridge, and 2 at eave.
s varies between 0,52 kN/m
2
at ridge, and 2 0,65 = 1,30 kN/m
2
at
low eaves.

The drift length l
s
is determined by: l
s
= 2 h
This drift length varies between 0 m at ridge and 2,50 m at low eaves.
The recommended restriction is: 5 m l
s
15 m. Therefore:
l
s
= 5 m at low eaves.

5,00 m
5,00 m
0,52 kN/m
2

5,00 m
1,30 kN/m
2

0,52 kN/m
2
0,52 kN/m
2
1,30 kN/m
2
1,30 kN/m
2
5,00 m 5,00 m

Figure A.6 Drifted snow load arrangement on the lower roof in the case of
obstruction in persistent design situation

Title
building
7 of 8

3 - 42
3.5. Exceptional snow drifts
3.5.1. Roofs abutting and close to taller structures

1
=
2
=
3
= Min(2h/s
k
; 2b/l
s
; 8)
where b is the larger of b
1
or b
2

l
s
= Min(5h ; b
1
; 15 m)
h = 4,25 m
b
1
= 40,00 m
b
2
= 10,00 m
s
k
= 0,65 kN/m
2

5 h = 21,25m; l
s
= 15,00 m; 2h/s
k
= 13,08; 2b/l
s
= 5,3

1
=
2
=
3
= 5,3
And: s =
3
s
k
= 3,45 kN/m
2

EN 1991-1-3
Annex B B.3

15,00 m
3,45 kN/m
2

Figure A.7 Exceptional snow drifted on the lower roof in the case of roofs
abutting and close to taller building

Title
building
8 of 8

3 - 43
3.5.2. Roofs where drifting occurs behind parapets at eaves

1
= Min(2 h/s
k
; 2 b
2
/l
s
; 8)
where: l
s
= Min(5h ; b
1
; 15 m)
h = 3,00 m
b
1
= 12,50 m
b
2
= 25,00 m
s
k
= 0,65 kN/m
2

5h = 15,00 m ; l
s
= 12,50 m ; 2h/s
k
= 9,23 ; 2b
2
/l
s
= 4,00

1
= 4,00
And: s =
1
s
k
= 2,60 kN/m
2

EN 1991-1-3
Annex B B.4
3.5.3. Roofs where drifting occurs behind parapets at gable end

1
= Min(2 h/s
k
; 2 b
2
/l
s
; 8)
where: l
s
= Min(5h ; b
1
; 15 m)
h = 3,00 m
b
1
= 40,00 m
b
2
= 25,00 m
s
k
= 0,65 kN/m
2

5h = 15,00 m ; l
s
= 15,00m ; 2h/s
k
= 9,23 ; 2b
2
/l
s
= 5,33

1
= 5,33
And: s =
1
s
k
= 3,46 kN/m
2

EN 1991-1-3
Annex B B.4

0,00 kN/m
2
12,50 m 12,50 m
15,00 m
2,60 kN/m
2
2,60 kN/m
2
3,46 kN/m
2

Snow behind the parapet at gable end Snow behind the parapets at eaves
Figure A.8 Exceptional snow drifted on the lower roof in the case of roofs
where drifting occurs behind parapets at eaves

Part 3: Actions
3 - 44
Part 3: Actions
3 - 45
APPENDIX B

Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
building

3 - 46
APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on
a single-storey building
1 of 11
Calculation sheet

1. Data
This worked example deals with the calculation of the wind action on a
single-storey building according to EN 1991-1-4. The overall dimensions of
the building are given in Figure B.1.

14
5 m
5 m
6 m
6 m
4,8 m
6 m
16 m
16 m
60 m

Figure B.1 Geometry of the building
The doors are assumed to be shut during severe gales.
The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity is:
v
b,0
= 26 m/s

2. Peak velocity pressure
The peak velocity pressure is determined according to the step-by-step
procedure given in this guide.

1. Fundamental value of the basic wind velocity
v
b,0
= 26 m/s

2. Basic wind velocity
For c
dir
and c
season
, the recommended values are:
c
dir
= 1,0
c
season
= 1,0
Then: v
b
= v
b,0
= 26 m/s

EN 1991-1-4
4.2(2)

Title
APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
building
2 of 11

3 - 47
3. Basic velocity pressure
2
b
2
1
b
v q =
where:
= 1,25 kg/m
3
(recommended value)
Then: q
b
= 0,5 1,25 26
2
= 422,5 N/m
2

EN 1991-1-4
4.5(1)
4. Terrain factor
07 , 0
II 0,
0
r
19 , 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
z
z
k

EN 1991-1-4
4.3.2(1)
Table 4.1
The terrain category is category III, then:
z
0
= 0,3 m
z
min
= 5 m
215 , 0
05 , 0
30 , 0
19 , 0
07 , 0
r
= |
.
|
\
|
= k

5. Roughness factor
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
0
r r
ln ) (
z
z
k z c
z is taken equal to the height of the building:
z = 8 m
Then: 706 , 0
3 , 0
0 , 8
ln 215 , 0 ) (
r
= |
.
|
\
|
= z c

EN 1991-1-4
4.3.2(1)
6. Orography factor
The building is erected on a suburban terrain where the average slope of the
upwind terrain is very low (< 3), so:
c
o
(z) = 1

EN 1991-1-4
4.3.3(2)
7. Turbulence factor
The recommended value is used:
k
l
= 1,0

EN 1991-1-4
4.4(1)

Title
building
3 of 11

3 - 48
8. Peak velocity pressure (alternative for a single-storey building)
q
p
(z) = c
e
(z) q
b

where:
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
7
1 ) (
2
r
2
o
r o
r l
e
z c z c
z c z c
k k
z c
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

EN 1991-1-4
4.5(1)

56 , 1 706 , 0 0 , 1
706 , 0 0 , 1
215 , 0 0 , 1 7
1 ) (
2 2
e
= |
.
|
\
|

+ = z c
Then: q
p
(z) = 1,56 423 = 659 N/m
2

q
p
(z) = 0,659 kN/m
2
for z = 8 m

3. Wind pressure on surfaces

3.1. External pressure coefficients c
pe,10

3.1.1. Vertical walls

1. Wind on gable
h = 8 m
b = 32 m (crosswind dimension)
h < b, so z
e
= reference height = h = 8 m

EN 1991-1-4
7.2.2 (1)
Figure 7.4
d = 60 m
h/d = 8/60 = 0,13 (h/d < 0,25)
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.2 (2)
Table 7.1
2h = 16 m
e = 16 m (b or 2h, whichever is smaller)
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.2 (1)
Figure 7.5
e < d
e/5 = 3,2 m
4/5 e = 12,8 m
d e = 44 m

Figure B.2 defines the external pressure coefficients c
pe,10
on vertical walls for
zones A, B, C, D and E with wind on the gable.
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.2(2)
Table 7.1

Title
building
4 of 11

3 - 49
+ 0,7 - 0,3
Wind
44 m
h = 8 m
3,2 m 12,8 m
- 0,5
- 0,8
- 1,2
D D
B B C C
E E
A A

Figure B.2 c
pe,10
for zones A, B, C, D and E with wind on gable

2. Wind on the long side
h = 8 m
h < b, so z
e
= reference height = h = 8 m
d = 32 m

EN 1991-1-4
7.2.2 (1)
Figure 7.4
h/d = 8/32 = 0,25
2h = 16 m
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.2(2)
Table 7.1
e < d
e/5 = 3,2 m
4/5 e = 12,8 m
d e = 16 m
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.2(1)
Figure 7.5
pe,10
on vertical walls for
zones A, B, C, D and E with wind on the long side.
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.2(2)
Table 7.1

Title
building
5 of 11

3 - 50
h = 8 m
3,2 m
- 0,3
+ 0,7
- 1,2
12,8 m
D D
A A
B B
E E
- 0,8
16 m
C C
- 0,5
Wind

Figure B.3 c
pe,10
for zones A, B, C, D and E with wind on long side

3.1.2. Roofs

1. Wind on gable
Ridges are parallel to the wind direction: u = 90
Pitch angle: o = 14
h = 8 m
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.5(1)
Figure 7.8
The reference height is: z
e
= h = 8 m
2h = 16 m
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.7(3)
e/4 = 4 m
e/10 = 1,6 m
e/2 = 8 m
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.5(1)
Figure 7.8
pe,10
on roofs for zones
F, G, H and I with a wind on gable.
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.2(2)
Table 7b

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3 - 51

Trough
Ridge
- 1,3
- 1,3
- 0,6
- 0,6
- 1,3
Ridge
- 1,3
- 1,3
4 m
4 m
8 m
1,6 m
d = 60 m
- 1,3
- 0,6
Wind
b = 32 m
- 0,5
- 0,5
- 0,6
- 0,5
- 0,5
F F
G G
G G
G G
I I
I I
I I
I I
H H
H H
H H
H H
G G
F F

Figure B.4 c
pe,10
for zones F, G, H and I with wind on gable

2. Wind on long side
i. Ridges are perpendicular to the wind direction: u = 0
ii. Pitch angle o = 14
iii. h = 8 m
iv. b = 60 m (crosswind dimension)
v. h < b, so the reference height is: z
e
= h = 8 m
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.5(1)
Figure 7.8
vi. d = 32 m
vii. 2h = 16 m
viii. e = 16 m (b or 2h, whichever is smaller)
ix. e/4 = 4 m
x. e/10 = 1,6m
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.5(1)
Figure 7.8
pe,10
on roofs for zones
F, G, H, I and J with a wind on long side.
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.7(2)
Figure 7.10c

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3 - 52
Trough
Trough
- 0,9
+ 0,2
- 0,8
+ 0,2
- 0,5
- 0,9
+ 0,2
Ridge
1,6 m
4 m 4 m
b = 60 m
Wind
d = 32 m
- 0,3
+ 0,2
- 0,5
H H
H H
G G
F F
F F
H H
- 0,9
I I

Figure B.5 c
pe,10
for zones F, G, H and I with wind on long side

3.2. Internal pressure coefficients c
pi

3.2.1. Persistent or transient design situation

The doors are assumed to stay shut during severe gales:
c
pi
= + 0,2
And c
pi
= -0,3
with reference height for the internal pressure: z
i
= z
e
= h = 8 m
EN 1991-1-4
7.2.9(6)

7.2.9(7)
3.2.2. Accidental design situation

- A door opens upwind (wind on gable): this face is dominant and area of
the openings at the dominant face = 3 area of the openings in the
remaining faces:
c
pi
= 0,90 c
pe
c
pi
= 0,90 (+0,7) = +0,63
- A door opens downwind (wind on long side): this face is dominant and
area of the openings at the dominant face = 3 area of openings in the
remaining faces.

EN 1991-1-4
7.2.9(3)

7.2.9(5)

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3 - 53
The most severe case is when the opening is in a zone where |c
pe
| is the highest
(the door is completely in zone B).
c
pi
= 0,90 c
pe

c
pi
= 0,90 -0,8 = -0,72

EN 1991-1-4
7.2.9(6)
4. Friction forces
4.1. Wind on gable

The area of the external surfaces parallel to the wind is calculated by:
60 2 (6 + 8,25 2) = 2700 m
2

The area of the external surfaces perpendicular to the wind is:
2 2 16 (6 + 1) = 448 m
2

The area of the external surfaces parallel to the wind is higher than 4 area of
external surfaces perpendicular to the wind: friction forces should be taken
into account:
EN 1991-1-4
5.3(4)
4 h = 32 m
2 b = 64 m

4 h < 2 b
The friction forces apply on the area A
fr
:
A
fr
= 2 (60 32) (6 + 8,25 2) = 1260 m
2

EN 1991-1-4
7.5(3)
For a smooth surface (steel):
c
fr
= 0,01
and the friction force F
fr
(acting in the direction of the wind):
F
fr
= c
fr
q
p
(z
e
) A
fr
= (0,01 66 1260) 10
-2
= 8,316 kN

EN 1991-1-4
5.5(3)
4 h < 2 b
The friction forces apply on the area A
fr
:
A
fr
= 2 (60 32) (6 + 8,25 2) = 1260 m
2

EN 1991-1-4
7.5(3)
For a smooth surface (steel):
c
fr
= 0,01
and the friction force F
fr
(acting in the direction of the wind):
F
fr
= c
fr
q
p
(z
e
) A
fr
= (0,01 66 1260) 10
-2
= 8,316 kN

EN 1991-1-4
5.5(3)
4.2. Wind on long side

Area of external surfaces parallel to the wind < 4 area of external surfaces
perpendicular to the wind: friction forces should not be taken account
EN 1991-1-4
5.3(4)

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3 - 54
5. Wind forces on surfaces

F/A
ref
= c
s
c
d
q
p
(z
e
) c
pe
q
p
(z
i
) c
pi

with: c
s
c
d
= 1 (height < 15 m)
q
p
(z
e
) = q
p
(z
i
) = 0,66 kN/m
2

The figures below show the wind forces per unit surfaces:
F/A
ref
= 0,66 (c
pe
c
pi
) (in kN/m
2
)
EN 1991-1-4
6.2(1)b
Wind
+0,33
-0,99
-0,53
-0,46
-0,33
-0,92
-0,66
-0,46
F
fr
= 8,32 kN

Figure B.6 Wind on gable with c
pi
= +0,2

Wind
+0,66
-0,66
-0,20
-0,13
0
-0,59
-0,33
-0,13
F
fr
= 8,32 kN

Figure B.7 Wind on gable with c
pi
= -0,3

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3 - 55
-0,73
Wind
+0,33
-0,73
(+ 0)
-0,33
(+ 0)
-0,46
-0,33
-0,92
-0,66
-0,46 -0,73
(+ 0)
-0,66
(+ 0)

Figure B.8 Wind on long side with c
pi
= +0,2
The values in brackets should be used together.

Wind
+0,66
-0,40
(+0,33)
-0
(+0,33)
-0,13
0
-0,59
-0,33
-0,13
-0,40
(+0,33)
-0,33
(+0,33)
-0,40

Figure B.9 Wind on long side with c
pi
= -0,3
Values in brackets should be used together.

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3 - 56
Wind
+0,07
-1,25
-0,79
-0,73
-0,59
-1,19
-0,92
-0,73
F
fr
= 8,32 kN

Figure B.10 Accidental design situation: door open upwind (wind on gable)
with c
pi
= +0,6

Wind
+0,92
-0,13
(+0,59)
-0,26
(+0,59)
+0,13
+0,26
-0,33
-0,7
+0,13 -0,13
(+0,59)
-0,07
(+0,59)
+0,13

Figure B.11 Accidental design situation: door open downwind (wind on long
side) with c
pi
= -0,7
Values in brackets should be used together


Part 4: Detailed Design of Portal
Frames

Part 4: Detailed Design of Portal
Frames

4 - ii

Part 4: Detailed Design of Portal Frames
4 - iii
FOREWORD
This publication is part four of the design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
Part 3: Actions

4 - iv

4 - v
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Scope 1
1.2 Computer-aided design 1
2 SECOND ORDER EFFECTS IN PORTAL FRAMES 3
2.1 Frame behaviour 3
2.2 Second order effects 4
2.3 Design summary 5
3 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE 6
3.1 General 6
3.2 Imperfections 8
3.3 First order and second order analysis 13
3.4 Base stiffness 16
4 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE 20
4.1 General 20
4.2 Selection of deflection criteria 20
4.3 Analysis 20
5 CROSS-SECTION RESISTANCE 21
5.1 General 21
5.2 Classification of cross-section 21
5.3 Member ductility for plastic design 21
6 MEMBER STABILITY 23
6.1 Introduction 23
6.2 Buckling resistance in EN 1993-1-1 24
6.3 Out-of-plane restraint 26
6.4 Stable lengths adjacent to plastic hinges 28
7 RAFTER DESIGN 32
7.1 Introduction 32
7.2 Rafter strength 32
7.3 Rafter out-of-plane stability 33
7.4 In-plane stability 37
8 COLUMN DESIGN 38
8.1 Introduction 38
8.2 Web resistance 38
8.3 Column stability 38
8.4 In-plane stability 41
9 BRACING 42
9.1 General 42
4 - vi
9.2 Vertical bracing 42
9.3 Plan bracing 48
9.4 Restraint to inner flanges 50
9.5 Bracing at plastic hinges 51
10 GABLES 53
10.1 Types of gable frame 53
10.2 Gable columns 53
10.3 Gable rafters 54
11 CONNECTIONS 55
11.1 Eaves connections 55
11.2 Apex connections 56
11.3 Bases, base plates and foundations 57
12 SECONDARY STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS 63
12.1 Eaves beam 63
12.2 Eaves strut 63
13 DESIGN OF MULTI-BAY PORTAL FRAMES 64
13.1 General 64
13.2 Types of multi-bay portals 64
13.3 Stability 65
13.4 Snap through instability 66
REFERENCES 67
Appendix A Practical deflection limits for single-storey buildings 69
A.1 Horizontal deflections for portal frames 69
A.2 Vertical deflections for portal frames 71
Appendix B Calculation of o
cr,est
73
B.1 General 73
B.2 Factor o
cr,s,est
73
Appendix C Determination of M
cr
and N
cr
76
C.1 M
cr
for uniform members 76
C.2 M
cr
for members with discrete restraints to the tension flange 77
C.3 N
cr
for uniform members with discrete restraints to the tension flange 79
Appendix D Worked Example: Design of portal frame using elastic analysis 81

4 - vii
SUMMARY
This publication provides guidance on the detailed design of portal frames to the
Eurocodes.
An introductory section reviews the advantages of portal frame construction and
clarifies that the scope of this publication is limited to portal frames without ties
between eaves. Most of the guidance is related to single span frames, with limited
guidance for multi-span frames.
The publication provides guidance on:
- The importance of second order effects in portal frames
- The use of elastic and plastic analysis
- Design at the Ultimate and Serviceability Limit States
- Element design: cross-section resistance and member stability
- Secondary structure: gable columns, bracing and eaves members.
The document includes a worked example, demonstrating the assessment of sensitivity
to second order effects, and the verification of the primary members.
4 - viii

4 - 1
1 INTRODUCTION
Steel portal frames are very efficient and economical when used for
single-storey buildings, provided that the design details are cost effective and
the design parameters and assumptions are well chosen. In countries where this
technology is highly developed, the steel portal frame is the dominant form of
structure for single-storey industrial and commercial buildings. It has become
the most common structural form in pitched roof buildings, because of its
economy and versatility for a wide range of spans.
Where guidance is given in detail elsewhere, established publications are
referred to, with a brief explanation and review of their contents.
Cross-reference is made to the relevant clauses of EN 1993-1-1
[1]
.
1.1 Scope
This publication guides the designer through all the steps involved in the
detailed design of portal frames to EN 1993-1-1, taking due account of the role
of computer analysis with commercially available software. It is recognised
that the most economic design will be achieved using bespoke software.
Nevertheless this document provides guidance on the manual methods used for
initial design and the approaches used in software. The importance of
appropriate design details is emphasised, with good practice illustrated.
This publication does not address portal frames with ties between eaves. These
forms of portal frame are relatively rare. The ties modify the distribution of
bending moments substantially and increase the axial force in the rafter
dramatically. Second order software must be used for the design of portal
frames with ties at eaves level.
An introduction to single-storey structures, including portal frames, is given in
a complementary publication Single-storey steel buildings. Part 2: Concept
design
[2]
.
1.2 Computer-aided design
Although portal frames may be analysed by manual methods and members
verified by manual methods, software is recommended for greatest structural
efficiency. Bespoke software for portal frame design is widely available, which
will:
- undertake elastic-plastic analysis
- allow for second order effects
- verify members
- verify connections.
Generally, a number of different load combinations will have to be considered
during the design of a portal frame. Software that verifies the members for all
load combinations will shorten the design process considerably.
4 - 2
Whilst manual design may be useful for initial sizing of members and a
thorough understanding of the design process is necessary, the use of bespoke
software is recommended.
4 - 3
2 SECOND ORDER EFFECTS IN PORTAL
FRAMES
2.1 Frame behaviour
The strength checks for any structure are valid only if the global analysis gives
a good representation of the behaviour of the actual structure.
When any frame is loaded, it deflects and its shape under load is different from
the un-deformed shape. The deflection causes the axial loads in the members to
act along different lines from those assumed in the analysis, as shown
diagrammatically in Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2. If the deflections are small, the
consequences are very small and a first-order analysis (neglecting the effect of
the deflected shape) is sufficiently accurate. However, if the deflections are
such that the effects of the axial load on the deflected shape are large enough to
cause significant additional moments and further deflection, the frame is said to
be sensitive to second order effects. These second order effects, or P-delta
effects, can be sufficient to reduce the resistance of the frame.
These second order effects are geometrical effects and should not be confused
with non-linear behaviour of materials.
As shown in Figure 2.1, there are two categories of second order effects:
Effects of deflections within the length of members, usually called P-o (P-little
delta) effects.
Effects of displacements of the intersections of members, usually called P-A
(P-big delta) effects.
1 4
3 2
1
2
3
o
o
o
o
A
A
A

Figure 2.1 Asymmetric or sway mode deflection

4 - 4

Figure 2.2 Symmetric mode deflection
The practical consequence of P-o and P-A effects is to reduce the stiffness of
the frames and its elements below that calculated by first-order analysis.
Single-storey portals are sensitive to the effects of the axial compression forces
in the rafters and columns. These axial forces are commonly of the order of
10% of the elastic critical buckling loads of the rafters and columns, around
which level the reduction in effective stiffness becomes important.
2.2 Second order effects
Second order effects increase not only the deflections but also the moments and
forces beyond those calculated by first-order analysis. Second order analysis is
the term used to describe analysis methods in which the effects of increasing
deflection under increasing load are considered explicitly in the solution, so
that the results include the P-A and P-o effects described in Section 2.1. The
results will differ from the results of first-order analysis by an amount
dependent on the magnitude of the P-A and P-o effects.
The effects of the deformed geometry are assessed in EN 1993-1-1 by
calculating the factor o
cr
, defined as:
Ed
cr
F
F
cr
= o
where:
F
cr
is the elastic critical load vector for global instability, based on initial
elastic stiffnesses
F
Ed
is the design load vector on the structure.
Second order effects can be ignored in a first order analysis when the frame is
sufficiently stiff. According to 5.2.1 (3), second order effects may be ignored
when:
For elastic analysis: o
cr
> 10
For plastic analysis: o
cr
> 15
4 - 5
o
cr
may be found using software or (within certain limits) using Expression 5.2
from EN 1993-1-1. When the frame falls outside the limits, an alternative
expression may be used to calculate an approximate value of o
cr
. Further
details are given in Section 3.3.
When second order effects are significant, two options are possible:
- Rigorous 2
nd
order analysis (i.e. in practice, using an appropriate second
order software)
- Approximate 2
nd
order analysis (i.e. hand calculations using first-order
analysis with appropriate allowance for second order effects).
In the second method, also known as modified first order analysis, the applied
actions are amplified, to allow for second order effects while using first order
calculations. This method is described in Section 3.3.
2.3 Design summary
- Second order effects occur in the overall frame (P-A ) and within elements
(P-o).
- Second order effects are quantified by the factor o
cr
.

- For portal frames, the expression given to calculate o
cr
in EN 1993-1-1
5.2.1(4) may be used within certain limits. Outside the limits prescribed
by the Standard, an alternative calculation must be made, as described in
Appendix B.
- Second order effects may be significant in practical portal frames.
- Second order effects may be accounted for by either rigorous second order
analysis using software or by a first order analysis that is modified by an
amplification factor on the actions.

4 - 6
3 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
3.1 General
Methods of frame analysis at the Ultimate Limit State fall broadly into two
types elastic analysis (see Section 3.2.2) and plastic analysis (see
Section 3.2.3). The latter term covers both rigid-plastic and elastic-plastic
analyses.
The formation of hinges and points of maximum moment and the associated
redistribution of moment around the frame that are inherent to plastic analysis
are key to the economy of most portal frames. They relieve the highly
stressed regions and allow the capacity of under-utilised parts of the frame to
be mobilised more fully.
These plastic hinge rotations occur at sections where the bending moment
reaches the plastic moment or resistance at load levels below the full ULS
loading.
An idealised plastic bending moment diagram for a symmetrical portal under
symmetrical vertical loads is shown in Figure 3.1. This shows the position of
the plastic hinges for the plastic collapse mechanism. The first hinge to form is
normally adjacent to the haunch (shown in the column in this case). Later,
depending on the proportions of the portal frame, hinges form just below the
apex, at the point of maximum sagging moment.
A portal frame with pinned bases has a single degree of indeterminacy.
Therefore, two hinges are required to create a mechanism. The four hinges
shown in Figure 3.1 only arise because of symmetry. In practice, due to
variations in material strength and section size, only one apex hinge and one
eaves hinge will form to create the mechanism. As there is uncertainty as to
which hinges will form in the real structure, a symmetrical arrangement is
assumed, and hinge positions on each side of the frame restrained.
1 1
1

1 Position of plastic hinges

Figure 3.1 Bending moment diagram resulting from the plastic analysis of a
symmetrical portal frame under symmetrical vertical loading
4 - 7
Most load combinations will be asymmetric because they include either
equivalent horizontal forces (EHF; see Section 3.2) or wind loads. A typical
loading diagram and bending moment diagram are shown in Figure 3.2. Both
the wind and the EHF can act in either direction, meaning the hinge positions
on each side of the frame must be restrained.
1
1

1 Position of plastic hinges

Figure 3.2 Bending moment diagram resulting from plastic analysis of a
symmetrical portal frame under asymmetric loading
A typical bending moment diagram resulting from an elastic analysis of a
frame with pinned bases is shown in Figure 3.3. In this case, the maximum
moment (at the eaves) is higher than that calculated from a plastic analysis.
Both the column and haunch have to be designed for these larger bending
moments. The haunch may be lengthened to around 15% of the span, to
accommodate the higher bending moment.

Figure 3.3 Bending moment diagram resulting from the elastic analysis of a
symmetrical portal frame under symmetrical loading (haunch at
10% of span is denoted by solid line; that for 15% of span is
denoted by a dotted line)
4 - 8
3.2 Imperfections
Frame imperfections are addressed in EN 1993-1-1 5.3.2. Generally, frame
imperfections must be modelled. The frame may be modelled out-of-plumb, or
alternatively, a system of equivalent horizontal forces (EHF) may be applied to
the frame to allow for imperfections. The use of EHF is recommended as the
simpler approach.
3.2.1 Equivalent horizontal forces
The use of equivalent horizontal forces (EHF) to allow for the effects of initial
sway imperfections is allowed by 5.3.2(7). The initial imperfections are given
by Expression 5.5, where the initial imperfection | (indicated as an inclination
from the vertical) is given as:
| = |
0
o
h
o
m

where:
|
0
is the basic value: |
0
= 1/200
0 , 1
3
2
but
2
h h
s s = o o
h

h is the height of the structure in metres
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
m
1
1 5 , 0
m
o

m is the number of columns in a row for a portal the number of
columns in a single frame.
For single span portal frames, h is the height of the column, and m = 2.
It is conservative to set o
h
= o
m
= 1,0.
EHF may be calculated as | multiplied by the vertical reaction at the base of
the column (including crane loads as appropriate). The EHF are applied
horizontally, in the same direction, at the top of each column.
5.3.2(4) states that sway imperfections may be disregarded when
H
Ed
> 0,15 V
Ed
.
It is recommended that this relaxation is tested by comparing the net total
horizontal reaction at the base with the net total vertical reaction. In many
cases, the expression given in 5.3.2(4) will mean that EHF are not required in
combinations of actions that include wind actions. However, EHF will need to
be included in combinations of only gravity actions.
3.2.2 Elastic analysis
Elastic analysis is the most common method of analysis for general structures,
but will usually give less economical portal structures than plastic analysis.
EN 1993-1-1 allows the plastic cross-sectional resistance to be used with the
results of elastic analysis, provided the section class is Class 1 or Class 2. In
addition, it allows 15% of moment redistribution as defined in EN 1993-1-1
5.4.1.4(B)
4 - 9
Designers less familiar with steel design may be surprised by the use of plastic
moment of resistance and redistribution of moment in combination with elastic
analysis. However, it should be noted that, in practice:
- Because of residual stresses, member imperfections, real inertias that differ
from those assumed, real connection stiffness that differs from that assumed
and lack of fit at connections, the true distribution of moments in any frame
is likely to differ substantially from that predicted by elastic analysis.
- Class 1 and 2 sections are capable of some plastic rotation before there is
any significant reduction in capacity due to local buckling. This justifies a
redistribution of 15% of moments from the nominal moments determined
from the elastic analysis.
The results of elastic analysis should therefore be regarded as no more than a
reasonably realistic system of internal forces that are in equilibrium with the
applied loads.
In a haunched portal rafter, up to 15% of the bending moment at the sharp end
of the haunch can be redistributed, if the bending moment exceeded the plastic
resistance of the rafter and the moments and forces resulting from
redistribution can be carried by the rest of the frame. Alternatively, if the
moment at the midspan of the portal exceeded the plastic resistance of the
rafter, this moment can be reduced by up to 15% by redistribution, provided
that the remainder of the structure can carry the moments and forces resulting
from the redistribution.
If an elastic analysis reveals that the bending moment at a particular location
exceeds the plastic moment of resistance, the minimum moment at that point
after redistribution should be the plastic moment of resistance. This is to
recognise that a plastic hinge may form at that point. To allow reduction below
the plastic resistance would be illogical and could result in dangerous
assumptions in the calculation of member buckling resistance.
3.2.3 Plastic analysis
Plastic analysis is not used extensively in continental Europe, even though it is
a well-proven method of analysis. However, plastic analysis is used for more
than 90% of portal structures in the UK and has been in use for 40 years.
Traditionally, manual calculation methods were used for a plastic analysis (the
so-called graphical method, or the virtual work method, etc.). These manual
methods are not discussed in this publication, because plastic analysis is
usually undertaken with software, most of the time using the
elastic-perfectly-plastic method. The principle of this method is illustrated in
Figure 3.4 and Figure 3.5.
4 - 10
M
M
M
y
p
1
1
2
3
2
|

1 True behaviour
2 Elastic-perfectly-plastic model
3 Unloading behaviour

Figure 3.4 Moment/rotation behaviour and elastic-perfectly-plastic model for
a Class 1 section

(4)
2
6
3
5
o
o
1
V
Ed
Ed
Ed
H
H
Ed,
V (7)

1 Elastic response
2 First hinge forms
3 Second hinge forms
4 Horizontal displacement
5 True behaviour
6 Elastic/perfectly plastic model
7 Increasing vertical and (in proportion)
horizontal load

Figure 3.5 Simple model of a portal frame subject to increasing vertical and
horizontal loads, with failure governed by a sway mechanism
4 - 11
The elastic-perfectly-plastic model, Figure 3.4, assumes that the members
deform as linear elastic elements until the applied moment reaches the full
plastic moment M
p
. The subsequent behaviour is assumed to be perfectly
plastic without strain hardening.
With elastic-perfectly-plastic analysis, the load is applied in small increments,
with hinges inserted in the analysis model at any section that reaches its full
plastic moment, M
p
as illustrated in
Figure 3.6. If the appropriate computer
software is used, it should be possible to predict hinges that form, rotate, then
unload or even reverse. The final mechanism will be the true collapse
mechanism and will be identical to the lowest load factor mechanism that can
be found by the rigid-plastic method.
The elastic/perfectly-plastic method has the following advantages:
- The true collapse mechanism is identified.

- All plastic hinges are identified, including any that might form and
subsequently unload. Such (transient) hinges would not appear in the final
collapse mechanism but would nevertheless need restraint.

- Hinges forming at loads greater than ULS can be identified. Such hinges do not
need restraint, as the structure can already carry the ULS loads. This may
produce economies in structures where the member resistance is greater than
necessary, as occurs when deflections govern the design or when oversize
sections are used.
- The true bending moment diagram at collapse, or at any stage up to
collapse, can be identified.
3.2.4 Elastic vs. plastic analysis
As discussed in Section 3.1, plastic analysis generally results in more
economical structures because plastic redistribution allows smaller members to
carry the same loads. For frames analysed plastically, haunch lengths are
generally around 10% of the span.
Where deflections (SLS) govern design, there is no advantage in using plastic
analysis for the ULS. If stiffer sections are selected in order to control
deflections, it is quite possible that no plastic hinges form and the frame
remains elastic at ULS.
The economy of plastic analysis also depends on the bracing system, because
plastic redistribution imposes additional requirements on the restraint to
members, as discussed in Section 6.3. The overall economy of the frame might,
therefore, depend on the ease with which the frame can be restrained.
Plastic analysis should only be contemplated if commercial software is
available. The more sophisticated software packages carry out second order
(P-) elastic-plastic analysis directly, significantly simplifying the overall
design process. The ready availability of elastic/plastic design software makes
it as easy to adapt full plastic analysis. The resulting limitation to Class 1
sections, which are required at potential hinge positions, is not significant.
4 - 12

(a)
First hinge forms
1

(b)

Load increases rafter approaches yield
1

(c)

Load increases, second hinge forms and a
mechanism leads to collapse
1
1

(d)
1 Plastic resistance moment

Figure 3.6 Elastic-perfectly-plastic method of analysis, showing state of
frame as horizontal and vertical loads are increased proportionally
a) Elastic throughout; (b) Plastic hinge at eaves;(c) Rafters
approaching plasticity; (d) Plastic hinge in rafter
It is recognised that some redistribution of moments is possible, even with the
use of elastic design. EN 1993-1-1 5.4.1.4(B) allows 15% redistribution, as
discussed in Section 3.2.2, although this is uncommon in practice.
Where haunch lengths of around 15% of the span are acceptable and the lateral
loading is small, the elastic bending moment diagram will be almost the same
as the plastic collapse bending moment diagram. As illustrated in Figure 3.3,
the maximum hogging moment at the end of the haunch is similar to the
maximum sagging moment in the rafter. In such cases, an elastic analysis may
provide an equivalent solution to a plastically analysed frame.
4 - 13
3.3 First order and second order analysis
For both plastic analysis and elastic analysis of frames, the choice of first-order
or second order analysis may be governed by the in-plane flexibility of the
frame, measured by the factor o
cr
(see Section 3.3.1). In practice, the choice
between first and second order analysis is also dependent on the availability of
software. Even if a portal frame was sufficiently stiff that second order effects
were small enough to be ignored, it may be convenient still to use second order
analysis software.
When a second order analysis is required but is not available, modified first
order methods can be useful for calculations. A modified first order approach is
slightly different for elastic and plastic analysis, and is described in
Sections 3.3.2 and 3.3.3. In elastic analysis, the horizontal actions are
amplified; in plastic analysis, all actions are amplified.
3.3.1 o
cr
factor
Expression 5.2 of EN 1993-1-1 5.2.1(4)B gives o
cr
as:
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Ed H, Ed
Ed
cr
o
o
h
V
H

Note 1B and Note 2B of that clause limit the application of Expression 5.2 to
roofs with shallow roof slopes and where the axial force in the rafter is not
significant. Thus:
- a roof slope is considered as shallow at slopes no steeper than 26
- axial force in the rafter may be assumed to be significant if
Ed
y
3 , 0
N
Af
> .
A convenient way to express the limitation on the axial force is that the axial
force is not significant if:
cr Ed
09 . 0 N N s
Where
N
cr
is the elastic critical buckling load for the complete span of the rafter
pair, i.e.
2
2
cr
L
EI
N =
L is the developed length of the rafter pair from column to column,
taken as span/Cos ( is the roof slope)

If the limits are satisfied, then Expression 5.2 may be used to calculate o
cr.
In
most practical portal frames, the axial load in the rafter will be significant and
Expression 5.2 cannot be used.
When the axial force in the rafter is significant, Appendix B provides an
alternative, approximate method to calculate the measure of frame stability,
defined as o
cr,est
. In many cases, this will be a conservative result. Accurate
values of o
cr
may be obtained from software.
4 - 14
3.3.2 Modified first order, for elastic frame analysis
The amplified sway moment method is the simplest method of allowing for
second order effects for elastic frame analysis; the principle is given in
EN 1993-1-1, 5.2.2(5B).
A first-order linear elastic analysis is first carried out; then all horizontal loads
are increased by an amplification factor to allow for the second order effects.
The horizontal loads comprise the externally applied loads, such as the wind
load, and the equivalent horizontal forces used to allow for frame
imperfections; both are amplified.
Provided o
cr
> 3,0 the amplification factor is:
|
|
.
|
\
|
cr
1 1
1
o

If the axial load in the rafter is significant, and o
cr,est
has been calculated in
accordance with Appendix B, the amplifier becomes:
|
|
.
|
\
|
est cr,
1 1
1
o

If o
cr
or o
cr,est
is less than 3,0 second order software should be used.
3.3.3 Modified first order, for plastic frame analysis
Design philosophy
In the absence of elastic-plastic second order analysis software, the design
philosophy is to derive loads that are amplified to account for the effects of
deformed geometry (second order effects). Application of these amplified loads
through a first-order analysis gives the bending moments, axial forces and
shear forces that include the second order effects approximately.
The amplification is calculated by a method that is sometimes known as the
Merchant-Rankine method. Because, in plastic analysis, the plastic hinges limit
the moments resisted by the frame, the amplification is performed on all the
actions that are applied to the first-order analysis (i.e. all actions and not only
the horizontal forces related to wind and imperfections).
The Merchant-Rankine method places frames into one of two categories:
- Category A: Regular, symmetric and mono-pitched frames
- Category B: Frames that fall outside of Category A but excluding tied
portals.
For each of these two categories of frame, a different amplification factor
should be applied to the actions. The Merchant-Rankine method has been
verified for frames that satisfy the following criteria:
1. Frames in which 8 s
h
L
for any span
2. Frames in which 3
cr
> o
4 - 15
where:
L is span of frame (see Figure 3.7)
h is the height of the lower column at either end of the span being
considered (see Figure 3.7)
o
cr
is the elastic critical buckling load factor.
If the axial load in the rafter is significant (see Section 3.3.1), o
cr,est
should be
calculated in accordance with Appendix B).
Other frames should be designed using second order elastic-plastic analysis
software.
Amplification factors
Category A: Regular, symmetric and nearly symmetric pitched and
mono-pitched frames (See Figure 3.7).
Regular, symmetric and mono-pitched frames include single span frames and
multi-span frames in which there is only a small variation in height (h) and
span (L) between the different spans; variations in height and span of the order
of 10% may be considered as being sufficiently small.
In the traditional industrial application of this approach, first-order analysis
may be used for such frames if all the applied actions are amplified by
|
|
.
|
\
|
cr
1 1
1
o
, or
|
|
.
|
\
|
est cr,
1 1
1
o
if the axial force in the rafter was found to be
significant.
h
L

L
h

1 2

L L
h

3
1 Mono-pitch
2 Single-span
3 Multi-span

Figure 3.7 Examples of Category A frames
4 - 16
Category B: Frames that fall outside of Category A (See Figure 3.8), but
excluding tied portals.
For frames that fall outside of Category A, first-order analysis may be used if
all the applied loads are amplified by:
|
|
.
|
\
|
cr
1 1
1 , 1
o
or
|
|
.
|
\
|
est cr,
1 1
1 , 1
o
if the axial force in the rafter was found to be
significant.

1 2

L L L
1 1 2
(>> )

3
1 Asymmetric
2 Sloping site
3 Multi-span with unequal spans

Figure 3.8 Examples of Category B frames
3.4 Base stiffness
Analysis should take account of the rotational stiffness of the bases. The
following simple rules in this section are recommended. These
recommendations might not be accepted in certain countries; the relevant
National Annex and the local regulatory authorities should be consulted.
It is important to distinguish between column base resistance and column base
stiffness. Column base resistance is only relevant to elastic-plastic or
rigid-plastic calculations of frame resistance, not to deflections. Column base
stiffness is relevant to elastic-plastic or elastic frame analysis for both
resistance and deflection.
If any base stiffness is assumed in ULS design, the base details and foundation
must be designed to have sufficient resistance to sustain the calculated
moments and forces.
In many general analysis computer programmes, these base stiffnesses are
most conveniently modelled by the introduction of a dummy member, as
4 - 17
h
0.75 h

Figure 3.9 Dummy member to model nominally rigid column base
Note that the reaction at the pinned end of the dummy member will affect the
reaction at the column base. This must be corrected by taking the base reaction
equal to the axial force in the column, which equals the sum of the reactions at
the base and the pinned end of the dummy member.
3.4.1 Pinned and rocker bases
Where a true pin or rocker is used, as illustrated in Figure 3.10, the rotational
stiffness is zero. The use of such bases is rarely justified in practice. Where
they are adopted, careful consideration needs to be given to the transfer of
shear into the foundation, and temporary stability of the column during
erection.

Figure 3.10 Examples of zero stiffness column bases
3.4.2 Nominally rigid column bases
If a column is rigidly connected to a suitable foundation, the following
recommendations should be adopted:
Elastic global analysis:
For Ultimate Limit State calculations the stiffness of the base can be taken as
equal to the stiffness of the column.
For Serviceability Limit State calculations the base can be treated as rigid to
determine deflections under serviceability loads.
4 - 18
Plastic global analysis:
Any base moment capacity between zero and the plastic moment capacity of
the column may be assumed, provided that the foundation is designed to resist
a moment equal to this assumed moment capacity, together with the forces
obtained from the analysis.
Elastic - plastic global analysis:
The assumed base stiffness must be consistent with the assumed base moment
capacity, but should not exceed the stiffness of the column.
3.4.3 Nominally semi-rigid column bases
A nominal base stiffness of up to 20 % of the column may be assumed in
elastic global analysis, provided that the foundation is designed for the
moments and forces obtained from this analysis.
3.4.4 Nominally pinned bases
If a column is nominally pin connected to a foundation that is designed
assuming that the base moment is zero, the base should be assumed to be
pinned when using elastic global analysis to calculate the other moments and
forces in the frame under Ultimate Limit State loading.
The stiffness of the base may be assumed to be equal to the following
proportion of the column stiffness:
- 10% when calculating o
cr
or o
cr,est

- 20% when calculating deflections under serviceability loads.
Column base plates with a relatively thin base plate and four bolts outside the
profile of the column section are considered in some countries as nominally
pinned if they have sufficient deformation capacity, although in fact they will
exhibit semi-rigid behaviour. Such bases have the additional practical
advantage that they provide sufficient base stiffness to enable the column to be
free-standing during erection, and assist in the aligning of the column.
3.5 Design summary
Analysis for the Ultimate Limit State:
- may be carried out either by elastic analysis or by plastic analysis
- should take account of second order (P-A) effects, when o
cr
or o
cr,est
is less
an 10 (elastic analysis) or 15 (plastic analysis)
- if necessary, second order effects can be accounted for either directly (using
a second order analysis) or by the use of a modified first order analysis with
an amplification factor.
For most structures, greatest economy (and ease of analysis and design) will be
achieved by the use of software that:
- is based on elastic/perfectly plastic moment/rotation behaviour
- takes direct account of second order (P-A) effects.
4 - 19
A summary of the assessment of sensitivity to second order effects and the
amplification to allow for second order effects is given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Second order effects: assessment and amplification factors
Restrictions Elastic analysis Plastic analysis
shallow slopes, and
rafter axial force not
significant
o
cr
o
cr

Measure of
sensitivity to second
order effects
steep slopes, and
rafter axial force
significant
o
cr,est
o
cr,est

Regular frames
|
|
.
|
\
|
cr
1 1
1
o
or
|
|
.
|
\
|
est cr,
1 1
1
o

|
|
.
|
\
|
cr
1 1
1
o
or
|
|
.
|
\
|
est cr,
1 1
1
o

Amplifier to allow for
second order effects
Irregular frames, but
excluding tied portals
|
|
.
|
\
|
cr
1 1
1
o
or
|
|
.
|
\
|
est cr,
1 1
1
o

|
|
.
|
\
|
o
cr
,
1 1
1 1
or
|
|
.
|
\
|
est cr,
1 1
1 , 1
o

Amplifier applied to: Horizontal loads
only
All loads

4 - 20
4 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE
4.1 General
The Serviceability Limit State (SLS) analysis should be performed using the
SLS load cases, to ensure that the deflections are acceptable at working loads.
4.2 Selection of deflection criteria
No specific deflection limits are set in EN 1993-1-1. According to
EN 1993-1-1 7.2 and EN 1990, Annex A1.4, deflection limits should be
specified for each project and agreed with the client. The relevant National
Annex to EN 1993-1-1 may specify limits for application in individual
countries. Where limits are specified they have to be satisfied. Where limits
are not specified, Appendix A of this document presents typical limits.
If the structure contains overhead travelling cranes, the spread of the columns
at the level of the crane is likely to be an important design criterion. In many
cases, it will be necessary to provide stiffer steel sections than are necessary for
the ULS design, or to provide some fixity in the base and foundation. An
alternative is a tied portal (when second order analysis must be used) or a truss.
4.3 Analysis
The SLS analysis is normally a first-order (elastic) analysis. The designer
should verify plastic hinges do not form at SLS, simply to validate the
deflection calculations.

4.4 Design summary
The Serviceability Limit State (SLS):
- Is assessed by first order analysis
- Uses deflection criteria defined in the relevant National Annex or agreed
with the client.
4 - 21
5 CROSS-SECTION RESISTANCE
5.1 General
EN 1993-1-1 requires that the resistance of cross-sections and the member
buckling resistance are checked by separate calculations. Additional checks are
required for the resistance of webs to shear buckling and buckling due to
transverse loads.
The calculated resistance depends on the classification of the cross-section.
Cross-section resistance is treated in Section 6.2 of EN 1993-1-1.
5.2 Classification of cross-section
In EN 1993-1-1, cross-sections are classified according to the relative thickness
of the flanges and web, together with the magnitude of the bending moment
and axial compression on the section. The classification according to the
slenderness of flange or web elements is given in EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2. EN
1993-1-1 covers sections under axial load alone, under pure bending and under
combined axial load and bending moment. The class of a section is the highest
class of either the flanges or the web.
It is important to note that the classification depends on both the geometry of
the cross-section and the ratio of the moments and axial force at the
cross-section. For example, a typical I-beam might be Class 1 under pure
moment but Class 2 or 3 under pure axial loading; under combined loading it
might then be Class 1, 2, or 3, depending on the proportions of axial force and
bending moment at the cross-section under consideration.
The classes indicate the following structural behaviour:
Class 1 can support a rotating plastic hinge without any loss of resistance
from local buckling.
Class 2 can develop full plastic moment but with limited rotation capacity
before local buckling reduces resistance.
Class 3 can develop yield in extreme fibres but local buckling prevents
development of plastic moment.
Class 4 has proportions such that local buckling will occur at stresses below
first yield.
5.3 Member ductility for plastic design
As specified in EN 1993-1-1:2005 5.6, all members formed from rolled
sections (and therefore uniform apart from haunches) containing plastic hinges
that rotate prior to reaching the ULS loading must have a Class 1 cross-section.
Elsewhere, they may be Class 2.
4 - 22
5.6(3) provides additional requirements for non-uniform sections, i.e. the
rafters and their haunches. These will automatically be satisfied by the general
requirement for uniform sections in the paragraph above where the haunch is
formed from a cutting from the rafter section, or cut from a slightly larger
rolled section.
5.4 Design summary
- Cross-section classification depends on the ratio of moment and axial load.
- All critical cross-sections need to be checked for cross-section resistance in
accordance with Section 6.2 of EN 1993-1-1.
- For plastic design, all sections containing plastic hinges must be Class 1.

4 - 23
6 MEMBER STABILITY
6.1 Introduction
Members must be checked for the combined effects of axial load and buckling.
In general, this will be by satisfying Expressions 6.61 and 6.62 of EN 1993-1-
1, as described in Section 6.2. In the special circumstances where there are
plastic hinges in members, EN 1993-1-1 gives particular requirements, as
described in Section 6.4.
In-plane buckling is buckling about the major axis of the member. As
explained in Section 6.1.1, there are no intermediate restraints when
considering in-plane buckling of a member in a portal frame.
Out-of-plane buckling concerns buckling about the minor axis of the member.
In a portal frame the secondary steelwork can be used to provide restraints, and
so increase the buckling resistance, as described in Section 6.3.
6.1.1 Member buckling in portal frames
N
N
1
4
3
2
M
M
1
2

1 Intersection with column at eaves
2,3 Intersection with purlins (typical)
4 Apex of frame

Figure 6.1 Diagrammatic representation of a portal frame rafter
Figure 6.1 shows a simple representation of the issues that need to be addressed
when considering the stability of a member within a portal frame, in this
example a rafter between the eaves and apex. The following points should be
noted:
- There can be no intermediate points of restraint for in-plane buckling
between the main nodes of the frame, 1 and 4.
- Intermediate restraints may be introduced (nodes 2 and 3) against
out-of-plane buckling.
4 - 24
Practical design addresses this interaction in several ways:
- Out-of-plane stability near plastic hinges is generally addressed by the
concept of stable lengths, L
stable
, L
m
, L
k
and L
s
. These are assumed to be
independent of any interaction with in-plane stability effects (see
Section 6.4.).
- Interaction between bending moment and axial load is addressed by
simultaneously satisfying Expressions 6.61 and 6.62 of EN 1993-1-1. This
is usually undertaken by considering the most onerous out-of-plane check
(from any part of the member) with the relevant in-plane check.
6.2 Buckling resistance in EN 1993-1-1
The verification of buckling resistance of members is addressed by several
clauses in EN 1993-1-1. The clauses of primary interest in portal frame design
are described below.
6.3.1 Uniform members in compression. This clause covers strut buckling
resistance and the selection of buckling curves. The clause is primarily
concerned with flexural buckling, but also addresses torsional and
torsional-flexural buckling. These latter modes of failure will not govern the
IPE sections and similar cross-sections adopted for portal frames.
6.3.2 Uniform members in bending. This clause covers lateral-torsional
buckling of beams.
The distribution of bending moments along an unrestrained length of beam has
an important influence on the buckling resistance. This is accounted for by the
choice of C
1
factor when calculating M
cr
(See Appendix C).
6.3.3 Uniform members in bending and axial compression. This clause
addresses the interaction of axial load and moment, in-plane and out-of-plane.
The clause requires the following checks to be carried out unless full second
order analysis, including all member imperfections (Po, torsional and lateral
imperfections), is utilised.
1
M1
Rk z,
Ed z, Ed z,
yz
M1
Rk y,
LT
Ed y, Ed y,
yy
M1
Rk y
Ed
s
+
+
+
+

_
_ M
M M
k
M
M M
k
N
N
(6.61)
1
M1
Rk z,
Ed z, Ed z,
zz
M1
Rk y,
LT
Ed y, Ed y,
zy
M1
Rk z
Ed
s
+
+
+
+

_
_ M
M M
k
M
M M
k
N
N
(6.62)
For Class 1, 2, 3 and bi-symmetric Class 4 sections, 0
Ed z, Ed y,
= = M M A A
It is helpful to define
M1
y.Rk
y
_
N
as N
b,y,Rd
and _
LT

M1
Rk y,
M
as M
b,Rd
.

M
z.Ed
is zero because the frame is only loaded in its plane.
4 - 25
The expressions therefore simplify to:

Rd b,
Ed y, yy
Rd y, b,
Ed
M
M k
N
N
+ s 1.0 (from Expression 6.61)
and
Rd b,
Ed y, zy
Rd z, b,
Ed
M
M k
N
N
+ s 1.0 (from Expression 6.62).
Values of k
yy
and k
zy
may be obtained from EN 1993-1-1, either Annex A or
Annex B. Annex A generally provides higher design strength for the rafters
and columns in portal frames than Annex B. The choice of Annex may be
defined in some countries by their National Annexes. The worked example
within this publication adopts Annex B values.
The buckling resistances will normally be based on the system length of the
rafter and column. Some national regulatory authorities may allow the use of a
reduced system length and a buckling length factor. The buckling length factor
is 1.0 or smaller, and reflects the increased buckling resistance of members
with a degree of end fixity. The buckling length is the product of the length and
the buckling length factor, and will be less than the system length. This
approach will result in an enhanced buckling resistance.
Clause 6.3.5 Lateral torsional buckling of members with plastic hinges. This
clause provides guidance for the members in frames that have been analysed
plastically. The clause requires restraint to hinge locations and verification of
stable lengths between such restraints and other lateral restraints. Both topics
are addressed in more detail in Section 6.4.
6.2.1 Influence of moment gradient
A uniform bending moment is the most onerous loading system when
calculating the lateral torsional buckling resistance of a member. A
non-uniform moment is less onerous. Annexes A and B in EN 1993-1-1 allow
for the effect of the moment gradient, via coefficients C
mi,0
and C
mLT
etc. These
C factors influence the k
yy
and k
zy
factors in Expressions 6.61 and 6.62, used
when verifying the member.
Although it is conservative to take C factors as 1.0, this is not recommended.
4 - 26
6.3 Out-of-plane restraint

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6.2 Types of restraint to out-of-plane buckling
Figure 6.2 shows the three basic types of restraint that can be provided to
reduce or prevent out-of-plane buckling:
(a) Lateral restraint, which prevents lateral movement of the compression
flange.
(b) Torsional restraint, which prevents rotation of a member about its
longitudinal axis.
(c) Intermediate lateral restraint to the tension flange. Such restraints are only
of limited benefit, but do modify the out-of-plane buckling mode and may
therefore allow the distance between torsional restraints to be increased.
As shown in Figure 6.3, practical details may provide more than one type of
restraint.
4 - 27

1 Stay

Figure 6.3 Example of combined lateral and torsional restraint
Purlins attached to the top flange of the rafter and side rails attached to the
outer flange of the column provide stability to the rafter in a number of ways:
- Direct lateral restraint, when the outer flange is in compression.
- Intermediate lateral restraint to the tension flange between torsional
restraints, when the outer flange is in tension.
- Torsional and lateral restraint to the rafter when the purlin is attached to the
tension flange and used in conjunction with rafter stays to the compression
flange.
In all cases, the purlins and side rails should be tied back into a system of
bracing in the plane of the rafters (see Section 9). Generally, the assumption
that the forces are carried back to the bracing system via the roof diaphragm is
accepted in many countries, even without supporting calculations. In other
countries calculations are necessary, or the purlins can only be assumed to
provide restraint if they are aligned directly with the bracing system.
The position of the purlins and side rails will be a balance between the capacity
of the purlins themselves, and the necessary spacing required to restrain the
primary steel members. The maximum spacing will usually be determined
from manufacturers load tables. Spacing may have to be reduced to provide
restraint to the inside flange at strategic points along the rafter or column, so it
would be common to provide purlins at reduced spacing in zones of high
bending moment, such as around the eaves haunch.
Normal practice is to locate one purlin at the sharp end of the haunch, and
one near the apex. The intervening length is split at regular spacing typically
about 1,6 to 1,8 m. A purlin is often located near the end plate of the rafter, and
depending on the length of the haunch, one, two or more purlins in the length
to the sharp end of the haunch, usually at lesser spacing than the main length
of rafter.
Additional purlins may be required to carry drifted snow these may also be
used to provide restraint.
Side rails are usually located at positions to suit the cladding, doors and
windows. The inside of the flange at the underside of the haunch always
requires restraint it is common to position a side rail at this level.
Purlins and side rails must be continuous in order to offer adequate restraint, as
shown in Figure 6.3. A side rail that is not continuous (for example,
interrupted by industrial doors) cannot be relied upon to provide adequate
restraint.
4 - 28
6.4 Stable lengths adjacent to plastic hinges
6.4.1 Introduction
EN 1993-1-1 introduces four types of stable length, L
stable
, L
m
, L
k
and L
s
. Each
is discussed below. L
k
and L
s
are used to verify member stability between
torsional restraints and recognise the stabilising effects of intermediate
restraints to the tension flange.
L
stable
(Clause 6.3.5.3(1)B)
L
stable
is the basic stable length for a uniform beam segment under linear
moment and without significant axial compression. This simple base case is
of limited use in the verification of practical portal frames.
In this context, significant may be related to the determination of
cr
in
EN 1993-1-1 5.2.1 4(B) Note 2B. The axial compression is not significant if
cr Ed
09 , 0 N N s , as explained in Section 3.3.1
L
m
(Appendix BB.3.1.1)
L
m
is the stable length between the torsional restraint at the plastic hinge and
the adjacent lateral restraint. It takes account of both member compression and
the distribution of moments along the member. Different expressions are
available for:
- Uniform members (Expression BB.5)
- Three flange haunches (Expression BB.9)
- Two flange haunches (Expression BB.10).
L
k
(Appendix BB.3.1.2 (1)B)
L
k
is the stable length between a plastic hinge location and the adjacent
torsional restraint in the situation where a uniform member is subject to a
constant moment, providing the spacing of the restraints to either the tension or
compression flange is not greater than L
m
. Conservatively, this limit may also
be applied to a non-uniform moment.
L
s
(Appendix BB.3.1.2 (2)B) and (3)B
L
s
is the stable length between a plastic hinge location and the adjacent
torsional restraint, where a uniform member is subject to axial compression and
linear moment gradient, providing the spacing of the restraints to either the
tension or compression flange is not greater than L
m
.
Different C factors and different expressions are used for linear moment
gradients (Expression BB.7) and non-linear moment gradients
(Expression BB.8).
Where the segment varies in cross-section along its length, i.e. in a haunch, two
different approaches are adopted:
- For both linear and non-linear moments on three flange haunches BB.11
- For both linear and non-linear moments on two flange haunches BB.12.
4 - 29
6.4.2 Application in practice
The flowcharts in Figures 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 summarise the practical application
of the different stable length formulae for any member segment adjacent to a
plastic hinge. In the absence of a plastic hinge, the member segment is verified
by conventional elastic criteria using Expressions 6.61 and 6.62.

Figure 6.4 Decision tree for selecting appropriate stable length criteria for
any segment in a portal frame Sheet 1

4 - 30

Figure 6.5 Decision tree for selecting appropriate stable length criteria for
any segment in a portal frame Sheet 2

4 - 31

Figure 6.6 Decision tree for selection of appropriate stable length criteria in a
portal frame Sheet 3
6.5 Design summary
Before proceeding to the detailed verification of rafter and column stability,
designers should appreciate that:
- Torsional and lateral restraints need to be provided at all hinge positions, as
required by 6.3.5.2.
- EN 1993-1-1 recognises four different types of stable lengths, L
stable
, L
m
, L
k

and L
s
, adjacent to plastic hinge positions. Lateral restraints must be
provided adjacent to the hinge at no greater distance than L
stable
or L
m
and
torsional restraints at no greater distance than L
k
or L
s
, as appropriate.
- In zones where there is no plastic hinge, each member must satisfy the
simplified forms of Expressions 6.61 and 6.62. These consider in-plane and
out-of-plane stability and their potential interaction.
4 - 32
7 RAFTER DESIGN
7.1 Introduction
Portal frame design is usually governed by the verification of members at ULS.
Although SLS checks are important, orthodox frames are generally sufficiently
stiff to satisfy the SLS deflection limits. Economy in the overall frame can
usually be achieved by the use of plastic analysis; this requires Class 1 or 2
sections throughout and Class 1 where there is a hinge which is predicted to
rotate.
1
2

1 Bottom flange in compression
2 Top flange in compression

Figure 7.1 Portal frame bending moments, gravity actions
As shown in Figure 7.1, rafters are subject to high bending moments in the
plane of the frame, that vary from a maximum hogging moment at the
junction with the column to a minimum sagging moment close to the apex.
They are also subject to overall compression from the frame action. They are
not subject to any minor axis moments.
Although member resistance is important, stiffness of the frame is also
necessary to limit the effects of deformed geometry and to limit the SLS
deflections. For these reasons, high strength members are generally not used in
portal frames, but lower steel grades with higher inertias. Optimum design of
portal frame rafters is generally achieved by use of:
- A cross-section with a high ratio of I
yy
to I
zz
that complies with the
requirements of Class 1 or Class 2 under combined major axis bending and
axial compression.
- A haunch that extends from the column for approximately 10% of the
frame span. This will generally mean that the maximum hogging and
sagging moments in the plain rafter length are similar.
7.2 Rafter strength
The resistances of all critical cross-sections of the rafter must be verified in
accordance with Section 6 of EN 1993-1-1.
4 - 33
7.3 Rafter out-of-plane stability
7.3.1 Rafter and haunch stability under maximum hogging moment
Both in-plane and out-of-plane checks are required. Initially, the out-of-plane
checks are completed to ensure that the restraints are located at appropriate
positions and spacing.
B
A
2
3
1
4
5
6
7
7
8
M
2
C
M
p
p

1 Tapered length between torsional restraints
2 Tapered length, between lateral restraints
3 Length between lateral restraints
4 Length between torsional restraints

5 Elastic section of rafter
6 Elastic section of rafter
7 Torsional restraint to the rafter
8 Torsional restraint to the column

Figure 7.2 Typical portal frame rafter with potential plastic hinges at tip of
haunch and first purlin down from apex
Figure 7.2 shows a typical moment distribution for permanent plus variable
actions and typical purlin positions and typical restraint positions.
Purlins are placed at about 1,8 m spacing but this spacing may need to be
reduced in the high moment regions near the eaves. Three stability zones are
noted on Figure 7.2 (zones A, B, and C), which are referred to in the following
sections.
The presence of plastic hinges in the rafter will depend on the loading,
geometry and choice of column and rafter sections.
The selection of the appropriate check depends on the presence of a plastic
hinge, the shape of the bending moment diagram and the geometry of the
section (three flanges or two flanges). The objective of the checks is to provide
sufficient restraints to ensure the rafter is stable out-of-plane.
Haunch stability in Zone A
In Zone A, the bottom flange of the haunch is in compression. The stability
checks are complicated by the variation in geometry along the haunch.
The junction of the inside column flange and the underside of the haunch
(point 8 in Figure 7.2) should always be restrained. The sharp end of the
haunch (point 7 in Figure 7.2) usually has restraint to the bottom flange, from a
purlin located at this position, forming a torsional restraint at this point. If a
4 - 34
plastic hinge is predicted at this position, a restraint must be located within h/2
of the hinge position, where h is the depth of the rafter. In Figure 7.2, a hinge is
predicted at point 7, and a restraint to the bottom flange has been provided. The
restraints to each flange in the haunch region are shown in Figure 7.3.
1
2
4
5
3
6

1. Zone A
2. Depth of haunch
3 Intermediate restraint between torsional restraints
4. Torsional restraints
5. Depth of rafter
6. Restraints to flange

Figure 7.3 Restraints in the haunched region of a portal frame
It is necessary to check that the distance between torsional restraints (in
Figure 7.2 this is indicated as 1 in zone A) on both sides of a plastic hinge
does not exceed L
s
as given in BB.3.2.2. In zone A, the member is tapered,
and the bending moment is not constant.
L
s
is given in BB.3.2.2 Expression BB.11 for a three flange haunch and
Expression BB.12 for a two-flange haunch. In both cases, a factor C
n
(given in
BB.3.3.2) takes account of non-linear moment gradients by calculating relevant
parameters at the five cross-sections, as shown in Figure 7.4. The parameter c
is a taper factor, given in BB.3.3.3(1)B. BB.3.2.2 also demands that the
spacing of intermediate lateral restraints satisfies the requirements for L
m
given
in BB.3.2.1. In Figure 7.2, both lengths indicated 2 must satisfy this check.
Expression BB.9 is used for a three flanged haunch and BB.10 for a
two-flanged haunch. A three flanged haunch would be the common situation
when the haunch is fabricated from a section cutting and welded to the
underside of the rafter.
4 - 35
=
=
=
=

Figure 7.4 Cross-sections to be considered when determining C
n

Rafter stability in Zone B
Zone B generally extends from the sharp end of the haunch to beyond the
point of contraflexure (see Figure 7.2). The bottom flange is partially or wholly
in compression over this length. Depending on the overall analysis, this zone
may or may not contain a plastic hinge at the sharp end of the haunch.
In this zone, torsional and lateral restraint will be provided at the sharp end of
the haunch. At the upper end, restraint will be provided by a purlin beyond the
point of contraflexure. Some national authorities allow the point of
contraflexure to be considered as a restraint, provided the following conditions
below are satisfied.
- The rafter is a rolled section
- At least two bolts are provided in the purlin-to-rafter connections
- The depth of the purlin is not less than 0,25 times the depth of the rafter.
If a plastic hinge is predicted at the sharp end of the haunch, a torsional
restraint must be provided within a limiting distance in accordance with
BB.3.1.2. The limiting distance may be calculated assuming:
- A constant moment use Expression BB.6
- A linear moment gradient use Expression BB.7
- A non-linear moment gradient use Expression BB.8.
In addition, the spacing between the intermediate lateral restraints (indicated as
3 in Figure 7.2) must satisfy the requirements for L
m
as given in BB.3.1.1.
If there is no plastic hinge, and in elastic regions, the member must be verified
in accordance with Expressions 6.61 and 6.62 (see Section 6.2 of this
document).
Rafter stability in Zone C
In Zone C, the purlins can be assumed to provide lateral restraint to the top
(compression) flange provided they are tied into some overall restraint system.
In many countries, it is simply assumed that the diaphragm action of the roof
sheeting is sufficient to carry restraint forces to the bracing system; in other
4 - 36
countries any purlins providing restraint must be connected directly to the
bracing system.
The out-of-plane checks require the verification of the member in accordance
with Expressions 6.61 and 6.62 (see Section 6.2 of this document). Normally,
if the purlins are regularly spaced, it is sufficient to check the rafter between
restraints assuming the maximum bending moment and maximum axial load.
If a plastic hinge is predicted to form adjacent to the apex, it must be
restrained. In addition, the usual requirements for stability near a plastic hinge
must be satisfied:
- The distance between the restraint at the plastic hinge and the next lateral
restraint must not exceed the limiting distance L
m
.
- The distance to the next torsional restraint each side of the hinge must not
exceed the limiting distance L
k
, or L
s
, with the spacing of intermediate
restraints satisfying the requirements for L
m
, all as described for zone B.
Even if there is no plastic hinge adjacent to the apex, it is normal practice to
provide a torsional restraint at this point, as this will be necessary when
considering the uplift combinations of actions the bottom flange will be in
compression.
7.3.2 Rafter and haunch stability for uplift conditions
Under uplift, most of the bottom flange of the rafter is in compression. A
typical reversal bending moment diagram is shown in Figure 7.5.
1
1
2
E
F
3

1 Torsional restraint
2 Torsional restraint to column
3 Possible additional torsional restraint required for the uplift condition.

Figure 7.5 Typical purlin and rafter stay arrangement for wind uplift
This type of bending moment diagram will generally occur under internal
pressure and wind uplift. Normally, the bending moments are smaller than the
gravity load combinations and the members will remain elastic. The stability
checks recommended below assume that plastic hinges will not occur in this
uplift condition.
4 - 37
Haunch stability in Zone E
In Zone E, (see Figure 7.5) the top flange of the haunch will be in compression
and will be restrained by the purlins.
The moments and axial forces are smaller than those in the gravity load
combination. The members should be verified using Expression 6.62 (see
Section 6.2 of this document). By inspection, it should be clear that the rafter in
this zone will be satisfactory.
Stability in Zone F
In Zone F, the purlins will not restrain the bottom flange, which is in
compression.
The rafter must be verified between torsional restraints. A torsional restraint
will generally be provided adjacent to the apex, as shown in Figure 7.5. The
rafter may be stable between this point and the virtual restraint at the point of
contraflexure. If the rafter is not stable over this length, additional torsional
restraints may be introduced, and each length of the rafter verified.
This verification may be carried out using Expression 6.62.
The beneficial effects of the restraints to the tension flange (the top flange, in
this combination) may be accounted for using a modification factor C
m
, taken
from BB.3.3.1(1)B for linear moment gradients and from BB.3.3.2(1)B for
non-linear moment gradients. If this benefit is utilised, the spacing of the
intermediate restraints should also satisfy the requirements for L
m
, found in
BB.3.1.1.
7.4 In-plane stability
In addition to the out-of-plane checks described in Section 7.3, in-plane checks
must be satisfied using Expression 6.61.
For the in-plane checks, the axial resistance
M1
Ed y
_ N
is based on the system
length of the rafter. The buckling resistance
M1
Rk y,
LT
_
M
should be taken as the
least resistance from any of the zones described in Section 7.3.
7.5 Design summary
- Rafters should be IPE or similar sections with Class 1 or Class 2
proportions under combined moment and axial load. Sections containing
plastic hinges must be Class 1.
- Cross-sections should be checked to Section 6 of EN 1993-1-1.
- Detailed checks must be carried out to ensure adequate out-of-plane
stability under both gravity and uplift conditions see Sections 7.3.1 and
7.3.2.
- In-plane stability of the rafters and interaction with out-of-plane stability
must be verified, using Expressions 6.61 and 6.62 see Section 6.2.
4 - 38
8 COLUMN DESIGN
8.1 Introduction
As shown in Figure 8.1, the most highly loaded region of the rafter is
reinforced by the haunch. By contrast, the column is subject to a similar
bending moment at the underside of the haunch. The column will therefore
need to be a significantly larger section than the rafter typically proportioned
to be 150% of the rafter size.

Figure 8.1 Typical bending moment diagram for frame with pinned base
columns subject to gravity loading
The optimum design for most columns is usually achieved by the use of:
- A cross-section with a high ratio of I
yy
to I
zz
that complies with Class 1 or
Class 2 under combined major axis bending and axial compression
- A plastic section modulus that is approximately 50% greater than that of the
rafter.
The column size will generally be determined at the preliminary design stage
on the basis of the required bending and compression resistances.
8.2 Web resistance
The column web is subject to high compression at the level of the bottom
flange of the haunch. In addition, EN 1993-1-1 5.6(2) requires that web
stiffeners are provided at plastic hinge locations, if the applied transverse force
exceeds 10% of the members shear resistance. For these reasons, full depth
stiffeners are usually required to strengthen the web.
8.3 Column stability
8.3.1 Column stability under maximum gravity combinations
Whether the frame is designed plastically or elastically, a torsional restraint
should always be provided at the underside of the haunch. Additional torsional
restraints may be required within the length of the column because the side
rails are attached to the (outer) tension flange rather than to the compression
flange. As noted in Section 6.3, a side rail that is not continuous (for example,
interrupted by industrial doors) cannot be relied upon to provide adequate
4 - 39
restraint. The column section may need to be increased if intermediate
restraints cannot be provided.
Restraint may be provided by stays to the inside flange, as shown in Figure 8.2
shows stiffeners in the column, which are only typical at the level of the
underside of the haunch where they act as compression stiffeners. At other
locations, stiffeners are generally not required.
2
1

1 Side rail
2 Column

Figure 8.2 Typical eaves detail using a column stay
At the underside of the haunch level, it may be convenient to provide a hot-
rolled member, typically a hollow section, to provide restraint. It is essential to
connect the bracing on the inner flange to the outer flange at some point in the
length of the building.
2
1

1 Cold rolled member supporting the cladding and gutter
2 Circular hollow section

Figure 8.3 Typical eaves detail using a circular hollow section as a
longitudinal bracing member
Figure 8.4 shows a typical moment distribution for permanent and variable
actions and indicates the positions of restraints on a typical column. The
presence of a plastic hinge will depend on loading, geometry and choice of
column and rafter sections. In a similar way to the rafter, both out-of-plane and
in-plane stability must be verified.

4 - 40
1
2
3
4

1 Torsional restraint
2 Stay from side rail forming torsional restraint
3 Segment must satisfy L
s
(if elastic) or L
m
(if plastic)
4 Segment must satisfy elastic buckling checks

Figure 8.4 Typical portal frame column with plastic hinge at underside of
haunch
8.3.2 Out-of-plane stability under gravity combinations
If there is a plastic hinge at the underside of the haunch, the distance to the
adjacent torsional restraint must be less than the limiting distance L
s
as given
by EN 1993-1-1 BB.3.1.2. Expression BB.7 should be used when the
moment is linear, and BB.8 when the moment is not linear.
In addition, the spacing between intermediate lateral restraints should satisfy
the requirements for L
m
as given in BB.3.1.1.
If the stability between torsional restraints cannot be verified, it may be
necessary to introduce additional torsional restraints. In Figure 8.4, the check
between the torsional restraint (indicated as 1 in the figure) and the base was
not satisfied an additional torsional restraint was introduced at location 2. If
it is not possible to provide additional intermediate restraints, the size of the
member must be increased.
In all cases, a lateral restraint must be provided within L
m
of a plastic hinge.
If there is no plastic hinge, the stability of the column should be checked in
accordance with Expression 6.62 (See Section 6.2 of this document) Account
may be taken of the benefits of tension flange restraint as described in
Appendix C of this document.
4 - 41
8.3.3 Stability under uplift combinations
When the frame is subject to uplift, the column moment will reverse. The
bending moments will generally be significantly smaller than those under
gravity loading combinations, and the column will remain elastic.
Out-of-plane checks should be undertaken in accordance with Expression 6.62
(See Section 6.2 of this document).
8.4 In-plane stability
In addition to the out-of-plane checks described in Section 8.3, in-plane checks
must be satisfied using Expression 6.61.
For the in-plane checks, the axial resistance
M1
Ed y
_ N
is based on the system
length of the column. The buckling resistance
M1
Rk y,
LT
_
M
should be taken as
the least resistance from any of the zones described in Section 8.3.
8.5 Design summary
- Columns should be IPE or similar sections with Class 1 or Class 2
proportions under combined moment and axial load.
- The section should ideally be able to resist the high shears within the depth
of the eaves connection, without shear stiffening.
- Critical cross-sections should be checked to Section 6 of EN 1993-1-1.
- Detailed stability checks, as defined in Sections 8.3 and 8.4 must be
carried out to ensure adequate stability.
4 - 42
9 BRACING
9.1 General
Bracing is required to resist longitudinal actions, principally wind actions and
provide restraint to members. The bracing must be correctly positioned and
have adequate strength and stiffness to justify the assumptions made in the
analysis and member checks.
9.2 Vertical bracing
9.2.1 General
The primary functions of vertical bracing in the side walls of the frame are:
- To transmit the horizontal loads to the ground. The horizontal forces
include forces from wind and cranes.
- To provide a rigid framework to which side rails may be attached so that
they can in turn provide stability to the columns.
- To provide temporary stability during erection.
According to EN 1993-1-1, the bracing will have to satisfy the requirement of
5.3.1, 5.3.2 and 5.3.3 for global analysis and imperfections within the bracing
system.
The bracing system will usually take the form of:
- A single diagonal hollow section
- Hollow sections in a K pattern
- Crossed flats (usually within a cavity wall), considered to act in tension
only
- Crossed angles.
The bracing may be located:
- At one or both ends of the building, depending on the length of the structure
- At the centre of the building (See Section 9.2.5)
- In each portion between expansion joints (where these occur).
Where the side wall bracing is not in the same bay as the plan bracing in the
roof, an eaves strut is required to transmit the forces from the roof bracing into
the wall bracing.
9.2.2 Bracing using circular hollow sections
Hollow sections are very efficient in compression, which eliminates the need
for cross bracing. Where the height to eaves is approximately equal to the
spacing of the frames, a single bracing member at each location is economic
(Figure 9.1). Where the eaves height is large in relation to the frame spacing, a
K brace is often used (Figure 9.2).
4 - 43
An eaves strut may be required in the end bays, depending on the configuration
of the plan bracing (see Section 9.3.2).
1
2

1 Eaves level
2 Position of plan bracing

Figure 9.1 Single diagonal bracing for low rise frames

1
2

1 Eaves level

Figure 9.2 K bracing arrangement for taller frames
9.2.3 Bracing using angle sections or flats
Cross braced angles or flats (within a masonry cavity wall) may be used as
bracing (as shown in Figure 9.3). In this case, it is assumed that only the
diagonal members in tension are effective.
1
2

1 Eaves level

Figure 9.3 Typical cross bracing system using angles or flats as tension
members
9.2.4 Bracing in a single bay
For vertical bracing provided in a single bay, an eaves strut is required to
transmit wind forces from the roof bracing into the vertical bracing
(Figure 9.4). Further details of eaves struts are given in Section 12.2.
4 - 44
1
3
2

1 Eaves strut/tie
3 Vertical bracing acting as strut/tie

Figure 9.4 Bracing in a single end bay with an eaves strut
9.2.5 Single central braced bay
The concept of providing a single braced bay near the centre of a structure
(Figure 9.5) is unpopular because of the need to start erection from a braced
bay and to work down the full length of a building from that point. However,
bracing in the middle of the building has the advantage that it allows free
thermal expansion of the structure, which is particularly valuable in locations
such as Southern Europe and the Middle East where the diurnal temperature
range is very large. In most of Europe, the expected temperature range is more
modest, typically 5C to +35C, and overall expansion is not generally
considered to be a problem. If a central braced bay is used, it may be necessary
to provide additional temporary bracing in the end bays to assist in erection.
3
1 1
2

1 Free expansion
2 Eaves strut

Figure 9.5 Typical cross bracing at centre of the structure to allow free
thermal expansion
9.2.6 Bracing using moment-resisting frames
Where it is difficult or impossible to brace the frame vertically by conventional
bracing, it is necessary to introduce moment-resisting frames in the elevations.
There are two basic possibilities:
- A moment-resisting frame in one or more bays, as shown in Figure 9.6.
- Use of the complete elevation to resist longitudinal forces, with moment
resisting connection often located in the end bays, where the end column is
turned through 90 to provide increased stiffness in the longitudinal
direction, as shown in Figure 9.7. This arrangement is only possible if the
end frame (the gable) is constructed from a beam and column arrangement,
rather than a portal frame. Gable frames are discussed in Section 10.
4 - 45
2
1 1

1 Moment-resisting frames

Figure 9.6 Individual, local sway frames

1
1 2 2
2 2
3

1 Moment connection
2 Pin connection
3 Eaves strut

Figure 9.7 Hybrid frame along the full length of the building
In design of both systems, it is suggested that:
- The bending resistance of the portalised bay (not the main portal frame) is
checked using an elastic frame analysis
- Deflection under the equivalent horizontal forces is restricted to h/1000.
- The stiffness is assured by restricting serviceability deflections to a
maximum of h/360, where h is the height of the portalised bay.
In some cases, it is possible to provide conventional bracing on one elevation,
and provide moment resisting frames on the other. The effects of racking
action due to the difference in stiffness of the sides is generally negligible due
to the diaphragm action of the roof.
4 - 46
1
2
3
4

1 Vertical bracing on gable
2 Vertical bracing on elevation
3 Roof bracing
4 Portalised bracing in elevation

Figure 9.8 Portalising an opening on one side with conventional bracing on
the other side of the structure
9.2.7 Bracing to restrain columns
If side rails and column stays provide lateral or torsional restraint to the
column, it is important to identify the route of the restraint force to the vertical
bracing system. If there is more than one opening in the side of the building,
additional intermediate bracing may be required. This bracing should be
provided as close to the plane of the side rail as possible, preferably on the
inside face of the outer flange (Figure 9.9).
5
2
4 3
1

1 Eaves beam
2 Doorways
3 Side rail restraining column stay
4 Additional bracing required in this bay on the inner face of the outer flange

Figure 9.9 Typical bracing pattern in side of building with openings
It is not normally necessary for the side rail that provides restraint at column
stay positions to be aligned with a node of the vertical bracing system. It can be
assumed that diaphragm action in the vertical sheeting and the transverse
stiffness of the column can transmit the load into the vertical bracing system.
Where a member is used to restrain the position of a plastic hinge in the
column, it is essential that it is tied properly into the bracing system. This can
result in the configuration shown in Figure 9.10. Where there is more than one
4 - 47
opening in the side of the building, additional intermediate bracing will be
required in a similar way to that described above.
3
1
2

1 Member restraining plastic hinge at bottom of haunch
2 Eaves level

Figure 9.10 Typical bracing pattern in building using a hot-rolled member to
restrain a plastic hinge at the base of the haunch
9.2.8 Bracing to restrain longitudinal loads from cranes
If a crane is directly supported by the frame, the longitudinal surge force will
be eccentric to the column, and will tend to cause the column to twist, unless
additional restraint is provided. A horizontal truss at the level of the girder top
flange or, for lighter cranes, a horizontal member on the inside face of the
column flange tied into the vertical bracing may be adequate to provide the
necessary restraint.
For large horizontal forces, additional bracing should be provided in the plane
of the crane girder (Figure 9.11 and Figure 9.12). The criteria given in
Table 9.1 were given by Fisher
[3]
to define the bracing requirements.
3
2
1
4

1 Eaves level
2 Crane girder level
4 Bracing for very large crane loads on the inside flange of the column

Figure 9.11 Elevation showing position of additional bracing in the plane of
the crane girder

4 - 48
1

1 Planes of bracing

Figure 9.12 Detail showing additional bracing in the plane of the crane girder
Table 9.1 Bracing requirements for crane girders
Factored longitudinal
force
Bracing requirement
Small (<15 kN) Use wind bracing
Medium (15 - 30 kN) Use horizontal bracing to transfer force from the crane to plane
of bracing
Large (> 30 kN) Provide additional bracing in the plane of the longitudinal crane
forces
9.3 Plan bracing
9.3.1 General
Plan bracing is placed in the horizontal plane, or in the plane of the roof. The
primary functions of the plan bracing are:
- To transmit horizontal wind forces from the gable posts to the vertical
bracing in the walls
- To transmit any drag forces form wind on the roof to the vertical bracing
- To provide stability during erection
- To provide a stiff anchorage for the purlins which are used to restrain the
rafters.
In order to transmit the wind forces efficiently, the plan bracing should connect
to the top of the gable posts.
According to EN 1993-1-1, the bracing will have to satisfy the requirement of
5.3.1, 5.3.2 and 5.3.3 for global analysis and imperfections within the bracing
system.
9.3.2 Bracing using circular hollow sections
In modern construction, circular hollow section bracing members are generally
used in the roof and are designed to resist both tension and compression. Many
arrangements are possible, depending on the spacing of the frames and the
positions of the gable posts. Two typical arrangements are shown in
4 - 49
Figure 9.13 and Figure 9.14. The bracing is usually attached to cleats on the
web of the rafter, as shown in Figure 9.15. The attachment points should be as
close to the top flange as possible, allowing for the size of the member and the
connection.
Location of vertical bracing
Position of gable posts

Figure 9.13 Plan view showing both end bays braced


Figure 9.14 Plan view showing both end bays braced where the gable posts
are closely spaced
An eaves strut may be required in the end bays, depending on the configuration
of the plan bracing. In all cases, it is good practice to provide an eaves tie along
the length of the building.
4 - 50

Figure 9.15 Typical connection detail for circular hollow section bracing
9.3.3 Bracing using angle sections
The use of angles is not common in modern structures, but cross-braced angles
have an advantage in that the diagonal members are relatively small because
they may be designed to resist tension only (Figure 9.16).

Figure 9.16 Plan view showing both end bays braced using crossed angle
sections
9.4 Restraint to inner flanges
Restraint to the inner flanges of rafters or columns is often most conveniently
formed by diagonal struts from the purlins or sheeting rails to small plates
welded to the inner flange and web. Pressed steel ties are commonly used. As
the ties act in tension only, angles must be substituted in locations where the
restraint must be provided on one side only.
The effectiveness of such restraint depends on the stiffness of the system,
especially the stiffness of the purlins. The effect of purlin flexibility on the
bracing is shown in Figure 9.17. Where the proportions of the members,
purlins and spacings differ from proven previous practice, the effectiveness
should be checked. This can be done using the formula given in Section 9.5, or
other methods, such as may be found in bridge codes for U-frame action.
4 - 51

Figure 9.17 Effect of purlin flexibility on bracing
9.5 Bracing at plastic hinges
Section 6.3.5.2 of EN 1993-1-1 recommends that bracing should be provided to
both tension and compression flanges at or within 0,5h of the calculated plastic
hinges, where h is the depth of the member (see Figure 9.18).
h
2
1
0.5h
0.5h

1. Hinge position
2. Member must be braced within these limits

Figure 9.18 Bracing at plastic hinges
EN 1993-1-1 recommends that the bracing to a plastic hinge should be
designed assuming that the compression flange exerts a lateral load of 2,5% of
the flange force, (taken as the plastic moment resistance/depth of section)
perpendicular to the web of the member.
In addition, according to 6.3.5.2(5)B of EN 1993-1-1, the bracing system
must be able to resist the effects of local forces Q
m
applied at each stabilised
member at the plastic hinge locations, where:
100
5 , 1
Ed f,
m m
N
Q o =
where:
N
f,Ed
is the axial force in the compressed flange of the stabilised member at
the plastic hinge location
m
is a coefficient to recognise the statistical benefits of restraining a
group of members compared with an individual member
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
m
1
1 5 , 0
m
o in which m is the number of members to be restrained.
Where the plastic hinge is braced by diagonals from the purlins (see
Figure 6.3), the stiffness of the U-frame formed by the purlin and diagonals is
especially important. Where the proportions of the members, purlins or
spacings differ from previous practice, the effectiveness should be checked. In
4 - 52
the absence of other methods, the stiffness check may be based on the work of
Horne and Ajmani
[4]
. Thus, the support member (the purlin or sheeting rail)
should have I
y,s
such that:
( )
2 1
2 2
3
y
f y,
s y,
10 190 L L
L L L
f
I
I
+
>
where:
f
y
is the yield strength of the frame member
I
y,s
is the second moment of area of the supporting member (purlin or
sheeting rail) about the axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
frame member (i.e. the purlin major axis in normal practice)
I
y,f
is the second moment of area of the frame member about the major
axis
L is the span of the purlin or sheeting rail
L
1
and L
2
are the distances either side of the plastic hinge to the eaves (or
valley) or points of contraflexure, whichever are the nearest to the
hinge (see Figure 9.18).
Hinges that form, rotate then cease, or even unload and rotate in reverse, must
be fully braced. However, hinges that occur in the collapse mechanism but
rotate only above ULS need not be considered as plastic hinges for ULS
checks. These hinges are easily identified by elastic-plastic or graphical
analysis.
Analysis cannot account for all of the section tolerances, residual stresses and
material tolerances. Care should be taken to restrain points where these effects
could affect the hinge positions, e.g. the shallow end of the haunch instead of
the top of the column. Wherever the bending moments come close to the
plastic moment capacity, the possibility of a hinge should be considered.
9.6 Design summary
Bracing must be provided with adequate strength and stiffness to act in
conjunction with the purlins, side rails and eaves beams to resist horizontal
actions, including wind, to provide overall stability to the building and to
provide local stability to the columns and rafters. Bracing must be provided:
- To side walls, in a vertical plane; see Section 9.2
- On plan at or near the roof of the building; see Section 9.3
- Stays are required to stabilise inner flanges of the columns and rafters
where they are in compression and potentially unstable; see Section 9.4
- At, or near, plastic hinge positions to provide torsional restraint; see
Section 9.5.
4 - 53
10 GABLES
10.1 Types of gable frame
Gable frames are typically of two forms:
- An identical portal frame to the remainder of the structure. The gable
columns do not support the rafter. This form of gable is used for simplicity,
or because there is the possibility of extending the structure in the future.
- A gable frame comprising gable posts and simply supported rafters. The
gable posts support the rafters. Gable frames of this form require bracing in
the plane of the gable, as shown in Figure 10.1. The advantage of this form
of gable is that the rafters and external columns are smaller than those in a
portal frame.

Figure 10.1 Gable frame from columns, beams and bracing
10.2 Gable columns
Gable columns are designed as vertical beams, spanning between the base and
the rafter. At rafter level, the horizontal load from the gable column is
transferred into the roof bracing, to the eaves, and then to the ground via the
bracing in the elevations.
The gable column will be designed for pressure and suction. The maximum
suction may be when the gable is on the downwind elevation, as shown in
Figure 10.2(a), or more likely when the gable is parallel to the wind direction,
as shown in Figure 10.2(b).
4 - 54
1
2

(a)

1
2
2

(b)

1 Apex
2 Gable under suction
1 Apex
2 Gable under suction

Figure 10.2 Wind loads on gables
The internal pressure or suction contributes to the net loads on the gable. When
the net loads are equivalent to an external pressure, the outside flanges of the
gable columns are in compression, but are restrained out-of-plane by the side
rails. When the net loads are equivalent to an external suction, the inside
flanges of the gable columns are in compression. This design case may be the
most onerous of the two conditions. It may be possible to reduce the length of
the unrestrained inside flange of the gable columns by introducing column
stays from the side rails, as illustrated in Figure 6.3.
10.3 Gable rafters
If the gable is of the form shown in Figure 10.1, the gable rafters are generally
simply supported I section members. In addition to carrying the vertical loads,
the gable rafters often act as chord members in the roof bracing system and this
design case must be verified.
If a portal frame is adopted as a gable frame, it is common to adopt an identical
frame size, even though the vertical loads on the end frame are rather less.
Generally, the reduced vertical loading will mean that the rafter can
accommodate the axial force as part of the roof bracing system without needing
to increase the section size.
4 - 55
11 CONNECTIONS
The major connections in a portal frame are the eaves and apex connections,
which are both moment-resisting. The eaves connection in particular must
generally carry a very large bending moment. Both the eaves and apex
connections are likely to experience reversal in certain combinations of actions
and this can be an important design case. For economy, connections should be
arranged to minimise any requirement for additional reinforcement (commonly
called stiffeners). This is generally achieved by:
- Making the haunch deeper (increasing the lever arms)
- Extending the connection above the top flange of the rafter (an additional
bolt row)
- Adding bolt rows
- Selecting a stronger column section.
The design of moment resisting connections is covered in detail in
Single-storey Buildings. Part 11: Moment connections
[5]
.
11.1 Eaves connections
A typical eaves connection is shown in Figure 11.1. In addition to increasing
the moment resistance of the rafter, the presence of the haunch increases the
lever arms of the bolts in the tension zone, which is important if the connection
carries a large bending moment. Generally the bolts in the tension zone (the
upper bolts under conventional gravity loading) are nominally allocated to
carry tension from the applied moment, whilst the lower bolts (adjacent to the
compression stiffener) are nominally allocated to carry the vertical shear,
which is generally modest.
Because the portal frame members are chosen for bending resistance, deep
members with relatively thin webs are common in portal frames. A
compression stiffener in the column is usually required. The web panel of the
column may also need reinforcing, either with a diagonal stiffener, or an
additions web plate (referred to as a supplementary web plate)
The end plate and column may be extended above the top of the rafter, with an
additional pair of bolts. The end plate on the rafter is unlikely to require
stiffening as it can simply be made thicker, but it is common to find that the
column flange requires strengthening locally to the tension bolts. Stiffeners are
expensive, so good connection design would minimise the need for stiffeners
by judicious choice of connection geometry.
Under a reversed bending moment, it may be necessary to provide a stiffener to
the column web at the top of the column, aligned with the top flange of the
rafter.
4 - 56
2
1

1 Haunch

Figure 11.1 Typical eaves connection
11.2 Apex connections
A typical apex connection is shown in Figure 11.2. Under normal loading
conditions the bottom of the connection is in tension. The haunch below the
rafter, which in lightly loaded frames may be a simple extended end plate,
serves to increase the lever arms to the tension bolts, thus increasing the
moment resistance. The haunch is usually small and short, and is not accounted
for in frame design.

Figure 11.2 Typical apex
4 - 57
11.3 Bases, base plates and foundations
11.3.1 General
The following terminology for the components at the foundation is used in this
document:
- Base - the combined arrangement of base plate, holding down bolts, and
concrete foundation. The terms nominally pinned and nominally rigid are
usually applied to the performance of the base, in relation to its stiffness.
- Base plate - the steel plate at the base of the column, connected to the
column by fillet welds.
- Holding down bolts - bolts through the base plate that are anchored into the
concrete foundation.
- Foundation - the concrete footing required to resist compression, uplift,
and, where necessary, over-turning moments.
- Anchor plates - plates or angles used to anchor the holding down bolts into
the foundation. They should be of such a size as to provide an adequate
factor of safety against bearing failure of the concrete.
In the majority of cases, a nominally pinned base is provided, because of the
difficulty and expense of providing a nominally rigid base which is moment
resisting. Not only is the steel base connection significantly more expensive,
the foundation must also resist the moment, which increases costs significantly.
Where crane girders are supported by the column, moment resisting bases may
be required to reduce deflections to acceptable limits. Typical base
plate/foundation details are shown in Figure 11.3 to Figure 11.5.
In a nominally pinned base for larger columns, the bolts can be located entirely
within the column profile (Figure 11.3(a)). For smaller columns (less than
approximately 400 mm), the base plate is made larger so that the bolts can be
moved outside the flanges (Figure 11.3(b)).
A nominally rigid, moment resisting base is achieved by providing a bigger
lever arm for the bolts and a stiffer base plate by increasing the plate thickness
as shown in Figure 11.4. Additional gusset plates may be required for heavy
moment connections, as illustrated in Figure 11.5.
4 - 58
2
3
4
1
5
6

(a) For columns greater than or equal to 400 mm deep the holding down bolts may be located
entirely within the section profile

4
2
1
5
6
3

(b) For columns less than 400 mm deep the bolts may be located outside the section profile

1 Top of concrete foundation
2 Holding down bolts in clearance holes
(bolt diameter + 6 mm)
3 Base plate, usually 15 mm thick

4 Bedding space (~ 50 mm)
5 Location tube
6 Anchor plate

Figure 11.3 Typical nominally pinned bases

4 - 59
2
3
1
6
5
4

2 Holding down bolts in clearance holes
(bolt diameter + 6 mm)
3 Base plate, typically > 40 mm thick

5 Location tube
6 Anchor plate

Figure 11.4 Typical nominally rigid moment resisting base

7
3
5
4
6
1
2 2

2 Holding down bolts in 6 mm clearance
holes
3 Base plate, typically > 40 mm thick

5 Location tube
6 Anchor plate
7 Gusset plate welded to column and base
plate

Figure 11.5 Nominally rigid, moment resisting base with gusset plates for high
moments
4 - 60
11.3.2 Safety in erection
It is usual to provide at least four bolts in the base plate for stability during
erection. The alternative is to provide temporary support immediately after the
erection of the column, which on most sites would be impractical and is likely
to create hazards.
11.3.3 Resistance to horizontal forces
The highest horizontal forces acting at the base of the column are generally
those that act outwards as a result of bending in the column caused by vertical
loading on the roof.
Horizontal reactions acting outwards can be resisted in a number of ways, by:
- Passive earth pressure on the side of the foundation, as indicated in
Figure 11.6(a)
- A tie cast into the floor slab connected to the base of the column, as shown
in Figure 11.6(b)
- A tie across the full width of the frame connecting both columns beneath or
within the floor slab as illustrated in Figure 11.6(c) and (d).
By far the most popular method of resisting horizontal forces is to use passive
earth pressure. This has economic advantages in that the foundation size
required to resist uplift is usually adequate to provide adequate passive bearing
against the ground. However, the passive resistance of the surrounding ground
can be less than anticipated if the ground is not compacted correctly, and
drainage and service trenches alongside the frame can reduce the passive
resistance considerably.
As an alternative, a bar connected to the column and cast into the floor slab,
and wrapped at the end to allow vertical movement, can be relatively cheap.
This detail may lead to some local cracking of the floor slab and, where a high
specification floor slab is used, the warranty on the slab may be invalidated.
The length of the bar should be determined by the ultimate pull out resistance
required to resist the horizontal force.
A tie across the full width of the frame connected to the column at each side is
the most certain way of resisting horizontal forces. It is more expensive in
terms of materials and labour and can be damaged by site activities. A full
width tie will generally impede the erection of the structure, which will be
undertaken from within the footprint of the building.
11.3.4 Base plates and holding down bolts
The steelwork contractor will usually be responsible for detailing the base plate
and holding down bolts. However, it should be made clear in the contract
documentation where the responsibility lies for the design of the foundation
details, as special reinforcement spacing or details may be required.
Base plates will usually be in grade S235 or S275 steel.
4 - 61
H

(a) Passive earth pressure

1

1 Wrapped bar

(b) Tie into floor slab, note wrapping to outer portion of bar to prevent damage to slab from
differential settlement

1
2

1 Floor slab
2 Angle wrapped in tape to prevent corrosion

(c) Angle tie between columns

2
1

1 Floor slab
2 High tensile bar with threaded end and coupler, wrapped in tape to prevent corrosion

(d) Tie rod between columns

Figure 11.6 Methods of providing resistance to horizontal forces at the
foundations

4 - 62
The diameter of the bolt will generally be determined by consideration of the
uplift and shear forces applied to the bolts, but will not normally be less than
20 mm. There is often generous over-provision, to allow for the incalculable
effects of incorrect location of bolts and combined shear force and bending on
the bolt where grouting is incomplete.
The length of the bolt should be determined by the properties of the concrete,
the spacing of the bolts, and the tensile force. A simple method of determining
the embedment length is to assume that the bolt force is resisted by a conical
surface of concrete. Where greater uplift resistance is required, angles or plates
may be used to join the bolts together in pairs as an alternative to individual
anchor plates. Calculations should be carried out by the designer at the final
design stage to check the viability of the proposed bolt spacing.
11.3.5 Foundation design at the fire limit state
If the foundation is designed to resist a moment due to rafter collapse in a fire,
both the base plate and the foundation itself should be designed to resist the
moment as shown in Figure 11.7(a). It may be possible to offset the base to
reduce or eliminate the eccentricity generated by the moment to give a uniform
pressure distribution under the base as shown in Figure 11.7(b).
M M
(a) (b)

Figure 11.7 Foundation for portal frame in a fire boundary condition
11.4 Design summary
- Moment-resisting connections should be arranged to minimise any
additional local strengthening.
- It is usually more economical to adopt nominally pinned column bases.
- Experience has demonstrated that a four bolt connection with a relatively
thin base plate may behave effectively as a pin, while still providing
sufficient stiffness for safe erection.
- Careful consideration needs to be given to resistance to shear forces, both in
the column base and in the foundation.
4 - 63
12 SECONDARY STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
12.1 Eaves beam
The cold-formed member that connects the individual frames at eaves level
(indicated as (2) in Figure 12.1) is generally known as an eaves beam.
The primary function of the eaves beam is to support the roof cladding, side
walls, and guttering along the eaves, but it may also be used to provide lateral
restraint at the top of the outer flange of the column.

1 Built-up or composite cladding
2 Cold rolled eaves beam
3 Rafter stay

4 Column stiffener
5 Circular hollow section acting as eaves strut

Figure 12.1 Haunch detail with eaves beam
12.2 Eaves strut
If vertical side wall bracing capable of resisting tension and compression is
provided at both ends of the structure (see Section 9.2), an eaves strut is not
required other than in the end bays. However, it is good practice to provide a
member between the columns to act as a tie during erection and provide
additional robustness to the structure.
If a circular hollow section is used to restrain the plastic hinge at the bottom of
the eaves as illustrated in Figure 12.1, this can fulfil the role of a longitudinal
strut as well as restraining the plastic hinge. If a member is provided as an
eaves strut above this level, it is ineffective in restraining the plastic hinge at
the bottom of the haunch.
1
2
3
5
4
4 - 64
13 DESIGN OF MULTI-BAY PORTAL FRAMES
13.1 General
Most aspects of the behaviour and design of multi-bay portal frames are similar
to single bay structures. This Section describes common types of multi-bay
frames and highlights key points of difference.
13.2 Types of multi-bay portals
13.2.1 Valley beams and hit and miss frames
In multi-span portal framed building, it is common practice to use valley beams
to eliminate some internal columns. Most commonly, alternate columns are
omitted and the valley of the frame is supported on a so-called valley beam
spanning between the columns of adjacent frames, as shown in Figure 13.1.
This arrangement is often referred to as hit and miss frames, the frames with
columns being the hit frames. Sometimes more than one column is omitted,
though such schemes require very large valley beams and reduce the stiffness
and the stability requirements of the structure, even where the remaining
complete frames are used to stabilise the frames without columns.
1
1
3
2

1 Valley beams
2 Rafter
3 Valley beam and fabricated connection

Figure 13.1 Valley beams
Valley beams may be simply supported or continuous through the supporting
columns. The choice will normally depend on the relative cost of a heavier
beam for simply supported construction and the more expensive connection for
continuous construction.
Valley beams often form one or more rigid frames with the internal columns
along the valley to provide overall structural stability at right angles to the
frames. This avoids the use of cross bracing on the internal column lines,
which is often unacceptable for the intended use of the building. Alternatively,
a deep truss may be provided in the plane of the rafters, which spans between
the external elevations. For long trusses on multi-span structures, it would be
4 - 65
common to provide a truss which is two bays deep, rather than a truss in the
end bay only.
13.3 Stability
The majority of multi-span portal frames have slender internal columns. When
a horizontal load is applied to these frames, there is only a small bending
moment induced in these slender internal columns, because the external
columns are much stiffer. A typical bending moment diagram is shown in
Figure 13.2.
This difference in bending moment distribution and the associated reduction in
internal column stiffness has a significant impact on frame behaviour. At the
Ultimate Limit State, the frame is likely to be operating at 20 to 30% of its
overall elastic critical load. With the spread of plasticity from the critical hinge
position, the effective critical load will reduce, increasing the effective critical
load ratio further.
This effect is addressed by appropriate second order, elastic / plastic software.
H

Figure 13.2 Bending moments in a typical two-span frame under horizontal
loading
The frame in Figure 13.2 can be considered as two sub-frames, each
comprising an external column and a rafter pair, as shown in Figure 13.3. For
multi-span frames in general, the two external sub-frames provide the majority
of the stiffness, so the same model of a pair of sub-frames could be used for
hand calculations. Where the stiffness of the internal columns is to be included,
it is preferable to use software for the analysis of the entire frame.
H

Figure 13.3 Sub-frames for a typical two-span frame
4 - 66
Where the internal columns provide significant stiffness, it is uneconomic to
ignore them and a detailed analysis of the entire frame by software would be
preferable.
13.4 Snap through instability

Figure 13.4 Snap through instability
As shown in Figure 13.4, the reduced sway stiffness of frames with three or
more bays may lead to snap through instability of an internal bay. Such
structures may be checked with appropriate software to ensure satisfactory
behaviour. Appendix B may be used to calculate an estimate of the sensitivity
to snap through.
13.5 Design summary
- Many aspects of behaviour of multi-bay portal frames are similar to single
bay frames
- Special consideration should be given to the sway stability and snap
through stability of multi-bay frames.

4 - 67
REFERENCES

1 EN 1993-1-1: Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures. General rules and rules for
building
Single-storey steel buildings. Part 2: Concept design
3 FISHER, J.M.
Industrial buildings
Chapter 6.1 in Construction steel design: an international guide
Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1992
4 HORNE, M.R. and AJMANI, J.L.
Failure of columns laterally supported on one flange: Discussion
The structural Engineer, Vol. 51, No. 7, July 1973
Single-storey Buildings. Part 11: Moment connections
6 LIM, J, KING, C.M, RATHBONE, A, DAVIES, J.M and EDMONDSON, V
Eurocode 3: The in-plane stability of portal frames
The Structural Engineer, Vol. 83. No 21, 1
st
November 2005

4 - 68
4 - 69
APPENDIX A Practical deflection limits for
single-storey buildings
A.1 Horizontal deflections for portal frames

Figure A.1 Definition of horizontal deflection
Horizontal deflection limits for portal frame structures are not explicitly
covered in the structural Eurocodes. Generally, limits are set nationally, either
by regulation or by accepted industry practice.
Typical limiting values for horizontal deflection are given in Table A.1.
4 - 70
Table A.1 Typical horizontal deflection limits
Country Structure
Deflection
limits
u
Comments
France Portal frames without
gantry cranes
Buildings with no particular
requirements regarding the
deflection.

Deflection at the top of the
columns
H/150
Difference of deflection
between two consecutive
portal frames
B/150
Values are given in the French
National Annex to EN 1993-1-1
and should be used if nothing
else is agreed with the client.
The values of the deflections
calculated from the
characteristic combinations
should be compared to these
limits.
Member supporting metal
cladding

Post H/150
Rail B/150
Other single-storey
buildings
Buildings with particular
requirements regarding the
deflection (brittle walls,
appearance etc..

Deflection at the top of the
columns
H/250
Difference of deflection
between two consecutive
portal frames
B/200
Germany There are no national
deflection limits. The limits
should be taken from
manufacturers instructions
(technical approvals) or should
be agreed with the client.
Spain Portal frames (without fragile
elements susceptible to
failure in the envelopes,
faade and roof)
H/150 Values are given in the national
technical document for steel
structures] and in the Technical
Building Code and should be
used if nothing else is agreed
with the client.
Single-storey buildings with
horizontal roofs (without
fragile elements susceptible
to failure in the envelopes,
faade and roof)
H/300

4 - 71
A.2 Vertical deflections for portal frames

Figure A.2 Definitions of vertical deflection of apex of portal frame
Typical limiting values for vertical deflection for some countries are given in
Table A.2.
Table A.2 Vertical deflection limits
Deflection limits
Country Structure
w
max
w
3

Comments
Roofs in general L/200 L/250
Roofs frequently carrying
personnel other than for
maintenance
L/200 L/300
France
Roofs supporting plaster or
other brittle toppings or
non-flexible parts
L/250 L/350
Values are given in the
National Annex to EN 1993-1-1
and should be used if nothing
else is agreed with the client.
calculated from the
characteristic combinations
should be compared to these
limits.
Germany There are no national
deflection limits.
The limits should be taken from
manufacturers instructions
(technical approvals) or should
be agreed with the client.
A.2.1 Vertical deflections for horizontal roof members
Serviceability limit states
Guidance for deflection limits are given in Table A.3 for a selection of
European countries. The definition of vertical deflection in Annex A to
EN 1990 is reproduced in Figure A.3.
4 - 72
w
c
: precamber in the unloaded structural member
w
1
: Initial part of the deflection under permanent loads of the relevant combination of
actions
w
2
: Long-term part of the deflection under permanent loads, not to be considered for
single-storey steel buildings,
w
3
: Additional part of the deflection due to the variable actions of the relevant combination
of actions
w
tot
= w
1
+ w
2
+ w
3

w
max
: Remaining total deflection taking into account the precamber

Figure A.3 Definition of vertical deflections

Table A.3 Recommended limiting values for vertical deflections
Deflection limits Country Structure
W
max
W
a
Comments
France Roofs in general L/200 L/250
Roofs frequently
carrying personnel
other than for
maintenance
L/200 L/300
Roofs supporting
plaster or other brittle
toppings or non-flexible
parts
L/250 L/350
Values are given in the National
Annex to EN 1993-1-1 and should
be used if nothing else is agreed
with the client.
calculated from the characteristic
combinations should be compared
to these limits.
Germany There are no national deflection
limits. The limits should be taken
from manufacturers instructions
(technical approvals) or should be
agreed with the client.
Roofs in general L/300(*) -
Roofs with access only
for maintenance
L/250(*)
Spain

Values are given in the national
technical document for steel
structures and in the Technical
Building Code and should be used if
nothing else is agreed with the
client.
(*) This values refers to w
2
+ w
3
but w
2
= 0 for steel structures.
Ultimate limit state: Ponding
Where the roof slope is less than 5%, additional calculations should be made to
check that collapse cannot occur due to the weight of water:
- either collected in pools which may be formed due to the deflection of
structural members or roofing material
- or retained by snow.
These additional checks should be based on the combinations at the Ultimate
Limit States.
Precambering of beams may reduce the likelihood of rainwater collecting in
pools, provided that rainwater outlets are appropriately located.

w
c

w
max

w
1

w
2

w
3

w
tot

4 - 73
APPENDIX B Calculation of o
cr,est

B.1 General
EN 1993-1-1 5.2.1 (4) B gives:
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Ed H, Ed
Ed
cr
o
o
h
V
H

However, this can only be applied when the axial load in the rafter is not
significant. Note 2B of 5.2.1(4)B describes significant as when
Ed
y
3 , 0
N
Af
> , which may be rearranged to indicate that the axial load is not
significant when
cr Ed
09 , 0 N N s
Where:
N
cr
is the elastic critical buckling load for the complete span of the rafter
pair, i.e.
2
2
cr
L
EI
N =
L is the developed length of the rafter pair from column to column,
taken as span/Cos ( is the roof slope).
If the axial load in the rafter exceeds this limit, the expression in EN 1993-1-1
cannot be used.
An alternative expression, accounting for the axial force in the rafter, has been
developed by J. Lim and C. King
[6]
and is detailed below.
For frames with pitched rafters:
o
cr,est
= min ( )
est r, cr, est s, cr,
; o o
where:
o
cr,s,est
is the estimate of o
cr
for sway buckling mode
o
cr,r,est
is the estimate of o
cr
for rafter snap-through buckling mode.
This mode need only be checked when there are three or more
spans, or if the rafter is horizontal, or when the columns are not
vertical.
B.2 Factor o
cr,s,est

The parameters required to calculate o
cr,s,est
for a portal frame are shown in
Figure B.1. o
NHF
is the lateral deflection at the top of each column when
subjected to a notional lateral force H
NHF
. (The magnitude of the total lateral
force is arbitrary, as it is simply used to calculate the sway stiffness). The
horizontal force applied at the top of each column should be proportional to the
vertical reaction.
4 - 74
The practical application of this recommendation is to calculate H
NHF
as 1/200
of the vertical reaction at the base of the column. In combinations including
wind actions, H
NHF
should still be calculated as 1/200 of the vertical reaction at
the base.
In calculating o
NHF
only the notional lateral forces, H
NHF
,

are applied to the
frame. Base stiffness may be included in the analysis (as described in
Section 3.4).
L
h
H H
NHF
NHF
NHF NHF
o o
3
1
Ed Ed
2
N N

1 Frame dimensions
2 ULS analysis, and N
Ed
in rafter
3 Sway analysis, under H
NHF
alone

Figure B.1 Calculation of o
cr

o
cr
can then be calculated as:
NHF
cr
200o
o
h
=
The lowest value of o
cr
for any column is taken for the frame as a whole.
o
cr,s,est
can then be calculated as:
cr
max
R cr,
Ed
est s, cr,
1 8 , 0 o o
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
N
N

where:
max
R cr,
Ed
|
|
.
|
\
|
N
N
is the maximum ratio in any rafter
Ed
N is the axial force in rafter at ULS (see Figure B.1)
2
r
2
R cr,
L
EI
N
t
= is the Euler load of the rafter for the full span of the rafter
pair (assumed pinned).
4 - 75
L is the developed length of the rafter pair from column to
column, taken as span/Cos ( is the roof slope)
I
r
is the in-plane second moment of area of rafter
Factor o
cr,r,est

This calculation should be carried out if the frame has three or more spans, or if
the rafter is horizontal.
For frames with rafter slopes not steeper than 1:2 (26), o
cr,r,est
may be taken as:
( )
( )
r
yr
r c
est r, cr,
2 tan
275
1
4 7 , 55
u
O
o
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
| +
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
f I
I I h L
L
D
r

But where O 1, o
cr,r,est
=
where:
D is cross-sectional depth of rafter, h
L is span of bay
h is mean height of column from base to eaves or valley
I
c
is in-plane second moment of area of the column (taken as zero if the
column is not rigidly connected to the rafter, or if the rafter is
supported on a valley beam)
I
r
is in-plane second moment of area of the rafter
f
yr
is nominal yield strength of the rafters in N/mm
2

u
r
is roof slope if roof is symmetrical, or else u
r
= tan
-1
(2h
r
/L)
h
r
is height of apex of roof above a straight line between the tops of
columns
O is arching ratio, given by O = W
r
/W
0

W
0
is value of W
r
for plastic failure of rafters as a fixed ended beam of
span L
W
r
is total factored vertical load on rafters of bay.
If the two columns or two rafters of a bay differ, the mean value of I
c
should be
used.
4 - 76
APPENDIX C Determination of M
CR
and N
cr

C.1 M
cr
for uniform members
C.1.1 General expression
The method given in C.1.1 only applies to uniform straight members for which
the cross-section is symmetric about the bending plane.
( )
( )
( )
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
g 2
2
g 2
z
2
t
2
z
w
2
w
2
z
2
1 cr
z C z C
EI
GI kL
I
I
k
k
kL
EI
C M
t
t

In the case of a portal frame, k = 1 and k
w
= 1. The transverse load is assumed
to be applied at the shear centre and therefore C
2
z
g
= 0. The expression may be
simplified to:
z
2
t
2
z
w
2
z
2
1 cr
EI
GI L
I
I
L
EI
C M
t
t
+ =
E is Young modulus (E = 210000 N/mm
2
)
G is the shear modulus (G = 81000 N/mm
2
)
I
z
is the second moment of area about the weak axis
I
t
is the torsional constant
I
w
is the warping constant
L is the beam length between points of lateral restraint
C
1
depends on the shape of the bending moment diagram
C.1.2 C
1
factor
The factor C
1
may be determined from Table C.1 for a member with end
moment loading, and also for members with intermediate transverse loading.
4 - 77
Table C.1 C
1
factor
End Moment Loading C
1

M
M
-1 s s +1

+1,00
+0,75
+0,50
+0,25
0,00
0,25
0,50
0,75
1,00
1,00
1,17
1,36
1,56
1,77
2,00
2,24
2,49
2,76
Intermediate Transverse Loading

0,94 1,17

2/3
1/3

0,62 2,60

0,86 1,35

0,77 1,69
C.2 M
cr
for members with discrete restraints to the
tension flange
It is possible to take beneficial account of restraints to the tension flange. This
may lead to a greater buckling resistance of the member.
Tension flange restraint is usually provided by elements connected to the
tension flange of the member (e.g. purlins).
The spacing between tension flange restraints must satisfy the requirements for
L
m
as given in BB.3.1.1 in EN 1993-1-1.
For the general case of a beam of varying depth but symmetrical about the
minor axis, subject to a non-uniform moment:
cr0 m
2
cr
M C c M = for beams with a linearly varying moment diagram
or
cr0 n
2
cr
M C c M = for beams with a non-linearly varying moment diagram
where
M
cr0
is the critical moment for a beam subject to uniform moment.
Expressions of M
cr0
is given in C.2.2
c accounts for taper (c = 1 for uniform straight member)
The value of c is given by EN 1993-1-1 Annex BB.3.3.3 based on the
4 - 78
depth at the shallower end of the member and limited to members
where 1 h
max
/h
min
3. Note that the expression for c was derived in
reference 4 for elements with s 1.05, which is the common case for
haunches in portal frames
C
m
accounts for linear moment gradients. The value is given by the
Expression BB.13 of EN 1993-1-1 Annex BB. It is recommended that
C
m
2,7

C
n
accounts for non-linear moment gradients. The value is given by the
Expression BB.14 of EN 1993-1-1 Annex BB. It is recommended that
C
n
2,7

When using EN 1993-1-1 Annex BB.3.3.2, the following points need
clarification:
The same definition of positive and negative moments applies as in
BB.3.3.1: Moments that produce compression in the non-restrained flange
should be taken as positive.
This is fundamental as only positive values of R should be taken.
BB.3.3.2 assumes that the loads are applied at the shear centre.
C.2.2 Calculation of M
cr0

For uniform sections, symmetric about the minor axis, restrained along the
tension flange at intervals:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
t
2
t
w
2
2
t
2
z
2
cr0
2
1
GI
L
EI
L
a EI
a
M
t t

but
z
2
t
2
z
w
2
z
2
cr0

EI
GI s
I
I
s
EI
M
t
+ s
where:
a is the distance between the restrained longitudinal axis (e.g. the
centroid of the purlins) and the shear centre of the member. This takes
account of the fact that the effective restraint is provided slightly away
from the flange
L
t
is the length of the segment along the member between torsional
restraints to both flanges
s is the distance between the restraints along the restrained longitudinal
axis (e.g. the spacing of the purlins).
For tapered or haunched members, M
cr0
is calculated using the section
properties of the shallow ends.
The parameters a, L
t
and s are shown in Figure C.1
4 - 79

1 Shear centre of the shallowest
cross-section
2 Axis where restraint is provided
3 Intermediate lateral restraints (purlins)

4 Lateral restraints to both flanges, providing
torsional restraint
5 Compression flange

Figure C.1 Arrangement of tension flange restraints
C.3 N
cr
for uniform members with discrete restraints
to the tension flange
It is possible to take beneficial account of restraints to the tension flange. This
may lead to a greater buckling resistance of the member.
Tension flange restraint is usually provided by elements connected to the
tension flange of the member (e.g. purlins).
For Class 1, 2, and 3 cross-sections, 6.3.1.2 of EN 1993-1-1 gives
cr
y
N
Af
= where
2
2
cr

L
EI
N = for flexural buckling
3
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
2
2
3
3
1
2
L
L
L
s s
s s
s s
a
t
t
t
4 - 80
C.3.2 N
crT
for uniform members with discrete restraints to the tension
flange
The elastic critical buckling force for an I section with intermediate restraints
to the tension flange is given in BB.3.3.1 as:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
t
2
t
w
2
2
t
2
z
2
2
crT
1
GI
L
EI
L
a EI
i
N
s
t t

where:
2 2
z
2
y
2
s
a i i i + + =
L
t
is the length of the segment along the member between torsional
restraints to both flanges
a is defined in C.1.
For tapered or haunched members, N
crT
is calculated using the section
properties of the shallow ends.

4 - 81
APPENDIX D

Worked Example: Design of portal frame using elastic
analysis

4 - 82
APPENDIX D Worded Example: Design of
portal frame using elastic analysis
1 of 44
Made by CZT Date 12/2009

Calculation sheet
Checked by DGB Date 12/2009

1. Elastic analysis of a single bay portal frame

This example covers the design of a portal frame for a single-storey building,
using the elastic method of global analysis. Only gravity loads are covered in
this example. The frame uses hot rolled I sections for rafters and columns.

2. Frame geometry

5
L
C
30000
6
0
0
0
5
2
7
5
3020

Spacing of portal frames = 7,2 m

The cladding to the roof and walls is supported by purlins and side rails.
The purlins have been provisionally located at intervals of between 1500 mm
and 1800 mm as shown. The side rails are provisionally located at intervals of
no more than 2000 mm. The rafter and column verifications may require these
locations to be modified.

Title
APPENDIX D Worked Example: Design of portal frame using elastic
analysis
2 of 44

4 - 83
*
* *
*
*
*
*
6
0
0
0
5
2
7
5
1
4
7
5
1
9
0
0
1
9
0
0
3
0
2
0
1
5
0
0
0
7
2
5
8
0
0
1
3
4
5
2992
14892
15057
302
1647
1
6
5
L
C
5
3
0
2
1
3
4
5
1
1
9
8
0
7
3
1
3
1
7
0
0
1
7
0
0
1
7
0
0
1
7
0
0
1
7
0
0
1
7
0
0
1
7
0
0
13192
11492
9792
8092
6392
4692

torsional restraint to inside flange

Title
analysis
3 of 44

4 - 84
3. Loads

3.1. Permanent loads

G = G
self-weight
+ G
roof

G
self-weight
: self-weight of the beams
G
roof
: roofing with purlins G
roof
= 0,30 kN/m
2

for an internal frame: G
roof
= 0,30 7,20 = 2,16 kN/m

EN 1991-1-1

= 2,16 kN/m + self weight G
30 m

3.2. Snow loads
The characteristic value for snow loading on the roof for a specific location in
a given country at certain altitude has been calculated as:
s
k
= 0,618 kN/m
for an internal frame: s = 0,618 7,20 = 4,45 kN/m

EN 1991-1-3
30 m
= 4,45 kN/m s

3.3. Imposed load on roof

Characteristic values for loading on the roof (type H: not accessible).
q
k
= 0,4 kN/m
2
for an internal frame: q
k
= 0,4 7,20 = 2,88 kN/m
EN 1991-1-1
Table 6.10
30 m
Q
k
= 2,88 kN/m

Title
analysis
4 of 44

4 - 85
3.4. Load combinations

For simplicity, the wind actions are not considered in this example.
Therefore, the critical design combination for choosing the member size is:
G

G +
Q
Q

Where:
Q is the maximum of the snow load and the imposed load.
G
= 1,35 (permanent actions)
Q
= 1,50 (variable actions)

EN 1990
The snow loads are greater than the imposed loads on the roof, therefore
Q = 4,45 kN/m

4. Preliminary sizing

Single-storey steel buildings. Part 2: Concept design
[2]
provides a table of
preliminary member sizes, according to the rafter load and the height to
eaves.

Rafter load = 1,35( 2,16 + self weight )+1,5 4,45 = 9,6 kN/m + self weight
Say 10 kN/m to include self weight.

The section chosen for the rafter is an IPE 450, S355
The section chosen for the column is an IPE 500, S355
5. Buckling amplification factor o
cr

In order to evaluate the sensitivity of the frame to 2
nd
order effects, the
buckling amplification factor, o
cr
, has to be calculated. This calculation
requires the deflections of the frame to be known under a given load
combination.
EN 1993-1-1
5.2.1
An elastic analysis is performed to calculate the reactions under vertical loads
at ULS, which provides the following information:

The vertical reaction at each base: V
Ed
= 168 kN
The horizontal reaction at each base: H
Ed
= 116 kN
The maximum axial force in the rafters: N
R,Ed
= 130 kN

5.1. Axial compression in the rafter

According to the code, if the axial compression in the rafter is significant then
o
cr
is not applicable. In such situations, Appendix B of this document
recommends the use of o
cr,est
instead.
The axial compression is significant if
Ed
y
3 , 0
N
Af
>
or if N
Ed
> 0,09 N
cr
, which is an equivalent expression.
EN 1993-1-1
5.2.1(4)
Note 2B
N
Ed
is the design axial load at ULS in the rafter, noted N
R,Ed
in this example.
Title
analysis
5 of 44

4 - 86
L
cr
is the developed length of the rafter pair from column to column.
L
cr
=
o
5 cos
30
= 30,1 m

N
cr
=
2
cr
z
2
L
EI t
=
( )
3
2
3
4 2
10
10 1 , 30
10 33740 210000

t
= 772 kN

0,09 N
cr
= 772 09 , 0 = 69 kN
N
R,Ed
= 130 kN > 69 kN
Therefore the axial compression in the rafter is significant and o
cr
from
EN 1993-1-1 is not applicable.
Following the guidance from Appendix B, frame stability is assessed based
on o
cr,est
, in Section 5.2.

5.2. Calculation of o
cr,est

For a pitched roof frame: o
cr,est
= min(o
cr,s,est
; o
cr,r,est
)
o
cr,r,est
only needs to be checked for portal frames of 3 or more spans.
Appendix B of
this document
When assessing frame stability, allowance can be made for the base stiffness.
In this example, a base stiffness equal to 10% of the column stiffness has been
assumed to allow for the nominally pinned bases.

To calculate o
cr
, a notional horizontal force is applied to the frame and the
horizontal deflection of the top of the columns is determined under this load.

The notional horizontal force is:
H
NHF
=
200
1
V
Ed
= 168
200
1
= 0,84 kN
Appendix B of
this document
The horizontal deflection of the top of the column under this force is obtained
from the elastic analysis as 1,6 mm.

1,6 mm 1,6 mm
H H
NHF NHF

o
cr,s,est
is calculated as follows:
Title
analysis
6 of 44

4 - 87
o
cr,s,est
=
)
`
|
|
.
|
\
|
NHF
max
cr R,
Ed R,
200
1
1 8 , 0
o
h
N
N

=
)
`
)
`
|
.
|
\
|
6 , 1
6000
200
1
772
130
1 8 , 0 = 12,5
Appendix B of
this document
Thus o
cr,est
= o
cr,s,est
= 12,5 > 10
First order elastic analysis may be used and second order effects do not need
to be allowed for.
Section 2.2 of this
document
6. Frame imperfections

The global initial sway imperfection may be determined from
| = |
0
o
h
o
m

|
0
= 1/200

o
h
= 82 , 0
0 , 6
2 2
= =
h

o
m
= 87 , 0 )
1
1 ( 5 , 0 = +
m
= )
2
1
1 ( 5 , 0 + = 0,87
m = 2 (number of columns)
| =
3
10 56 , 3 87 , 0 82 , 0
200
1

=
EN 1993-1-1
5.3.2
Initial sway imperfections may be considered in two ways:
- By modeling the frame out of plumb
- By applying equivalent horizontal forces (EHF).

Applying equivalent horizontal forces is the preferred option and the method
that is used in this worked example. The equivalent horizontal forces are
calculated as:
H
EHF
= | V
Ed

However sway imperfections may be disregarded where H
Ed
> 0,15 V
Ed.
EN 1993-1-1
5.3.2(4)
Table 1 shows the total reactions for the structure to determine H
Ed
and V
Ed
.
Table 1 Vertical and horizontal reactions

Left column (kN)
Right column
(kN)
Total reaction
(kN)
0,15 VEd
(kN)
H
Ed
V
Ed
H
Ed
V
Ed
H
Ed
V
Ed

Reactions 116 168 116 168 0 336 50

H
Ed
= 0 < 0,15 V
Ed

Therefore the initial sway imperfections have to be taken into account.
Title
analysis
7 of 44

4 - 88
The equivalent horizontal forces:
H
EHF
= | V
Ed,column
= 168 10 56 , 3
3

= 0,60 kN

This force is applied at the top of each column, in combination with the
permanent and variable actions.

For the ULS analysis, the bases are modeled as pinned. Otherwise the base
details and foundation would need to be designed for the resulting moment.

The following figure shows the internal forces on the frame subject to the
ULS loads including the equivalent horizontal forces.

Title
analysis
8 of 44

4 - 89
5
2
7
5
M
=

0

k
N
m
V N M
=

0

k
N
m
V N M
=

6
9
3

k
N
m
V N M
=

2
9
2

k
N
m
V N M
=

3
5
6

k
N
m
L
C
V N M
=

3
5
1

k
N
m
V N M
=

0

k
N
m
V N M
=

7
0
1

k
N
m
V N M
=

2
9
8

k
N
m
3
0
1
1
5
8
6
9
3
0
1
1
5
9
4
1
3
0
0
0
0
V N M
=

6
1
6

k
N
m
V N M
=

6
1
0

k
N
m
=

1
1
8

k
N
=

1
2
7

k
N
=

1
2
4

k
N
=

1
5
0

k
N
=

1
3
0

k
N =

1
1
7

k
N
=

1
6
2

k
N
=

1
0

k
N
=

1
1
6

k
N
=

0

k
N
=

1
1
7

k
N
=

8
6

k
N
=

1
2
4

k
N
=

1
1
7

k
N
=

1
2
7

k
N
=

1
5
0

k
N
=

1
3
0

k
N
=

1
1
6

k
N
=

1
6
1

k
N
E
d
E
d
E
d
=

8
7

k
N
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
E
d

Title
analysis
9 of 44

4 - 90
7. Summary of member verification

The cross-section resistance and the buckling resistance are verified for each
member. Sections 7.1and 7.2 provide a summary of the checks carried out for
each member of the frame.

7.1. Cross-section verification

The resistance of the cross-section has to be verified in accordance with
Section 6.2 of EN 1993-1-1.

The cross-sectional checks carried out in this worked example are:
Shear resistance

V
Ed
s V
pl,Rd
=
( )
M0
y v
3
f A

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.6
Compression resistance
N
Ed
s N
c,Rd
=
M0
y
A f

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.4
Bending moment resistance
M
Ed
s M
pl,y,Rd
=
M0
y y pl,
f W

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.5
In addition, bending and shear interaction, as well as bending and axial force
interaction must be verified.
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.8
6.2.9
7.2. Buckling verification

The rafters and the columns must be verified for out-of-plane buckling
between restraints and in plane buckling.

The buckling checks due to the interaction of axial force and bending moment
are carried out using Expressions 6.61 and 6.62 from EN 1993-1-1.
0 , 1
M1
Rk z,
Ed z, Ed z,
yz
M1
Rk y,
LT
Ed y, Ed y,
yy
M1
Rk y
Ed
s
+
+
+
+
_
A
_ M
M M
k
M
M M
k
N
N

0 , 1
M1
Rk z,
Ed z, Ed z,
zz
M1
Rk y,
LT
Ed y, Ed y,
zy
M1
Rk z
Ed
s
+
+
+
+
_
A
_ M
M M
k
M
M M
k
N
N

EN 1993-1-1
Expressions
(6.61) and (6.62)
Title
analysis
10 of 44

4 - 91
For orthodox single-storey portal frames, these expressions can be simplified
as follows:
Ed y,
M A = 0 and
Ed z,
M A = 0 for Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3 sections.
M
z,Ed
= 0
Therefore expressions (6.61) and (6.62) can be written as:
0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
yy
Rd y, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N
and 0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
zy
Rd z, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

Expression (6.61) is used to verify in-plane buckling, and expression (6.62) is
used to verify out-of-plane buckling.

COLUMN: IPE 500, S355
1
4
7
5
6
0
0
0
0 kNm
616 kNm
444 kNm
1
9
0
0
1
9
0
0
221 kNm
*
V
V
= 117 kN
= 117 kN
N
N
= 162 kN
= 168 kN
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed

Section properties:
500 = h mm 11600 = A mm
2

200 = b mm
3
y pl,
10 2194 = W mm
3

2 , 10
w
= t mm
4
y
10 48200 = I mm
4
204
y
= i mm
16
f
= t mm
4
z
10 2142 = I mm
4
1 , 43
z
= i mm
21 = r mm
4
t
10 3 , 89 = I mm
4

468
w
= h mm
9
w
10 1249 = I mm
6

426 = d mm

7.3. Cross-section classification

7.3.1. The web

w
t
c
=
2 , 10
426
= 41,8
EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2
(Sheet 1)
Title
analysis
11 of 44

4 - 92
d
N
=
y w
Ed
f t
N
=
355 2 , 10
168000
= 46,4

o =
w
N w
2d
d d +
=
426 2
4 , 46 426
+
= 0,55 > 0,50
The limit for Class 1 is :
1 13
396
o
c
=
1 55 , 0 13
81 , 0 396

= 52,2
Then :
w
t
c
= 41,8 s 52,2
The web is class 1.

7.3.2. The flange

f
t
c
=
16
9 , 73
= 4,6
The limit for Class 1 is : 9 = 9 0,81 = 7,3
Then :
f
t
c
= 4,6 s 8,3
The flange is Class 1
EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2 (Sheet
2)
So the section is Class 1. The verification of the member will be based on the
plastic resistance of the cross-section.

7.4. Resistance of the cross-section

7.4.1. Shear resistance
Shear area: A
v
= A 2bt
f
+ (t
w
+2r)t
f
but not less than qh
w
t
w

A
v
= 16 ) 21 2 2 , 10 ( 16 200 2 11600 + + = 6035 mm
2

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.6
Conservatively q = 1,0. Therefore:
A
v
<
/
qh
w
t
w
= 2 , 10 468 0 , 1 = 4774 mm
2

A
v
= 6035 mm
2

q from
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.6(3)
V
pl,Rd
=
( )
M0
y v
3
f A
=
( )
3
10
0 , 1
3 355 6035

= 1237 kN
V
Ed
= 117 kN < 1237 kN OK

Bending and shear interaction
When shear force and bending moment act simultaneously on a cross-section,
the shear force can be ignored if it is smaller than 50% of the plastic shear
resistance.
V
Ed
= 117 kN < 0,5 V
pl,Rd
= 0,5 1237 = 619 kN
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.8
Therefore the effect of the shear force on the moment resistance may be
neglected.

Title
analysis
12 of 44

4 - 93
7.4.2. Compression resistance
N
c,Rd
=
M0
y
A f
=
3
10
0 , 1
355 11600

= 4118 kN
N
Ed
= 168 kN s N
c,Rd
= 4118 kN OK
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.4
Bending and axial force interaction
When axial force and bending moment act simultaneously on a cross-section,
the axial force can be ignored provided the following two conditions are
satisfied:
N
Ed
s 0,25 N
pl,Rd
and N
Ed
s
M0
y w w
5 , 0
f t h

0,25 N
pl,Rd
= 0,25 4118 = 1030 kN
3
M0
y w w
10
0 , 1
355 2 , 10 468 5 , 0
5 , 0

f t h
= 847 kN
168 kN < 1030 kN and 847 kN, OK
Therefore the effect of the axial force on the moment resistance may be
neglected.
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.9
Bending moment resistance EN 1993-1-1
6.2.5
M
pl,y,Rd
=
M0
y pl
f W
=
6
3
10
0 , 1
355 10 2194

= 779 kNm
M
y,Ed
= 616 kNm < 779 kNm OK

7.5. Out-of-plane buckling

The out-of-plane buckling interaction is verified with expression (6.62) in
EN 199311.
0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
zy
Rd z, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

This expression should be verified between torsional restraints.

If the tension flange is restrained at discreet points between the torsional
restraints and the spacing between the restraints to the tension flange is small
enough, advantage may be taken of this situation.

In order to determine whether or not the spacing between restraints is small
enough, Annex BB of EN 1993-1-1 provides an expression to calculate the
maximum spacing. If the actual spacing between restraints is smaller than this
calculated value, then the methods given in Appendix C of this document may
be used to calculate the elastic critical force and the critical moment of the
section.

Title
analysis
13 of 44

4 - 94
Verification of spacing between intermediate restraints
In this case the restraint to the tension flange is provided by the siderails.
These siderails are spaced at 1900 mm.
The limiting spacing as given by Annex BB of EN 1993-1-1 is:

L
m
=
2
y
t
2
y pl,
2
1
Ed
z
235 756
1
4 , 57
1
38
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
f
AI
W
C A
N
i

EN 1993-1-1
Annex BB
BB.3.1.1
C
1
is a factor that accounts for the shape of the bending moment diagram. C
1

values for different shapes of bending moment diagrams can be found in
Appendix C of this document.
For a linear bending moment diagram, C
1
depends on the ratio of the
minimum and the maximum bending moments in the segment being
considered.
The ratios of bending moments for the middle and bottom segments of the
column (without considering the haunch) are as follows:

=
444
222
= 0,50
1
C = 1,31
Appendix C of
this document
=
222
0
= 0
1
C = 1,77

1
C = 1,31 is the most onerous case and therefore this is the case that will be
analysed.

L
m
=
( )
2
4
2
3
2
3
235
355
10 3 , 89 11600
10 2194
31 , 1 756
1
11600
10 168
4 , 57
1
1 , 43 38
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
|
.
|
\
|

L
m
= 1584 mm

Siderail spacing is 1900 mm > 1584 mm
Therefore the normal design procedure must be adopted and advantage may
not be taken of the restraints to the tension flange.

7.5.2. Whole column (5275 mm)
Firstly the whole column is verified. If the flexural buckling, lateral torsional
buckling and interaction checks are satisfied for the length of the whole
column, no further restraints are required. Otherwise, intermediate torsional
restraints will be introduced to the column, or the column size increased.

Flexural buckling resistance about the minor axis, N
b,z,Rd

b
h
=
200
500
= 2,5
t
f
= 16 mm

Title
analysis
14 of 44

4 - 95
buckling about z-z axis:
Curve b for hot rolled I sections
o
z
= 0,34
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.2
Table 6.1
1
=
y
f
E
t =
355
210000
t = 76,4
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.3
z =
1 z
cr
1
i
L
=
4 , 76
1
1 , 43
5275
= 1,60

|
z
= ( ) | |
2
z z
z
2 , 0 1 5 , 0 o + +
= ( ) | |
2
60 , 1 2 , 0 60 , 1 34 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 2,02
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2
_
z
=
2
2
1
| | +
=
2 2
60 , 1 02 , 2 02 , 2
1
+
= 0,307

N
b,z,Rd
=
M1
y z
_ Af
=
3
10
0 , 1
355 11600 307 , 0

= 1264 kN

N
Ed
= 168 kN < 1264 kN OK
Lateral-torsional buckling resistance, M
b,Rd

The lateral-torsional buckling resistance of a member is calculated as a
reduction factor, _
LT
, multiplied by the section modulus and the yield strength
of the section. The reduction factor is calculated as a function of the
slenderness, LT , which depends on the critical moment of the member. The
expression for the critical moment, M
cr
, is given below. The factor C
1

accounts for the shape of bending moment diagram of the member. Appendix
C of this document provides values of C
1
for different shapes of bending
moment diagrams. For the case of a linear bending moment diagram, C
1

depends on the ratio of the bending moments at the ends of the member, given
as .

For the total length of the column (without the haunch):
0
616
0
= = 77 , 1
1
= C
Appendix C of
this document
M
cr
=
z
2
t
2
z
w
2
z
2
1
EI
GI L
I
I
L
EI
C
t
t
+
=
2
4 2
5275
10 2142 210000
77 , 1

t

4 2
4 2
4
9
10 2142 210000
10 3 , 89 81000 5275
10 2142
10 1249

+
t

M
cr
= 909 10
6
Nmm
Appendix C of
this document
Title
analysis
15 of 44

4 - 96
The non dimensional slenderness, LT , is calculated as:

LT =
cr
y y
M
f W
=
6
3
10 909
355 10 2194

= 0,926
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.2
For the calculation of the reduction factor, _
LT
, EN 1993-1-1 provides two
methods. The general method, applicable to any section, is given in 6.3.2.2.
6.3.2.3 provides a method that can only be used for rolled sections or
equivalent welded sections.
In this example the second method is used, i.e. 6.3.2.3.

|
LT
= ( ) | |
2
LT LT,0 LT
LT
1 5 , 0 | o + +
EN 1993-1-1 recommends the following values:
LT,0 = 0,4
| = 0,75
The values given in the National Annex may differ. The designer should
check the National Annex of the country where the structure is to be built.
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3
b
h
= 2,5
Curve c for hot rolled I sections
o
LT
= 0,49
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.3
Table 6.5
|
LT
= ( ) | |
2
926 , 0 75 , 0 4 , 0 926 , 0 49 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 0,950

_
LT
=
2
LT
2
LT LT
1
| | | +

_
LT
=
2 2
926 , 0 75 , 0 950 , 0 950 , 0
1
+
= 0,685
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3
2 2
LT
926 . 0
1 1
=
= 1,17
_
LT
= 0,685

M
b,Rd
=
M1
y y pl, LT
_ f W
=
6
3
10
0 , 1
355 10 2194 685 , 0

= 534 kNm

M
b,Rd
= 616 kNm <
/
534 kNm Fails

Since the check for lateral torsional buckling resistance alone fails, the
interaction of axial force and bending moment is not carried out.

It is necessary to introduce a torsional restraint between the haunch and the
base, as shown in the following figure. The bending moment is greater at the
top of the column and therefore the restraint is placed closer to the maximum
bending moment, rather than in the middle of the column.

Title
analysis
16 of 44

4 - 97
The restraint must be at a side rail position, since bracing from the side rail to
the inner flange is used to provide the torsional restraint.

3
8
0
0
1
4
7
5
6
0
0
0
0 kNm
616 kNm
444 kNm
*
*
= 117 kN V
N = 162 kN
Ed
Ed
= 117 kN V
N
Ed
Ed
= 168 kN

7.5.3. Upper segment (1475 mm)

As previously, the flexural buckling and the lateral torsional buckling checks
are carried out separately before proceeding to verify the interaction between
the two.

b,z,Rd

b
h
=
200
500
= 2,5
t
f
= 16 mm

buckling about z-z axis:
o
z
= 0,34
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.2
Table 6.1
1
=
y
f
E
t =
355
210000
t = 76,4
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.3
z =
1 z
cr
1
i
L
=
4 , 76
1
1 , 43
1475
= 0,448

|
z
= ( ) | |
2
z z
z
2 , 0 1 5 , 0 o + +
= ( ) | |
2
448 , 0 2 , 0 448 , 0 34 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 0,643
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2
_
z
=
2
z
2
z z
1
| | +
=
2 2
448 , 0 643 , 0 643 , 0
1
+
= 0,906
_
z
= 0,906

Title
analysis
17 of 44

4 - 98
N
b,z,Rd
=
M1
y z
_ Af
=
3
10
0 , 1
355 11600 906 , 0

= 3731 kN

N
Ed
= 168 kN < 3731 kN OK
b,Rd

As previously the factor C
1
needs to be calculated in order to determine the
critical moment of the member.

616 kNm
444 kNm
1
4
7
5

721 , 0
616
444
= = 16 , 1
1
= C
Appendix C of
this document
M
cr
=
z
2
t
2
z
w
2
z
2
1
EI
GI L
I
I
L
EI
C
t
t
+
=
2
4 2
1475
10 2142 210000
16 , 1

t

4 2
4 2
4
9
10 2142 210000
10 3 , 89 81000 1475
10 2142
10 1249

+
t

M
cr
= 5887 10
6
Nmm
Appendix C of
this document
LT =
cr
y y
M
f W
=
6
3
10 5887
355 10 2194

= 0,364
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.2
For hot rolled sections
|
LT
= ( ) | |
2
LT LT,0 LT
LT
1 5 , 0 | o + +
LT,0 = 0,4
| = 0,75
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3
As previously:
o
LT
= 0,49
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.3
Table 6.5
Title
analysis
18 of 44

4 - 99
|
LT
= ( ) | |
2
364 , 0 75 , 0 4 , 0 364 , 0 49 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 0,541

_
LT
=
2
LT
2
LT LT
1
| | | +

_
LT
=
2 2
364 , 0 75 , 0 541 , 0 541 , 0
1
+
= 1,02
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3
_
LT
cannot be greater than 1.0, therefore:

_
LT
= 1,0

M
b,Rd
=
M1
y y pl, LT
_ f W
=
6
3
10
0 , 1
355 10 2194 0 , 1

= 779 kNm

M
Ed
= 616 kNm < 779 kNm OK
Interaction of axial force and bending moment out-of-plane buckling
Out-of-plane buckling due to the interaction of axial force and bending
moment is verified by satisfying the following expression:
0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
zy
Rd z, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

EN 1993-1-1
6.3.3(4)
For z > 0.4, the interaction factor, k
zy
is calculated as:
k
zy
=
( ) ( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
z Rd, b,
Ed
mLT z Rd, b,
Ed
mLT
25 , 0
1 , 0
1 ;
25 , 0
1 , 0
1 max
N
N
C N
N
C
z

EN 1993-1-1
Annex B
Table B.2
C
mLT
= 4 , 0 6 , 0 +
=
616
444
= 0,721
C
mLT
= 721 , 0 4 , 0 6 , 0 + = 0,888 > 0,4
C
mLT
= 0,888
EN 1993-1-1
Annex B
Table B.3
k
zy
=
( ) ( )
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
3731
168
25 , 0 888 , 0
1 , 0
1 ;
3731
168
25 , 0 888 , 0
448 , 0 1 , 0
1 max
k
zy
= max (0,996; 0,993) = 0,996

Rd b,
Ed y,
zy
Rd z, b,
Ed
M
M
k
N
N
+ =
779
616
996 , 0
3731
168
+ = 0,832 < 1,0 OK

7.5.4. Lower segment (3800 mm)

As previously the flexural buckling resistance and the lateral-torsional
buckling resistance are checked individually and then the interaction between
the two is verified by using interaction Expression 6.62.

Title
analysis
19 of 44

4 - 100
b,z,Rd

As previously:
o
z
= 0,34
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
1
=
y
f
E
t =
355
210000
t = 76,4
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.3
z =
1 z
cr
1
i
L
=
4 , 76
1
1 , 43
3800
= 1,15

|
z
= ( ) | |
2
z z
z
2 , 0 1 5 , 0 o + +
|
z
= ( ) | |
2
15 , 1 2 , 0 15 , 1 34 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 1,32
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2

_
z
=
2
z
2
z z
1
| | +
=
2 2
15 , 1 32 , 1 32 , 1
1
+
= 0,508

N
b,z,Rd
=
M1
y z
_ Af
=
3
10
0 , 1
355 1600 1 0,508

= 2092 kN

N
Ed
= 168 kN < 2092 kN OK
b,Rd

As previously the C
1
factor needs to be calculated in order to determine the
critical moment of the member.

444 kNm
3
8
0
0

0
444
0
= = 77 , 1
1
= C
Appendix C of
this document
Title
analysis
20 of 44

4 - 101
M
cr
=
z
2
t
2
z
w
2
z
2
1
EI
GI L
I
I
L
EI
C
t
t
+
=
2
4 2
3800
10 2142 210000
77 , 1

t

4 2
4 2
4
9
10 2142 210000
10 3 , 89 81000 3800
10 2142
10 1249

+
t

M
cr
= 1556 10
6
Nmm
Appendix C of
this document
LT =
cr
y y
M
f W
=
6
3
10 1556
355 10 2194

= 0,708
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.2
|
LT
= ( ) | |
2
LT LT,0 LT
LT
1 5 , 0 | o + +
LT,0 = 0,4 and | = 0,75
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3
As previously:
o
LT
= 0,49
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.3
Table 6.5
|
LT
= ( ) | |
2
708 , 0 75 , 0 4 , 0 708 , 0 49 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 0,763

_
LT
=
2
LT
2
LT LT
1
| | | +

_
LT
=
2 2
708 , 0 75 , 0 763 , 0 763 , 0
1
+
= 0,822
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3
2
LT
1
=
2
708 , 0
1
= 1,99
_
LT
= 0,822

M
b,Rd
=
M1
y y pl, LT
_ f W
=
6
3
10
0 , 1
355 10 2194 822 , 0

= 640 kNm

M
Ed
= 444 kNm < 640 kNm OK
0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
zy
Rd z, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

EN 1993-1-1
6.3.3(4)
Title
analysis
21 of 44

4 - 102
For z > 0.4, the interaction factor, k
zy
is calculated as:
k
zy
=
( ) ( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
z Rd, b,
Ed
mLT z Rd, b,
Ed
mLT
25 , 0
1 , 0
1 ;
25 , 0
1 , 0
1 max
N
N
C N
N
C
z

C
mLT
= 4 , 0 6 , 0 +
=
444
0
= 0
C
mLT
= 4 , 0 6 , 0 + = 0 4 , 0 6 , 0 + = 0,6 > 0,4
C
mLT
= 0,6
EN 1993-1-1
Annex B
Table B.3
k
zy
=
( ) ( )
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
2092
168
25 , 0 6 , 0
1 , 0
1 ;
2092
168
25 , 0 6 , 0
15 , 1 1 , 0
1 max
k
zy
= max (0,974; 0,977) = 0,977
EN 1993-1-1
Annex B
Table B.2
Rd b,
Ed y,
zy
Rd z, b,
Ed
M
M
k
N
N
+ =
640
444
977 , 0
2092
168
+ = 0,758 < 1,0 OK

7.6. In-plane buckling

The in-plane buckling interaction is verified with expression (6.61) in
EN 1993-1-1.
0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
yy
Rd y, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

M
M
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed
V
V
N
N
= 0 kNm
= 616 kNm
= 117 kN
= 162 kN
= 117 kN
= 168 kN

The maximum design values of either column occur on the right hand column
(considering EHF applied from left to right) and are as follows:
M
Ed
= 616 kNm
N
Ed
= 168 kN

Title
analysis
22 of 44

4 - 103
Firstly individual checks are carried out for flexural buckling alone and
lateral-torsional buckling alone. Then the interaction expression for in-plane
buckling is applied to verify that the combination of axial force and bending
moment does not cause excessive buckling on the columns.

7.6.1. Flexural buckling resistance about the mayor axis, N
b,y,Rd

b
h
=
200
500
= 2,5
t
f
= 16 mm

buckling about y-y axis:
Curve a for hot rolled I sections
o
y
= 0,21
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.2
Table 6.1
The buckling length is the system length, which is the distance between nodes
(i.e. the length of the column), L = 6000 mm.

1
=
y
f
E
t =
355
210000
t = 76,4
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.3
y =
1 y
cr
1
i
L
=
4 , 76
1
204
6000
= 0,385

|
y
= ( ) | |
2
y y
y
2 , 0 1 5 , 0 o + +
= ( ) | |
2
385 , 0 2 , 0 385 , 0 21 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 0,594
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2

_
y
=
2
2
1
| | +
=
2 2
385 , 0 594 , 0 594 , 0
1
+
= 0,956
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2

N
b,y,Rd
=
M1
y y
_ Af
=
3
10
0 , 1
355 11600 956 , 0

= 3937 kN

N
Ed
= 168 kN < 3937 kN OK
7.6.2. Lateral-torsional buckling resistance, M
b,Rd

M
b,Rd
is the least buckling moment resistance of those calculated previously.
M
b,Rd
= ( ) 640 ; 779 min
M
b,Rd
= 640 kNm

7.6.3. Interaction of axial force and bending moment in-plane
buckling

In-plane buckling due to the interaction of axial force and bending moment is
verified by satisfying the following expression:
0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
yy
Rd y, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

Title
analysis
23 of 44

4 - 104
For C
my
, the relevant braced points are the torsional restraints at the end of the
member.

The interaction factor, k
yy
, is calculated as follows:
k
yy
= ( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
Rd y, b,
Ed
my
Rd y, b,
Ed
y
my
8 , 0 1 ; 2 , 0 1 min
N
N
C
N
N
C

From table B.3, C
my
is:
C
my
= 4 , 0 6 , 0 + > 0,4
0 =
C
my
= 0 4 , 0 6 , 0 + = 0,6

k
yy
= ( )
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
3937
168
8 , 0 1 6 , 0 ;
3937
168
2 , 0 385 , 0 1 6 , 0 min
= ( ) 620 , 0 ; 605 , 0 min = 0,605

Rd b,
Ed y,
yy
Rd y, b,
Ed
M
M
k
N
N
+ =
640
616
605 , 0
3937
168
+ = 0,625 < 1,0 OK

Validity of column section
In Section 7.4 it has been demonstrated that the cross-sectional resistance of
the section is greater than the applied forces.
The out-of-plane and in-plane buckling checks have been verified in
Sections 7.5 and 7.6 for the appropriate choice of restraints along the column.

Therefore it is concluded that the IPE 500 section in S355 steel is appropriate
for use as columns in this portal frame.

Rafter: IPE 450
1345
1345
1700
1700
1700
1700
1700
1700
1700
351 kNm
354 kNm
111 kNm
298 kNm

Title
analysis
24 of 44

4 - 105
V
Ed
= 118 kN (maximum value)
N
Ed
= 127 kN (maximum value)
M
Ed
= 356 kNm (maximum value)

Section properties
450 = h mm 9880 = A mm
2

190 = b mm
3
y pl,
10 1702 = W mm
3

4 , 9
w
= t mm
4
y
10 33740 = I mm
4
185
y
= i mm

6 , 14
f
= t mm
4
z
10 1676 = I mm
4
2 , 41
z
= i mm

21 = r mm
4
t
10 9 , 66 = I mm
4
8 , 420
w
= h mm
9
w
10 791 = I mm
6

8 , 378 = d mm


7.7.1. The web

w
t
c

=
4 , 9
8 , 378
= 40,3
EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2
(Sheet 1)
d
N
=
y w
Ed
f t
N
=
355 4 , 9
127000
= 38

o =
w
N w
2d
d d +
=
8 , 378 2
38 8 , 378
+
= 0,55 > 0,50
The limit for Class 1 is :
1 13
396
o
c
=
1 55 , 0 13
81 , 0 396

= 52,1
Then :
w
t
c
= 40,3 < 52,1
The web is class 1.

7.7.2. The flange

f
t
c

=
6 , 14
3 , 69
= 4,7
Then :
f
t
c
= 4,7 < 7,3
The flange is Class 1
EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2
(Sheet 2)
Therefore, the section is Class 1. The verification of the member will be based
on the plastic resistance of the cross-section.

Title
analysis
25 of 44

4 - 106
7.8. Resistance of the cross-section

Shear area : A
v
= A - 2bt
f
+ (t
w
+2r)t
f
but not less than qh
w
t
w

A
v
= 6 , 14 ) 21 2 4 , 9 ( 6 , 14 190 2 9880 + + = 5082 mm
2

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.6(3)
qh
w
t
w
= 4 , 9 8 , 420 0 , 1 = 3956 mm
2

A
v
= 5082 mm
2

q from
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.6(3)
V
pl,Rd
=
( )
M0
y v
3
f A
=
( )
3
10
0 , 1
3 355 5082

= 1042 kN
V
Ed
= 118 kN < 1042 kN OK

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.6(3)
Bending and shear interaction
resistance of the cross-section.
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.8
V
Ed
= 118 kN < 0,5 V
pl,Rd
=

521 kN OK
neglected.


N
c,Rd
=
M0
y
A f
=
3
10
0 , 1
355 9880

= 3507 kN
N
Ed
= 127 kN < 3507 kN OK

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.4
Bending and axial force interaction
the axial force can be ignored provided the following two conditions are
satisfied:
N
Ed
< 0,25 N
pl,Rd
and N
Ed
<
M0
y w w
5 , 0
f t h

0,25 N
pl,Rd
= 0,25 3507 = 877 kN
And
3
M0
y w w
10
0 , 1
355 4 , 9 8 , 420 5 , 0
5 , 0

f t h
= 702 kN
127 kN < 887 kN and 702 kN OK
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.9
Therefore the effect of the axial force on the moment resistance may be
neglected.

Title
analysis
26 of 44

4 - 107
7.8.3. Bending moment resistance
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.5
M
pl,y,Rd
=
M0
y y pl,
f W
=
6
3
10
0 , 1
355 10 1702

= 604 kNm
M
y,Ed
= 356 kNm < 604 kNm OK

7.9. Out-of-plane buckling

The out-of-plane buckling interaction is verified with expression (6.62) from
EN 1993-1-1
0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
Rd b, z,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N
zy

The rafter should be verified between torsional restraints. If advantage is
taken of intermediate restraints to the tension flange, the spacing of the
intermediate restraints must also be verified.

7.9.1. Mid-span region

The purlin spacing in this region is 1700 mm.
1700 mm
1

1 Mid-span region

354 kNm
351 kNm
1700
356 kNm
1

1: Bending moment

Flexural buckling resistance about minor axis bending, N
b,z,Rd

b
h
=
190
450
= 2,37
t
f
= 14,6 mm

buckling about z-z axis
o
z
= 0,34
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
Title
analysis
27 of 44

4 - 108
1
=
y
f
E
t =
355
210000
t = 76,4
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.3
z =
1 z
cr
1
i
L
=
4 , 76
1
2 , 41
1700
= 0,540

|
z
= ( ) | |
2
z z
z
2 , 0 1 5 , 0 o + +
|
z
= ( ) | |
2
540 , 0 2 , 0 540 , 0 34 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 0,704
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2

_
z
=
2
z
2
z z
1
| | +
=
2 2
540 , 0 704 , 0 704 , 0
1
+
= 0,865

N
b,z,Rd
=
M1
y z
_ Af
=
3
10
0 , 1
355 9880 865 , 0

= 3034 kN
N
Ed
= 127 kN < 3034 kN OK

Lateral-torsional buckling resistance for bending, M
b,Rd

In this zone, lateral-torsional buckling is checked between restraints, which
are the purlins. For equally spaced purlins, the critical length is at the point of
maximum bending moment.

In order to determine the critical moment of the rafter, the C
1
factor takes
account of the shape of the bending moment diagram.

In this case the bending moment diagram is nearly constant along the segment
in consideration, so ~ 1,0. Therefore:
1
1
= C ,0

Appendix C of
this document
M
cr
=
z
2
t
2
z
w
2
z
2
1
EI
GI L
I
I
L
EI
C
t
t
+
=
2
4 2
1700
10 1676 210000
0 , 1

t

4 2
4 2
4
9
10 1676 210000
10 9 , 66 81000 1700
10 1676
10 791

+
t

M
cr
= 2733 10
6
Nmm

Appendix C of
this document
LT
=
cr
y y pl,
M
f W
=
6
3
10 2733
355 10 1702

= 0,470
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.2
( ) | |
2
LT LT,0 LT
LT LT
1 5 , 0 | o | + + =
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3
Title
analysis
28 of 44

4 - 109
LT,0
= 0,4 and | = 0,75
b
h
= 2,37
o
LT
= 0,49
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.3
Table 6.5
( ) | |
2
LT
470 , 0 75 , 0 4 , 0 470 , 0 49 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = | = 0,60

_
LT
=
2
LT
2
LT LT
1
| | | +

_
LT
=
2 2
470 , 0 75 , 0 60 , 0 60 , 0
1
+
= 0,961
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3
2
LT
1
=
2
470 , 0
1
= 4,53
_
LT
= 0,961

M
b,Rd
=
M1
y y pl, LT
_ f W
=
6
3
10
0 , 1
355 10 1702 961 , 0

= 581 kNm

M
Ed
= 356 kNm < 581 kNm OK
0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
zy
Rd z, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

EN 1993-1-1
6.3.3(4)
For z > 0,4, the interaction factor, k
zy
is calculated as:
k
zy
=
( ) ( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
Rd z, b,
Ed
mLT Rd z, b,
Ed
mLT
25 , 0
1 , 0
1 ;
25 , 0
1 , 0
1 max
N
N
C N
N
C
z

The bending moment is approximately linear and constant. Therefore C
mLT
is
taken as 1.0
EN 1993-1-1
Annex B Table
B.3
k
zy
=
( ) ( )
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
3034
127
25 , 0 1
1 , 0
1 ;
3034
127
25 , 0 1
540 , 0 1 , 0
1 max
= max (0,997; 0,994) = 0,997
EN 1993-1-1
Annex B Table
B.2
Rd b,
Ed y,
zy
Rd z, b,
Ed
M
M
k
N
N
+ =
581
356
997 , 0
3034
127
+ = 0,653 < 1,0 OK

Title
analysis
29 of 44

4 - 110
7.9.2. End-of-span region

In this region the bottom flange is in compression and stability must be
checked between torsional restraints.

2930 mm
1 1

1 End of span region

1230 1700
298 kNm
1
2
111 kNm

1 Simplified bending moment
2 Bending moment

The buckling length is taken from the torsional restraint at the sharp end of
the haunch to the virtual restraint which is the point of contraflexure of the
bending moment diagram, i.e. where the bending moment is equal to zero. In
some countries the assumption of a virtual restraint may not be common
practice. If the practice is not allowed, the buckling length should be taken to
the next purlin (i.e the first restraint to the compression flange).

From the analysis, the buckling length to the point of contraflexure is
2930 mm.

If the tension flange is restrained at discreet points between the torsional

section.

Verification of spacing between intermediate restraints
In this case, the restraint to the tension flange is provided by the purlins.
These purlins are spaced at 1700 mm.

L
m
=
2
y
t
2
y pl,
2
1
Ed
z
235 756
1
4 , 57
1
38
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
f
AI
W
C A
N
i

EN 1993-1-1
Annex BB
BB.3.1.1
Title
analysis
30 of 44

4 - 111
=
298
111
= 0,37
1
C = 1,42
Appendix C of
this document
L
m
=
( )
2
4
2
3
2
3
235
355
10 9 , 66 9880
10 1702
42 , 1 756
1
9880
10 127
4 , 57
1
2 , 41 38
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
|
.
|
\
|

L
m
= 1669 mm

Purlin spacing is 1700 mm > 1669 mm
Therefore the normal design procedure must be adopted and advantage may
not be taken of the restraints to the tension flange.

b,z,Rd

As previously:
o
z
= 0,34
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.2
Table 6.1
1
=
y
f
E
t =
355
210000
t = 76,4
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.3
z =
1 z
cr
1
i
L
=
4 , 76
1
2 , 41
2930
= 0,931

|
z
= ( ) | |
2
z z
z
2 , 0 1 5 , 0 o + +
|
z
= ( ) | |
2
931 , 0 2 , 0 931 , 0 34 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 1,06
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2

_
z
=
2
z
2
z z
1
| | +
=
2 2
931 , 0 06 , 1 06 , 1
1
+
= 0,638

N
b,z,Rd
=
M1
y z
_ Af
=
3
10
0 , 1
355 9880 0,638

= 2238 kN

N
Ed
= 127 kN < 2238 kN OK
b,Rd

As previously the C
1
factor needs to be calculated in order to determine the
critical moment of the member. For simplicity, the bending moment diagram
is considered as linear, which is slightly conservative.

=
298
0
= 0
1
C = 1,77
Appendix C of
this document
Title
analysis
31 of 44

4 - 112
M
cr
=
z
2
t
2
z
w
2
z
2
1
EI
GI L
I
I
L
EI
C
t
t
+
=
2
4 2
2930
10 1676 210000
77 , 1

t

4 2
4 2
4
9
10 1676 210000
10 9 , 66 81000 2930
10 1676
10 791

+
t

M
cr
= 1763 10
6
Nmm
Appendix C of
this document
LT
=
cr
y y pl,
M
f W
=
6
3
10 1763
355 10 1702

= 0,585
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.2
|
LT
= ( ) | |
2
LT LT,0 LT
LT
1 5 , 0 | o + +
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3
LT,0 = 0,4 and | = 0,75

As previously:
o
LT
= 0,49
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.3
Table 6.5
|
LT
= ( ) | |
2
585 , 0 75 , 0 4 , 0 585 , 0 49 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 0,674

_
LT
=
2
LT
2
LT LT
1
| | | +

_
LT
=
2 2
585 , 0 75 , 0 674 , 0 674 , 0
1
+
= 0,894
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.2.3
2
LT
1
=
2
585 , 0
1
= 2,92
_
LT
= 0,894

M
b,Rd
=
M1
y y pl, LT
_ f W
=
6
3
10
0 , 1
355 10 1702 894 , 0

= 540 kNm
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.5(2)
0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
zy
Rd z, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

EN 1993-1-1
6.3.3(4)

Title
analysis
32 of 44

4 - 113
For z > 0,4, the interaction factor, k
zy
, is calculated as:

k
zy
=
( ) ( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
Rd z, b,
Ed
mLT Rd z, b,
Ed
mLT
z
25 , 0
1 , 0
1 ;
25 , 0
1 , 0
1 max
N
N
C N
N
C

0
298
0
= =
C
mLT
= 4 , 0 6 , 0 + = 0 4 , 0 6 , 0 + = 0,6
EN 1993-1-1
Annex B
Table B.3
k
zy
=
( ) ( )
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
2238
127
25 , 0 6 , 0
1 , 0
1 ;
2238
127
25 , 0 6 , 0
931 , 0 1 , 0
1 max
= max ( 0,985; 0,983 ) = 0,985
EN 1993-1-1
Annex B
Table B.2
Rd b,
Ed y,
zy
Rd z, b,
Ed
M
M
k
N
N
+ =
540
298
985 , 0
2238
127
+ = 0,601 < 1,0 OK

7.10. In-plane buckling

The in-plane buckling interaction is verified with expression (6.61) in
EN 1993-1-1.
0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
yy
Rd y, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

M
M
M
M
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed
= 351 kNm
V
V
V
N
N
N
= 298 kNm
= 701 kNm
Assumed maximum moment
= 356 kNm
= 118 kN
= 127 kN
= 150 kN
= 130 kN
= 10 kN
= 116 kN

Maximum bending moment and axial force in the rafter, excluding the
haunch.
M
Ed
= 356 kNm
N
Ed
= 127 kN
The haunch is analysed in Section 8.

Title
analysis
33 of 44

4 - 114
7.10.1. Flexural buckling resistance about the major axis, N
b,y,Rd

b
h
=
190
450
= 2,37
t
f
= 14,6 mm

buckling about y-y axis:
Curve a for hot rolled I sections
o = 0,21
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
The buckling length is the system length, which is the distance between the
joints (i.e. the length of the rafter, including the haunch), L = 15057 mm

1
=
y
f
E
t =
355
210000
t = 76,4
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.3
y =
1 y
cr
1
i
L
=
4 , 76
1
185
15057
= 1,065

|
y
= ( ) | |
2
y y
y
2 , 0 1 5 , 0 o + +
|
y
= ( ) | |
2
065 , 1 2 , 0 065 , 1 21 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 1,158
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2
_
y
=
2
y
2
y y
1
| | +
=
2 2
065 , 1 158 , 1 158 , 1
1
+
= 0,620

N
b,y,Rd
=
M1
y y
_ Af
=
3
10
0 , 1
355 9880 620 , 0

= 2175 kN

N
Ed
= 127 kN < 2175 kN OK
7.10.2. Lateral-torsional buckling resistance, M
b,Rd

M
b,Rd
is the least buckling moment resistance of those calculated before.
M
b,Rd
= ( ) 540 ; 581 min
M
b,Rd
= 540 kNm

7.10.3. Interaction of axial force and bending moment in-plane
buckling

In-plane buckling due to the interaction of axial force and bending moment is
verified by satisfying the following expression:
0 , 1
Rd b,
Ed y,
yy
Rd y, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

The interaction factor, k
yy
, is calculated as follows:
k
yy
= ( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
Rd y, b,
Ed
my
Rd y, b,
Ed
y
my
8 , 0 1 ; 2 , 0 1 min
N
N
C
N
N
C

Title
analysis
34 of 44

4 - 115
The expression for C
my
depends on the values of o
h
and .
=
351
298
= 0,849.
o
h
=
s
h
M
M
=
356
351
= 0,986
Therefore C
my
is calculated as:
C
my
=
h
05 , 0 95 , 0 o + = ~ + 986 , 0 05 , 0 95 , 0 1,0
EN 1993-1-1
Annex B Table
B.3
k
yy
= ( )
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
2175
127
8 , 0 0 , 1 1 ;
2175
127
2 , 0 065 , 1 1 0 , 1 min
= | | 047 , 1 ; 05 , 1 min = 1,047
EN 1993-1-1
Annex B
Table B.2
Rd b,
Ed y,
yy
Rd y, b,
Ed
M
M
k
N
N
+ =
540
356
047 , 1
2175
127
+ = 0,749 < 1,0 OK
The member satisfies the in-plane buckling check.

7.11. Validity of rafter section

In Section 7.8 it has been demonstrated that the cross-sectional resistance of
the section is greater than the applied forces.
The out-of-plane and in-plane buckling checks have been verified in
Sections 7.9 and 7.10 for the appropriate choice of restraints along the rafter.
Therefore it is concluded that the IPE500 section in S355 steel is appropriate
for use as rafter in this portal frame.

8. Haunched length

The haunch is fabricated from a cutting of an IPE 550 section. Checks must
be carried out at end and quarter points, as indicated in the figure below.

3
1
2
4
5
5
2740
IPE 450
IPE 500
7
2
5
3020
685
685
685
685

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analysis
35 of 44

4 - 116
From the geometry of the haunch, the following properties can be obtained
for each of the cross-sections 1 to 5, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Section properties of haunched member at cross-section, as per
figure above
Cross-
section
no.
Cutting
depth
(mm)
Overall
depth
(mm)
Gross
area, A
(mm
2
)
I
y

(cm
4
)
W
el,min

(cm
3
)
N
Ed

(kN)
M
Ed

(kNm)
1 503 953 15045 200500 4055 129 661
2 378 828 13870 144031 3348 129 562
3 252 702 12686 98115 2685 128 471
4 126 576 11501 62258 2074 127 383
5 0 450 9880 33740 1500 127 298

The section properties are calculated normal to the axis of the section.
For simplicity, the section properties above have been calculated assuming a
constant web thickness of 9,4 mm and neglecting the middle flange.

The actual and the equivalent cross-sections are shown in the following figure
for cross-section No.1:

190 190
210 210
11,1
9,4
9,4 953
503
450
14,6
14,6
17,2

Actual cross-section Equivalent cross-section

For cross-section No.1 the values of N
Ed
and M
Ed
are taken at the face of the
column.


8.1.1. The web

The web can be divided into two webs, and classified according to the stress
and geometry of each web. The upper section (i.e. the rafter) is called the
upper web and the lower section (i.e. the cutting) is called the lower web.

Title
analysis
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4 - 117
Upper web
By inspection the upper web will be Class 3 or better, because it is mostly in
tension.

Lower web
Stress in the section caused by axial load:
o
N
=
3
10
15045
129
= 8,57 N/mm
2

Assuming an elastic stress distribution in cross-section No.1, the maximum
stress available to resist bending is:

o
M
=
N
M0
y
o

f
= 57 , 8
0 , 1
355
= 346 N/mm
2

9
5
3
4
5
0
5
0
3
4
5
1
,
4
5
0
1
,
6
31 N/mm
346 N/mm

The distance from the bottom flange to the elastic neutral axis is:
z = 451,4 mm
Distance from underside of middle flange to neutral axis: 51,6 mm

Bending + axial stress at the top of cutting section:
= ( ) 57 , 8 4 , 451 6 , 51 346 + = 31 N/mm
2

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4 - 118
For Class 3 check, determine :
=
346
31
= 0,09
Considering section 1 parallel to
column flange, the depth of web
excluding root radius is:
c
w
= 24 2 , 17 503 = 461,8 mm
w
w
t
c
=
1 , 11
8 , 461
= 41,6
190
210
11,1
9,4
503
450
14,6
14,6
17,2
461,8
51,6
E.N.A
Z= 451,4
_

EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2

For > 1, the limit for Class 3 is:
EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2
c
33 , 0 67 , 0
42
+
=
( ) 09 , 0 33 , 0 67 , 0
81 , 0 42
+

= 53,1
w
t
c
= 41,6 < 53,1
The web is Class 3

8.1.2. The flanges

Top flange
f
t
c

=
6 , 14
3 , 69
= 4,7
Then :
f
t
c

= 4,7 < 7,3
The top flange is Class 1
EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2
(Sheet 2)
Bottom flange
f
t
c

=
2 , 17
45 , 75
= 4,4
f
t
c
= 4,4 < 7,3
The bottom flange is Class 1
Therefore the overall section is Class 3.

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analysis
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4 - 119
8.2. Cross-sectional resistance

IPE 450
IPE 500
3
1
2
4
5
5
298 kNm
383 kNm
471 kNm
562 kNm
661 kNm
701 kNm
7
2
5
3020


The shear area of cross-section No.1 can be conservatively estimated as:
A
v
= A (bt
f
)
topfl
(bt
f
)
botfl
= 2 , 17 210 6 , 14 190 15045 = 8659 mm
2

V
pl,Rd
=
( )
M0
y v
3
f A
=
( )
3
10
0 , 1
3 355 8659

= 1775 kN
V
Ed
= 147 kN < 1775 kN OK
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.6
Bending and shear interaction:
resistance.
V
Ed
= 147 kN < 0,5 V
pl,Rd
=

888 kN
neglected.

The same calculation must be carried out for the remaining cross-sections.
The table below summarizes the shear resistance verification for the haunched
member:
Table 3 Shear verification for cross-sections 1 to 5
Cross-
section
no.
V
Ed
(kN)
A
v

(mm
2
)
V
pl,Rd
(kN)
V
Ed
s V
Rd
0,5V
Rd

(kN)
Bending and
shear
interaction
1 147 8659 1775 Yes 888 No
2 140 7484 1534 Yes 767 No
3 132 6300 1291 Yes 646 No
4 125 5115 1048 Yes 524 No
5 118 5082 1042 Yes 521 No

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4 - 120

The compression resistance of cross-section No.1:
N
c,Rd
=
M0
y
A f
=
3
10
0 , 1
355 15045

= 5341 kN
N
Ed
= 129 kN < 5341 kN OK
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.4
Bending and axial force interaction:
the total stress, o
x,Ed
, must be less than the allowable stress.
o
x,Ed
= o
N
+ o
M
o
M
=
y
Ed
I
z M
=
4
6
10 200500
6 , 501 10 661

= 165 N/mm
2

o
x,Ed
= o
N
+ o
M
= 8,57 + 165 = 174 N/mm
2

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.9.2
The maximum allowable stress is:
o
max
=
M0
y
f
=
0 , 1
355
= 355 N/mm
2

o
x,Ed
= 174 N/mm
2
< 355 N/mm
2
OK

A similar calculation must be carried out for the remaining cross-sections.
The table below summarize compression resistance verification for the
haunched member:
Table 4 Compression verification for cross-sections 1 to 5
Cross-
section
(i)
N
Ed
(kN)
A
(mm
2
)
N
c,Rd
(kN)
N
Ed
s N
c.Rd
Bending and
axial
interaction
1 129 15045 5341 Yes No
2 129 13870 4924 Yes No
3 128 12686 4504 Yes No
4 127 11501 4083 Yes No
5 127 9880 3507 Yes No

8.2.3. Bending moment resistance

The bending moment resistance of cross-section No.1 is:
M
c,y,Rd
= M
el,y,Rd
=
M0
y min el,
f W
=
6
3
10
0 , 1
355 10 4055

= 1440 kNm
M
y,Ed
= 661 kNm < 1440 kNm OK
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.5(2)
A similar calculation must be carried out for the remaining cross-sections.
The table below summarizes bending moment resistance verification for the
haunched member.

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analysis
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4 - 121
In this case, all cross-sections have been treated as Class 3, and therefore the
elastic properties have been used. This is conservative. However, from
previous calculations carried out to check the rafter, it is observed that
cross-section No.1 is Class 1. It may be that other sections between
cross-sections No.1 and No.5 are plastic sections and therefore a greater
moment resistance could be achieved.
Table 5 Bending verification for cross-sections 1 to 5
Cross-
section
(i)
M
Ed
(kNm)
W
el,min
(mm
3
)
10
3

M
el,Rd
(kNm)
M
Ed
s M
el,Rd

1 661 4055 1440 Yes
2 562 3348 1189 Yes
3 471 2685 953 Yes
4 383 2074 736 Yes
5 298 1500 533 Yes

8.3. Buckling resistance

There is a torsional restraint at each end of the haunched length.
298 kNm
661 kNm
471 kNm
2740 mm

Buckling length considered

When the tension flange is restrained at discreet points between the torsional

section.

On the contrary, if the spacing between restraints is larger than the calculated
value, an equivalent T-section may be used to check the stability of the
haunch.

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analysis
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4 - 122
8.3.1. Verification of spacing between intermediate restraints

L
m
=
2
y
t
2
y pl,
2
1
Ed
z
235 756
1
4 , 57
1
38
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
f
AI
W
C A
N
i

EN 1993-1-1
Annex BB
BB.3.2.1
For simplicity, the purlin at mid-span of the haunched member is assumed to
be aligned with the cross-section No. 3.
Equally, the purlin at the end of the haunched member is assumed to be
aligned with the cross-section No. 1.

=
661
471
= 0,71
1
C = 1,2
Appendix C of
this document
According to the Eurocode, the ratio
t
2
pl
AI
W
should be taken as the maximum
value in the segment.
In this case cross-sections No.1 and 3 have been considered, as shown in
Table 6.
Table 6
t
2
pl
AI
W
ratio for cross-sections No.1 and 3
Cross-
section
(i)
A
(mm
2
)
I
t
(mm
4
)
10
4

W
pl
(mm
3
)
10
3

t
2
pl
AI
W

1 15045 81 4888 1961
3 12686 74 3168 1069

EN 1993-1-1
Annex BB
BB.3.2.1
For simplicity, in the calculation of I
t
and W
pl
, the middle flange has been neglected.
The section properties of cross-section No.1 give the maximum ratio
t
2
pl
AI
W
.
Therefore L
m
is calculated using the section properties of cross-section No.1.

I
z
= 2168 10
4
mm
4

i
z
=
A
I
z
=
15045
10 2168
4
= 38 mm

L
m
=
( )
2
4
2
3
2
3
235
355
10 81 15045
10 4888
2 , 1 756
1
15045
10 129
4 , 57
1
38 38
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
|
.
|
\
|

L
m
= 700 mm

Purlin spacing is 1345 mm <
/
700 mm

Therefore the design procedure taking advantage of the restraints to the
tension flange given in Section C.2 of Appendix C cannot be used.

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4 - 123
8.3.2. Verification of flexural buckling about minor axis

Maximum forces in the haunched member (at the face of the column) are:
N
Ed
= 129 kN
M
Ed
= 661 kNm

EN 1993-1-1 does not cover the design of tapered sections (i.e. a haunch), and
the verification in this worked example is carried out by checking the forces
of an equivalent T-section subject to compression and bending.
The equivalent T-section is taken from a section at mid-length of the
haunched member.
The equivalent T-section is made of the bottom flange and 1/3 of the
compressed part of the web area, based on 6.3.2.4 of EN 1993-1-1.
The buckling length is 2740 mm (length between the top of column and the
first restraint).

Properties of cross-section No.1:
Section area A = 15045 mm
2

Elastic modulus to the compression flange W
el,y
= 4527 10
3
mm
3

Properties of cross-section No.3:
Properties of the whole section
y
y
f
f
/
/
M
M
312
329
104

Elastic neutral axis (from bottom flange): z = 329 mm

Section area A = 12686 mm
2

Properties of the equivalent T-section in compression:
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analysis
43 of 44

4 - 124
9,4
210
104
17,2

Area of T-section:
A
f
= 4590 mm
2

Second moment of area about the
minor axis:
I
f,z
=1328 10
4
mm
4

Compression in the T-section
The total equivalent compression in the T-section is calculated for
cross-section No.1 by adding the direct axial compression and the
compression due to bending.

N
Ed,f
=
f
y el,
Ed f
Ed
A
W
M
A
A
N + = 4590
10 4527
10 661
15045
4590
129
3
6
+ = 670 kN

Verification of buckling resistance about the minor axis
Buckling curve c is used for hot rolled sections
o
z
= 0,49

1
=
y
f
E
t =
355
210000
t = 76,4

i
f,z
=
f
z f,
A
I
=
4590
10 1328
4
= 53,8

z f, =
1 z f,
cr
1
i
L
=
4 , 76
1
8 , 53
2740
= 0,667

|
z
= ( ) | |
2
z f, z f,
z
2 , 0 1 5 , 0 o + +
|
z
= ( ) | |
2
667 , 0 2 , 0 667 , 0 49 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + = 0,837
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2

_
z
=
2
z f,
2
z z
1
| | +
=
2 2
667 , 0 837 , 0 837 , 0
1
+
= 0,745
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2

N
b,z,Rd
=
M0
y
z
_
Af
=
3
10
0 , 1
355 4590
745 , 0

= 1214 kN

N
Ed,f
= 670 kN < 1214 kN OK

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analysis
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4 - 125
9. Deflections

The horizontal and vertical deflections of the portal frame subject to the
characteristic load combination, as per Expression 6.14 of EN 1990 are as
follows:
20 mm
16 mm
240 mm

Appendix A of this document provides typical deflection limits used in some
European countries. These limits are only intended to be a guideline. The
requirements for a given portal frame design must be agreed with the client.


Part 5: Detailed Design of Trusses


5 - ii

5 - iii
FOREWORD
This publication is part five of the design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
Part 3: Actions

5 - iv

5 - v
Contents
Page No
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Definition 1
1.2 Use of trusses in single-storey buildings 1
1.3 Different shapes of trusses 4
1.4 Aspects of truss design for roof structure 7
1.5 Design of wind girders 9
2 INTRODUCTION TO DETAILED DESIGN 11
2.1 General requirements 11
2.2 Description of the worked example 12
3 GLOBAL ANALYSIS 15
3.1 General 15
3.2 Modelling 15
3.3 Modelling the worked example 16
3.4 Simplified global analysis of the worked example 18
3.5 Secondary forces 19
3.6 Effect of clearance of deflection 21
3.7 Modification of a truss for the passage of equipment 23
4 VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS 28
4.1 Verification of members under compression 28
4.2 Verification of members in tension 41
5 VERIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS 45
5.1 Characteristics of the truss post connection 45
5.2 Chord continuity 47
5.3 Connection of diagonals to chords 48
REFERENCES 51
APPENDIX A Worked Example Design of a continuous chord connection using
splice plate connections 53
APPENDIX B Worked example Design of a truss node with gusset 79

5 - vi
SUMMARY
This publication provides guidance on the design of trusses for single-storey buildings.
The use of the truss form of construction allows buildings of all sizes and shapes to be
constructed. The document explains that both 2D and 3D truss forms can be used. The
2D form of truss is essentially a beam and is used to supporting a building roof,
spanning up to 120 metres for large industrial buildings. The 3D form of truss can be
used to cover large areas without intermediate supports; this form is often used for large
exhibition halls. The detailed guidance in this document relates mainly to 2D truss
structures composed of rolled profiles but the principles are generally applicable to all
forms of truss structure.

5 - 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition
A truss is essentially a triangulated system of (usually) straight interconnected
structural elements; it is sometimes referred to as an open web girder. The
individual elements are connected at nodes; the connections are often assumed
to be nominally pinned. The external forces applied to the system and the
reactions at the supports are generally applied at the nodes. When all the
members and applied forces are in a same plane, the system is a plane or 2D
truss.

F
1 2
1
2

1 Compression axial force
2 Tension axial force

Figure 1.1 Members under axial forces in a simple truss
The principal force in each element is axial tension or compression. When the
connections at the nodes are stiff, secondary bending is introduced; this effect
is discussed below.
1.2 Use of trusses in single-storey buildings
In a typical single-storey industrial building, trusses are very widely used to
serve two main functions:
- To carry the roof load:
- Gravity loads (self-weight, roofing and equipment, either on the roof or
hung to the structure, snow loads)
- Actions due to the wind (including uplift due to negative pressure).
- To provide horizontal stability:
- Wind girders at roof level, or at intermediate levels if required
- Vertical bracing in the side walls and/or in the gables.
Two types of general arrangement of the structure of a typical single-storey
building are shown in Figure 1.2 and in Figure 1.3.
In the first case (Figure 1.2), the lateral stability of the structure is provided by
a series of portal trusses: the connections between the truss and the columns
provide resistance to a global bending moment. Loads are applied to the portal
structure by purlins and side rails.
5 - 2
For the longitudinal stability of the structure, a transverse roof wind girder,
together with bracing in the side walls, is used. In this arrangement the forces
due to longitudinal wind loads are transferred from the gables to the side walls
and then to the foundations.

Lateral stability provided by portal trusses
Longitudinal stability provided by transverse wind girder and vertical cross bracings (blue)
No longitudinal wind girder

Figure 1.2 Portal frame a arrangement
In the second case, as shown in Figure 1.3, each vertical truss and the two
columns on which it spans constitute a simple beam structure: the connection
between the truss and a column does not resist the global bending moment, and
the two column bases are pinned. Transverse restraint is necessary at the top
level of the simple structure; it is achieved by means of a longitudinal wind
girder carries the transverse forces due to wind on the side walls to the braced
gable walls.
5 - 3

Vertical trusses are simply supported by columns
Lateral stability provided by longitudinal wind girder and vertical bracings in the gables (blue)
Longitudinal stability provided by transverse wind girder and vertical bracings (green)

Figure 1.3 Beam and column arrangement

A further arrangement is shown in Figure 1.4.The roof structure is arranged
with main trusses spanning from column to column, and secondary trusses
spanning from main truss to main truss.

5 - 4

A A
L

On this plan view, main trusses are
drawn in blue: their span L is the long
side of the column mesh.
The secondary trusses have a shorter
span A (distance between main
trusses).
This arrangement is currently used for
saw tooth roofs, as shown on the
vertical section:
- Main beams are trusses with
parallel chords
- Secondary beams (green) have a
triangular shape.
in red, members supporting the north
oriented windows

Figure 1.4 General arrangement 3
1.3 Different shapes of trusses
A large range is available for the general shapes of the trusses. Some of the
commonly used shapes are shown in Table 1.1.
5 - 5
Table 1.1 Main types of trusses

Pratt truss:
In a Pratt truss, diagonal members
are in tension for gravity loads. This
type of truss is used where gravity
loads are predominant

In a truss as shown, diagonal
members are in tension for uplift
loads. This type of truss is used
where uplift loads are predominant,
such as open buildings.

L
o
n
g

s
p
a
n
s
:

r
a
n
g
e

f
r
o
m

2
0

t
o

1
0
0

m

Warren truss:
In this type of truss, diagonal
members are alternatively in
tension and in compression
This type of truss is also used for
the horizontal truss of gantry/crane
girders (see Figure 1.5)

There are two different types of X truss :
- if the diagonal members are designed
to resist compression, the X truss is
the superposition of two Warren
trusses.
- if the resistance of the diagonal
members in compression is ignored,
the behaviour is the same as a Pratt
truss.
This shape of truss is more commonly
used for wind girders, where the diagonal
members are very long.

It is possible to add secondary members in
order to :
- create intermediate loading points
- limit the buckling length of members in
compression (without influencing the
global structural behaviour).

A
l
l

t
h
e
s
e

t
y
p
e
s

o
f

t
r
u
s
s
e
s

c
a
n

b
e

u
s
e
d

e
i
t
h
e
r

i
n

p
o
r
t
a
l

t
r
u
s
s

s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
s

(
s
e
e

f
i
g
u
r
e

1
.
2
)

o
r

i
n

s
i
m
p
l
e

t
r
u
s
s

s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
s

(
s
e
e

f
i
g
u
r
e

1
.
3
)
.

For any of the forms shown above, it is
possible to provide either a single or a
double slope to the upper chord of a roof
supporting truss
This example shows a duo-pitch truss

Single slope upper chord for these
triangular trusses, part of a saw tooth
roof
North oriented windows

S
i
m
p
l
y

s
u
p
p
o
r
t
e
d
,

s
m
a
l
l
e
r

s
p
a
n
s

R
a
n
g
e

f
r
o
m

1
0

t
o

1
5

m

Fink truss:
This type of truss is more commonly used
for the roof of houses.

5 - 6
The horizontal truss is positioned at the
level of the upper flange of the gantry
girder in order to resist the horizontal
forces applied by the wheels on the rail
(braking of the crane trolley, crabbing)

1
3
2

1 Crane girder
2 Crane rail
3 Horizontal bracing (V truss)

Figure 1.5 Horizontal bracing for a crane girder
Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7 illustrate some of the trusses described in Table 1.1.

Figure 1.6 N-truss 100 m span

5 - 7

Figure 1.7 N-truss (also with N-truss purlins)
1.4 Aspects of truss design for roof structure
1.4.1 Truss or I-beam
For the same steel weight, it is possible to get better performance in terms of
resistance and stiffness with a truss than an I-beam. This difference is more
sensitive for long spans and/or heavy loads.
The full use of this advantage is achievable if the height of the truss is not
limited by criteria other than the structural efficiency (a limit on total height of
the building, for example).
However, fabrication of a truss is generally more time consuming than for an
I-beam, even considering that the modernisation of fabrication equipment
allows the optimisation of fabrication times.
The balance between minimum weight and minimum cost depends on many
conditions: the equipment of the workshop, the local cost of manufacturing; the
steel unit cost, etc. Trusses generally give an economic solution for spans over
20 or 25 m.
An advantage of the truss design for roofs is that ducts and pipes that are
required for operation of the buildings services can be installed through the
truss web.
1.4.2 General geometry
In order to get a good structural performance, the ratio of span to truss depth
should be chosen in the range 10 to 15.
The architectural design of the building determines its external geometry and
governs the slope(s) given to the top chord of the truss.
5 - 8
The intended use of the internal space can lead either to the choice of a
horizontal bottom chord (e.g. where conveyors must be hung under the chord),
or to an inclined internal chord, to allow maximum space to be freed up (see
the final example in Table 1.1).
To get an efficient layout of the truss members between the chords, the
following is advisable:
- The inclination of the diagonal members in relation to the chords should be
between 35 and 55
- Point loads should only be applied at nodes
- The orientation of the diagonal members should be such that the longest
members are subject to tension (the shorter ones being subject to
compression).
1.4.3 Section of the members
Many solutions are available. The main criteria are:
- Sections should be symmetrical for bending out of the vertical plane of the
truss
- For members in compression, the buckling resistance in the vertical plane
of the truss should be similar to that out of the plane.
A very popular solution, especially for industrial buildings, is to use sections
composed of two angles bolted on vertical gusset plates and intermediately
battened, for both chords and internal members. It is a very simple and efficient
solution.
For large member forces, it is a good solution to use:
- Chords having IPE, HEA or HEB sections, or a section made up of two
channels (UPE)
- Diagonals formed from two battened angles.
The web of the IPE / HEA / HEB chord section is oriented either vertically or
horizontally. As it is easier to increase the resistance to in-plane buckling of the
chords (by adding secondary diagonal members) than to increase their to out-
of-plane resistance, it is more efficient to have the web horizontal, for chords in
compression. On the other hand, it is easier to connect purlins to the top chord
if it has a vertical web.
It could be a good solution to have the top chord with a vertical web, and the
bottom chord with a horizontal web.
Another range of solutions is given by the use of hollow sections, for chords
and/or for internals.
1.4.4 Types of connections
For all the types of member sections, it is possible to design either bolted
connections or welded connections. Generally, bolted connections are preferred
on site. Where bolted connections are used with bolts loaded perpendicular to
their shank, it is necessary to evaluate the consequences of slack in
5 - 9
connections. In order to reduce these consequences (typically, the increase of
the deflections), solutions are available such as use of pre-stressed bolts, or
limiting the hole size.
1.4.5 Lateral stability
It is necessary to design the chords in compression against the out-of-plane
buckling. For simply supported trusses, the upper chord is in compression for
gravity loading, and the bottom chord is in compression for uplift loading. For
portal trusses, each chord is partly in compression and partly in tension.
Lateral restraint of the upper chord is generally given by the purlins and the
transverse roof wind girder.
For the restraint of the bottom chord, additional bracing may be necessary, as
shown in Figure 1.8. Such bracing allows the buckling length of the bottom
chord to be limited out of the plane of the truss to the distance between points
laterally restrained: they serve to transfer the restraint forces to the level of the
top chord, the level at which the general roof bracing is provided. This type of
bracing is also used when a horizontal load is applied to the bottom chord (for
example, forces due to braking from a suspended conveyor).

A
A
A
A A
A
Truss
AA

Cross bracing between trusses
Thick black dots: two
consecutive trusses
Blue The purlin which
completes the bracing in
the upper region
Green The longitudinal
element which closes the
bracing in the lower
region
Red Vertical roof bracing

Figure 1.8 Lateral bracing
The roof purlins often serve as part of the bracing at the top chord. Introduction
of longitudinal members at the lower chord allows the trusses to be stabilised
by the same vertical bracing.
It is possible to create a horizontal wind girder at the level of the bottom
chords, with longitudinal elements to stabilize all the trusses.
1.5 Design of wind girders
1.5.1 Transverse wind girder
In general, the form of a transverse wind girder is as follows (see Figure 1.2):
- The wind girder is arranged as an X truss, parallel to the roof plane.
5 - 10
- The chords of the wind girder are the upper chords of two adjacent vertical
trusses. This means that the axial forces in these members due to loading on
the vertical truss and those due to loads on the wind girder loading must be
added together (for an appropriate combination of actions).
- The posts of the wind girder are generally the roof purlins. This means that
the purlins are subject to a compression, in addition to the bending due to
the roof loading.
- It is also possible, for large spans of the wind girder, to have separate posts
(generally tubular section) that do not act as purlins.
- The diagonal members are connected in the plane of the posts. If the posts
are the purlins, the diagonal members are connected at the bottom level of
the purlins. In a large X truss, diagonals are only considered in tension and
it is possible to use single angles or cables.
It is convenient to arrange a transverse wind girder at each end of the building,
but it is then important to be careful about the effects of thermal expansion
which can cause significant forces if longitudinal elements are attached
between the two bracing systems, especially for buildings which are longer
than about 60 m.
In order to release the expansion of the longitudinal elements, the transverse
wind girder can be placed in the centre of the building, but then it is necessary
to ensure that wind loads are transmitted from the gables to the central
wind-bracing.
Transverse wind girders are sometimes placed in the second and penultimate
spans of the roof because, if the roof purlins are used as the wind girder posts,
these spans are less subject to bending by roof loads.
The purlins which serve as wind girder posts and are subject to compression
must sometimes be reinforced:
- To reinforce IPE purlins: use welded angles or channels (UPE)
- To reinforce cold formed purlins: increase of the thickness in the relevant
span, or, if that is not sufficient, double the purlin sections (with fitting for
the Zed, back to back for the Sigma).
1.5.2 Longitudinal wind girder
It is necessary to provide a longitudinal wind girder (between braced gable
ends) in buildings where the roof trusses are not portalized.
The general arrangement is similar to that described for a transverse wind
girder:
- X truss
- The chords are two lines of purlins in small buildings, or additional
elements (usually tubular sections)
- The posts are the upper chords of the consecutive stabilized roof trusses.
5 - 11
2 INTRODUCTION TO DETAILED DESIGN
The detailed design of trusses is illustrated in the following Sections by
reference to a worked example. This Section summarizes the general
requirements and introduces the example. The topics covered in subsequent
Sections are:
Section 3: Global analysis
Section 4: Verification of members
Section 5: Verification of connections
Fully detailed calculations for verification of a gusset plate connection and a
chord splice are given in Appendices A and B.
2.1 General requirements
The parameters to be taken into account in design are:
- Aesthetics
- Geometry (span length, height, rise, etc)
- Actions.
The following requirements have to be considered:
- Regulatory requirements
- Contractual requirements with regard to standards
- Specific contractual requirements.
The resulting outcome of a design is the set of execution documents for the
structure.
The nature of regulatory requirements varies from one country to another.
Their purpose is usually to protect people. They exist in particular in the area
of seismic behaviour, and for the behaviour of buildings during a fire (see
Single-Storey Steel Buildings. Fire engineering Guide
1
).
The requirements in standards concern the determination of actions to be
considered, the methods of analysis to be used, and the criteria for verification
with respect to resistance and stiffness.
There is no limit to the number of specific requirements which may be imposed
for any particular building but these mainly concern construction geometry;
they influence determination of actions, in particular climatic actions.
Obligations and interface arrangements for detailed design might include:
- Banning the use of tubes for the bottom chord of trusses to which the
industry client wishes to hang equipment
- Obligation to use tubes for truss chords for reasons of appearance
5 - 12
- Use of the roof to stabilise certain structural elements.
The flowchart below illustrates the main steps in the design of a structural
element.

DATA
CHOICE OF
GLOBAL
ANALYSIS
MEMBER
RESISTANCE
VERIFICATION
CONNECTIONS
RESISTANCE
VERIFICATION
EC3-1-8
EC3-1-1
Contractual data
Geometrical data
Incidence of neighbouring
construction
Obligations or restrictions
in choice of sections
Nature and position of
permanent loads
Nature and position of
imposed loads
Stabilising role of envelope
Regulatory data and
Standards
Climatic loads
Seismic loads
Exploitation loads

SLS
VERIFICATION
CRITERIA
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
EC1
EC8

Figure 2.1 Flowchart for the design of a structural element
2.2 Description of the worked example
The worked example that is the subject of subsequent Sections is a large span
truss supporting the roof of an industrial building, by means of purlins in the
form of trusses. This example is directly transposed from a real construction
and has been simplified in order to clarify the overview.
5 - 13
1
2

1 Main truss
2 Purlin truss
Note: the horizontal bracing is not displayed in this diagram but it is designed in such a way that
the purlins provide efficient lateral restraints to the main trusses.

Figure 2.2 Worked example - General layout of the roof
The roof is a symmetrical pitched roof; the slope on each side is 3%.
Each main truss has a span of 45,60 m and is simply supported at the tops of
the columns (there is no moment transmission between the truss and the
column).
General transverse stability of the building is provided by fixity of the columns
at ground level; longitudinal stability is provided by a system of roof bracings
and braced bays in the walls.

1
2 5
6
4
3
7
1
2
4

1 Upper chord IPE 330 with horizontal web
2 Lower chord IPE 330 with horizontal web
3 Post - Single angle L100x100x10
4 Top of the column (IPE 450)

5 Diagonals - Double angle
6 Secondary truss members
7 Sketch of the cross-section

Figure 2.3 Worked example View of truss
The truss is illustrated in Figure 2.3. The truss chords are parallel and are made
up of IPE 330 profiles with the webs horizontal. The diagonals are made of
twinned angles: two 120 120 12 angles for diagonals in tension under
gravity loads (in blue in the diagram above), two 150 150 15 angles for
5 - 14
diagonals in compression under gravity loads (in red in the diagram above); the
posts are single angles 100 100 10.
Note that, in the central panels, secondary diagonals and posts are present.
They would generally be installed with one or other of the following
objectives:
- To permit application of a point load between main nodes, without causing
further bending in the upper chord
- To reduce buckling, in the plane of the truss of central members of the
upper chord.
In this example, the secondary trusses reduce the buckling length.
The pairs of angles which make up the section of a diagonal are joined by
battens, to ensure combined action with respect to buckling between the truss
nodes. To be efficient, battens must therefore prevent local slip of one angle in
relation to the other. See Section 4.1.3 for more information.
Each chord is fabricated in two pieces (see Figure 3.6). The diagonals and
posts are bolted at their two ends to vertical gusset plates, which are themselves
welded to the horizontal webs of the IPE 330 chords. Detailed diagrams of this
type of connection are given in Appendix A and in Sections 5.2 and 5.3.
The columns on which the truss is supported are IPE 450, for which the web is
perpendicular to the plane of the truss beam.
In order to illustrate all of the topics here, the truss beam in the worked
example is designed for two situations: a gravity load case and an uplift load
case. The loads correspond to the combination of actions, determined
according to EN 1990 for verification with respect to the ultimate limit state
(ULS).

91 kN
136 kN
182 kN
182 kN
182 kN
136 kN
91 kN
ULS combination n1: Gravity loading
(without self-weight)

43,50 kN
65,25 kN 87 kN
87 kN
87 kN
65,25 kN
43,50 kN
ULS combination n2: Uplift loading

Figure 2.4 Worked example Load Combinations
5 - 15
3 GLOBAL ANALYSIS
3.1 General
Section 1.1 describes the general behaviour of a truss. In reality, structures
deviate from this theoretical behaviour and their global analysis involves
consideration of the deviations. In particular, the deviations include the
occurrence of bending in the members, in addition to the axial forces. These
bending moments, known as secondary moments, can cause significant
additional stresses in the members which make up the truss.
The deviations in design take various forms:
- All the members which make up the structure are not usually articulated at
their original node and their end node. Truss chords, in particular, are
usually fabricated in one length only, over several truss purlins: the
continuous chord members are then connected rigidly to their original and
end nodes. Rotation of the nodes, resulting from general deformation of the
truss beam then causes bending moments in the rigidly connected members;
the more rigid the chord members, the bigger the moments (see
Section 3.4).
- The members are not always strictly aligned on their original and end
nodes. Bending moments which result from a misalignment of axes
increase in proportion to the size of the eccentricity and the stiffness of the
members. This phenomenon is illustrated in Section 3.6.
- Loads are not always strictly applied to the nodes and, if care is not taken to
introduce secondary members to triangulate the point of application of the
loads between nodes, this results in bending moments.
3.2 Modelling
Several questions arise in respect of the modelling of a truss.
It is always convenient to work on restricted models. For example, for a
standard building, it is common and usually justified to work with 2D models
(portal, wind girder, vertical bracing) rather than a unique and global 3D
model. A truss can even be modelled without its supporting columns when it is
articulated to the columns.
Nonetheless, it is important to note that:
- If separate models are used, it may be necessary, in order to verify the
resistance of certain elements, to combine the results of several analyses;
example: the upper chord of a truss also serves as chord of the wind girder.
- If a global 3D model is used, parasitic bending can be observed, which
often only creates an illusory precision of the structural behaviour process.
That is why 2D models are generally preferable.
In the worked example, where the truss is simply supported on the columns,
the design model chosen is that of the truss only.
5 - 16
Once the scope of the model has been decided and adapted according to use to
be made of the results, it is important to consider the nature of the internal
connections. In current modelling of member structures, the selection is made
between a pin-jointed member at a node and a member rigidly connected to
a node; the possibility offered by EN 1993 to model connections as semi-rigid
is rarely used for truss structures.
For trusses, the model is commonly represented as either:
- Continuous chords (and therefore chord members rigidly connected at
both ends)
- Truss members (diagonals and verticals) pin jointed to the chords.
3.3 Modelling the worked example
In the worked example, the truss diagonals are pin jointed to the chords,
although the connections are carried out using high strength bolts suitable for
preloading with controlled tightening. This provides a rigid connection without
slack between the diagonal and the connection gusset plates. The connection
can be considered as pinned due to the fact that the vertical gusset plates are
welded in the middle of the horizontal, not very stiff, IPE 330 web.
The modelling is shown in Figure 3.1, with the numbering of the members.

Left part

Right part

Figure 3.1 Computer model
It is important for the model to be representative of the eccentricities which
exist in the real structure. They can have a significant effect, as illustrated in
Section 3.6.1.
It is also important that modelling of the loads is representative of the real
situation. In particular, the fact of applying to the truss nodes loads which, in
reality, are applied between nodes, risks leading to neglect of the bending with
quite significant outcomes.
The main results of the analysis are given in Figure 3.2 for the left part of the
truss.
5 - 17

ULS Load combination n1 (Gravity loading) Axial force (N) in kN

ULS Load combination n1 (Gravity loading) Bending moment (M) in kNm

ULS Load combination n2 (Uplift loading) Axial force (N) in kN

ULS Load combination n2 (Uplift loading) Bending moment (M) in kNm

Figure 3.2 Worked example Axial forces and bending moments
It is interesting to note the form of the moment diagrams in the member:
- In the chords and the diagonals, the self weight generates a bending
moment with a parabolic shape
- In the chords, continuous modelling (members rigidly connected at both
ends) leads to moments at the nodes.
5 - 18
3.4 Simplified global analysis of the worked example
A triangulated beam, with a constant depth, can be equated to an I-beam. This
equivalence is possible and provides a good approximation, for example, for a
truss with parallel chords.
The global shear force V
global
and the global bending moment M
global
in the
equivalent beam vary very little along a panel and can be equated with the
mean values in the panel. Therefore the axial load can be assessed using the
following expressions (see Figure 3.3 for the notations):
N
ch
= M
global
/h in the chords
N
d
= V
global
/cos in a diagonal
h

Figure 3.3 Truss with parallel chords - Notation
An estimate can also be made for the deflection of the truss beam by
calculating that for an equivalent beam, for the same loading. In order to do
this, the classic approach is to use elementary beam theory, giving the
equivalent beam a second moment of area equal to:
2
2
1
ch, i
i
i
d A I

=
=
where:
A
ch,i
is the section area of the chord i
d
i
is the distance from the centroid of both chords to the centroid of the
chord i.
In order to take into account global shear deformations, not dealt with in
elementary formulae, a reduced modulus of elasticity is used. Global shear
deformations are not, in fact, negligible in the case of trusses, since they result
from a variation in length of the diagonals and posts. The value of the reduced
modulus of elasticity clearly varies depending on the geometry of the truss, the
section of the members, etc. For a truss beam with well proportioned parallel
chords, the reduced modulus of elasticity is about 160000 N/mm
2
(instead of
210000 N/mm
2
).
5 - 19

4
0
0
0

101 kN 158 202 202 202 158 101
7100 7200 8500 8600 7100 7100

Truss (combination n1), including self-weight
461 (616)
303 (405)
101 (135)
-101 (-135)
-303 (-405)
-461 (-616)
562
-562

Diagram of the global shear force V (kN)
In parentheses: values of N
d
= V/cosu

3273
(818)
5455
(1364) 6320
(1580)
5455
(1364)
3273
(818)

Diagram of the global bending moment M (kNm)
In parentheses: values of N
ch
= M/h

Figure 3.4 Worked example Approximate calculation
The values of the axial forces in the chords obtained by the simplified
approach, M
global
/h, are shown in Figure 3.4. The values are very close to the
values obtained using structural analysis software (see Figure 3.2), for the
sections close to the applied loads. The small difference comes from the slope
(3%) of the chords of the truss in the worked example, not taken into account
in the hand calculation.
The values of the axial forces in the diagonals obtained by the simplified
approach, V
global
/cos , are also very close to the values obtained using
software.
3.5 Secondary forces
3.5.1 Influence of chord rigidity
Chord members in trusses which are used in construction are rarely pinned at
the nodes and are more often rigidly connected; this means that members
connected to the same node have to keep their respective angles. During
deformation of the structure under load, the ends of the members all rotate at
the same angle around the node. In these conditions, bending loads (bending
moments and shear forces) called secondary forces are added to the axial loads
in the members calculated assuming the nodes are pinned (primary forces).
5 - 20
It is routine in design to use continuous chord members and to pin the truss
members.
In fact, transforming pinned connections into rigid nodes hardly leads to any
modification to the axial forces in the members, because the shear transmitted
by the members has little influence on the equilibrium equation of nodal forces
and, on the other hand, bending of the member due to secondary bending
moments only causes a slight variation in the distance between the ends of this
member compared to the difference in length due to axial force.
Nevertheless, it is essential that the triangulated structures be designed properly
so that the members are adequately arranged to withstand bending stresses, but
not too slender so as to avoid buckling. Note that the greater the stiffness of the
chords (which are usually continuous), compared to the global stiffness of the
truss beam, the bigger the moments developed in the chords. For instance, for a
wind girder in a roof, the stiffness of the chords is relatively small and the
secondary moments remain small as well.
For a stocky truss, i.e. when the flexural stiffness of the individual chords is not
significantly lower than the global stiffness of the truss, it can be necessary to
take into account the secondary moments. Then the members and the
connections must be designed accordingly.
This phenomenon can be illustrated in the worked example by arranging the
IPE 330 sections as standing up chord members, instead of being flat in the
initial design (Figure 3.5). The chords therefore bend in the vertical plane of
the truss member, mobilising their strong inertia. The calculation results
demonstrate well a significant increase in the secondary moments.

Figure 3.5 Options for the orientation of the chords
In the upper chord in a standing up IPE 300 section near the half-span, the
bending moment under gravity loads (ULS) is 28,5 kNm, compared to
2,7 kNm for the flat IPE 330 section.
Similarly, in the lower chord, the bending moment is 23,4 kNm, compared to
1,7 kNm.
The multiplier of the bending moments is 11 for the upper chord, and 14 for the
lower chord. This is comparable with the ratio of the inertia in an IPE 330
section (about 15).
3.5.2 Assumption of rigid connections
In another evaluation of the effect of member stiffness on the value of the
secondary moments, the truss in the example was recalculated by making all
5 - 21
the internal connections rigid (diagonal and verticals fixed on their original end
nodes). The comparison is summarized in Table 3.1, where it can be seen that
the end moments are in the same range as the moments resulting from the self-
weight of the diagonals.
Table 3.1 Effect of rigid connection instead of pinned
Horizontal web Vertical web
End moment in a diagonal in tension
(Double angles 120 x12)
1,03 1,17
End moment in a diagonal in compression
(Double angles 150 15)
1,30 2,35
Moment resulting from the self-weight (for comparison) 1,36 1,36
Assumption of bi-hinged diagonals Acceptable Acceptable
Note: the bending moments are given in kNm.
3.6 Effect of clearance of deflection
When the connections between elements which make up a truss beam are
bolted connections, with bolts in shear (category A in EN 1993-1-8
[2]
), the
clearance introduced into these connections can have a significant effect on
displacement of the nodes.
In order to facilitate erection, the bolts are in fact inserted in holes which are
larger than the bolts themselves. For standard bolt sizes, holes more than 2 mm
bigger than the bolt are usually made (usually referred to as a 2mm clearance).
In order for a connection with clearance to transmit to the node the load
required by the attached member, the bolt must come into contact with one or
other of the connected parts: this is called often referred to as taking up slack.
For a connected tension member, this slack can be assimilated as an additional
extension that is added to the elastic elongation of the member in tension.
Likewise, for a connected compression member, the slack is assimilated as a
reduction in length that is added to the elastic shortening of the compressed
member.
The total slack in the many different connections of a truss structure can lead to
a significant increase in displacements, which can have various and more or
less serious consequences. Amongst these, note:
- In most of the cases, the visual effect is the worst consequence.
- Increased deflection can lead to a reduction of free height under the bottom
chord, which might prevent or upset the anticipated usage. For example, the
additional deflection of a truss holding doors suspended in a gable of an
aeroplane hangar could prevent the passage of the aeroplane.
- Increase in the deflection can result in reduction in the slope of the
supported roof and even, if the nominal slope were small, to a slope
inversion; a risk of water accumulation is therefore associated with an
inversion in pitch.
- If the truss structure is not a statically determinate system, this may lead to
unexpected internal forces.
5 - 22
It is therefore essential, where truss structures are concerned, to control the
effect of connection slack on the displacements. In order to do this, it is often
necessary:
- either to limit slack in category A connections: drilling at +1 mm, even
+0,5 mm and using shear bolts on a smooth bolt shank (to limit the increase
in slack by deformation) of the threads and pieces; or
- to use fit bolts; or
- to use preloaded bolts (category C connections); or
- to use welded connections instead of bolted connections.
In cases where loading in the members does not result in reversal of axial
force, it is possible to calculate a value for the effect of slack in all the
connections. The following calculation illustrates this phenomenon for the
worked example.
Each of the chords, upper and lower, has a continuous connection with bolted
splice plates around the mid-span. In addition, the diagonals are connected by
bolting on gusset plates welded to the chords. Holes are 2 mm larger than the
bolt diameter.

Figure 3.6 Worked example Position of the chord connections using splice
plates
In a spliced connection of a chord, the effect of slack on the deflection can be
evaluated by assuming that the bolts are initially centred on their holes. If the
diameter of the holes is d + 2 mm (where d is the bolt diameter), a chord in
tension is extended by 4 mm, as shown in Figure 3.7.

1 mm 1 mm d 1 mm 1 mm d
g
g + 4 mm

Figure 3.7 The effect of slack under load
In order for a diagonal to be loaded, 2 mm has to be recovered at each end: the
length of a diagonal in tension is increased by 4 mm; a diagonal under
compression is reduced by a further 4 mm.
5 - 23
The deflection of a truss due to the slack can be evaluated by considering the
effect of a unit load applied at mid span, using the Bertrand Fontviolant
equation.

-0,5 0,66 -0,68 0,66 -0,68 0,71 -0,75 0,17 -0,75 0,72 -0,68 0,66 -0,68 0,66 -0,5
2,85

Figure 3.8 Worked example Axial forces (N
1,i
) under unit load
The deflection is given by:
=
=
=
b i
i
i
i i
i
ES
l F
N v
1
1,

Where:
N
1,i
is the axial force produced in the member i by a unit force applied at
the point where the deflection is required
i
l is the length of member i
i
S is the section area of the member i
b is the number of members with bolted connection(s).
i
i i
ES
l F
is the variation in length of member i due to the slack recovery
= 4 mm according to whether the chord is in compression or tension.
Then:
v = 4 (2,31 + 2,85 + 0,5 + 0,66 + 0,68 + 0,66 + 0,68 + 0,71 + 0,75 +
+ 0,17 + 0,75 + 0,72 + 0,68 + 0,66 + 0,68 + 0,66 + 0,5)
v = 58,4 mm
This is a significant additional deflection, compared with the deflection due to
the ULS combination (127 mm).
3.7 Modification of a truss for the passage of
equipment
It frequently occurs that it is necessary to modify the form of a truss in order to
allow equipment to pass (a large section duct for example).
Several solutions can be provided (Figure 3.9):
- Either to increase the passage area available by an eccentricity in the
connection of one of the chords (case 1)
- Or break the straight form of a diagonal, by triangulating the breakage
point (case 2).
5 - 24

Case 1 Case 2

Figure 3.9 Passage of a duct Local modification of the truss
In case 1, the secondary moments which result from the introduction of an
eccentricity increase in relation to the size of the eccentricity. If there is a
choice, it is always preferable to introduce an eccentricity in the least stressed
chords.
In case 2, care must be taken with several phenomena:
- The axial force can increase significantly in certain chords situated in the
immediate proximity of the modified panel (as a result of modification to
the position of the members).
- Secondary moments appear as a result of the lack of stiffness in a broken
diagonal compared with a straight diagonal, even if the breakage point is
triangulated.
- The breakage point must of course be triangulated in the plane of the truss;
it must also be restrained out-of-plane (where three members meet) if the
broken diagonal is in compression.
These two phenomena (case 1 and case 2) are illustrated using the worked
example.
3.7.1 Introduction of an eccentricity axis in a diagonal (case 1)
The truss panel through which the passage of equipment is required is the
second panel from the support on the right. Figure 3.10 shows a part of the
truss, with the eccentricity of a diagonal.

300 mm

Figure 3.10 Passage of a duct Eccentricity of a diagonal
Changes in axial forces in the modified area are represented on the Figure 3.11.
5 - 25

Axial force (kN)

Bending moment (kNm)
Initial structure

Modified structure

Figure 3.11 Effects of the eccentricity of diagonal under ULS gravity loading
The 300 mm eccentricity makes the triangulation imperfect.
The main consequence of this arrangement is a significant increase in the
bending moments in the lower chord that receives the eccentric diagonal. A
74,15 kNm moment is calculated in the second chord member from the right
hand support, a 62,72 kNm moment in the first chord member, much higher
than in the initial structure without eccentricity.
The elastic moment resistance of an IPE 330 horizontal section is:
69,2 0,355 = 24,57 kNm
The bending capacity is therefore greatly exceeded, apart from any other
interactions. Reinforcement of the lower chord member will therefore be
required in order to support the axis eccentricity introduced.
3.7.2 Broken diagonal (example 2)
The panel of the penetration equipment is the same as in 3.6.1. Figure 3.12 is a
diagram of the diagonal breakage.
5 - 26

Figure 3.12 Passage of a duct Broken diagonal
Development of stress in the modified area is represented on the section
diagrams in Figure 3.13.

Axial force (kN)


Initial structure

Axial force (kN)


Modified structure

Figure 3.13 Effects of a broken diagonal under ULS gravity loading
The effects of modification on the calculated stresses are mainly:
- A noticeable increase is observed in the axial force in the second lower
chord member from the right hand support (in the panel with the broken
diagonal): the tension calculated increases from 818 to 1350 kN.
- A significant increase is also observed in the compression force in the
broken diagonal compared with the rectilinear diagonal of the initial
structure: compression increases from 624 to 1090 kN.
- As far as the additional triangulation member is concerned, this supports a
normal compression force of 755 kN.
- In the lower chord, as well as an increase in the normal tension force, an
increase in secondary moments is also observed on the three right panels
5 - 27
The modification to the structure (broken diagonal) therefore has a significant
effect on the size of the members.
5 - 28
4 VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS
As seen in the preceding section, which dealt with the global analysis, the
members are mainly subjected to axial forces.
It was also observed that, in many cases, members are also subject to stress by
bending moments, i.e. secondary moments.
4.1 Verification of members under compression
The resistance of a member to compression is evaluated by taking into account
the different modes of instability:
- Local buckling of the section is controlled using section classification, and
when necessary, effective section properties (class 4)
- Buckling of the member is controlled by applying a reduction coefficient in
the calculation of resistance.
For a compression member, several buckling modes must be considered. In
most truss members, only flexural buckling of the compressed members in the
plane of the truss structure and out of the plane of the truss structure need be
evaluated.
For each buckling mode, the buckling resistance is obtained from
EN 1993-1-1
[3]
by applying a reduction to the resistance of the cross-section.
This reduction factor is obtained from the slenderness of the member, which
depends on the elastic critical force.
For the diagonals and the verticals stressed in uniform compression. the elastic
critical force is determined from the buckling length of the member in
accordance with EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.1.3. The following can be observed,
according to Annex BB BB.1 of EN 1993-1-1:
- For buckling in the plane of the truss beam: the buckling length is taken
equal to 90% of the system length (distance between nodes), when the truss
member is connected at each end with at least two bolts, or by welding
(EN 1993-1-1 BB.1.1(4)).
(An exception is made by Annex BB for angle truss members, for which a
different evaluation is given; it is not specified in this annex if the particular
rule also concerns members made up to two pairs of angles: by way of
simplification, it is recommended that a buckling length of 0,9 times the
length of the axis be retained.)
- For buckling out of plane of the truss beam, the buckling length is taken
equal to the system length.
For buckling in the plane of the truss of the chord members in uniform
compression, the buckling length may be taken as 90% of its system length
(distance between nodes).
5 - 29
For buckling out of plane of the truss, it can be more difficult to determine the
elastic critical force for the following reasons:
- There is not necessarily a lateral support at each node of the truss
- The lateral support points are not necessarily effectively rigid.
When there is no lateral support at each node along the chord, the segment
located between support points is subject to variable compression between
bays. In these circumstances:
- A conservative approach would be to use the normal compression force at
its maximum value and to take the buckling length as the distance between
supports but this can lead to an under-estimate of the chord resistance.
- Refined methods can be adopted by investigating an equivalent buckling
length under constant compression.
In the worked example, where the truss supports a roof, with purlins at the
level of the upper chord of the truss:
- All the purlins connected to a roof bracing can be considered as lateral rigid
support points.
- Intermediate purlins can also be considered as a rigid point of support.
Insofar as a diaphragm role has been attributed to the roof (class 2
construction according to EN 1993-1-3).
- With regard to the lower chord, these lateral support points are provided by
additional vertical bracing elements between trusses (see the braces under
the truss purlins in Figure 2.2).
Another point to note, which is very common, concerning determination of the
compression resistance, is the case of pairs of members. It is quite common, as
was stated, to make up members from a truss structure using two angles, or two
channels (UPE).
In order to ensure that such built-up members will behave as sole members in
the flexural buckling mode, the two components are connected by small battens
(Figure 4.1). Since the role of these members is to prevent relative slip of one
component compared with the other, they must be connected without slack.
The gap between the angles, and the thickness of the battens, should be the
same as the thickness of the gusset to which the built-up member is connected.
5 - 30

1
1
2
A
A
A-A

1 Batten
2 Gusset

Figure 4.1 Members composed of two angles
The maximum spacing of the connections between members is limited by
EN 1993-1-1 to 15 times the minimum radius of gyration of the isolated
component. Otherwise a more complex verification needs to be carried out, by
taking into account the shear stiffness of the composed member. This limitation
is very restrictive. By way of example, in order to link two 50 50 5 angles
by respecting the spacing limit, it would be necessary to provide a batten every
15 cm.
In order to illustrate the different principles stated above, justifying
calculations are developed in the following sections for the different types of
compressed members in the worked example truss structure. The results are
taken from the basic worked example:
- IPE 330 chords with horizontal web
- Web members are assumed to be hinged at both ends
- Chords are assumed to be continuous.
4.1.1 Upper chord in compression
The verifications set out below, concern the upper chord member adjacent to
mid span (element B107 in Figure 3.1), in which the normal compression force
calculated under gravity ULS loads is greatest and equal to:
N
Ed
= 1477 kN
The checks take into account the coincident bending moments.
Note that the verification should also be carried out on the first member from
the mid span, which is not restrained by the secondary truss: axial force of
lesser compression, but with increased buckling length in the plane of the truss.
Since the calculation is identical, it is not set out formally below. If this
verification indicated a lack of resistance, the reinforcement solution would of
course consist of extending the installation of the secondary truss.
The shear force and the bending moments are given in Figure 4.2.
5 - 31

2,86 kNm
-1,05 kNm
2,151

Bending moment M
Ed

-1,82 kN

Shear force V
Ed

Figure 4.2 Bending moment and shear force in the upper chord
Cross-section properties
For an IPE 330 with horizontal web (steel grade S355)
A = 62,6 cm
2

I
y
= 11770 cm
4

I
z
= 788 cm
4

W
el,z
= 98,5 cm
3
Class of the cross-section
The material parameter is:
c = 0,81
As simplification, the cross-section can be classified in uniform compression,
even if it is subjected to combined axial force and bending moment.
The compressed flanges are classified as outstand flanges (EN 1993-1-1 Table
5.2, Sheet 2):
29 , 7 9 1 , 5
5 , 11
25 , 58
= < = = c
t
c

The flange is Class 1.
The web is classified as an internal compressed part (EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2,
Sheet 1):
02 , 34 42 1 , 36
5 , 7
271
= > = = c
t
c

The web is Class 4.
Effective properties of the cross-section
The effective area A
eff
is calculated for pure compression.
The flanges are Class 1, so fully effective.
5 - 32
The effective width of the web is evaluated according to EN 1993-1-5 (Table
4.1):
4 1 = =
o
k
673 , 0 782 , 0
4 81 , 0 4 , 28
5 , 7
271
4 , 28

p
> =

= =
k
t
b
c

mm 5 , 124 5 , 0
mm 249 271 919 , 0 919 , 0
) 3 ( 055 , 0
673 , 0 782 , 0
4 81 , 0 4 , 28
5 , 7
271
4 , 28
4 1
eff 2 e 1 e
eff
2
p
p
= = =
= = =
+
=
> =

= = = =
b b b
b
k
t
b
k
c

b
eff
= 0,919 271 = 249 mm
b
e1
= b
e2
= 0,5 b
eff
= 124,5 mm
The effective area of the section is:
A
eff
= 6260 (271 249) 7,5 = 6095 mm
2

The effective elastic modulus about the weak axis (W
eff,z
) is calculated for pure
bending.
In simple bending in the plane of the truss, about the weak axis, the flanges are
inevitably Class 1, whilst the web is not stressed. Then the section is fully
effective:
W
eff,z
= W
el,z
= 98,5 cm
3

Resistance of cross-section
In compression (EN 1993-1-1 6.2.4):
0 , 1
355 , 0 6095
M0
y eff
Rd c,

= =
f A
N = 2164 kN
1 683 , 0
2164
1477
Rd c,
Ed
< = =
N
N
OK
In bending in the plane of the truss (EN 1993-1-1 6.2.5):
kNm 97 , 34
0 , 1
355 , 0 5 , 98
M0
y z eff,
Rd z,
=
= =
f W
M
1 082 , 0
97 , 34
86 , 2
Rd z,
Ed
< = =
M
M
OK
In shear (EN 1993-1-1 6.2.6):
A
v,y
= 216011,5 = 3680 mm
2

5 - 33
kN 754
0 , 1
3
355 , 0
3680
3
M0
y
y v,
Rd pl,
=
= =
f
A
V
1 002 , 0
754
82 , 1
Rd pl,
Ed
< = =
V
V
OK
Since V
Ed
/V
pl,Rd
is less than 0,5, there is no influence of the shear force on the
resistance of the cross-section under bending moment and axial force.
M-N interaction (EN 1993-1-1 6.2.93):
The M-N interaction is taken into account using the following criterion:
0,683 + 0,082 = 0,765 < 1 OK
Buckling resistance of member
Buckling resistance in the plane of the truss, i.e. about the weak axis of the
cross-section (EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1)
The buckling length of the upper chord member is equal to 90% of the system
length (EN 1993-1-1 B.B.1.1):
L
cr,z
= 0,9 2151 = 1936 mm
The elastic critical force is:
kN 4357
6 , 193
788 21000
2
2
2
z
z
2
z cr,
=

= =
l
EI
N
The slenderness is given by:
705 , 0
4357
355 , 0 6095
,
eff
=
= =
z cr
y
z
N
f A

The buckling curve to use is curve b (EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.2), and the
imperfection factor is:
o = 0,34
8344 , 0 ) ) 2 , 0 ( 1 ( 5 , 0
2
z z
= + + = o
z

781 , 0
705 , 0 8344 , 0 8344 , 0
1 1
2 2 2
z
2
z z
=
+
=
+
=
_

z

The design buckling resistance is then:
kN 1690
0 , 1
355 , 0 6095 781 , 0
M1
y eff z
Rd z, b,
=

= =
_ f A
N
N
Ed
/ N
b,z,Rd
= 1477/1690 = 0,874 OK
5 - 34
Buckling resistance out of the plane of the truss, i.e. about the strong axis
of the cross-section (EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1)
The lateral supports of the upper chord are composed of truss purlins at
8504 mm intervals.
The normal compression force is almost constant between lateral supports
(see 3.2).
There is therefore no need to use a method which allows for non-uniform force.
kN 3373
4 , 850
11770 21000
2
2
2
y
y
2
y cr,
=

= =
l
EI
N
The slenderness is given as:
8009 , 0
3373
355 , 0 6095
y cr,
y eff
y
=
= =
N
f A

The buckling curve is curve a (EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.2), and the imperfection
factor is:
o = 0,21
8838 , 0 ) ) 2 , 0 ( 1 ( 5 , 0
2
y y
= + + = o
y

7952 , 0
8009 , 0 8838 , 0 8838 , 0
1 1
2 2 2
y
2
y y
y
=
+
=
u + u
=
_
And so the compression resistance is therefore:
kN 1720
0 , 1
355 , 0 6095 7952 , 0
M1
y eff y
Rd y, b,
=

= =
_ f A
N
N
Ed
/ N
b,y,Rd
= 1477/1720 = 0,859 OK
M-N interaction (EN 1993-1-1 6.3.3):
There is no effect of lateral torsional buckling to consider for a member in
bending about its weak axis (no bending about the strong axis). The criteria
are:
1
/ /
M1 y z eff,
Ed z,
yz
M1 y eff y
Ed
s +
_ f W
M
k
f A
N
(Eq. 6.61 in EN 1993-1-1)
1
/ /
M1 y z eff,
Ed z,
zz
M1 y eff z
Ed
s +
_ f W
M
k
f A
N
(Eq. 6.62 in EN 1993-1-1)
Using resistances already calculated, these criteria can also be written as:
5 - 35
1
Rd z,
Ed z,
yz
Rd y, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

1
Rd z,
Ed z,
zz
Rd z, b,
Ed
s +
M
M
k
N
N

The interaction factors k
yz
and k
zz
are calculated according to Annex A of
EN 1993-1-1, for a Class 4 section:
z cr,
Ed
y
mz yz
1
N
N
C k
=

where:
z cr,
Ed
mz
) 33 , 0 ( 36 , 0 21 , 0 79 , 0
N
N
C + + =
367 , 0
86 , 2
05 , 1
=
=
C
mz
= 0,628
8624 , 0
3373
1477
7952 , 0 1
3373
1477
1
1
1
y cr,
Ed
y cr,
Ed
y
=
=
N
N
N
N
y
_

819 , 0
4357
1477
1
8624 , 0
628 , 0
yz
=
= k
First interaction criterion (eq. 6.61)
1 926 , 0
97 , 34
86 , 2
819 , 0
1720
1477
s = + OK
z cr,
Ed
z
mz zz
1
N
N
C k
=

where:
C
mz
= 0,628
899 , 0
4357
1477
781 , 0 1
4357
1477
1
1
1
z cr,
Ed
z cr,
Ed
=
=
N
N
N
N
z
z
_

5 - 36
Then, the factor k
zz
can be calculated:
854 , 0
4357
1477
1
899 , 0
628 , 0 =
=
zz
k
Second interaction criterion (eq. 6.62)
1 944 , 0
97 , 34
86 , 2
854 , 0
1690
1477
s = + OK
Note on secondary trusses
The presence of secondary trusses in the central part of the truss (see
diagram 2.3) permitted the reduction by half of the buckling length of the upper
chord in the plane of the truss.
The secondary truss is sized in order to support a buckling restraint load whose
value depends on the compression force in the supported chord and on its
slenderness ratio (see EN 1993-3-1 on subject of design of pylons in annex
H4).
4.1.2 Lower chord in compression
With respect to the complete design of the structure, it is also of course
essential to check the lower chord, subject to the lower compression force, but
without support from a secondary truss.
Verification of the lower chord in compression is similar to that described for
the upper chord in compression, in 4.1.1.
Lateral restraint of the lower chord is provided at each purlin (Figure 2.2).
The only specific point which would be interesting to develop is an analysis of
the buckling out of plane of the truss.
Buckling of the lower chord is to be considered similarly to that of the upper
chord, for a length equal to the distance between truss panels, thanks to the
presence of sub-panel braces (See Figure 2.3).
The difference is that the axial force in the lower chord varies along the
buckling length, in two panels, whereas the force was constant along the
buckling length for the upper chord.
It should also be noted here that, for the chord member with the greatest
bending moment, the variation in axial force is very small; in a real design, the
small reduction in buckling length due to variation of normal axial force can
safely be ignored.
5 - 37

545 kN
470 kN

Axial force N
Ed

Figure 4.3 Axial force in the lower chord
4.1.3 Diagonal in compression
The diagonal, whose resistance is calculated here, by way of example, is the
second diagonal from the right support (element B40 in Figure 3.1), under ULS
gravity loading.
The compression force is:
N
Ed
= 624,4 kN
Initially, as in common practice, the bending moment due to the self weight of
the member is ignored.
The effect of this moment will be evaluated later.
Cross-section properties of a single angle
For a 150 150 15 L
A = 43 cm
2

z
G
= y
G
= 4,25 cm
I
y
= I
z
= 898,1 cm
4

I
v
= 369 cm
4

For a pair of angles
Section area:
A = 2 43 = 86 cm
2

Second moment of area out of plane of the truss (the section is assumed to
be homogeneous), assuming the gap between the angles is 10 mm:
I
y
= 2 898,1 + 2 43 (4,25+1,0/2)
2
= 3737 cm
4
.
Second moment of area in the plane of the truss:
I
z
= 2 898,1 = 1796 cm
4

Class of section in uniform compression
Material parameter for f
y
= 355 N/mm
2
: c = 0,81
For an angle (EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2 (Sheet 3)):
31 , 9 5 , 11 10
15 2
150 2
2
15 , 12 15 10
15
150
= > =
=
+
= < = =
c
c
t
b h
t
h

5 - 38
The section is a Class 4 and it is therefore not fully effective in uniform
compression. The effective area of the cross-section should be calculated with
reference to EN 1993-1-5. Such a calculation leads to a fully effective area:
A
eff
= A = 86 cm
2

Resistance of the cross-section
The resistance of the section in uniform compression is therefore given by:
kN 3053
0 , 1
355 , 0 8600
M0
y
Rd c,
=
= =
Af
N

Buckling resistance of member
Buckling resistance in the plane of the truss
The buckling length is equal to:
0,9 5,464 = 4,918 m
kN 1539
8 , 491
1796 21000
2
2
2
y
z
2
z cr,
=

= =
l
EI
N
408 , 1
1539
355 , 0 8600
z cr,
y
z
=
= =
N
Af

The buckling curve is curve b (EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.2), and the imperfection
factor is:
34 , 0 = o

697 , 1 ) ) 2 , 0 ( 1 ( 5 , 0
2
z z
= + + = o
z

378 , 0
408 , 1 697 , 1 697 , 1
1 1
2 2 2 2
=
+
=
u + u
=
z
z z
z
_
And the buckling resistance is then:
kN 1154
0 , 1
355 , 0 8600 378 , 0
M1
y z
Rd z, b,
=

= =
_ Af
N
Buckling resistance out of plane of the truss
The buckling length is equal to the system length: L
cr,y
= 5,464m.
The critical axial force is:
kN 2594
5 , 546
3737 21000
2
2
2
y
y
2
y cr,
=

= =
l
EI
N
5 - 39
085 , 1
2594
355 , 0 8600
,
= = =
x
N
Af
y cr
y
y
The buckling curve to use is curve b (see EN 1993-1-1, table 6.2), and the
imperfection factor is:
34 , 0 = o

239 , 1 ) ) 2 , 0 ( 1 ( 5 , 0
2
z y
y
= + + = o
544 , 0
085 , 1 239 , 1 239 , 1
1 1
2 2 2 2
=
+
=
u + u
=
y
y y
y
_
The design buckling resistance is:
kN
Af
N
M
y y
Rd y b
1661
0 , 1
355 , 0 8600 544 , 0
1
, ,
=

= =
_

The buckling resistance in the plane of the truss is less and the verification is:
0 , 1 541 , 0
1154
4 , 624
Rd b,
Ed
< = =
N
N
OK
The resistance of the diagonal is adequate; its section could be optimised.
Connection battens
The diagonal is composed of two angles linked by battens. The calculation of
the resistance previously undertaken assumed the section is homogenous (for
the buckling out of plane of the truss).
In order to support this hypothesis, EN 1993-1-1 requires the placing of
connection bars spread out at no more than 15 times the minimum radius of
gyration of the isolated angle;, for an angle 150 150 15 that is a distance of
15 29,3 = 440 mm.
In view of the resistance reserves, it is recommended that the connection bars
be spaced further apart (the costs of fabrication and installation are not
negligible). Instead of the 12 connection battens per diagonal which the above
condition lead to, consider only 3 bars be placed, 1366 mm apart.

L 150x150x15

Plate 150x150x10 and 2 pre-tensioned bolts with controlled tightening

Figure 4.4 Connection batten
In order for the battens to be effective, they must be arranged as illustrated
here. This results in a buckling length about the principal axis equal to
0,7 1366 = 956 mm.
5 - 40
For this type of buckling the elastic critical force is:
kN 8368 10
956
10 369 210000
3
2
4 2
2
v
v
2
v cr,
=

= =

l
EI
N
The slenderness for a single angle is:
427 , 0
8368000
355 4300
,
=
= =
v cr
y
v
N
Af

The buckling curve to use is curve b and the imperfection factor is: o = 0,34
630 , 0 ) ) 2 , 0 ( 34 , 0 1 ( 5 , 0
2
= + + =
v v
v

915 , 0
427 , 0 630 , 0 630 , 0
1 1
2 2 2
v
2
v v
v
=
+
=
+
=
_

Conservatively, the resistance to the compression may be evaluated calculating
the reduction factor as the product of that for the whole member and that for an
individual angle between battens:
_ = Min(_
y
; _
z
) _
v
= 0,378 0,915 = 0,346
The design buckling resistance of the diagonal is:
kN 1056 10
0 , 1
355 8600 346 , 0
3
M1
y
Rd b,
=

= =

_Af
N
0 , 1 591 , 0
1056
4 , 624
Rd b,
Ed
< = =
N
N

The compression resistance is adequate.
Local verification of the section to the right of the gusset plate
connection
This verification carried out in Appendix B
Effect of bending moment due to self weight of the diagonal
The bending moment is:
M
y,Ed
= 2,20 kNm (see 3.2 above).
The elastic modulus of the cross-section for bending in the plane of the truss is:
W
el,z
= 167 cm
3
.
Interaction criteria are given in EN 1993-1-1 6.3.3:
1
/ /
M1 y z el,
Ed z,
yz
M1 y y
Ed
s +
_ f W
M
k
Af
N

1
/ /
1 ,
,
1
s +
M y z el
Ed z
zz
M y z
Ed
f W
M
k
f A
N
_

5 - 41
where:
The k
yz
factor is:
z cr,
Ed
y
mz yz
1
N
N
C k
=

863 , 0
2594
4 , 624
544 , 0 915 , 0 1
2594
4 , 624
1
1
1
y cr,
Ed
y v
y cr,
Ed
y
=

=
N
N
N
N
_ _

012 , 1
1539
4 , 624
03 , 0 1 03 , 0 1
z cr,
Ed
mz
= + = + =
N
N
C
47 , 1
1539
4 , 624
1
863 , 0
012 , 1
yz
=
= k
The k
zz
factor is:
z cr,
Ed
z
mz
1
N
N
C k
zz
=

691 , 0
1539
4 , 624
378 , 0 915 , 0 1
1539
4 , 624
1
1
1
z cr,
Ed
z v
z cr,
Ed
z
=

=
N
N
N
N
_ _

18 , 1
1539
4 , 624
1
691 , 0
012 , 1
zz
=
= k
From which:
1 465 , 0
0 , 1 / 355 167000
10 20 , 2
47 , 1
0 , 1 / 355 8600 544 , 0 915 , 0
624400
6
s =
+

1 635 , 0
0 , 1 / 355 167000
10 20 , 2
18 , 1
0 , 1 / 355 8600 378 , 0 915 , 0
624400
6
s =
+

When the bending moment due to self weight of the diagonal is taken into
account, the resistance criterion increases from 0,591 to 0,635: that is an
increase of 7%.
4.2 Verification of members in tension
A particular feature when checking the resistance of tension members is the
existence of criteria which bring into play the net section of the member. This
is explored for the worked example.
5 - 42
4.2.1 Lower chord in tension (flat IPE 330)
The lower chord in tension is verified for calculated forces near the mid-span.
Given the results shown in 3.2 above:
N
Ed
= 1582 kN
M
Ed
= 1,69 kNm
The tension resistance of the section is determined by two conditions, one in a
gross section and the other in a net section :
Gross section
A = 6260 mm
2

kN 2222
0 , 1
355 , 0 6260
M0
y
Rd pl,
= = =
x
Af
N

Net section
2
net
mm 4661 ) 5 , 7 22 3 ( ) 5 , 11 24 4 ( 6260 = = A
kN 1711
25 , 1
51 , 0 4661 9 , 0 9 , 0
M0
u net
Rd u,
=

= =
f A
N
Tension resistance is given by:
kN 1711 ) , min(
Rd u, Rd pl, Rd t,
= = N N N
In simple bending, in the truss plane (EN 1993-1-1 (6.2.5)), class 1 of the
section allows the plastic modulus to be mobilised:
3
2
pl
cm 2 , 147
4
16 15 , 1 2
=

= W
kNm 3 , 52
0 , 1
355 , 0 2 , 147
M0
y pl
Rd pl,
=
= =
f W
M
The verification is:
03 , 0
3 , 52
69 , 1
93 , 0
1711
1582
Rd
Ed
Rd t,
Ed
= =
= =
M
M
N
N

N-M Interaction: 0,93 + 0,03 = 0,96 < 1
4.2.2 Diagonal in tension (double angles L120 120 12)
Checking is done for the diagonal at the left hand support, under gravity loads.
Given the results shown in 3.2 above:
N
Ed
= 616,3 kN
5 - 43
M
Ed
= 1,36 kNm
Tension resistance
The tension resistance of the section is determined by two conditions, on in
gross section and the other in net section:
Gross section
kN 1956
0 , 1
355 , 0 5510
M0
y
Rd pl,

x
Af
N

Net section (See arrangements described in Annex 2)
2
net
mm 4886 ) 12 26 2 ( 5510 A
For angles connected by a single leg, EN 1993-1-8 gives an additional
requirement for the effect of eccentricity of the tension force in the angle
(distance between the neutral axis and the gauge marking) on the forces
(appearance of secondary moments).
This method involves the application of an ultimate resistance reduction factor
for the angle (EN 1993-1-8 Clause 3.10.3(2))
M2
u net 3
Rd u,
f A
N

The reduction factor
3
depends on the distance between axes p
1
.
For, p
1
= 2,5 d
0
= 65 mm:
3
= 0,5 (EN 1993-1-8 Table 3.8)
N.B.: The reduction factors are only provided for a simple angle; the method
is conservative for a double angle. It is recommended that, within the
connection, the behaviour of the two simple diagonals is considered with
respect to these local phenomena.
kN 997
25 , 1
51 , 0 4886 5 , 0 5 , 0
M0
u net
Rd u,

f A
N
Then:
kN 997 ) , min(
Rd u, Rd pl, Rd t,
N N N
Bending resistance
In simple bending in the truss plane (EN 1993-1-1 (6.2.5)):
3
el
cm 46 , 85 W
kNm 3 , 30
0 , 1
355 , 0 46 , 85
M0
y el
Rd el,

f W
M
Verification:
5 - 44
05 , 0
3 , 30
36 , 1
1 62 , 0
997
3 , 616
Rd
Ed
Rd t,
Ed
= =
< = =
M
M
N
N

And the M-N interaction criterion is: 0,62 + 0,05 = 0,67 < 1
5 - 45
5 VERIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS
5.1 Characteristics of the truss post connection
5.1.1 General
It is essential to connect the truss and post according to the assumptions in the
modelling.
In particular, the choice between a fixed connection and a pinned connection
must be respected. The difference between these two types of connection is
that the pinned connection allows a rotation independent deflection of the truss
and the post. The outcome in terms of loading is that the hinge does not
transmit any bending moment from the truss to the post, whereas a fixed
connection does.
The rotation at the support of a truss is manifested by a differential horizontal
displacement between the original node of the upper chord and the original
node of the lower chord.
In order to permit global rotation, it is therefore necessary to allow the
horizontal displacement of the end of one of the chords in relation to the post:
usually, the displacement of the chord which does not receive the diagonal on
support is released.

A

Figure 5.1 Elongated hole on the bottom chord of the truss
With such an arrangement, the axial force is zero in the lower chord in the first
panel. The lower chord of the first truss node could therefore be stopped short
(A in the diagram); nevertheless it is preferable to lengthen the lower chord and
to connect it to the post in order to provide lateral stability of the truss at the
level of the lower chord.
An application of this type of hinge action in the worked example is given in
5.1.2 below.
By contrast, in order to carry out a rigid truss-column connection, it is
necessary to make a connection without slack from each of the chords of the
truss to the column.
5 - 46
5.1.2 Convergence of the axes at the truss-column connection
Another question to be asked when carrying out the connection of a truss on a
post is that of convergence of the axes of the connected members and of its
effect on the modelling. The choices are illustrated in Figure 5.2.

Convergence of the axes
column/chord/diagonal: solution to avoid

Axis convergence of the axes chord/diagonal at the internal
face of the column: recommended solution

1

1 : Rigid links

Figure 5.2 Rigid truss-column connection
In the first example, the actual physical connection and the model are not
consistent: there is a risk of causing significant secondary moments in the
diagonal and the chord. In the second example, the consistency is much
greater; the eccentric moment is clearly supported by the post, which has a
higher bending resistance than the chord or the diagonal, particularly when the
truss is hinged at the post.
Note that this not the case in the worked example in which the posts have their
web perpendicular to the plane of the truss: the convergence of the three axes
happens then without causing secondary moments.
5.1.3 Worked example: detailing a pinned joint
The Figure 5.3 represents horizontal displacements of the lower and upper
nodes of the two support sections, for cases of ULS gravity load combinations
and for cases of ULS uplift load combinations. We can observe that, when the
structure is symmetric or symmetrically loaded, each load case produces equal
global rotations in the two support sections.
5 - 47

35,6 mm 8,6 mm
44,2 mm
(44,2 8,6 = 35,6 mm)

Gravity loading

12,2 mm 3,1 mm
15,2 mm
(15,3 3,1 = 12,2 mm)

Uplift loading

Figure 5.3 Rotations at truss supports
In order for the global rotations at the supports to be free (assumption for truss
with pinned connections to the column), the elongated holes introduced into the
column on lower chord connection must allow a 35,6 mm movement towards
the outside and 12,2 mm towards the inside. It is of course prudent to allow for
a certain safety margin on the sizing of the elongated holes (say 50 mm), and to
check after erection that, under self weight, the freedom of movement remains
adequate in both directions.
5.2 Chord continuity
It is often necessary to deliver large span truss beams to site in several sections;
it is therefore necessary to provide continuous chord joints between these
sections. Generally, the preferred method is to make such connections on site
by bolting rather than by welding.
The design of these bolted connections depends on the type of chord section to
be connected. However, we can distinguish between two types of such
connections:
- Those in which the bolts are mainly loaded in tension : these use end plates
- Those in which bolts are loaded perpendicular to their shank: these use
splice plates.
When the chords are made of a single profile/section in I or H, either of the
connections can be used.
When the chords are made of two double angle or channel sections, splice
connections are generally used.
5 - 48
When the chords are made of hollow sections end plate connections are
generally used (use of hollow sections is outside the scope of this guide).

Continuity using end plate connections

Continuity using splice plate connections

Figure 5.4 Chord continuity
The splice plate connection shown Figure 5.4 has double cover splice plates on
the web and flanges (giving two interfaces for shear forces). If the force in the
splice is low, single external spliced plates can be used, although double plates
are normally used on the web, to preserve symmetry in the transmission of the
axial force.
The resistance of the splice connections of truss chords must be verified under
dominant load with secondary bending moment in the truss plane, according to
EN 1993-1-8, by adapting the components method developed for beam-post
connections. Software is freely available for this verification (see the
SteelBizFrance.com website developed by CTICM). Verification of this type
of connection, for the worked example, is given in Appendix A.
As well as verifying the resistance, it is essential to ensure the stiffness of the
continuous chord connections. Generally, when the resistance of a beam-beam
connection using end plates is selected, it can be considered as rigid.
Spliced plate connections are only effectively rigid when the slack is controlled
(see Section 3.6 for evaluation example of the effect of slack in the bolted
connections of the truss in the worked example). For splice connections, it is
therefore recommended that one of the following options is selected:
- Use preloaded bolts with controlled tightening, allowing transmission of
loads by friction (non-slip)
- Use fit bolts, preferably loaded on the shank in order to avoid slip under
load by distortion of the thread of the connected pieces.
5.3 Connection of diagonals to chords
Connection of diagonals and posts to chords can be made in different ways,
according to the type of sections to be connected.
When the chords are made of double members (two angles or two UPE
sections), common practice is to insert gusset plates between the two
5 - 49
component members of the chord. The gussets are, therefore, either welded or
bolted on the chords. The diagonals and posts are connected to the gussets,
usually by bolting.
When the chords are made of IPE or HEA/HEB sections, the most common
connection method is also to use a welded gusset plate on the chord. The gusset
plate is attached to the flange when the section is upright (vertical web), and to
the web when the section is flat (horizontal web).

(a) Bolted gusset in the space between double
angle chords, truss members in bolted
double angles onto gusset

(b) Welded gusset on HEA chord flange,
double angle truss members bolted to
gusset

(c) Gusset welded to web of flat IPE chord

Figure 5.5 Truss connections on chord
When the chord sections are flat, it is also common to use IPE or HEA truss
members with the same depth as the chords and to connect them by double
gussets, one on each flange. An alternative solution is to design a welded
connection without gussets, as shown in Figure 5.6.
5 - 50

1
2
1
2
1
3
4
5

1 Truss members
2 Chord
3 Fillet weld
4 Half-V fillet weld
5 K-fillet weld

Figure 5.6 Welded connection between truss members and chord
When the chords are hollow sections (outside the scope of this guide), the
connection using a gusset welded on the chord is also used. Direct welding of
the diagonals and posts to the chords is also used; this requires profiling for
connections to circular section chords.
In the gusset connections described above, verification of the resistance of the
bolted or welded connection clearly defined in EN 1993-1-8. However,
verification of the resistance of the gusset plate is not. Verification of a gusset
plate connection for the worked example is given in Appendix B.
Special attention must be given to checking of the gussets, particularly those
which have a large non stiffened part: many truss problems have been caused
local buckling of the gusset plate. For example, in the connections in
Figure 5.5(c), if the height of the flat chord web is insufficient for the angles
making up the truss members to be connected near the web, the unstiffened
part of the gusset and its stability must be examined carefully.
Although hollow section trusses are not the subject of the present guide, note
that EN 1993-1-8 devotes a Section to the design of welded connections of
hollow sections.
In the connections to the chords, slip must also be controlled (as indicated for
continuous chords), in order to control displacements of the structural
components, and, as a result, the distribution of forces if the structure is
hyperstatic.
5 - 51
REFERENCES

1 Single-Storey Steel Buildings. Part 7: Fire engineering.
2 EN 1993-1-8:2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1.8 Design of
joints.
3 EN 1993-1-1: 2005, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1.1 General rules
and rules for buildings.
5 - 52
5 - 53
APPENDIX A
Worked Example Design of a continuous chord
connection using splice plate connections

5 - 54
Appendix A Worked Example: Design of a
continuous chord connection using splice
plate connections
1 of 24
Made by PM Date 02/2010
Calculation sheet
Checked by IR Date 02/2010

1. Splice joint using bolted cover plates

This calculation sheet refers to the splice plate connection located on the
Figure A.1. This connection has double spliced plates on the web and single
external spliced plate on the flanges (see Figure A.2).

1

1 Splice plate connection studied

Figure A.1 Location of the splice plate connections

2
3
2
3
1
3

1 Longitudinal axis
2 Lower chords to assembly (IPE 330)
3 Splice plate connection

Figure A.2 Chord continuity by splice plate connections

The resistance of this connection must be verified under tension axial force
with secondary moment in the plane of the truss.
Four bolted cover plates must be verified (See Figure A.3)
It is also essential to ensure the stiffness of the continuous chord connection.
A slip resistant connection is required.

Title
APPENDIX A Worked Example: Design of a continuous chord
2 of 24

5 - 55
2
1 3
Z
Y
X
Y

1 cover plates of web chord
2 cover plate of flange 1 (on the right-hand side)
3 cover plate of flange 2 (on the left-hand side)

Figure A.3 Cover plates

The global coordinates system is such as:
The XOZ plane is that of the truss plane
The XOY plane is that of the web chord

2. Basic data

The sizes of the cover-plates and the positioning of holes are shown on the
Figure A.4.

Title
3 of 24

5 - 56

35
70
70
140
70
70
35
35
70
70
35
100
40 95 95 40
14 11,5
7 / 7,5 / 7
165 165
5
50
50
30
30

Figure A.4 Sizes (in mm) and positioning

Material data (except bolts)
The I-profile and the cover-plates are grade S355 to EN 10025-2.
Steel grade S355
Yield strength f
y
= 355 N/mm
2

Ultimate tensile strength f
u
= 510 N/mm
2

EN 1993-1-1
Table 3.1
I Beam data
Depth h = 330 mm
Flange width b = 160 mm
Web thickness t
w
= 7,5 mm
Flange thickness t
f
= 11,5 mm
Radius of root fillet r = 18 mm
Cross-section area A = 62,61 cm
2

Second moment of area I
y
= 788,1 cm
4

Plastic modulus W
pl,y
= 153,7 cm
3

Title
4 of 24

5 - 57
Bolted connections data
Category of bolted connections Category C
Bolt Class Class 10.9
Yield strength f
yb
= 900 N/mm
2

ub
= 1000 N/mm
2

For flanges cover plates
Nominal bolt diameter d
f
= 22 mm
Hole diameter d
0,f
= 24 mm
For web cover plates
Nominal bolt diameter d
w
= 18 mm
Hole diameter d
0,w
= 20 mm

EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.1

Partial Factors (Recommended values)
Structural steel
M0
= 1,00
Structural steel
M2
= 1,25
Bolts
M2
= 1,25
Bolts
M3
= 1,25
EN 1993-1-1
6.1 NOTE 2B

EN 1993-1-8
2.2 NOTE
Internal forces
For the direction of the internal forces see Figure A.5
M
Ed
= 1,71 kNm (about y-y axis)
V
Ed
= 1,7 kN
N
Ed
= 1567,4 kN (tension force)

Note: the bending moment and the shear force can be ignored. For all that in
some phases we take them into account so as to show the concept of the
calculation in the presence in such internal forces.

Title
5 of 24

5 - 58
Y
X
Y
Z
V
Ed

N
Ed

M
Ed

M
Ed

Figure A.5 Internal forces and moment

3. Classification of cross-section chord

For the classification of the cross-section, its necessary to know the
distribution of the normal stresses.
EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2
Sheet 2 of 3
For the web we consider a uniform stress equal to:
A
N
Ed
w
= o = -250,34 N/mm
2

For the flanges we have:
i yy
Ed Ed
i
v I
M
A
N
= o

Where v
i
is the position of the considered fibre.
And for the upper part (Z > 0) of the flange:
2
f 1
/ b v = and r t v + = 2
w 2

1
o = 180,91 N/mm
2
,
2
o = 245,62 N/mm
2

And for the inner part (Z < 0) of the flange:
( ) 2
f 1
/ b v = and ( ) r t v + = 2
w 2

1
o = 319,78 N/mm2,
2
o = 255,06 N/mm
2

In view of these results, the cross-section being all over in tension is
considered of class 1.

Title
6 of 24

5 - 59
4. Global checking of the cross-section chord

4.1. Effect of the shear force
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.10
Determination of
Rd pl,
Ed
V
V

With:
w v
t h A A
w
= = 3959 mm
2

( )
M0
y v
Rd pl,
3
f A
V = = 811,3 kN

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.6(2)
From where
Rd pl,
Ed
V
V
= 0,002< 0,5
So, no reduction due to the shear force needs to be taken into account.

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.10 (2)
4.2. Combination M + N Effect of the axial force
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.9.1
kN 4 , 817 4 , 1567
M0
y w w
Ed
= > =
f t h
N
Allowance has to be made for the effect of the axial force.

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.9.1 (5)
4.3. Combination M + N Consideration of fastener
holes

Axial force
Under tension axial force, the fastener holes should be considered.
Category C connection the design tension resistance is:
M0
y net
Rd net, Rd t,
f A
N N = =

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.3(4)
For the net cross-section, we consider 7 holes for fastener (2 by flange and 3
for the web).
The net area is:
net
A = 4707 mm
2

Therefore:
Rd net,
N = 1671 kN

Bending moment

With
f f
t b A = and
f f 0, f net f,
2 t d A A =
For each flange in tension, one checks:
kN 2 , 653 473
9 , 0
M0
y f
M2
u net f,
= < =

f A f A

So, the holes for fasteners in the flange should be considered.

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.5 (4)
Title
7 of 24

5 - 60
With
w w 0, f f 0, net
3 4 t d t d A A =
For the full tension area, one checks:
kN 7 , 2222 4 , 1728
9 , 0
M0
y
M2
u net
= < =

Af
f A

So, the holes for fasteners in the web should be considered.

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.5 (5)
Design resistance for bending
With for a IPE 330:
y pl
W
,
= 153,7 cm
3

d
z
= 50 mm = distance from centre of holes of flange to z-z axis
( )
z f f 0, holes y, pl,
4 d t d W = = 55,2 cm
3

The design plastic moment resistance of the net section is:
( )
M0
y holes y, pl, y pl,
Rd pl,
f W W
M

= = 34,967 kNm

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.5(2)
4.4. Combination M + N Verification

The following criterion should be verified:
Rd N, Ed
M M s

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.9.1(1)
With:
Rd net,
Ed
N
N
n = = 0,938
{ } 5 , 0 ; / ) 2 ( min A t b A a
f
= = 0,412

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.9.1(3)
We obtain :
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
Rd pl, Rd N,
1
1
a
a n
M M = 6,99 kNm
M
Ed
= 1,71 < M
N,Rd
= 6,99 kNm OK

5. Distribution of the internal forces
EN 1993-1-8
2.5
Note that the web is in the horizontal plane.
5.1. Axial force

The axial force is distributed between the web and the flanges. This
distribution is based on the ratio of the gross cross-section of the web and the
flanges. The fillets are appointed to the flange.

So, with: = =
w f w
) 2 ( t t h A 2302,5 mm
2

= = 2 / ) (
w f
A A A 3958,5 mm
2
(per flange)

Then: A A N N /
w Ed w N,
= = 576,4 kN
( ) 2 /
w N, Ed f N,
N N N = = 495,5 kN

Title
8 of 24

5 - 61
5.2. Shear force

The shear force is fully transferred by the flanges.
So: 2 /
Ed f V,
V V = (per flange)

5.3. Bending moment

The bending moment about the weak axis is fully transferred by the flanges:
=
f M,
M 0,855 kNm for each flanges

6. Internal forces in each connected parts

6.1. Connection of the webs

The cover plate of webs (and its bolts) is only subjected to an axial force:
N
N,w
= 576,4 kN

6.2. Connection of the flanges

Each of cover plates of flanges (and its bolts) is subjected to:
- An axial force N
N,f
= 495,49 kN,
- A shear force V
V,f
= 0,85 kN
- A bending moment M
M,f
= 0,855 kNm
The moment due to the eccentricity of the shear force against the centroid of
the joint (see Figure A.6):
V f V, f V,
e V M =
With: e
V
= 140 mm M
V,f
= 0,119 kNm

V
V,f

G
e
v

M
V,f

Figure A.6 Moment due to the eccentricity of the shear force

Title
9 of 24

5 - 62
6.3. Summary of the internal forces and moments

In the web: N
w
= 576,42 kN
In one flange: N
f
= 495,49 kN
V
f
= 0,85 kN
M
f
= 0,97 kN

7. Verification of the web connection

The connection of the webs is a double lap joint.
The web component will be verified and by symmetry only one plate
component.

7.1. Design details
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.3
It is assumed that the structure is not exposed to the weather or other
corrosive influences.

The design details are verified for the web component and for the plate
component in the tables below

Table A.1 Connection of the webs Web component Design details
Distance or spacing Min. value Design value Max. value
e
1
24 47,5
e
2
24 1)
p
1
44 70 105
p
2
48 95 105
1)
Not applicable because of the proximity of the flange

Table A.2 Connection of the webs Plate component Design details
e
1
24 35
e
2
24 40
p
1
44 70 98
p
2
48 95 98

7.2. Design shear force F
V,Ed
for each bolt

6
w
w Ed, V,
N
F = = 96,07 kN for the component web
EN 1993-1-8
3.12 (3)
6
2 /
w
p Ed, V,
N
F = = 48,03 kN for each component plate

7.3. Design slip resistance F
S,Rd

By considering: Bolts in normal holes 0 , 1
s
= k

Title
10 of 24

5 - 63
Class friction surfaces = Class A 5 , 0 =

And with: =
w s,
A 192 mm
2
tensile stress area of the bolt
= =
w s, ub c p,
7 , 0 A f F 134,4 kN pretension force
n number of the friction surfaces
2 =
w
n relatively to the web component
1 =
p
n relatively to the plate component

Then: = =
c p,
M3
w s
w Rd, s,
F
n k
F

107,52 kN
= =
c p,
M3
p s
p Rd, s,
F
n k
F

53,76 kN
EN 1993-1-8
3.9.1 (1)
7.4. Design bearing resistance F
b,Rd
for each bolt

Table 3.4 of EN 1993-1-8 gives the expressions of the design bearing
resistance. In these expressions, the coefficients
b
o and
1
k depend on the
orientation of the loading, the position compared with the ends of the
component and also the position of the other bolts.
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.4
The general expression for the design bearing resistance is:

M2
u b 1
Rd b,
o t d f k
F =

EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.4
According to Table 3.4 of the Eurocode 1993-1-8, the coefficients o
b
and k
1

are determined from:
For end bolts
)
`
= 0 , 1 ; ;
3
min
u
ub
0
1
end b,
f
f
d
e
o

)
`
= 5 , 2 ; 7 , 1 8 , 2 ; 7 , 1 4 , 1 min
0
2
0
2
end 1,
d
e
d
p
k

For inner bolts
)
`
= 0 , 1 ; ;
4
1
3
min
u
ub
0
1
b,inner
f
f
d
p
o

)
`
= 5 , 2 ; 7 , 1 4 , 1 min
0
2
1,inner
d
p
k

Web component
Figure A.7 shows how it is processed for the determination of the coefficients
b
o and
1
k .

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5 - 64
N
w

F
V,Ed, w

o
b
o
b

k
1
k
1

o
b,inner

k
1,end
o
b,inner

k
1,inner
o
b,inner

k
1,end
o
b,end

k
1,end
o
b,end

k
1,inner
o
b,end

k
1,end
b
4
b
5
b
6

b
1
b
2
b
3

Figure A.7 Connection of the webs Web component Determination of
type of bolts

The determination of coefficients k
1
is carried out perpendicularly to the
direction of load transfer. But two directions are conceivable for this
perpendicular and it is difficult for some bolts (b
1
, b
4,
b
3,
and b
6
) to determine
if they are end or inner bolts.

In these cases we consider the minimum value of k
1,inner
and k
1,end
. And by
noticing that { }
end 1, end 1, 1,inner
; min k k k = , these bolts are considered as end
bolts.

In addition, for the web component, it is reminded that the edge distance e
2
is
not applicable because of the proximity of the flange. So, the expressions of
k
1,inner
and k
1,end
are identical.

As the design shear force is identical for each bolt and furthermore:
k
1,inner
= k
1,end
= 2,50
So only one row of bolts is considered, for example the bolts b
1
and b
4
.

Then, for the bolt b
1
:
79 , 0
end b1, b, b1 b,
= = o o
kN 01 , 109
w Rd, b1, b,
= F

And for the bolt b
4
:
92 , 0
inner b4, b, b4 b,
= = o o
kN 23 , 126
w Rd, b4, b,
= F

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5 - 65
Therefore, in the end for the web component,
kN 01 , 109
w Rd, b,
= F

Plate component
Compared with the web component, for the plate it can be noticed that the
bolts b
1,
b
2,
b
3
become inner bolts and the bolts b
4
, b
5,
b
6
become end bolts
(see Figure A.8).

Then, for the bolt b
1
:
92 , 0
inner b1, b, b1 b,
= = o o
kN 81 , 117
p Rd, b1, b,
= F

And for the bolt b
4
:
58 , 0
end b4, b, b4 b,
= = o o
kN 97 , 74
p Rd, b4, b,
= F

In the end, for the plate component, it should retained:
kN 97 , 74
p Rd, b,
= F

Figure A.8 Connection of the webs Plate component Determination of
type of bolts

o
b o
b
k
1
k
1

o
b,end

k
1,end
o
b,end

k
1,inner
o
b,end

k
1,end
o
b,inner

k
1,end
o
b,inner

k
1,inner
o
b,inner

k
1,end
F
V,Ed,w

b
4
b
5
b
6

b
1
b
2
b
3

N
w
/2
Title
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5 - 66
7.5. Checking bolts

7.5.1. With regard to the web component

Individual checking
Design bearing resistance kN 01 , 109 07 , 96
w Rd, b, w Ed, V,
= < = F F
Design slip resistance kN 52 , 107 07 , 96
w Rd, s, w Ed, V,
= < = F F
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.2
Group of fasteners
The shear resistance per shear plane
Rd v,
F is taken as:
M2
ub v
Rd v,
o A f
F =
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.4
By considering that the shear plane does not pass through the threaded portion
of the bolt in normal holes:
o
v
= 0,6
A = 254,47 mm
2
(gross cross-section of the bolt)
Then:
Rd v,
F = 122,15 kN

Since
w Rd, b, Rd v,
F F > for only three bolts as a result the design of our group
of fasteners:
{ } kN 06 , 654 01 , 109 6 min
w Rd, bi, b, bi w Rd, b, r,
= = = F n F
g

EN 1993-1-8
3.7
Then: kN 06 , 654 42 , 576
w Rd, b, r, w
= < =
g
F N

7.5.2. With regard to the plate component

Individual checking
p Rd, b, p Ed, V,
= < = F F
p Rd, s, p Ed, V,
= < = F F
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.2
Group of fasteners
The shear resistance per shear plane Error! Objects cannot be created from editing
field codes. is equal to:
Rd v,
F = 122,15 kN

Since Error! Objects cannot be created from editing field codes. for each of the bolts
as a result the design of our group of fasteners:
kN 34 , 578 97 , 74 3 81 , 117 3
1
Rd h, bi, b, Rd h, b, gr,
= + = =
bi
n
F F
EN 1993-1-8
3.7
Then: kN 34 , 578 21 , 228 2 /
Rd b, r, w
= < =
g
F N

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5 - 67
7.6. Design of net cross-section

For a connection in tension, the design plastic resistance of the net cross-
section at bolt holes should be verified:
s
b
1
Rd net, Ed V,
n
N F
where n
b
is the number of bolts located in the considered net cross-section.

EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.2
7.6.1. Web component

The net cross-section is taken as
2
w w 0, w net w,
mm 5 , 1852 3 = = t d A A
The design resistance is: kN 64 , 657
M0
y net w,
Rd net, w,
= =
f A
N

Then: kN 21 , 288 07 , 96 3 64 , 657
3
1
w Ed, V, Rd net, w,
= = > =

F N

7.6.2. Plate component

2
p w 0, p net p,
mm 1470 3 = = t d A A
The design resistance is: kN 85 , 521
M0
y net p,
Rd net, p,
= =
f A
N

Then: kN 10 , 144 03 , 48 3 85 , 521
3
1
w Ed, V, Rd net, w,
= = > =

F N

7.7. Design for block tearing

The Figure A.9 shows the block tearing for the web and for the plate. EN 1993-1-8
3.10.2 (1)

The bolt group is subjected to concentric loading.
And with:
2
w 0 2 nt
mm 1125 ) 2 2 ( = = t d p A

2
w 0 1 1 nv
mm 5 , 1312 ) 5 , 1 ( 2 = + = t d p e A
EN 1993-1-8
3.10.2 (2)
Then: kN 01 , 728
Rd eff,1,
= V

576,42kN 01 , 728
w Rd eff,1,
= > = N V


Two block tearing are defined. For the both, the shear area is the same, so the
case giving the minimum area subjected in tension is considered. The bolt
group is subjected to concentric loading.
EN 1993-1-8
3.10.2 (2)
And with:
2
p 0 2 nt
mm 420 ) 2 ( = = t d e A

2
p 0 1 1 nv
mm 1050 ) 5 , 1 ( 2 = + = t d p e A

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5 - 68
kN 57 , 386
Rd eff,1,
= V

So: kN 21 , 88 2 2 / 57 , 386
w Rd eff,1,
= > = N V

N
w
/2
A
nt

A
nv

N
w

A
nt

A
nv

A
nv

N
w
/2
A
nt

A
nv
A
nv

1
2
3

1 Block tearing for web component (concentric loading)
2 First block tearing for plate component (concentric loading)
3 Second block tearing for plate component (concentric loading)

Figure A.9 Block tearing for connection of the webs

8. Checking of connection of the flanges

The connection of the flanges is a single lap joint.
The flange component and the plate component will be verified.

In general rule in the presence of a combination of loads, we obtain for each
bolt a design shear force not parallel to the edge of the components. In this
case, the Eurocode states that the bearing resistance can be verified separately
for the bolt load components parallel and normal to the end of components.
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.4
3)
Rd h, bi, b, Ed h, bi, V,
F F s
Rd v, bi, b, Ed v, bi, V,
F F s

In the ECCS publication P126 (European recommendations for the Design of
Simple Joints in Steel Structures 2009), an additional check is proposed,
based on an interaction expression:
1
2
Rd v, bi, b,
Ed v, bi, V,
2
Rd h, bi, b,
Ed h, bi, V,
s
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
F
F
F
F

The load components will be performed in a basis { } v h, located at the centre
of gravity of the joint and oriented with the principal directions of the flange
(See Figure A.10).

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5 - 69
8.1. Design details
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.3
It is assumed that the truss is not exposed to weather or other corrosive
influences.

The design details should be verified in both directions of loading. By taking
into consideration the limits specified in Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8, the
following requirement have to be fulfilled:

{ }
0 2 1
2 , 1 ; min d e e >
{ }
0 2 1
2 , 2 ; min d p p >
{ } { } mm 200 ; 14 min ; max
2 1
t p p s

The tables below check the design details for each component.
Table A.3 Connection of the flanges Plate component Design details
{ }
2 1
e e ; min
28,8 30
{ }
2 1
p p ; min
52,8 70
{ }
2 1
p p ; max
100 161

Table A.4 Connection of the flanges Plate component Design details
{ }
2 1
e e ; min
28,8 30
{ }
2 1
p p ; min
52,8 70
{ }
2 1
p p ; max
100 196

8.2. Design shear force F
V,Ed
for each bolt

With regard to the flange component
The components of the design shear force are calculated in the basis { } v h,
(see Figure A.10). The group of bolts is subjected to a axial force
f
N , a shear
force
f
V and a bending moment
f
M (see 6.2)

The axial force
f
N generates a horizontal shear force:
kN 58 , 82
6
f
h bi, N,
= =
N
F for each bolt

The shear force
f
V generates a vertical shear force:
kN 14 , 0
6
f
v bi, V,
= =
V
F for each bolt

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5 - 70
The moment
f
M is divided out the bolts according to the distance
i
r between
the centre of bolts b
i
and the centre of gravity of the group of bolts
=
6
1
2
i
i f
bi M,
r
r M
F

This shear force
bi M,
F resolved in the basis { } v h, gives:
=
6
1
2
i
i f
h bi, M,
r
v M
F a horizontal component for the bolt b
i
.
=
6
1
2
i
i f
v' bi, M,
r
h M
F a vertical component for the bolt b
i
.
With
i
h and
i
v coordinates of centre of bolt b
i
.

In the end, for each bolt:
h bi, M, h bi, N, Ed h, bi, V,
F F F + = Horizontal design shear force
v bi, M, v bi, V, Ed v, bi, V,
F F F + = Vertical design shear force
2
, , ,
2
, , ,
Ed bi, V,
Ed v bi V Ed h bi V
F F F + = Resulting design shear force

The Figure A.10 shows the distribution of the internal forces.
V
f

G
M
f

N
f

F
V,bi,v

F
N,bi,h
F
M,bi

h
v
b
1
b
2
b
3

b
6
b
5
b
4

Figure A.10 Distribution of the internal forces for the flange component.
The Figure A.11 shows the directions of the resulting force and its
components.

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5 - 71
F
V,v,Ed

F
V,h,Ed
F
V,Ed

h
v

Figure A.11 Directions of the design shear force
Table A.5 sums up the determination of the design shear forces.
The vertical component of the load can be neglected. We will confine to the
horizontal direction for the design bearing resistance checking.

In addition, if we had not considered the shear force
Ed
V and the moment
Ed
M , the unique horizontal design shear force would be:
h bi, N, Ed h, bi, V,
F F = = -82,58 kN
That is a difference of 2%

So the value of 84,02 kN can be retained (= maximum value obtained for
Ed bi, V,
F ) for the design shear force: kN 02 , 84
Ed V,
= F .

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5 - 72
Table A.5 Connection of the flanges Flange component Design shear
forces in kN in the basis { } v h, .
Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
b
5
b
6

i
h -70 0 70 -70 0 70
i
v 50 50 50 -50 -50 -50
i
r 86,02 50 86,02 86,02 50 76,02
bi M,
F 2,42 1,41 2,42 2,42 1,41 2,42
h bi, M,
F 1,41 1,41 1,41 -1,41 -1,41 -1,41
v bi, M,
F 1,97 0 -1,97 1,97 0 -1,97
h bi, N,
F -82,58 -82,58 -82,58 -82,58 -82,58 -82,58
v bi, V,
F 0,14 0,14 0,14 0,14 0,14 0,14
Ed bi, V,
F 81,20 81,17 81,20 84,02 83,99 84,01
Ed h, bi, V,
F -81,17 -81,17 -81,77 -83,99 -83,99 -83,99
Ed v, bi, V,
F 2,11 0,14 -1,83 2,11 0,14 -1,83

With regard to the plate component
The connection of the flanges is a single lap joint so the design shear forces
for each bolt with regard to the plate component are directly deduced from the
previous results.
The value of 84,02 kN can be retained.

8.3. Design slip resistance F
S,Rd

By considering: Bolts in normal holes 0 , 1
s
= k

Class friction surfaces = Class A 5 , 0 =

And with: =
f s,
A 303 mm
2
= =
f s, ub c p,
7 , 0 A f F 212,1 kN pretension force
n number of the friction surfaces
Single lap joint 1 = n for each component

Then: = = =
c p,
M3
s
p Rd, s, f Rd, s,
F
n k
F F

84,54 kN
EN 1993-1-8
3.9.1
8.4. Design bearing resistance F
b,Rd
for each bolt
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.4
We confine to the horizontal direction for the determination of the design
bearing resistance (see 8.2).

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5 - 73
Flange component
Figure A.12 shows for each bolt how the factors
b
o and
1
k are determined.

o
b

k
1 k
1
k
1
k
1
o
b,end
k
1,end
o
b,inner
k
1,end
o
b,inner
k
1,end
o
b,end
k
1,end
o
b,inner
k
1,end
o
b,inner
k
1,end
F
V,h,Ed

b
1
b
2
b
3

b
4
b
5
b
6

Figure A.12 Connection of the flanges Flange component Determination of
type of bolts

For all the bolts: k
1,end
= 1,80.
For the bolt b
1
and b
4
: 94 , 0
end b,
= o
kN 19 , 174
f Rd, b,
= F

For the other bolts: 72 , 0
b,inner
= o
kN 19 , 134
f Rd, b,
= F

In the end for the flange component, the minimum value is retained:
kN 19 , 134
f Rd, b,
= F

Plate component
For all the bolts, k
1,end
= 1,80.
For the bolt b
3
and b
6
: 49 , 0
end b,
= o
kN 32 , 90
p Rd, b,
= F

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5 - 74
For the other bolts: 72 , 0
b,inner
= o
kN 19 , 134
p Rd, b,
= F

In the end for the plate component, the minimum value is retained:
kN 32 , 90
p Rd, b,
= F

8.5. Verification of the bolts

8.5.1. With regard to the flange component

Individual checking
w Rd, b, w Ed, V,
= < = F F
w Rd, s, w Ed, V,
= < = F F
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.2
Group of fasteners
The design shear resistance per shear plane
Rd v,
F is taken as:

M2
ub v
Rd v,
o A f
F =

EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.4
By considering that the shear plane does not pass through the threaded portion
of the bolt in normal holes:
o
v
= 0,6
A = 380,13 mm
2
(gross cross-section of the bolt)
Then:
Rd v,
F = 182,46 kN

Since
w Rd, b, Rd v,
F F > for all the bolts, the design resistance of our group of
fasteners is equal to:
kN 15 , 885 19 , 134 4 19 , 174 2
bi
1
f Rd, bi, b, w Rd, b, r,
= + = =
n
g
F F

EN 1993-1-8
3.7
Then: kN 15 , 885 49 , 495
f Rd, b, r, f
= < =
g
F N

8.5.2. With regard to the plate component

Individual checking
Design bearing resistance: kN 32 , 90 02 , 84
p Rd, b, p Ed, V,
= < = F F
Design slip resistance: kN 54 , 84 02 , 84
p Rd, s, p Ed, V,
= < = F F

EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.4
Group of fasteners
The shear resistance per shear plane
Rd v,
F is equal to:

Rd v,
F = 182,46 kN

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5 - 75
Since
w Rd, b, Rd v,
F F > for all the bolts, the design of our group of fasteners is
equal to:
kN 40 , 717 19 , 134 4 32 , 90 2
bi
1
p Rd, bi, b, p Rd, b, r,
= + = =
n
g
F F

EN 1993-1-8
3.7
Then: kN 40 , 717 49 , 495
p Rd, b, r, f p
= < = =
g
F N N

8.6. Design of net cross-section

section at bolt holes should be verified:

s
b
1
Rd net, Ed V,
n
N F
Where n
b
is the number of bolts located in the considered net cross-section.

EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.2
8.6.1. Flange component

The net section area is:
2
f f 0, net f,
mm 25 , 1427 2 = = t d A A
f

And: kN 67 , 506
M0
y net f,
Rd net, f,
= =
f A
N

Then: kN 04 , 168 02 , 84 2 67 , 506
2
1
f Ed, V, Rd net, f,
= = > =

F N


2
p w 0, p net p,
mm 1568 2 = = t d A A
From where kN 64 , 556
M0
y net p,
Rd net, p,
= =
f A
N

Then: kN 04 168 02 84 2 64 556
2
1
p Ed, V, Rd net, p,
, , , = = > =

F N

Note: The global cross-section of the beam has been verified accounting
for the holes for fastener and the combination of the internal forces
(see 4).
The net cross-section of the plate component should also be verified
under this combination of internal forces.

Assuming a uniform distribution of the load in the section, it is
proposed that:

y
2 2
max
3 f s + = t o o
Where:
v I
M
A
N
t ne p,
p
net p,
p
= o and
net p,
p
A
V
= t

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5 - 76
Assuming a uniform distribution of the shear stresses, this leads to a
conservative situation.

With
2
net p,
mm 1568 = A

4
holes p, gross p, net p,
cm 64 306 23 171 87 477 , , , = = = I I I
Then:
2
N/mm 316 = o and
2
N/mm 31 25, = t
Finally:
2
y
2
N/mm 355 N/mm 31 341 = s = f ,
max
o

8.7. Design for block tearing
EN 1993-1-8
3.10.2

The bolt group is subjected to a concentric loading N
f
and an eccentric
loading V
f
but considering the presence of the web we only consider the case
with a concentric loading.

The Figure A.13 shows the block tearing for the flange component

A
nt
A
nv
N
f

Figure A.13 Connection of the flanges Block tearing for flange
component

With:
2
f 0 2 nt
mm 414 ) 5 , 0 ( 2 = = t d e A

2
f 0 1 1 nv
mm 5 , 3392 ) 5 , 2 2 ( 2 = + = t d p e A

Then: kN 24 , 826
Rd eff,1,
= V

And: kN 49 , 95 4 24 , 826
w Rd eff,1,
= > = N V


The bolt group is subjected to a concentric loading N
p
and an eccentric
loading V
p
.

The Figure A.14 shows the block tearing for the plate component
Title
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5 - 77
For the cases with a concentric loading, only the case giving the minimum
area in tension is considered:
With : { }
2
p 0 2 0 2 nt
mm 504 ) 5 , 0 ( 2 ); ( min = = t d e d p A

2
p 0 1 1 nv
mm 3220 ) 5 , 2 2 ( 2 = + = t d p e A

Then: kN 60 , 865
Rd eff,1,
= V
And: kN 49 , 495 60 , 865
f Rd eff,1,
= > = N V

A
nt
A
nv
A
nv
A
nt A
nv
A
nt
A
nv
V
p
N
p
N
p
1
3
2

1 First block tearing with concentric loading
2 Second block tearing with concentric loading
3 Block tearing with eccentric loading

Figure A.14 Connection of the flanges - Block tearing for plate component

For the case with an eccentric loading, with:
2
p 0 1 1 nt
mm 1610 ) 5 , 2 2 ( = + = t d p e A
2
p 0 nv
mm 1316 ) 5 , 1 2 2 ( = + = t d p e A

Then: kN 17 , 598
Rd eff,2,
= V
And: kN 85 , 0 17 , 598
p Rd eff,2,
= > = V V

So we have just verified successively the bolt group according to the two
loadings. An additional requirement based on an interactive expression should
be fulfilled:
{ }
0 , 1
; min
3 , , 2 , 2 , , 1 , 1 , , 1 ,
s +
block Rd eff
p
bloc Rd eff block Rd eff
p
V
V
V V
N

Then: 0 , 1 57 , 0
17 , 598
85 , 0
60 , 865
49 , 495
s = + OK

5 - 78
5 - 79
APPENDIX B
Worked example Design of a truss node with gusset

5 - 80
Appendix B Worked Example: Design of a truss
node with gusset
1 of 44
Made by CZT Date 12/2009
Calculation sheet
Checked by DGB Date 12/2009

The truss includes several types of joints: splice joints by bolted cover plates,
T joints and KT joints. This Appendix gives the detailed design of a KT joint
located on the upper chord, as shown in Figure B.1.

7100 7200 8500 8600 7100 7100
4000
91 kN 136 182 182 136 136 91 kN
1

1 KT joint

Figure B.1 Location of the KT joint

The values of the internal forces in the truss members (see Table B.1) result
from a gravity load case. This load case corresponds to a ULS combination of
actions, determined according to EN 1990.

Table B.1 KT joint Internal forces in the truss members
Member N (kN) V (kN) M (kNm)
Diagonal 35 -609,4 -1,27 0
Diagonal 24 406,9 1,03 0
Post 36 2,6 0 0
Chord 101 -413,8 1,25 -0,46
102 101
24
36
35
136 kN

Chord 102 -1084 1,26 -0,09

1. General presentation of KT joint

The KT joint studied consists of the following connections: the gusset to web
chord welded connection and the angles to gusset bolted connection (see
Figure B.2 and Figure B.3). Both connections should be verified according to
the rules from EN 1993-1-1 and EN 1993-1-8.

The gusset to web chord welded connection is a plate welded perpendicular to
the web of the chord by two fillets welds (See Figure B.7).

The angles to gusset bolted connection is composed of two back-to-back
double-angle diagonal members (See Figure B.4) and a single angle post
member (See Figure B.5).
There are three shear connections to be designed as Category C.

Title Appendix B Worked Example: Design of a truss node with gusset 2 of 44

5 - 81
136 kN
1
2
3

1 Chord (IPE 330)
2 Gusset plate
3 Axes of the web members

Figure B.2 General presentation of KT joint

1
2
3
4
5
6
A
A
B B

1 Web of the chord (IPE 330)
2 Gusset plate 58026015
3 Angles L15015015
4 Angle L10010010
5 Fillet weld
6 Axes of the web members

Figure B.3 KT joint


5 - 82

Figure B.4 KT Joint Section AA Figure B.5 KT Joint- Section BB

2. Gusset plate to web chord welded
connection

This connection is a welded plate perpendicular to the web of the chord, see
Figure B.6. The two fillet welds are identical. The design of the gusset plate
and its weld to the chord takes into account the axial forces in all three angle
members connected to it.

O
3

1

Y
Z
260 320
30
260
O
g

N
1,Ed
N
2,Ed
N
3,Ed

Figure B.6 Gusset plate to web chord welded connection

The longitudinal axes of all three angle members intersect on the chord axis at
the point O in the web.


5 - 83
The gusset plane is not positioned symmetrically about the normal OY to the
web plane (see Figure B.6 and Figure B.7). The moment resulting from the
eccentricity e
Z
should be taken into account.

The moment resulting from the eccentricity e
Y
= t
w
/2 can be neglected.

Y
Z O
e
Z
=30
e
Y
=7,5/2
O
g

Y
X
O
O
g

t
w
=7,5
t
g
=15

Figure B.7 Gusset plate to web chord Details

The basic assumption is that gusset plate transfers axial forces acting in its
plane and in the direction of the member axes.

2.1. Data

Global coordinates system (see Figure B.6 and Figure B.7)
The YOZ Plane is that of the gusset plate
The XOZ Plane is that of the chord web

Geometric data
Gusset plate thickness t
g
= 15 mm
Web thickness t
w
= 7,5 mm
Angle between gusset and web o
a
= 90
Number of fillet welds n
a
= 2
Effective throat thickness a = Value to be defined
Length of welds L
w
= 560 mm

Material data
Steel grade: S355
Yield strength: f
y
= 355 N/mm
2

Ultimate tensile strength: f
u
= 510 N/mm
2

EN 1993-1-1
Table 3.1

Note: The specified yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of the filler
metal are required to be at least equivalent to those specified for the parent
material.
EN 1993-1-8
4.2(2)

5 - 84
Partial Factor
Resistance of weld:
M2
= 1,25 (recommended value)

EN 1993-1-8
Table 2.1 NOTE
Internal forces in the truss members (see Figure B.6)
All axial forces are applied in the gusset plate XOZ plane:
Tension axial force at an angle to normal OY of o
1
= 42:
N
1,Ed
= 406,9 kN
Tension axial force on the normal OY so o
2
= 0
N
2,Ed
= 2,6 kN
Compression axial force at an angle to normal OY of o
3
= -41,3
N
3,Ed
= -609,4 kN

2.2. Stresses in the gusset cross-section in front of
welds

The approach is based on a linear-elastic analysis that leads to a safe
estimation of the resistance of the welded joint.
EN 1993-1-8
2.4(2)
2.2.1. Design forces in the gusset plate at the chord web face

The effects of the small eccentricity e
Y
from the chord axis will be neglected.
The gusset plate section is verified for the following forces:
N
g,Ed
Axial force at an eccentricity of e
Z
= 30 mm to the centreline of the
gusset plate
V
g,Ed
shear force

With:
=
=
3
1 i
i i Ed g,
) cos(o N N

=
=
3
1 i
i i Ed g,
) sin(o N V
and
Ed g,
M , the moment resulting from the eccentricity,
Ed g, Z Ed g,
N e M =

Then: N
g,Ed
= -152,83 kN
V
g,Ed
= 674,47 kN
M
g,Ed
= 4,585 kNm

Note: the high axial force component N
g,Ed
is due to the local point load at the
joint and the self weight of the truss.

2.2.2. Normal stress

Assuming a uniform distribution of the load in the section, the normal stress
is:

v I
M
A
N
g
Ed g,
g
Ed g,
max g,
+ = o


5 - 85
Where: A
g
is the cross-section area
I
g
is the second moment of cross-section
v is the position of the end fibre

With: 580 15
w g g
= = L t A = 8700 mm
2

12
3
w g
g
L t
I = = 243,89.10
6
mm
4

v = 290 mm

Then:
max g,
o = -23,02 N/mm
2

2.2.3. Shear stress

The shear mean stress is:

g
Ed g,
g
A
V
= t

Then:
g
t = 77,53 N/mm
2

One usually checks the combination of axial and shear stresses in the gusset
plate section using the Von Mises criterion.

2.3. Design resistance of the fillet weld

The design resistance of a fillet weld should be determined using either the
directional method or the simplified method.
EN 1993-1-8
4.5.3.1(1)
The directional method is based on the comparison between the design tensile
strength and the applied stress in the most severely loaded part of the weld
throat. The applied stress, being determined from a Von Mises formulation,
accounts for the influence on the weld strength of the inclination of the
resultant force per unit length to the weld axis and plane.

The simplified method is based on the design shear strength of the weld to
which is compared directly to an applied weld throat shear stress obtained by
dividing the resultant force per unit of length b the weld throat size. The
simplified method is always safe compared to the directional method.

Here, the directional method is applied. EN 1993-1-8
4.5.3.2
2.3.1. Directional method

Note: a uniform distribution of stress is assumed in the throat section of the
weld.
EN 1993-1-8
4.5.3.2(4)
With: o
the normal stress to the throat plane

t
the shear stress (in the plane of throat) perpendicular to the

axis of the weld
t
//
the shear stress (in the plane of throat) parallel to the axis of
the weld


5 - 86
Note: the normal stress o
//
in the weld needs not to be considered.
EN 1993-1-8
4.5.3.2(5)
On the throat section of the weld, the force per unit length are:
a o
= ) 2 / sin(
a
a
g max g,
o
o
n
e
= -122,08 N/mm.mm
a t
= ) 2 / cos(
a
a
g max g,
o
o
n
e
= -122,08 N/mm.mm
a t
//
=
a
g g
n
e t
= 581,44 N/mm.mm

The design resistance of the fillet weld will be sufficient if the following
conditions are both fulfilled:
o
w
= [o
2
+3 ( t
2
+t
//
2
) ]
0,5
f
u
/ (|
w

M2
)
o
0,9 f
u
/
M2

EN 1993-1-8
4.5.3.2(6)
Where: |
w
is the correlation factor for fillet weld
|
w
= 0,8
EN 1993-1-8
Table 4.1
These conditions can be rewritten in the following forms:
(a o
w
) / a f
u
/ (|
w

M2
)
(a t
) / a 0,9 f
u
/
M2

From these conditions, a minimum value for the effective throat thickness is
derived.

a
1,min
= a o
w
/ [ f
u
/ (|
w

M2
)] = 2,03 mm
a
2,min
= a o
/ (0,9 .f
u
/
M2
) = 0,33 mm
a
min
= max(a
1,min
; a
2,min
) = 2,03 mm

The following requirements must be satisfied:
a > 3 mm
l
eff
> max(30 mm ; 6 a) with l
eff
= L
w
2 a
EN 1993-1-8

4.5.2(2)
4.5.2(1)
An effective throat thickness of 4 mm is then sufficient.

5 - 87
3. Angles to gusset bolted connection

Three shear connections are designed as Category C. These connections are
shown in Figure B.8.

320 260
260
16
41.3 42
15
N1
N2
N3

Figure B.8 Angles to gusset bolted connections

This connection is composed of two back-to-back double-angle diagonal
members (N1 and N3) and a single angle post member (N2).

The internal forces in the truss members are:
N
1,Ed
= 406,9 kN tension axial force
N
2,Ed
= 2,6 kN tension axial force
N
3,Ed
= -609,4 kN compression axial force

3.1. Basic Data

Material data (except bolts)
Steel grade S355
Yield strength f
y
= 355 N/mm
2

u
= 510 N/mm
2

EN 1993-1-1
Table 3.1
Gusset plate
Thickness t
g
= 15 mm
Length L
g
= 580 mm
Width H
g
= 260 mm

Angle members
N1 two equal-leg angles L15015015
N2 one equal-leg angle L10010010
N3 two equal-leg angles L15015015


5 - 88
Bolted connections data
Category of bolted connections Category C
Bolt Class Class 10.9
Yield strength f
yb
= 900 N/mm
2

ub
= 1000 N/mm
2

Nominal bolt diameter d = 24 mm
Hole diameter d
0
= 26 mm

EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.1
Partial Factors (Recommended values)
Structural steel
M0
= 1,00
Structural steel
M1
= 1,00
Structural steel
M2
= 1,25
Bolts
M2
= 1,25
Bolts
M3
= 1,25
EN 1993-1-1
6.1 NOTE 2B

EN 1993-1-8
2.2 NOTE
3.2. Global checking of gross cross-sections of the
gusset plate

The gross cross-sections of the gusset plates to check are located on the
Figure B.9.
Note: The gross cross-sections of the angles are verified afterward.

320 260
260
2
1
N
3,Ed
N
2,Ed
N
1,Ed
o
1
= 42 o
3
= 41.3

Figure B.9 Location of the gross cross-sections of the gusset plate
Checking of gross cross-section 1
With A
g1
cross-sectional area 1 A
g1
= H
g
t
g
= 3900 mm
2


5 - 89
Shear resistance
( )
2 Ed 2, 1 Ed 1, Ed g1,
cos ; cos max o o N N V = = 457,82 kN
( ) 3
M0 y g1 Rd pl, g1,
f A V = = 799,34 kN
Rd pl, g1, Ed g1,
V V < OK

Axial force resistance
=
=
3
1 i
i Ed i, Ed g1,
) sin(o N N = 674,47 kN
M0 y g1 Rd pl, g1,
f A N = = 1384,50 kN
Rd pl, g1, Ed g1,
N N < OK

Checking of gross cross-section 2
With A
g2
cross-sectional area 2 A
g2
= L
g
t
g
= 8700 mm
2

Shear resistance
=
=
3
1 i
i Ed i, Ed g2,
) sin(o N V = 674,47 kN
( ) 3
M0 y g2 Rd pl, g2,
f A V = = 1783,15 kN
Rd pl, g2, Ed g2,
V V < OK

Axial force resistance
=
=
3
1 i
i Ed i, Ed g2,
) cos(o N N = 152,83 kN
M0 y g2 Rd pl, g2,
f A N = = 3088,5 kN
Rd pl, g2, Ed g2,
N N < OK

3.3. Connection N3 Back-to-back double-angle
diagonal member N3 to gusset bolted connection

The shear connection in compression is designed as Category C.
The sizes of the components and the positioning of the holes are shown on the
Figure B.10 and Figure B.11.


5 - 90
172
124
76
90
57
99
141
33
60
57
67,5
65
67
65
65
35
C
C
G

Figure B.10 Connection N3 Sizes (in mm) and positioning

60 33 57
42.5
15
1

1 Angles neutral axis

Figure B.11 Connection N3 Section CC
3.3.1. Connection N3 Design forces
With: N
3,Ed
Axial compression force at an eccentricity of e
N3
to the
centre of gravity of the joint
M
3,N,Ed
Bending moment resulting from the eccentricity, M
3,N,Ed
=
e
N3
N
3,Ed
.

For the gusset:
N
3,g,Ed
= 609,4 kN
e
N3
= 44,5 mm
M
3,g,Ed
= e
N3
N
3,g,Ed
= 27,12 kNm


5 - 91
For each angle:
N
3,a,Ed
= 304,7 kN
M
3,a,Ed
= 13,56 kNm

3.3.2. Connection N3 Checking of angle

Resistance of gross cross-section
Longitudinal stress
Assuming a uniform distribution of the load in the section, the longitudinal
stress is:
v I
M
A
N
a 3,
Ed a, 3,
a 3,
Ed a, 3,
i
+ = o

Where: A
3,a
is the section area of the angle
A
3,a
= 4302 mm
2

I
3,a
is the second moment of area of angle
I
3,a
= 8,981.10
6
mm
4

v position of considered end fibre (see Figure B.12)
v
1
= 87 mm
v
2
= 63 mm

Then the normal stresses are:
o
1
= 202,18 N/mm
2
(compression)
o
2
= -24,29 N/mm
2
(tension)

o
2
o
1
e
N3
N
3,a,Ed
Compression Tension
M
3,a,Ed
= e
N3
N
3,a,Ed

2
1

Figure B.12 Stresses in the angle N3


5 - 92
Class of section
20 , 12 15 10 = < = c t h
( ) 36 , 9 5 , 11 10 2 = > = + c t h b
class 4
14 , 8 1 / 10 / 10 93 , 7 = = < = c o c t c
class 2
Class of angle = class 4

EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2
Sheet 3 of 3

Table 5.2
Sheet 2 of 3

Combination M + N
Criterion to satisfy:
M0
y
eff a, 3,
Ed a, 3,
eff a, 3,
Ed a, 3,
Ed x,
o
f
W
M
A
N
s + =
with: A
3,a,eff
effective area of cross-section

leg2 eff, a, 3, leg1 eff, a, 3, eff a, 3,
A A A + =
where A
3,a,eff,leg1
effective area relative to the free leg
A
3,a,eff,leg2
effective area relative to the connected leg

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.9.3
determination of the effective area of cross-section A
3,a,eff,leg1

1 1
o o = = 1,0
buckling factor k
o
= 0,43

p
= 0,660 = 1 no reduction

EN 1993-1-5
Table 4.2

EN 1993-1-5
4.4 (2)
3,a,eff,leg2

1 2
o o = = -0,120
buckling factor k
o
= 2,55

p

EN 1993-1-5
Table 4.2

EN 1993-1-5
4.4 (2)
Verification

a 3, eff a, 3,
A A = (no reduction)
355 18 , 202 ) ; max(
M0
y
2 1 Ed x,
= s = =
o o o
f
N/mm
2

criterion satisfied

Resistance of net cross-section
From 6.2.5 (5) of EN 1993-1-1, the fastener holes in tension zone need not be
allowed for, provided that the following limit is satisfied for the complete
tension zone:
M0
y t
M2
u net t,
9 , 0

f A f A
>
EN 1993-1-1
6.2.5 (5)

5 - 93
Here, the holes are in the tension zone (see Figure B.12).
Accounting for
a 3, eff a, 3,
A A = , the following criterion should be fulfilled:
M0
y a 3,
Rd c, a, 3, Ed a, 3,
f A
N N = s

With
2
a 3,
mm 4302 = A :
kN 2 , 1527 7 , 304
Rd c, a, 3, Ed a, 3,
= < = N N

Buckling resistance
A compression member should be verified against buckling.
This condition has been verified in the section dealt with the verification of
the members (see 4 of this document).

3.3.3. Connection N3 Checking of gusset plate

For the determination of the gross cross-section of gusset plate, a diffusion of
45 of the axial force N
g,Ed
is assumed (see Figure B.13).

286,5
45
45
112

Figure B.13 Connection N3 Diffusion by 45of the axial force

The following criteria must be satisfied:
M0
y
g 3,
Ed g, 3,
g 3,
Ed g, 3,
Ed x,
/
o
f
v I
M
A
N
s =

with:
2
g g 3,
mm 5 , 4297 5 , 286 = = t A

4 3
g 3,
mm 29395706 12 / 5 , 286 = =
g
t I
mm 2 / 325 + = v

Then:
2
M0
y
Ed x,
N/mm 355 72 , 291 92 , 149 80 , 141 = s = + =
o
f


5 - 94
Buckling resistance
The gusset is made similar to an embedded column of characteristics:
Area
2
, 3
mm 5 , 4297 =
g
A
Height h
c
= 112 mm (see Figure B.13)
Second moment of area I
c,zz
= 80578 mm
2

We should satisfy:
M1
y g 3,
Rd b, g, 3, Ed g, 3,
_ f A
N N = s
Where _ is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling curve
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.1
With a buckling length of 2h
c
, the slenderness is given by:
c
2
y c
2
c
4
EI
f A h
t
= = 0,677

The buckling curve to use is curve c and the imperfection is:
o = 0,49
( ) | |
2
) 2 , 0 1 5 , 0 o + + = u = 0,846
2 2
1
u u
_
+
= = 0,739
Table 6.1

EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2

Then: kN 1127 4 609
Rd b, g, 3, Ed g, 3,
= < = N N ,

3.3.4. Connection N3 Checking of bolts with regard to the
gusset component

Design shear force F
V,Ed
for each bolt
Due to the orientation of the axial force N
3,Ed
, the load on each bolt is not
parallel to the edge of gusset. Also, the components of the design shear load
will be performed in a suitable basis.
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.4
3)

In first the components are calculated in the basis { } v h ' ', located at the
centre of gravity of the joint and oriented in agreement with the principal
directions of the fasteners which are also the principal directions of the angles
(See Figure B.14).
Then a change of basis is performed from the initial { } v h ' ', to the basis
{ } v h, (see Figure B.15).

In the basis { } v h ' ', the normal force N
3,g,Ed
causes a horizontal shear load for
each bolt b
i
:
5
Ed g, 3,
h bi, N,
N
F =
'
= 101,57 kN


5 - 95
The moment due to eccentricity is divided out according to the distance
i
r '
between the centre of bolts b
i
and the centre of gravity of the joint:
'
'
=
5
1
2
i
i Ed a, 1,
bi M,
r
r M
F

F
M,b6,h
F
M,b6,v
F
M,b6
F
N,b6
N
3,g,Ed
M
3,g,Ed
G

h

v

b
4
b
5
b
6
b
2
b
3
b
1

Figure B.14 Connection N3 Gusset component Locations

F
V,b1,Ed
G

h

v

F
V,b1,h,Ed
F
V,b1,v,Ed
b
3
b
2
b
1 b
4
b
5
b
6

Figure B.15 Connection N3 Gusset component Loadings


5 - 96
This shear load F
M,bi
is resolved in the basis { } v h ' ', :
'
'
=
'
5
1
2
i
i Ed a, 1,
h bi, M,
r
v M
F horizontal component
'
'
=
5
1
2
i
i Ed a, 1,
v' bi, M,
r
h M
F vertical component
With
i
h' and
i
v' coordinates of centre of bolt b
i
.

And we obtain (see Table B.2):
h bi, M, h bi, N, Ed , h bi, V, ' ' '
+ = F F F Horizontal shear force,
v bi, M, Ed , v bi, V, ' '
= F F Transverse shear force,
2
Ed , v bi, V,
2
Ed , h bi, V,
Ed bi, V,
' '
+ = F F F Resulting shear force

Table B.2 Connection N3 Gusset component Design shear forces in kN
in the basis { } v h ' ', .
Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
b
5
b
6

i
h'
81,25 16,25 -48,75 48,75 -16,25 -81,25
i
v'
-30 -30 -30 30 30 30
i
r '
86,61 34,12 57,24 57,24 34,12 86,61
bi M,
F
-98,34 -38,74 -64,99 -64,99 -38,74 -98,34
h bi, M, '
F
34,06 34,06 34,06 -34,06 -34,06 -34,06
v bi, M, '
F
92,25 18,45 -55,35 55,35 -18,45 -92,25
bi N,
F
101,57 101,57 101,57 101,57 101,57 101,57
Ed bi, V,
F
164,03 136,88 146,49 87,30 69,98 114,31
Ed , h bi, V, '
F
135,63 135,63 135,63 67,50 67,50 67,50
Ed , v bi, V, '
F
92,25 18,45 -55,35 55,35 -18,45 -92,25

The change of basis is performed with:
) cos( ) sin(
3 Ed , v bi, V, 3 Ed , h bi, V, Ed h, bi, V,
o o
' '
+ = F F F
) sin( ) cos(
3 Ed , v bi, V, 3 Ed , h bi, V, Ed v, bi, V,
o o
' '
+ = F F F
Where o
3
= 41,3 (See Figure B.6)
Table B.3gives the results.


5 - 97
Table B.3 Connection N3 Gusset component Design shear loads in kN in
the { } v h, reference system
Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
b
5
b
6

Ed bi, V,
F 164,03 136,88 146,49 87,30 69,98 114,31
Ed h, bi, V,
F -20,21 -75,65 -131,10 -2,97 -58,41 -113,86
Ed v, bi, V,
F 162,78 114,07 65,36 87,25 38,54 -10,17

Design details
The structure is not exposed to the weather or other corrosive influences.
We have to verify the design details in the two directions of the components
of loading. By considering the limits specified in Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8,
we have to satisfy the following checks:

EN 1993-1-8
3.5 (1) and
Table 3.3
{ }
0 2 1
2 , 1 ; min d e e >
{ }
0 2 1
2 , 2 ; min d p p > or { }
0 2 1
2 , 1 ; min d p p > if
0
4 , 2 d L >
{ } { } mm 200 ; 14 min ; max
2 1
t p p s

EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.3
5)
For e
1
and e
2
observe the minimum end and edge distances according to the
directions Gh and Gv. And For p
1
and p
2
consider the spacing according to the
directions Gh and Gv.
The design details are verified in the table below.

Table B.4 Connection N3 Gusset component Design details
Distance or spacing Minimum value Design value Maximum value
{ }
2 1
e e ; min
31,2 57
{ }
2 1
p p ; min
31,2 60
{ }
2 1
p p ; max
65 200

Design bearing resistance F
b,Rd

for each bolt
Table 3.4 of EN 1993-1-8 gives the expressions for the determination of the
design bearing resistance. These expressions bring into play two coefficients
b
o and
1
k .
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.4
For each bolt the value of these coefficients depend on the orientation of its
loading, its location compared with the ends of the gusset but also with the
location of the other bolts.

So we are considering successively the horizontal loading (loads in the
direction Gh) and the vertical loading (loads in the direction Gv).


5 - 98
Horizontal loading
The horizontal loading coming from the results of Table 3 is shown on the
Figure B.16.
On this figure we indicate for each bolt how we are processing for the
determination of its coefficients
b
o and
1
k . So, we can specify for each bolt:
the end and edge distances (e
1
and e
2
) and the spacing (p
1
, p
2
and L) to
consider
the type; end or inner, or end and inner

b
3
b
2
b
1
b
4
b
5
b
6
o
b
o
b
o
b
k
1
k
1
k
1 k
1

Figure B.16 Connection N3 Gusset component Horizontal loading

The general expression for the design bearing resistance is:
M2
u b 1
Rd b,
o t d f k
F =

EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.4
According to Table 3.4 of the Eurocode 1993-1-8, the coefficients o
b
and k
1

are determined from:

For end bolts
)
`
= 0 , 1 ; ;
3
min
u
ub
0
1
end b,
f
f
d
e
o

)
`
= 5 , 2 ; 7 , 1 8 , 2 ; 7 , 1 4 , 1 min
0
2
0
2
end 1,
d
e
d
p
k

For inner bolts
)
`
= 0 , 1 ; ;
4
1
3
min
u
ub
0
1
b,inner
f
f
d
p
o

)
`
= 5 , 2 ; 7 , 1 4 , 1 min
0
2
1,inner
d
p
k

Table B.6 gives the value of the horizontal component of the design bearing
resistances F
b,bi,h,Rd
.


5 - 99
Table B.5 Connection N3 Gusset component Horizontal component of
the design bearing resistances in kN
Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
b
5
b
6

e
1

e
2
172 124 76 90
p
1

1)
68,24 68,24 68,24 68,24 68,24 68,24
p
2
65 65
2)
65
2)
65
2)
65
2)
65

b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b
o
0,62 0,62 0,62 0,62 0,62 0,62
min 1,
k
3)

min 1,
k
3)

min 1,
k
3)

1,inner
k
1,inner
k
min 1,
k
3)

1
k
1,80 1,80 1,80 1,80 1,80 1,80
Rd h bi b
F
, , ,

165,19 165,19 165,19 165,19 165,19 165,19
1)
the distance L have been retained
2)
{ } L ; 65 min
3)
{ }
end 1,
;
inner 1,
min
min , 1
k k k =

Vertical loading
The vertical loading coming from the results of Table 3 is shown on the
Figure B.17

b
3
b
2
b
1
b
4
b
5
b
6
k
1
o
b
o
b
o
b
o
b
k
1
k
1

Figure B.17 Connection N3 Gusset component Vertical loading

Table B.6 gives the value of the vertical component of the design bearing
resistances F
b,bi,v,Rd
.


5 - 100
Table B.6 Connection N3 Gusset component Vertical component of the
design bearing resistances in kN
Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
b
5
b
6

e
1
90
e
2
141 99 57
p
1
65 65
1)
65
1)
65
1)
65
1)
p
2

2)
68,24

68,24

68,24

68,24

68,24

68,24

b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
end b,
o
b
o
0,58 0,58 0,58 0,58 0,58 1,00
1,inner
k
1,inner
k
1,inner
k
min 1,
k
3)
min 1,
k
3)
min 1,
k
3)

1
k
1,97 1,97 1,97 1,97 1,97 1,97
Rd v bi b
F
, , ,
169,16 169,16 169,16 169,16 169,16 289,98
1)
{ } L ; 65 min
2)
3)
{ }
end 1,
;
inner 1,
min
min , 1
k k k =

Design slip resistance F
s,Rd

With: A
s
= 353 mm
2

s ub C p,
7 , 0 A f F = = 247,1 kN pretension force
n = 2 number of the friction surfaces relatively to the gusset
EN 1993-1-8
3.9

EN 1993-1-8
3.9.1 (2)
And by considering:
Bolts in normal holes k
s
= 1,0
Class of friction surfaces = Class A = 0,5

EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.6
Table 3.7
Then:
C p,
M3
s
Rd S,
F
n k
F

= = 197,68 kN
EN 1993-1-8
3.9.1 (1)
Checking bolts Individual checking
The criteria to satisfy are:
In relation to the design slip resistance
Rd S, Ed bi, V,
F F s
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.2
In relation to the design bearing resistance
Rd h, bi, b, Ed h, bi, V,
F F s
Rd v, bi, b, Ed v, bi, V,
F F s

EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.2 and
Table 3.4
3)

Note: an additional check based on an interactive expression is proposed:
1
2
Rd v, bi, b,
Ed v, bi, V,
2
Rd h, bi, b,
Ed h, bi, V,
s
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
F
F
F
F


5 - 101
Each bolt has to be verified. The highest values of resistance do not necessary
correspond with the bolt the most loaded.
Table B.7 summarizes only the checks for the bolt b
1
.

Table B.7 Connection N3 Gusset component Checking bolt b
1

Design values Resistance values
Ed b1, V,
F 164,03 197,68
Rd S,
F
Ed h, b1, V,
F 20,21 165,19
Rd h, b1, b,
F
Ed v, b1, V,
F 162,78 169,16
Rd v, b1, b,
F
2
Rd v, b1, b,
Ed v, b1, V,
2
Rd h, b1, b,
Ed h, b1, V,
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
F
F
F
F

0,94 1

Checking bolts Group of fasteners
From the Eurocode, the design resistance of a group of fasteners may be taken
as:
=
bi
n
F F
1
Rd bi, b, Rd b, gr,
if for each bolt b
i
we have
Rd bi, b, Rd v,
F F >
else { }
Rd bi, b, bi Rd b, r,
min F n F
g
=
EN 1993-1-8
3.7
Where
Rd v
F
,
, the shear resistance per shear plane, is taken as:
M2
ub v
Rd v,
o A f
F =

By considering that the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the
bolt in normal holes:
o
v
= 0,5
A = A
s
= 353 mm
2
(tensile stress area)

Then:
Rd v,
F = 141,12 kN

Finally for the design resistance we obtain:
Rd h, b, r, g
F = 991,17 kN for the horizontal components
Rd v, b, r, g
F = 1014,94 kN for the vertical components

And we verify that:
21 , 402 ) sin(
3 , , 3
= o
Ed g
N < kN 17 , 991
Rd h, b, r,
=
g
F
82 , 457 ) cos(
3 , , 3
= o
Ed g
N < kN 94 , 1014
Rd h, b, r,
=
g
F


5 - 102
3.3.5. Connection N3 Checking bolts with regard to the angle
component

Determination of the design ultimate shear load F
V,Ed
for each bolts
Table B.8 gives the results of the design ultimate shear load F
V,bi,Ed
and its
components F
V,bi,h,Ed
and F
V,bi,v,Ed
(See Figure B.18).
These results are deduced from the results obtained for the gusset in the basis
{ } v h ' ', .

F
V,b6,Ed
N
3,a,Ed
M
3,a,Ed
G

h

v

b
4
b
5
b
6
b
2
b
3
b
1
F
V,b6,v,Ed
F
V,b6,h,Ed

Figure B.18 Connection N3 Angle component Loading

Table B.8 Connection N3 Angle component Design shear loads in kN
Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
b
5
b
6

Ed bi, V,
F 82,01 68,44 73,24 43,65 34,99 57,16
Ed h, bi, V,
F -67,81 -67,81 -67,81 -33,75 -33,75 -33,75
Ed v, bi, V,
F -46,13 -9,23 27,68 -27,68 9,23 46,13

Design details
Table B.9 Connection N3 Angle component Design details
{ }
2 1
; min e e 31,2 33
{ }
2 1
; min p p 31,2 60
{ }
2 1
; max p p 65 200

Determination of the design bearing resistance F
b,Rd

for each bolts
Horizontal loading
The horizontal loading coming from the results of Table B.8 is shown on the
Figure B.19


5 - 103
b
4
b
5
b
6
b
2
b
3
b
1
k
1
k
1
k
1
o
b
o
b

Figure B.19 Connection N3 Angle component Horizontal loadings

resistances F
b,bi,h,Rd
.

Table B.10 Connection N3 Angle component Horizontal component of the
Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
b
5
b
6

e
1

e
2
33 33 33
p
1
65 65 65 65 65 65
p
2

1)
68,24 68,24 68,24 68,24 68,24 68,24
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b
o
0,58 0,58 0,58 0,58 0,58 0,58
1,inner
k
1,inner
k
1,inner
k
min 1,
k
2)

min 1,
k
2)

min 1,
k
2)

1
k
1,97 1,97 1,97 1,85 1,85 1,85
Rd h bi b
F
, , ,

169,16 169,16 169,16 158,84 158,84 158,84
1)
2)
{ }
end 1,
;
inner 1,
min
min , 1
k k k =

Vertical loading
The vertical loading coming from the results of Table B.8 is shown on the
Figure B.20


5 - 104
b
4
b
5
b
6
b
2
b
3
b
1
o
b
o
b
o
b
k
1
k
1

Figure B.20 Connection N3 Angle component Vertical loading

resistances F
b,bi,v,Rd
.

Table B.11 Connection N3 Angle component Vertical component of the
Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
b
5
b
6

e
1
33 33
e
2
35 67,5
p
1
1)
68,24

68,24

68,24

68,24

68,24

68,24

p
2

65 65 65 65 65 65
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
end b,
o
end b,
o
b
o
0,62 0,62 0,62 0,62 0,42 0,42
min 1,
k
2)
1,inner
k
1,inner
k
min 1,
k
2)
1,inner
k
1,inner
k
1
k
1,80 1,80 1,80 1,80 1,80 1,80
Rd v bi b
F
, , ,

165,19 165,19 165,19 165,19 111,85 111,85
1)
2)
{ }
end 1, inner 1, min , 1
; min k k k =

Determination of the design slip resistance F
s,Rd

For the angle component, the number of the friction surfaces is equal to 1.
So with n = 1 we obtain:
C p,
M3
s
Rd S,
F
n k
F

= = 98,84 kN
EN 1993-1-8
3.9

EN 1993-1-8
3.9.1 (2)
Each bolt has to be verified.
Table B.12 summarizes only the checks for the bolt b
1
.


5 - 105
1

Ed b1, V,
F 82,01 98,84
Rd S,
F
Ed h, b1, V,
F 67,81 169,16
Rd h, b1, b,
F
Ed v, b1, V,
F 46,13 165,19
Rd v, b1, b,
F
2
Rd v, b1, b,
Ed v, b1, V,
2
Rd h, b1, b,
Ed h, b1, V,
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
F
F
F
F

0,24 1

Checking bolts - Group of fasteners
For the angle we can consider only the horizontal component. In this case:
Rd h, b, r, g
F = 991,17 kN

And we verify that:
70 , 304
, , 3
=
Ed a
N < kN 03 , 953
Rd h, b, r,
=
g
F

3.3.6. Connection N3 Design of net cross-section

section at bolt holes should be verified only for a connection in tension.
EN 1993-1-8
3.4.1 (1) c)
3.3.7. Connection N3 Design of block tearing

Given that this connection is in compression it is not necessary to execute the
design for block tearing.

3.4. Connection N1 Back-to-back double-angle
diagonal member N1 to gusset bolted connection

We have a shear connection in tension to be designed as Category C.
The sizes of the components of this connection and the positioning of the
holes are shown on the Figure B.21. The section DD is identical to the section
CC of the connection N3 (See Figure B.11).


5 - 106
35
65
65
33
60
57
54
D
D
G
76 124
80
67,5

Figure B.21 Connection N1 Sizes (in mm) and positioning

3.4.1. Connection N1 Design forces
With: N
1,Ed
the normal tension force at an eccentricity of e
N1
, to the
centre of gravity of the joint
M
1,N,Ed
the moment resulting from the eccentricity, M
1,N,Ed
= e
N1
N
1,Ed
.

We have for the gusset:
N
1,g,Ed
= 406,9 kN
e
N1
= 44,5 mm
M
1,g,Ed
= e
N1
N
1,g,Ed
= 18,11 kNm

And for each angle:
N
1,a,Ed
= 203,45 kN
M
1,a,Ed
= 9,05 kNm

3.4.2. Connection N1 Checking of angle

Resistance of gross cross-section
Longitudinal stress
Assuming an uniform distribution of the load on the section, the longitudinal
stress is:
v I
M
A
N
a 1,
Ed a, 1,
a 1,
Ed a, 1,
i
+ = o


5 - 107
Where: A
1,a
cross-sectional area of angle
I
1,a
second moment of cross-section of angle
v position of considered end fibre

With: A
1,a
= 4302 mm
2

I
1,a
= 8,981.10
6
mm
4

v
1
= 87 mm and v
2
= 63 mm (see Figure B.22)

We obtain (with compression positive):
o
1
= -134,99 N/mm
2

o
2
= 16,22 N/mm
2

Class of section
20 , 12 15 10 = < = c t h
( ) 36 , 9 5 , 11 10 2 = > = + c t h b
class 4
14 , 8 1 / 10 / 10 93 , 7 = = < = c o c t c
class 2
Class of angle = class 4

EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2
Sheet 3 of 3

Table 5.2
Sheet 2 of 3

o
1
o
2
e
N1
N
1,a,Ed
Compression
Traction
M
1,a,Ed
= e
N1
N
1,a,Ed

G

Figure B.22 Stresses in the angle N1


5 - 108
Combination M + N
Criterion to satisfy:
M0
y
eff a, 1,
Ed a, 1,
eff a, 1,
Ed a, 1,
Ed x,
o
f
W
M
A
N
s + =
with: A
1,a,eff
effective area of cross-section

leg2 eff, a, 1, leg1 eff, a, 1, eff a, 1,
A A A + =
where A
1,a,eff,leg1
effective area relative to the free leg
A
1,a,eff,leg2
effective area relative to the connected leg

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.9.3
3,a,eff,leg1

No reduction because free leg in traction

3,a,eff,leg2

1 2
o o = = -0,120
buckling factor k
o
= 2,55

p

EN 1993-1-5
Table 4.2

EN 1993-1-5
4.4 (2)
Verification

a 1, eff a, 1,
A A = (no reduction)
355 99 , 134 ) ; max(
M0
y
2 1 Ed x,
= s = =
o o o
f

criterion satisfied

Resistance of net cross-section
We should satisfy:
M0
y net a, 1,
Rd net, a, 1, Ed a, 1,
f A
N N = s

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.3. (1) and (4)
The net cross-sections considered are shown on the Figure B.23
1
1
2
2
2

Figure B.23 Net cross-sections of angle N1


5 - 109
With:
2
2 , , 1 1 , , 1 net a, 1,
mm 3588 ) 3588 ; 3912 min( ) ; min( = = =
net a net a
A A A
we satisfy:
kN 52 , 1317 45 , 203
Rd net, a, 1, Ed a, 1,
= < = N N

3.4.3. Checking of gusset

For the determination of the gross cross-section of gusset, we use an approach
based on a diffusion of 45 of the internal force N
g,Ed
(see Figure B.24).

45
45
195

Figure B.24 Connection N1 Diffusion by 45of the internal force

The following criteria must be satisfied:
M0
y
g 1,
Ed g, 1,
g 1,
Ed g, 1,
Ed x,
/
o
f
v I
M
A
N
s =

with:
2
g g 1,
mm 2925 195 = = t A

4 3
g 3,
mm 9268594 12 / 195 = =
g
t I
mm 2 / 195 + = v

We obtain:
2
M0
y
Ed x,
N/mm 355 62 , 329 51 , 190 11 , 139 = s = + =
o
f

3.4.4. Connection N1 Checking of bolts with regard to the
gusset component

V,Ed
for each bolts
Due to the orientation of the normal force N
1,Ed
, the load on each bolt is not
parallel to the edge of gusset. By consequent the components of the design
shear load parallel and normal to the end will be performed.
EN 1993-1-8
Table 3.4
3)


5 - 110
The calculation of the components is performed in the same way as for
connection N3 (see 3.3.4). We calculate the components in the basis { } v h ' ',
(see Figure B.25).) then in the basis { } v h, (see Figure B.26).

N
1,g,Ed
M
1,g,Ed
b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
F
N,b2
F
M,b2
F
M,b2,h
G

F
M,b2,v
h

v

Figure B.25 Connection N1 Gusset component Locations

Table B.13 gives the calculations and the results of the design ultimate shear
load F
V,bi,Ed
and its two components F
V,bi,h,Ed
and F
V,bi,v,Ed
for each bolt b
i
in
the { } v h ' ', reference system.

the { } v h ' ', reference system.

Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4

i
h' -16,25 48,75 -48,75 16,25
i
v' -30 -30 30 30
i
r ' 34,12 57,24 57,24 34,12
bi M,
F 69,56 116,70 116,70 69,56
h bi, M, '
F 61,16 61,16 -61,16 -61,16
v bi, M, '
F -33,13 99,39 -99,39 33,13
bi N,
F 101,73 101,73 101,73 101,73
Ed bi, V,
F 166,22 190,82 107,35 52,37
Ed , h bi, V, '
F 162,89 162,89 40,56 40,56
Ed , v bi, V, '
F -33,13 99,39 -99,39 33,13


5 - 111
b1
b2
b3
b4
h
v
G
FV,b3,Ed
FV,b2,Ed
FV,b1,Ed
FV,b4,Ed

Figure B.26 Connection N1 Gusset component Loadings

The change of basis is performed with:
) sin( ) cos(
3 Ed , v bi, V, 3 Ed , h bi, V, Ed h, bi, V,
o o
' '
+ = F F F
) cos( ) sin(
1 Ed , v bi, V, 1 Ed , h bi, V, Ed v, bi, V,
o o
' '
+ = F F F
Where o
1
= 42 (See Figure B.6)
Table B.14 gives the results.

the { } v h, reference system.

Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4

Ed bi, V,
F 166,22 190,82 107,35 52,37
Ed h, bi, V,
F 84,37 182,86 -46,72 51,76
Ed v, bi, V,
F -143,22 -54,54 -96,65 -7,97

Design details
For e
1
and e
2
we observe the minimums end and edge distances according to
the appropriate direction (Gh or Gv). For p
1
and p
2
we consider the spacing
according to the principal direction of the joint (Gh or Gv).

Table B.15 Connection N1 Gusset component Design details
{ }
2 1
; min e e
31,2 54
{ }
2 1
; min p p
31,2 60
{ }
2 1
; max p p
65 200


5 - 112
b,Rd

for each bolts
Horizontal loading
Figure B.27

b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
o
b
o
b
o
b
k
1
k
1

Figure B.27 Connection N1 Gusset component Horizontal loading

resistances F
b,bi,h,Rd
.

Table B.16 Connection N1 Gusset component Horizontal component of
the design bearing resistances in kN

Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4

e
1
80 54
e
2
124 76
p
1
65
1)
65
p
2
65
1)
65
1)
65
1)
65
1)
b,inner
o
end b,
o
b,inner
o
end b,
o
b
o
0,58 1,00 0,58 0,69
min 1,
k
3)

min 1,
k
3)

1,inner
k
1,inner
k
1
k
1,80 1,80 1,80 1,80
Rd h, bi, b,
F 154,22 264,38 154,22 183,04
1)
{ } L ; 65 min
2)
{ }
end 1,
;
inner 1,
min
min , 1
k k k =


5 - 113
Vertical loading
The vertical loading coming from the results of Table B.14 is shown on the
Figure B.28.

b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
o
b
o
b
k
1
k
1
k
1

Figure B.28 Connection N1 Gusset component Vertical loading

resistances F
b,bi,v,Rd
.

Table B.17 Connection N1 Gusset component Vertical component of the
Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4

e
1
124 76
e
2
80 98 54
p
1

65
1)
65
1)
p
2

65
1)
65

65

65
1)
end b,
o
end b,
o
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
b
o
1,00 0,97 0,58 0,58
1,inner
k
min 1,
k
2)
min 1,
k
2)
min 1,
k
2)
1
k
1,80 1,80 1,80 1,80
Rd v bi b
F
, , ,
264,38 257,60 154,22 154,22
1)
{ } L ; 65 min
2)
{ }
end 1, 1,inner min , 1
; min k k k =


5 - 114
s,Rd

With n = 2, the number of the friction surfaces relatively to the gusset, we
obtain:
C p,
M3
s
Rd S,
F
n k
F

= = 197,68 kN
EN 1993-1-8
3.9

EN 1993-1-8
3.9.1 (1)
Each bolt has to be verified.
Table B.18 and Table B.19 summarize only the checks for the bolt b1 and b
2
.

1

Ed b1, V,
F 166,22 197,68
Rd S,
F
Ed h, b1, V,
F 84,37 154,22
Rd h, b1, b,
F
Ed v, b1, V,
F 143,22 264,38
Rd v, b1, b,
F
2
Rd v, b1, b,
Ed v, b1, V,
2
Rd h, b1, b,
Ed h, b1, V,
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
F
F
F
F

0,59 1

2
Ed b1, V,
F 190,82 197,68
Rd S,
F
Ed h, b1, V,
F 182,86 264,38
Rd h, b1, b,
F
Ed v, b1, V,
F 54,54 257,60
Rd v, b1, b,
F
2
Rd v, b1, b,
Ed v, b1, V,
2
Rd h, b1, b,
Ed h, b1, V,
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
F
F
F
F

0,52 1

By considering that the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the
bolt in normal holes:
o
v
= 0,5
A = A
s
= 353 mm
2
(tensile stress area)

We obtain:
Rd v,
F = 141,12 kN


5 - 115
And for the design resistance:
Rd h, b, r, g
F = 616,90 kN for the horizontal components
Rd v, b, r, g
F = 616,90 kN for the vertical components

And we verify that:
27 , 272 ) sin(
1 , , 1
= o
Ed g
N < kN 90 , 616
Rd h, b, r,
=
g
F
39 , 302 ) cos(
1 , , 1
= o
Ed g
N < kN 90 , 616
Rd h, b, r,
=
g
F

3.4.5. Connection N1 Checking bolts with regard to the angle
component

V,Ed
for each bolts
Table B.20 gives the results of the design ultimate shear load F
V,bi,Ed
and its
components F
V,bi,h,Ed
and F
V,bi,v,Ed
(See Figure B.29).
These results are deduced from the results obtained for the gusset in the basis
{ } v h ' ', .

N
1,a,Ed
M
1,a,Ed
b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
h
v

G

F
V,b1,Ed
F
V,b2,Ed
F
V,b3,Ed
F
V,b4,Ed

Figure B.29 Connection N1 Angle component Loading

Table B.20 Connection N1 Angle component Design shear loads in kN
Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4

Ed bi, V,
F 83,11 95,41 53,67 26,19
Ed h, bi, V,
F 81,44 81,44 20,28 20,28
Ed v, bi, V,
F 16,57 -49,70 49,70 -16,57

Design details

5 - 116
Table B.21 Connection N1 Angle component Horizontal loading Design
details
{ }
2 1
; min e e
31,2 33
{ }
2 1
; min p p
57,2 60 200
{ }
2 1
; max p p
65 200

b,Rd

for each bolts
Horizontal loading
Figure B.30

b1
b2
b3
b4
ob
ob
k1
k1

Figure B.30 Connection N1 Angle component Horizontal loadings

resistances F
b,bi,h,Rd
.


5 - 117
Table B.22 Connection N1 Angle component Horizontal component of the
Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4

e
1
67,5 35
e
2
33 33
p
1
65 65
p
2

1)
68,24 68,24 68,24 68,24
end b,
o
b,inner
o
end b,
o
b,inner
o
b
o
0,87 0,58 0,45 0,58
1,inner
k
1,inner
k
min 1,
k
2)

min 1,
k
2)

1
k
1,97 1,97 1,85 1,85
Rd h, bi, b,
F 250,95 169,16 122,18 158,84
1)
2)
{ }
end 1, inner 1, min , 1
; min k k k =

Vertical loading
The vertical loading coming from the results of Table 20 is shown on the
Figure B.31

b
1
b
2
b3
b
4
o
o
k1
k
1

Figure B.31 Connection N1 Angle component Vertical loading

resistances F
b,bi,v,Rd
.


5 - 118
Table B.23 Connection N1 Angle component Vertical component of the

Bolt b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4

e
1
33
e
2
67,5 35
p
1
1)
68,24

68,24

68,24

p
2

65 65 65 65
b,inner
o
b,inner
o
end b,
o
b,inner
o
b
o
0,62 0,62 0,42 0,62
min 1,
k
2)
1,inner
k
min 1,
k
2)
1,inner
k
1
k
1,80 1,80 1,80 1,80
Rd h, bi, b,
F 165,19 165,19 111,85 165,19
1)
2)
{ }
end 1,
;
inner 1,
min
min , 1
k k k =

s,Rd

For the angle component, the number of the friction surfaces is equal to 1.
So with n = 1 we obtain:

C p,
M3
s
Rd S,
F
n k
F

= = 98,84 kN
EN 1993-1-8
3.9

EN 1993-1-8
3.9.1 (2)
Each bolt has to be verified. Table B.24 summarizes only the checks for the
bolt b
2
.

Table B.24 Connection N1 Angle component Checking bolt b
2

Ed b1, V,
F 95,41 98,84
Rd S,
F
Ed h, b1, V,
F 81,44 169,16
Rd h, b1, b,
F
Ed v, b1, V,
F 49,70 165,19
Rd v, b1, b,
F
2
Rd v, b1, b,
Ed v, b1, V,
2
Rd h, b1, b,
Ed h, b1, V,
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
F
F
F
F

0,32 1

For the angle we can consider only the horizontal component:
Rd h, b, r, g
F = 488,73 kN

And we verify that:
45 , 203
, , 1
=
Ed a
N < kN 73 , 488
Rd h, b, r,
=
g
F


5 - 119
3.4.6. Connection N1 Design of net cross-section

Gusset component
For a connection in tension, the design of the net cross-sections have to be
verified.
Verify on the net cross-section marked 1 on the Figure B.32. For this section,
we have to satisfy:
M0
y net1
b
Ed g, 1,
b
f A
n
N
n
t
s
EN 1993-1-8
3.4.1 (1) c) and
Table 3.2
Where 2
b
= n number of bolts relative to the cross-section
4
bt
= n total number of the connection

With =
1 net
A 2194 mm
2

We satisfy: kN 778 4 , 203
M0
y net1
b
Ed g, 1,
b
= < =
f A
n
N
n
t

Angle component
We have been already verified the net cross-section (see 3.4.2).
Moreover these checking have been realised with N
Ed
in loco n
b
F
V,Ed
.

3.4.7. Connection N1 Design for block tearing
Gusset component
EN 1993-1-8
3.10.2
The Figure B.32 shows the block tearing for the gusset.
N
1,g,Ed
1
1
1
Ant
A
nv
A
nv
A
nv
A
nv

Figure B.32 Connection N1 Block tearing for gusset

Our bolt group is subjected to eccentric loading and we have to satisfy:
Rd eff,2, Ed g, 1,
V N s
EN 1993-1-8
3.10.2 (3)

5 - 120
Where
M0
nv
M2
nt u
Rd eff,2,
3
1 5 , 0

A f
A f
V
y
+ =

With A
nt
= 633,6 mm
2

A
nv
= 3533,1 mm
2

We satisfy:
kN 4 , 853 9 , 406
Rd eff,2, Ed g, 1,
= s = V N

Angle component
The Figure B.33 shows the block tearing for the gusset.
N
1,a,Ed
A
nv
A
nv
Ant
Ant

Figure B.33 Connection N1 Block tearing for angle

Our bolt group is subjected to eccentric loading and we have to satisfy:
Rd eff,2, Ed a, 1,
V N s
EN 1993-1-8
3.10.2 (3)
With A
nt
= 933,6 mm
2

A
nv
= 1402,5 mm
2

We satisfy:
kN 91 , 407 45 , 203
Rd eff,2, Ed g, 1,
= s = V N

3.5. Connection N2 Single angle post member N2 to
gusset bolted connection

We have a shear connection in tension to be designed as Category C.
Given that the loading is low, the checking of this connection is not carry out.
Otherwise the procedure stays the same with in addition the following point.


5 - 121
We are dealing with a single angle in tension by a single row of bolts in one
leg. During the checking of the net cross-section of this angle, the design
ultimate resistance should be determined as follows:

M2
u net 2
Rd u,
| f A
N =
With 4 , 0
2
= | (
0 1
5 , 2 65 d p = = )
EN 1993-1-8
3.10.3 (2)
and
Table 3.8
3.6. Influences of the eccentricity and other
parameters

We consider only the bolts with regard to the gusset component.
3.6.1. Connection N3 Moment due to eccentricity

The effects of the eccentricity depend of the locations of the bolts
comparatively with the neutral axis but also to each other.

Lets the moment due to the eccentricity equal to 0. In this case and whatever
the bolt we obtain in the basis { } v h, :
kN 57 , 101
Ed b, V,
= F (value without moment due to eccentricity)
kN 03 , 67
Ed h, b, V,
kN 30 , 76
Ed v, b, V,

Values to compare at the results obtained for the bolt b
1
:
kN 03 , 164
Ed b, V,
= F (value with moment due to eccentricity)
kN 21 , 20
Ed h, b, V,
kN 78 , 162
Ed v, b, V,

3.6.2. Connection N3 Influence of number of bolts and
spacing p
1

Reduce the number of bolts from 6 to 5 by suppression of bolt marked b
6
(see
Figure B.14). This modification modifies the location of the centre of gravity
of the bolt group. Even if the moment due to eccentricity decrease, the design
shear loads per bolt increase. And two bolts (b
1
and b
3
) do not again satisfy to
the criteria relative to the design bearing resistances (see tables below).


5 - 122
Table B.25 Connection N3 Gusset component Bolt b
1
Reduction of total
number of bolts

Total number of
bolts
6 5
Ed b1, V,
F 164,03 189,76 197,68
Rd S,
F
Ed h, b1, V,
F 20,21 28,43 165,19
Rd h, b1, b,
F
Ed v, b1, V,
F 162,78 187,62 169,16
Rd v, b1, b,
F

3
Reduction of total
number of bolts

Total number of
bolts
6 5
Ed b1, V,
F 146,49 189,76 197,68
Rd S,
F
Ed h, b1, V,
F 131,10 182,40 165,19
Rd h, b1, b,
F
Ed v, b1, V,
F 65,36 52,36 169,16
Rd v, b1, b,
F

At this stage, increase the value of the spacing p
1
from 65 to 75 mm. So all
the bolts satisfy the criteria. Look for example the results for bolt b
1
.

1
Increasing of
spacing p
1
to 75 mm

Ed b1, V,
F 180,06 197,68
Rd S,
F
Ed h, b1, V,
F 28,74 225,70
Rd h, b1, b,
F
Ed v, b1, V,
F 177,75 220,50
Rd v, b1, b,
F

3.6.3. Connection N1 Influence of number of bolts

Reduce the number of bolts from 4 to 3 by suppression of bolt marked b
3
(see
Figure B.25). The moment due to eccentricity decrease whereas the design
shear loads per bolt increase. And two bolts (b
1
and b
2
) do not again satisfy to
the criteria relative to the design bearing resistances (see tables below).


5 - 123
1
Reduction of total
number of bolts

Total number of
bolts
4 3
Ed b1, V,
F 166,22 222,19 197,68
Rd S,
F
Ed h, b1, V,
F 84,37 57,25 154,22
Rd h, b1, b,
F
Ed v, b1, V,
F 143,22 214,69 264,38
Rd v, b1, b,
F

2
Reduction of total
number of bolts

Total number of
bolts
4 3
Ed b1, V,
F 190,82 222,19 197,68
Rd S,
F
Ed h, b1, V,
F 182,86 207,52 264,38
Rd h, b1, b,
F
Ed v, b1, V,
F 54,54 79,38 257,60
Rd v, b1, b,
F

In order to satisfy the criteria we need to increase the value of the spacing p
1

from 65 to a minimum of 101 mm. Look for example the results for bolt b
1
.

1
Increasing of
spacing p
1
to 101 mm

Ed b1, V,
F 197,33 197,68
Rd S,
F


Part 6: Detailed Design of
Built-up Columns

Part 6: Detailed Design of
Built-up Columns

6 - ii

Part 6: Detailed Design of Built-up Columns
6 - iii
FOREWORD
This publication is part six of the design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
Part 3: Actions
Part 6: Detailed design of built-up columns

6 - iv

6 - v
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 TYPES OF BUILT-UP MEMBERS AND THEIR APPLICATION 2
2.1 General 2
2.2 Laced built-up columns 5
2.3 Battened built-up columns 7
3 DETAILED CALCULATIONS 9
3.1 General 9
3.2 Design methodology for laced built-up columns 9
3.3 Design methodology for battened built-up columns 14
3.4 Buckling length 17
REFERENCES 19
APPENDIX A Worked Example: Design of a laced built-up column 21

6 - vi
SUMMARY
This guide covers the structural arrangements and the calculations for built-up columns
fabricated from hot rolled sections.
The calculations refer to the European Standard EN 1993-1-1, with complementary
information where necessary.
The design procedures of EN 1993-1-1 are presented to verify a built-up column with
lacing or battening using simplified equations and formulas.
A worked example is given in Appendix A.

6 - 1
1 INTRODUCTION
Built-up columns are used in steel construction when the column buckling
lengths are large and the compression forces are relatively low. This guide
covers two types of built-up columns:
- Built-up columns with lacing
- Built-up columns with battens.
This document includes an overview of common details for such members. It
describes the design method according to EN 1993-1-1
[1]
for the determination
of the internal forces and the buckling resistance of each member (chords,
diagonals, etc) of built-up columns made of hot rolled profiles.
It should be noted that due to the shear deformation, battened built-up columns
are more flexible than solid columns with the same inertia; this must be taken
into account in the design.
In order to derive the axial resistance of a steel built-up column, the following
must be addressed:
- Analysis of the built-up column to determine the internal forces by taking
into account an equivalent initial imperfection and the second order effects
- Verification of the chords and bracing members (diagonals and battens)
- Verification of the connections.
A fully worked example of a built-up column with an N-shape arrangement of
lacings is given in Appendix A, which illustrates the design principles.
6 - 2
2 TYPES OF BUILT-UP MEMBERS AND THEIR
APPLICATION
2.1 General
In general, built-up columns are used in industrial buildings, either as posts for
cladding when their buckling length is very long, or as columns supporting a
crane girder.
When used as a post for cladding with pinned ends, the column is designed to
support the horizontal forces, mainly due to wind. Hence the bending moment
in such a built-up column is predominant compared to the compression force.

Figure 2.1 Post for cladding with pinned ends
A typical built-up column that supports a crane girder is shown in Figure 2.2.
They usually have a fixed base and a pinned end at the top, and are designed to
resist:
- The compression forces that result either from the frame or from the crane
rail
- The horizontal forces that result from the effects of the crane applied on the
internal chord and the wind loads applied to the external one.
In this case, the compression forces are predominant compared to the bending
moment.
6 - 3
1 Crane girder

Figure 2.2 Built-up column supporting a crane girder
The built-up columns are composed of two parallel chords interconnected by
lacings or battens see Figure 2.1. In general, the truss system concentrates
material at the structurally most efficient locations for force transfer.
In an industrial building and for a given height, built up columns theoretically
have the least steel weight of any steel framing system.
Any hot rolled section can be used for the chords and the web members of
built-up columns. However, channels or I-sections are most commonly used as
chords. Their combination with angles presents a convenient technical solution
for built-up columns with lacing or battens. Flat bars are also used in built-up
column as battens.
This guide covers two types of built-up columns with pinned ends that are
assumed to be laterally supported:
- Laced columns
- Battened columns.

1
N
Ed
= 900 kN
M
Ed
= 450 kNm

6 - 4

Laced column Battened column

Figure 2.3 Built-up columns
The difference between these two types of built-up columns comes from the
mode of connection of the web members (lacings and battens) to the chords.
The first type contains diagonals (and possibly struts) designed with pinned
ends. The second type involves battens with fixed ends to the chords and
functioning as a rectangular panel.
The inertia of the built-up column increases with the distance between the
chord axes. The increase in stiffness is counterbalanced by the weight and cost
increase of the connection between members.
Built-up columns provide relatively light structures with a large inertia. Indeed,
the position of the chords, far from the centroid of the built-up section, is very
beneficial in producing a great inertia. These members are generally intended
for tall structures for which the horizontal displacements are limited to low
values (e.g. columns supporting crane girders).
The axial resistance of built-up columns is largely affected by the shear
deformations. The initial bow imperfection is significantly amplified because
of the shear strains.
It is possible to study the behaviour of built-up columns using a simple elastic
model.
6 - 5
2.2 Laced built-up columns
2.2.1 General
There is a large number of laced column configurations that may be
considered. However, the N-shape and the V-shape arrangements of lacings are
commonly used.

Figure 2.4 Built-up column with lacings in an industrial building
The selection of either channels or I-sections for chord members provides
different advantages. I-sections are more structurally efficient and therefore are
potentially shallower than channels. For built-up columns with a large
compressive axial force (for example, columns supporting cranes), I or
H sections will be more appropriate than channels. Channels may be adequate
in order to provide two flat sides.
Tee sections cut from European Column sections are also used for the chord
members. The web of the Tee sections should be sufficiently deep to permit
easy welding of the bracing members.
The angle web members of the laced column allow use of gusset-less welded
connections, which minimises fabrication costs. Other member types require
either gussets or more complex welding.
The centroidal axes of the compression and tension web members are not
necessarily required to meet at the same point on the chord axes. In fact, laced
columns with an eccentricity at the joints can be as efficient as those without
eccentricity. The chord-web joint can be separated without an increase in steel
weight. Although eccentric joints require that local moments be designed for,
there are several advantages in doing so. Eccentric joints provide additional
6 - 6
space for welding, hence reducing fabrication complexity. In addition, the
reduced length of the compression chord provides enhanced buckling and
bending resistance which partly compensates for the additional moments
generated by the joint eccentricity. For single angles, it is recommended that
joint eccentricity is minimised.
2.2.2 Various lacing geometries
The N-shape arrangement of lacings, as shown in Figure 2.5(a), can be
considered as the most efficient truss configuration, for typical frames in
industrial buildings. The web of the N-shape arrangement comprises diagonals
and posts that meet at the same point on the chord axes.
This arrangement reduces the length of the compression chords and diagonals.
It is usually used in frames with a significant uniform compressive force.
The V-shape arrangement of lacings increases the length of the compression
chords and diagonals and provides a reduction of buckling resistance of the
members. This arrangement is used in frames with a low compressive force.
The X-shape configurations are not generally used in buildings because of the
cost and the complexity of fabrication.

(a) N-Shape

(b) V-shape

(c) X-shape

Figure 2.5 Different shape arrangements of lacing
6 - 7
2.2.3 Construction details
Single lacing systems on opposite faces of the built-up member with two
parallel laced planes should be corresponding systems as shown in
Figure 2.6(a) (EN 1993-1-1 6.4.2.2(1)).
When the single lacing systems on opposite faces of a built-up member with
two parallel laced planes are mutually opposed in direction, as shown in
Figure 2.6(b), the resulting torsional effects in the member should be taken into
account. The chords must be designed for the additional eccentricity caused by
the transverse bending effect, which can have a significant influence on the
member size.
Tie panels should be provided at the ends of lacing systems, at points where the
lacing is interrupted and at joints with other members.
1 2 2 1
1 1
2 2
A B

Lacing on face A Lacing on face B
(a) Corresponding lacing system
(Recommended system)
1 2 2 1
1 1
2 2
A B

Lacing on face A Lacing on face B
(b) Mutually opposed lacing system
(Not recommended)

Figure 2.6 Single lacing system on opposite faces of a built-up member with
two parallel laced planes
2.3 Battened built-up columns
Battened built-up columns are not appropriate for frames in industrial
buildings. They are sometimes used as isolated frame members in specific
conditions, where the horizontal forces are not significant.
Channels or I-sections are mostly used as chords and flat bars are used as
battens. The battens must have fixed ends on the chords.
6 - 8
Battened built-up columns are composed of two parallel planes of battens
which are connected to the flanges of the chords. The position of the battens
should be the same for both planes. Battens should be provided at each end of
the built-up member.
Battens should also be provided at intermediate points where loads are applied,
and at points of lateral restraint.

a) Chords made of channels

b) Chords made of I sections

Figure 2.7 Battened compression members with two types of chords

6 - 9
3 DETAILED CALCULATIONS
3.1 General
The design methodology described hereafter can be applied to verify the
resistance of the various components of a built-up member with pinned ends,
for the most critical ULS combination. The design axial force, N
Ed
, and the
design bending moment, M
Ed
, about the strong axis of the built-up member are
assumed to have been determined from analysis in accordance with
EN 1993-1-1
[1]
.
This methodology is applicable to built-up columns where the lacing or
battening consists of equal modules with parallel chords. The minimum
number of modules in a member is three.
The methodology is summarized in the flowchart in Figure 3.2 for laced
built-up columns, and in Figure 3.4 for battened built-up columns. It is
illustrated by the worked example given in Appendix A.
3.2 Design methodology for laced built-up columns
3.2.1 Step 1: Maximum compression axial force in the chords
Effective second moment of area
The effective second moment of area is calculated using the following
expression (EN 1993-1-1 6.4.2.1(4)):
ch
2
0 eff
5 , 0 A h I =
where:
h
0
is the distance between the centroids of chords.
A
ch
is the cross-sectional area of one chord.
Shear stiffness
For the stability verification of a laced built-up column, the elastic elongations
of the diagonals and the posts must be considered in order to derive the shear
stiffness S
v
. Formulae for the shear stiffness S
v
are given in Table 3.1 for
different arrangements of lacing.
Initial bow imperfection
The built-up column is considered as a column with an initial bow imperfection
of e
0
, as shown in Figure 3.1:
e
0
=L/500
where:
L is the length of the built-up member
6 - 10
Table 3.1 Shear stiffness S
v
of built-up columns
N-shape V-shape K-shape X-shape
A
d

A
v

h
0

a
d
A
d
A
d
h
0
a
d
A
d
A
v
h
0
a
d

A
d

A
v

h
0

a
d
(
(
+
3
d
3
0 d 3
3
0 d
1
d A
h A
d
ah nEA
S
V

3
2
0 d
2d
ah nEA
S =
V

3
2
0 d
d
ah nEA
S =
V

3
2
0 d
2
d
ah nEA
S =
V

n is the number of planes of lacing
A
d
is the section area of a diagonal
A
v
is the section area of a post
d is the length of the diagonal

Figure 3.1 Initial bow imperfection
Maximum axial compression force in the chords
Verifications should be performed for chords using the design forces N
ch,Ed
resulting from the applied compression force N
Ed
and the bending moment M
Ed

at mid-height of the built-up column.
For a member with two identical chords, the design force N
ch,Ed
is determined
from the following expression (EN 1993-1-1 6.4):
N
ch,Ed
=
eff
ch 0 Ed Ed
2 2 I
A h M N
+
N
Ed

e
0
= L/500
L/2
L/2
6 - 11
where:
M
Ed
is the maximum bending moment at mid-height of the built-up column
including the equivalent imperfection e
0
and the second order effects:
M
Ed
=
v
Ed
cr
Ed
I
Ed 0 Ed
1
S
N
N
N
M e N

+

N
cr
is the effective critical force of the built-up column:

2
eff
cr

L
EI
N =
N
Ed
is the design compression axial force applied to the built-up column.
I
Ed
M is the design value of the maximum moment at mid-height of the
built-up column without second order effects.
3.2.2 Step 2: In-plane buckling resistance of the chord
Classification of the cross-section of the chord
The cross-section of the chord must be classified according to EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2.
Buckling resistance of a chord about z-z axis
The resistance of the chord has to be verified for flexural buckling in the plane
of the built-up member, i.e. about the weak axis of the cross-section of the
chord (z-z axis). The buckling verification is given by (EN 1993-1-1 6.4.2):
1
Rd z, b,
Ed ch,
s
N
N

where:
N
b,z,Rd
is the design buckling resistance of the chord about the weak axis of
the cross-section, calculated according to EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1.
Information on the buckling length L
ch
of the chord is given in Section 3.4 of
this guide.
3.2.3 Step 3: Out-of-plane buckling resistance of the chords
Out-of-plane buckling of the member, i.e. buckling about the strong axis of the
cross-section of the chords (y-y axis), has to be considered. The buckling
verification is given by:
1
Rd y, b,
Ed ch,
s
N
N

where:
N
b,y,Rd
is the design buckling resistance of the chord about the strong axis
of the cross-section, calculated according to EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1.
The buckling length depends on the support conditions of the built-up member
for out-of-plane buckling. At the ends of the member, the supports are
6 - 12
generally considered as pinned. However intermediate lateral restraints may be
provided.
3.2.4 Step 4: Maximum shear force
The verification of the web members of a built-up column with pinned ends is
performed for the end panel by taking into account the shear force as described
below.
For a built-up member subject to a compressive axial force only, the expression
for the shear force is:
L
M
V
Ed
Ed
t =

where:
M
Ed
is the bending moment as calculated in Step 2, with: 0
I
Ed
= M
For a built-up member subject to a uniformly distributed load, the expression
for the shear force is:
L
M
V
Ed
Ed
4 =

where:
M
Ed
is the maximum bending moment due to the distributed load.
Built-up columns are often subjected to a combination of a compressive axial
force N
Ed
and a uniformly distributed load. Thus the coefficient varies between
/L and 4/L. As a simplification, the shear force may be calculated by linear
interpolation:
Ed
Ed Ed
Ed
Ed
) 4 ( 4
1
M
M N e
N e
L
V
I
o
o
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= t
where:
M
Ed
is the maximum bending moment as calculated in Step 2. The bending
moment
I
Ed
M is the maximum moment due to the distributed load.
3.2.5 Step 5: Buckling resistance of the web members in compression
Maximum compressive axial force
The maximum axial force N
Ed
in the web members adjacent to the ends is
derived from the shear force V
Ed
.
Classification of the web members in compression
The cross-section of the web member is classified according to EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2.
Buckling resistance
The buckling verification of the web members should be performed for
buckling about the weak axis of the cross-section, using the following criterion:
6 - 13
1
Rd b,
Ed ch,
s
N
N

where, N
b,Rd
is the design buckling resistance of the web member about the
weak axis of the cross-section, calculated according to EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1.
Information about the buckling length of web members is given in Section 3.4.
3.2.6 Step 6: Resistance of the web members in tension
The resistance of the cross-section of the web members should be verified
according to EN 1993-1-1 6.2.3 for the tensile axial force which is derived
from the maximum shear force V
Ed
as described in Step 3.
3.2.7 Step 7: Resistance of the diagonal-to-chord connections
The resistance of the connections between the web members and the chords has
to be verified according to EN 1993-1-8
[2]
. This verification depends on the
details of the connection: bolted connection or welded connection. This
verification should be performed using the internal forces calculated in the
previous steps.
The worked example in Appendix A includes the detailed verification of a
welded connection.
3.2.8 Flowchart

Step 2: In-plane buckling resistance
of the chords
Effective second moment of area Ieff
Loads
ULS load combination
Maximum compression force in the chord Nch
Section properties
of the chords
Section properties
of the web members
Global dimensions
Of the built-up member
Start
End
Shear stiffness Sv
Initial bow imperfection e0
Step 3: Out-of-plane buckling resistance
of the chords
Step 4: Maximum shear force VEd
Step 5: Buckling resistance of the web members
in compression
Step 7: Design of the web members-to-chord
connections
Step 6: Resistance of the web members
In tension
Step 1: Maximum compression axial force
in the chords
EN 1993-1-1 6.4.1(6)
EN 1993-1-1 6.4.1(1)
EN 1993-1-1 Figure 6.9
EN 1993-1-1 6.4.2.1(4)
EN 1993-1-1 6.4.2.1(2)
and 6.3.1
EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1
EN 1993-1-1 6.4.1(7)
EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1
EN 1993-1-1 6.2.3
EN 1993-1-8

Figure 3.2 Flowchart of the design methodology for laced built-up columns
6 - 14
3.3 Design methodology for battened built-up
columns
3.3.1 Step 1: Maximum compressive axial force in the chords
Effective second moment of area
The effective second moment of area is calculated using the following
expression (EN 1993-1-1 6.4.3.1(3)):
ch ch
2
0 eff
2 5 , 0 I A h I + =
where:
h
0
is the distance between the centroids of chords
A
ch
is the cross-sectional area of one chord
I
ch
is the in-plane second moment of area of one chord
is the efficiency factor according to Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Efficiency factor (EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.8)
Criterion Efficiency factor
150 0
75 < < 150 2 /75
75 1,0
where:
0
i
L
=
ch
1
0
2A
I
i =
ch ch
2
0
2 5 , 0 I A h I
t
+ =
Shear stiffness
For the stability verification of a battened built-up column, the elastic
deformations of the battens and the chords must be considered in order to
derive the shear stiffness S
v
using the following expression (EN 1993-1-1
6.4.3.1(2)):
2
2
1
24
ch
0
b
ch
ch
a
EI
a
h
nI
I
a
EI
S
v
s
(
+
=
But S
v
should not be taken greater than
2
ch
a
EI

where:
a is the distance between the battens
n is the number of planes of battens
I
b
is the in-plane second moment of area of one batten.
6 - 15

V
Ed
a/2
a/2
h
0

a/2
V
Ed
a/2
V
Ed
a/4
V
Ed
a/4
Bending moment diagram

V
Ed
a/h
0

a/2
h
0

a/2
V
Ed
/2
V
Ed
/2 V
Ed
/2
V
Ed
/2
V
Ed
a/h
0

Shear forces

Figure 3.3 Bending moments and shear forces in a panel of a battened
built-up column
Initial bow imperfection
The initial bow imperfection e
0
is:
e
0
=L/500
where:
L is the length of the built-up member
Maximum axial compressive force in the chords
The maximum axial compression N
ch,Ed
in the chords is calculated from the
expression given in 3.2.1.
3.3.2 Step 2: In-plane buckling resistance of a chord
Classification of the cross-section of the chord
The cross-section of the chord is classified according to EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2.
Buckling resistance of a chord about z-z axis
The resistance of the chord has to be verified for bending and axial
compression and for buckling in the plane of the built-up member, i.e. about
the weak axis of the cross-section of the chord (z-z axis), according to
6 - 16
EN 1993-1-1 6.3.3. Depending on the geometry of the battened built-up
member, the verifications should be performed for different segments of the
chord:
- For an end panel with the maximum shear force and thus the maximum
local bending moment
- For a panel located at mid-height where the compression axial force may be
maximum in the chord.
3.3.3 Step 3: Out-of-plane buckling resistance of the chords
The out-of-plane buckling resistance is verified using the following criterion:
1
Rd y, b,
Ed ch,
s
N
N

where:
N
b,y,Rd
is the design buckling resistance of the chord about the strong axis
of the cross-section, calculated according to EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1.
The buckling length depends on the support conditions of the built-up member
for out-of-plane buckling. At the ends of the member, the supports are
generally considered as pinned. However intermediate lateral restraints may be
provided.
3.3.4 Step 4: Shear force
The shear force V
Ed
is calculated from the maximum bending moment as for a
laced built-up member, according to 3.2.4 of this guide.
3.3.5 Step 5: Resistance of the battens
As shown in Figure 3.3, the battens should be designed to resist the shear force:
0
Ed
h
a
V
And the bending moment:
2
Ed
Ed
a V
M =

The cross-section classification should be determined according to
EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2, for pure bending. The section resistance should be
verified using the appropriate criteria given EN 1993-1-1 6.2.
3.3.6 Step 5: Resistance of the batten-to-chord connections
The resistance of the connections between the battens and the chords has to be
verified according to EN 1993-1-8. This verification depends on the details of
the connection: bolted connection or welded connection. This verification is
performed using the internal forces calculated in the previous steps.
6 - 17
3.3.7 Flowchart

Step 2: In-plane buckling resistance
of the chords (M-N interaction)
Effective second moment of area Ieff
Loads
ULS load combination
Maximum compression force in the chord Nch
Section properties
of the chords
Section properties
of the battens
Global dimensions
Of the built-up member
Start
End
Shear stiffness Sv
Initial bow imperfection e0
Step 3: Out-of-plane buckling resistance
of the chords
Step 4: Maximum shear force VEd
Step 5: Section resistance of the battens

Step 6: Design of the batten-to-chord connections

Step 1: Maximum compression axial force
in the chords
EN 1993-1-1 6.4.1(6)
EN 1993-1-1 6.4.1(1)
EN 1993-1-1 6.4.3.1(2)
EN 1993-1-1 6.4.3.1(3)
EN 1993-1-1 6.3.3
EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1
EN 1993-1-1 6.4.1(7)
EN 1993-1-1 6.2
EN 1993-1-8

Figure 3.4 Flowchart of the design methodology for battened built-up
columns
3.4 Buckling length
3.4.1 Laced compression members
Chords
According to EN 1993-1-1 Annex BB, the buckling length L
cr
of a rolled I or H
section chord member of built-up columns is taken as 0,9L for in-plane
buckling and 1,0L for out-of-plane buckling. These values may be reduced if it
is justified through detailed analysis.
L is the distance in a given plane between two adjacent points at which a
member is braced against displacement in this plane, or between one such point
and the end of the member.
Web members
Angles are mostly used as web members.
Provided that the chords supply appropriate end restraint to web members in
compression made of angles and the end connections supply appropriate fixity
(at least 2 bolts if bolted), the buckling length L
cr
for in-plane buckling is taken
as 0,9L, where L is the system length between joints.
6 - 18
When only one bolt is used for end connections of angle web members, the
eccentricity should be taken into account and the buckling length L
cr
is taken
equal to the system length L.
The effective slenderness ratio eff

of angle web members is given in
EN 1993-1-1 BB.1.2 as follows:
7 , 0 35 , 0 eff + =
where:
is the non-dimensional slenderness defined in EN 1993-1-1 6.3.
For sections other than angles, the web members may be designed for in-plane
buckling using a buckling length smaller than the system length and using the
non-dimensional slenderness as defined in EN 1993-1-1 6.3, provided that
the chords provide appropriate end restraint and the end connections provide
appropriate fixity (at least 2 bolts if bolted). In practice, the buckling length L
cr

of a rolled profile is equal to the distance between joints for in-plane buckling
and for out-of-plane buckling.
3.4.2 Battened compression members
For simplicity, any potential restraint at the ends of the columns is neglected
and the buckling length of the chords may be taken as the system length.

6 - 19
REFERENCES

1 EN 1993-1-1:2005 Eurocode 3 Design of Steel structures. General rules and rules for
buildings
2 EN 1993-1-8:2005 Eurocode 3 Design of Steel structures. Design of joints

6 - 20
6 - 21

APPENDIX A

Worked Example: Design of a laced built-up
column

6 - 22
APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Design of a
laced built-up column
1 of 12

Calculation sheet

1. Introduction

This worked example deals with the verification of a typical built-up column
under compressive axial force and bending moment. The calculations are
carried out according to EN 1993-1-1. No National Annex is considered and
the recommended values of EN 1993-1-1 are used in the calculations.

The calculations are performed according to the design methodology given in
Section 3.2 of this guide.

2. Description

The geometry of the built-up column is described in Figure A.1 and in
Figure A.2. For the most unfavourable ULS combination of actions, an axial
force and a bending moment about the strong axis of the compound section
are applied at the top of the column.

1 Lateral restraints

Figure A.1 Design model
The built-up column is restrained against out-of-plane buckling at both ends
and at mid-height.

Title APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Design of a laced built-up column 2 of 12

6 - 23

1 Chords HEA 200
2 Posts Angles 90 9
3 Diagonals Angles 80 8

y y
z
z

Figure A.2 Geometry of the built-up column
Section properties
Note that the y-y axis and the z-z axis refer to the strong axis and the weak
axis respectively, of the cross-section of each component.

Chords: HEA 220 S355
A
ch
= 64,3 cm
2
i
y
= 9,17 cm i
z
= 5,51 cm

Diagonals: Equal angles L 90 90 9 S355
A
d
= 15,52 cm
2
i
y
= i
z
= 2,73 cm i
u
= 3,44 cm i
v
= 1,75 cm

Posts: Equal angles L 80 80 8 S355
A
v
= 12,27 cm
2
i
y
= i
z
= 2,43 cm i
u
= 3,06 cm i
v
= 1,56 cm


6 - 24
3. Step 1: Maximum compressive axial force
in the chords

3.1. Effective second moment of area

The effective second moment of area of the built-up section about the strong
axis is calculated using the following expression:
I
eff
= 0,5 h
0
2

A
ch

where:
A
ch
is the section area of a chord
h
0
is the distance between the centroids of the chords

EN 1993-1-1
6.4.2.1
The value of the effective second moment of area is:
I
eff
= 0,5 80
2
64,3 = 205800 cm
4

3.2. Shear stiffness

For N-shaped arrangement of lacings, the expression of shear stiffness is:
(
+
=
3
v
3
0 d 3
2
0 d
v
1
d A
h A
d
ah nEA
S
where:
d =
2 2 2 2
0
25 , 1 8 , 0 + = + a h = 1,48 m

EN 1993-1-1
Figure 6.9
n is the number of planes of lacings (n = 2)
A
d
is the section area of the diagonals
A
v
is the section area of the posts.

Therefore:
3
3
3
3
2
v
10
1480 1227
800 1552
1 1480
800 1250 1552 210000 2

+

= S
S
v
= 134100 kN

3.3. Initial bow imperfection

The initial bow imperfection is taken equal to:
e
0
= L/500 = 10000/500 = 20 mm

EN 1993-1-1
6.4.1(1)


6 - 25
3.4. Maximum axial compressive force in the chords

The maximum compressive axial force in the chords, N
ch,Ed
, is determined at
mid height of the built-up column as follows:
N
ch,Ed
=
eff
ch 0 Ed Ed
2 2 I
A h M N
+

EN 1993-1-1
6.4.1(6)
where:
M
Ed
=
v
Ed
cr
Ed
I
Ed 0 Ed
1
S
N
N
N
M e N

+

N
cr
is the effective critical axial force of the built up member:
kN 42650 10
10000
10 205800 210000
3
2
4
eff
cr
=

= =

t t
L
EI
N

The maximum bending moment, including the bow imperfection and the
second order effects is:
M
Ed
= kNm 4 , 481
134100
900
42650
900
1
450 02 , 0 900
=

+

In the most compressed chord, the axial force is:
N
ch,Ed
= kN 1052
10 205800 2
10 34 , 64 8 , 0 4 , 481
2
900
8
4
=

+

4. Step 2: In-plane buckling resistance of the
chord

4.1. Classification of the cross-section of the chord

c = 0,81 for steel grade S355
Flange slenderness: c/t
f
= 88,5 / 11 = 8,05 < 10 c = 8,10 Class 2
Web slenderness: c/t
w
= 152 / 7 = 21,7 < 33 c = 26,73 Class 1
Therefore the cross-section is Class 2 for pure compression.

4.2. Buckling resistance of a chord

The buckling resistance of the most compressed chord is verifed according to
EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1 for buckling about the weak axis of the cross-section,
i.e. about the z-z axis.

The buckling length of a hot-rolled H-section member can be taken equal to
0,9 a for in-plane buckling, where a is the system length between two nodes
of the built-up column.


6 - 26
Buckling length of chords:
L
cr,z
= 0,9 a = 0,9 1,25 = 1,125 m

EN 1993-1-1
BB.1.1(2)B
The slenderness is:
z
z cr,
z
i
L
=
where
i
z
is the radius of gyration of the gross cross-section, about the weak
axis.
therefore: 42 , 20
1 , 55
1125
z
= =

c t 9 , 93
y
1
= =
f
E
With: c = 0,81 for steel grade S355
06 , 76 81 , 0 9 , 93
1
= =

The non-dimensional slenderness is:
268 , 0
06 , 76
42 , 20
1
z
z = = =

Buckling curve c for buckling about the weak axis, since:
Steel grade S355
h/b < 1,2
t
f
< 100 mm
The imperfection factor is: o
z
= 0,49
EN 1993-1-1
Table 6.2
The reduction factor_
z
can be calculated from the following expressions:
( ) | | ( ) | | 553 , 0 268 , 0 2 , 0 268 , 0 49 , 0 1 5 , 0 2 , 0 1 5 , 0
2
2
z z
z z
= + + = + + = o |
965 , 0
268 , 0 553 , 0 553 , 0
1 1
2 2 2
z
2
z z
z
=
+
=
+ +
=
| |
_
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2(1)
The design buckling resistance is equal to:
kN 2203 10
0 , 1
355 6430 965 , 0
3
1 M
y ch z
Rd z, b,
=

= =

_ f A
N

The resistance criterion is:
1 477 , 0
2203
1052
Rd z, b,
Ed ch,
< = =
N
N
OK


6 - 27
5. Step 3: Out-of-plane buckling resistance of
the chords

The built-up column is pinned at both ends and is laterally supported at mid-
height. Therefore the buckling length for buckling about the strong axis of the
chords is taken equal to:
L
cr,y
= L/2 =10000/2 = 5000 mm

The slenderness is:
y
y cr,
y
i
L
=

where
i
y
is the radius of gyration of the gross cross-section, about the strong
axis.
Therefore:
53 , 54
7 , 91
5000
y
y cr,
y
= = =
i
L

06 , 76 9 , 93
1
= = c

The non-dimensional slenderness is:
717 , 0
06 , 76
53 , 54
1
y
y = = =

Buckling curve b for buckling about the strong axis, since:
Steel grade S355
h/b < 1,2
t
f
< 100 mm
The imperfection factor is: o
y
= 0,34

The reduction factor _
y
can be calculated from the following expressions:
( ) | | ( ) | | 845 , 0 717 , 0 2 , 0 717 , 0 34 , 0 1 5 , 0 2 , 0 1 5 , 0
2
2
y y
y y
= + + = + + = o |
774 , 0
717 , 0 845 , 0 845 , 0
1 1
2 2 2
y
2
y y
=
+
=
+ +
=
| |
_
y

EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1.2(1)
The design buckling resistance is equal to:
kN 1767 10
0 , 1
355 6430 774 , 0
3
1 M
y ch y
Rd y, b,
=

= =

_ f A
N

1 595 , 0
1767
1052
Rd y, b,
Ed ch,
< = =
N
N
OK


6 - 28
6. Step 4: Maximum shear force

The maximum compressive axial force is obtained in the diagonals of the end
panels of the built-up column. It depends on the shear force in this panel. The
shear force can be assessed by the following expression:
II
I
M
M N e
N e
L
V
Ed
Ed Ed o
Ed o
Ed
) 4 ( 4
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= t

where:
L = 10 m
e
0
= 0,02 m
N
Ed
= 900 kN
I
Ed
M = 450 kNm
II
Ed
M = 482 kNm

Therefore:
V
Ed
=
|
.
|
\
|
+

450 900 02 , 0
900 02 , 0
) 4 ( 4
10
1
t
482 = 191,2 kN

7. Step 5: Buckling resistance of the web
members in compressive

7.1. Diagonals

7.1.1. Maximum compression axial force
The expression of the compression axial force N
d,Ed
in a diagonal is derived
from the shear force as follows:
0
Ed Ed
Ed d,
cos
nh
d V
n
V
N = =

where:
h
0
= 800 mm
d = 1480 mm
n is the number of plans of lacings: n = 2

then:
kN 86 , 176
800 2
1480 2 , 191
Ed d,
=
= N


6 - 29
7.1.2. Classification of a diagonal in compression

h/t = 90 / 9 = 10 < 15 c = 12,15
(b+h) / (2t) = (90+90) / (2 9) = 10 > 11,5 c = 9,31 Class 4
Although the cross-section is Class 4, according to EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2
Sheet 3, the calculation of the effective section area leads to no reduction. The
section area is therefore fully effective and the calculation is the same as for a
Class 3 Section.

EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2
Sheet 3
7.1.3. Buckling resistance of a diagonal

The non dimensional slenderness can be calculated according to EN 1993-1-1
BB.1.2 in so far as the diagonals are welded at both ends and the chords are
stiff enough to ensure that the ends are clamped.

Slenderness about the weakest axis:
57 , 84
5 , 17
1480
v
v
= = =
i
d

Non dimensional slenderness
112 , 1
81 , 0 9 , 93
57 , 84
9 , 93
v =
= =
c

Effective non dimensional slenderness
128 , 1 112 , 1 7 , 0 35 , 0 7 , 0 35 , 0 v v eff, = + = + =
EN 1993-1-1
BB.1.2
Buckling curve b is used for the determination of the reduction factor:
o
v
= 0,34

Therefore:
( ) | | ( ) | | 294 , 1 128 , 1 2 , 0 128 , 1 34 , 0 1 5 , 0 2 , 0 1 5 , 0
2
2
v eff, v eff,
v
= + + = + + = o |
EN 1993-1-1
6.3.1
519 , 0
128 , 1 294 , 1 294 , 1
1 1
2 2 2
v eff,
2
v v
v
=
+
=
+ +
=
| |
_

The design buckling resistance of a compression member is equal to:
kN 9 , 285 10
0 , 1
355 1552 519 , 0
3
1 M
y d v
Rd d, - b
=

= =

_ f A
N

1 62 , 0
9 , 285
8 , 176
1
Rd d, - b
Ed d,
< = s
N
N
OK


6 - 30
7.2. Posts

7.2.1. Maximum compressive axial force

The maximum compressive axial force is:
N
h,Ed
= V
Ed
= 191,2 kN

7.2.2. Classification of the cross-section

h/t = 80 / 8 = 10 < 15 c = 12,15
(b+h) / (2t) = (80+80) / (2 8) = 10 > 11,5 c = 9,31 Class 4
Although the cross-section is Class 4, according to EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2
Sheet 3, the calculation of the effective section area leads to no reduction. The
section area is therefore fully effective and the calculation is the same as for a
Class 3 section.

EN 1993-1-1
Table 5.2
Sheet 3
7.2.3. Buckling resistance

The buckling length is equal to:
L
cr
= h
0
= 800 mm

Slenderness about the weakest axis:
28 , 51
6 , 15
800
v
y h,
v
= = =
i
L

Non dimensional slenderness:
674 , 0
81 , 0 9 , 93
28 , 51
9 , 93
v
v =
= =
c

Effective non dimensional slenderness:
822 , 0 674 , 0 7 , 0 35 , 0 7 , 0 35 , 0 v v eff, = + = + =
EN 1993-1-1
BB.1.2
The buckling curve b is used for the determination of the reduction factor:
o = 0,34

Therefore:
( ) | | ( ) | | 943 , 0 822 , 0 2 , 0 822 , 0 34 , 0 1 5 , 0 2 , 0 1 5 , 0
2
v eff, v eff, = + + = + + = o |
v

712 , 0
822 , 0 943 , 0 943 , 0
1 1
2 2 2
v eff,
2
v v
=
+
=
+ +
=
| |
_
v

The design buckling resistance of a compression member is equal to:
kN 310 10
0 , 1
355 1227 712 , 0
3
1 M
y h v
Rd b,
=

= =

_ f A
N


6 - 31
1 62 , 0
310
2 , 191
Rd b,
Ed h,
< = =
N
N
OK

8. Step 6: Resistance of the web members in
tension

It is necessary to verify the resistance of the diagonals in tension, even if this
situation is generally less critical than compression.
The verification of these members includes the verification of the resistance
of the cross-section and the verification of the resistance of the net section for
bolted connections.

Maximum design value of the tensile axial force:
N
t,Ed
= 176,8 kN
0 , 1
Rd t,
Ed t,
s
N
N

EN 1993-1-1
6.2.3

The design tension resistance N
t,Rd
is taken as the design plastic resistance of
the gross cross-section:
kN 551 10
0 , 1
355 1552
3
M
y d
Rd pl, Rd t,
0
=
= = =

f A
N N
0 , 1 32 , 0
0 , 551
8 , 176
Rd t,
Ed
< = =
N
N
OK


6 - 32
9. Step 7: Resistance of the diagonal-to-chord
welded connection

The diagonals (L90 90 9) are welded to the chord (HEA 220) by fillet
welds, see Figure A.3.

L90x90x9
26
64
3
150
HEA 220
N
Ed

Figure A.3 Welded connection of a diagonal to the chord

Throat thickness: a = 3 mm
Effective longitudinal length of the fillet weld: l
eff-L
= 150 mm
Effective transverse length of the fillet weld: l
eff-T
= 90 mm
Axial force in the diagonal: N
d,Ed
= 176,8 kN

The design resistance of a fillet weld is determined using the simplified
method given in EN 1993-1-8 4.5.3.3.

At every point along the length of the fillet weld, the resultant of all the forces
per unit length transmitted by the weld should satisfy the following criterion:
Rd w, Ed w,
F F s

where:
F
w,Ed
is the design value of the force per unit length
F
w,Rd
is the design weld resistance per unit length

The design resistance is independent of the orientation of the weld throat
plane and it is determined from:
F
w,Rd
= f
vw,d
a

where:
f
vw,d
is the design shear strength of the weld
2 M
u
d vw,
3 /
|
w
f
f =
EN1993-1-8
4.5.3.3


6 - 33
f
u
is the ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part:
f
u
= 510 N/mm
2

|
w
is the appropriate correlation factor:
|
w
= 0,9 for steel grade S355
M2
= 1,25
EN 1993-1-1
Table 3.1

EN1993-1-8
Table 4.1
therefore:
( )
N/mm 3 , 453
90 150 2
176800

N/mm 2 , 785 5 7 , 261
N/mm 7 , 261
25 , 1 9 , 0
3 / 510 3 /
eff
Ed d,
Ed w,
d vw, Rd w,
2
2 M w
u
d vw,
=
+
= =
= = =
=
= =
l
N
F
a f F
f
f
|

Therefore:
F
w,Ed
= 453,3 N/mm
2
< F
w,Rd
=785,2 N/mm
2
OK
The minimum throat thickness a
min
= 3 mm is acceptable.

To prevent corrosion, the diagonal may be welded all around in one pass
(a = 3 mm).

To account for eccentricity a 5 mm (2 passes) throat fillet weld is
recommended on the unconnected leg side, as shown in Figure A.4.

a = 5 mm
a = 3 mm

Figure A.4 Throat thickness of the weld fillets


Part 7: Fire Engineering


7 - ii

7 - iii
FOREWORD
This publication is the seventh part of the design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
Part 3: Actions
7 - iv

7 - v
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 FIRE RISKS IN SINGLE-STOREY BUILDINGS 2
2.1 Fire safety objectives 2
2.2 Fire risk analysis 2
2.3 Main requirements of current fire regulations 3
3 PRACTICAL FIRE ENGINEERING OPTIONS IN THE EUROCODES 6
3.1 Current design approaches 6
3.2 Fire analysis 7
3.3 Heat transfer analysis 8
3.4 Structural analysis 8
4 GUIDANCE ON APPROPRIATE FIRE ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS 10
4.1 Field of application of different design methods 10
4.2 Choice of optimum design approach 11
5 DIRECT USE OF SIMPLE ENGINEERING OPTIONS FOR USE BY NON
SPECIALISTS 12
5.1 Fire models 12
5.2 Thermal Models 16
5.3 Structural Models 21
5.4 Specific design rules for single-storey buildings 31
5.5 Simplified design methods 33
5.6 Design recommendations 37
6 GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF MORE ADVANCED SOLUTIONS 47
6.1 Fire models 47
6.2 Thermal Models 50
6.3 Structural models 51
REFERENCES 56
APPENDIX A German fire safety procedure for single-storey industrial and
commercial buildings 57

7 - vi
SUMMARY
This document provides guidance for the fire design of single-storey steel building
structures. It contains detailed information to allow engineers and designers to be more
familiar with the current design approaches and calculation models, which can be
applied not only to meet the prescriptive requirements but also to develop the
performance-based fire safety design. The design methods introduced in the guide,
ranging from simple design rules to more sophisticated calculation models, are derived
from EN 1993-1-2 and 1994-1-2. They cover both steel and composite structures
(unprotected or protected). In addition, some specific design rules are given, allowing
simple verification of whether the behaviour of the steel structure of single-storey
industrial buildings in fire situation fulfils the safety objectives on the basis of
performance-based requirement.

7 - 1
1 INTRODUCTION
Due to the particularities of single-storey buildings, the life safety objective in
case of fire can be met easily without onerous fire resistance requirement for
the structure. However, other safety objectives have to be taken into account if
the collapse of these buildings or a part of them may be accepted. In
consequence, many European fire safety building regulations are moving
toward acceptance of alternative fire safety engineering designs. Prescriptive
rules can then be replaced with performance based requirements, such as
adequate fire behaviour of the structure, aimed at satisfying fire safety
objectives that include life safety of people (occupants and fire-fighters),
protection of environment, property protection and business continuity.
Benefits and successful application of the performance-based approach to
building fire safety designs have already been well demonstrated for single-
storey buildings, especially where fire resistance was required, allowing in
some cases more innovative, cost effective and safer solutions to be adopted.
To help the structural fire design of buildings, a new set of European Standards
has been developed, the Eurocodes. The Parts of the Eurocodes that are
relevant to the fire design of single-storey building consist of EN 1991-1-2
[1]

(which includes principal concepts and rules necessary for describing thermal
and mechanical actions on structures exposed to fire) and Parts of material
specific Eurocodes dealing with the fire design of structures, such as
EN 1993-1-2
,[2]
, related to steel structures and EN 1994-1-2
[3]
related to
composite steel and concrete structures.
The fire parts of Eurocodes provide at present a wide range of calculation
methods. They allow engineers to follow either a prescriptive approach to meet
the fire safety requirements, as specified in national building regulations, or to
carry out on the basis of performance-based rules, a fire safety engineering
design that involves in general more complex computational analysis and
provides more accurate answers to fire safety objectives.
The present guide provides an overview of the current design methods
available for evaluating the fire performance of single-storey buildings
composed of either steel or composite structure as well as their application
fields. Simple calculations methods, easy to use, and more advanced
calculations models are dealt with separately. Moreover, to allow quick
assessment, simple design rules are given to assess quickly whether the
structural behaviour of steel structures of storage and industrial buildings fulfils
the fire safety objectives required by the fire safety regulations for industrial
buildings.
This guide aims also to help the engineer to understand more clearly the
different calculation methodologies and to carry out the structural fire design of
single-storey building according to the Eurocodes, from a relatively simple
analysis of single members under standard fire conditions to a more complex
analysis under real fire conditions.
7 - 2
2 FIRE RISKS IN SINGLE-STOREY BUILDINGS
2.1 Fire safety objectives
The primary objective of most fire safety regulations is to ensure the protection
of life (building occupants and fire fighters), environment and to some extent
property (building contents and building itself). Through a lot of measures
including a combination of active and passive fire protection systems, the
objectives are:
- To reduce and prevent the incidence of fire by controlling fire hazards in
the building.
- To provide safe escape routes for evacuation of building occupants.
- To prevent fire spread from the fire compartment to others parts of the
building and to neighbouring buildings.
- To ensure that the building remains structurally stable for a period of time
sufficient to evacuate the occupants and for the fire-fighters to rescue
occupants, if necessary.
2.2 Fire risk analysis
Single-storey buildings used as factories, warehouses or commercial centres
constitute a very common type of steel construction today. In the specific case
of warehouses, according to the storage arrangement (including free standing
storage, palletised rack storage, post-pallet storage or storage with solid or
slatted shelves) and the combustibility of materials being stored, fire may
develop very quickly and then might endanger occupants long enough before
the structural collapse of the building. Indeed, fire growth may be extremely
important, as the upward flame propagation is usually very rapid. Vertical and
horizontal shafts formed between adjacent pallets and racking behave as
chimneys, which increase the spread of flames up to the roof. The smoke
quickly forms a hot layer under the roof and then descends progressively with
fire development. Obviously, the rate at which this occurs varies according to
the combustible contents and the building arrangement. In unventilated
conditions, single-storey buildings can become smoke-logged in few minutes.
Although the smoke is largely made up of entrained air, it contains enough
toxic substances and asphyxiates to incapacitate or kill within minutes people
exposed to them. Moreover, the hot smoke layer will also radiate high heat flux
to people escaping from fire area. A hot gas layer at 500C leads to a heat flux
of about 20 kW/m (corresponding to the radiant energy emitted by a
blackbody at the temperature of 500C) and, under such thermal conditions,
skin burn will occur after only a few seconds
4
. Generally, it is agreed that the
tenability threshold is 2.5 kW/m
2
, which is much lower than heat flux needed
to lead to the failure of structural members. Consequently, buildings will
survive longer than occupants and the structural collapse of steel structures of
single-storey buildings generally does not provide additional threat to people
escaping from the fire area.
7 - 3
Regarding fire service operations, it is commonly accepted that fire-fighters
should not enter a single-storey building because of fast fire growth. Usually
they are forced to fight the fire from outside, covering neighbouring walls with
water. Hazard in this case for fire-fighters is then reduced to zero in the event
of structural collapse since it occurs at a level of temperature at which fire-
fighters can not withstand (provided that the progressive collapse, in the case
of compartmented buildings, and the collapse of the structure toward outside
do not occur
[5,6]
). In the event of, at the beginning of fire, they need to enter
within the building to rescue people, they cannot last within the building after
the heat flux is more than 7 kW/m, which is also very far for the risk of
collapse of the structure.
For these reasons, an increase of the intrinsic fire resistance of single-storey
buildings is unnecessary. However, the overall stability of the structure and the
stability of fire walls need to be accurately considered, to avoid any
progressive collapse. A single-storey building undergoes progressive collapse
when local failure of the heated part of the structure leads for the failure of
adjoining cold structures. In addition, to provide a safe situation to fire-fighters
located around the building, the structure of single-storey building (including
faade elements) must collapse towards the inside of the building.
Many National Regulations have taken into account previous remarks for
industrial single-storey buildings as well as for public buildings by not
requiring any fire resistance rating for such works but introducing specific
safety requirements in terms of overall structural behaviour and concentrating
requirements on egress facilities and early fire detection and/or suppression.
With regards to other single-storey buildings with relatively low fire loads, the
risk of life in the event of fire is reduced as egress of occupants and fire-ground
operations are straightforward.
2.3 Main requirements of current fire regulations
2.3.1 Fire resistance of structural members
Despite the comments above, fire resistance ratings are sometimes required for
the structure of single-storey buildings
[7]
.
The fire resistance is expressed as the time during which a building element
can withstand exposure to fire without losing its function (load-bearing
elements or separating element). Usually, building elements are classified
using three performance criterion:
- The load bearing capacity, R, which is the ability for a load-bearing element
to resist a fire without losing its structural stability
- The integrity, E, which is the ability of a separating element, when exposed
to fire on one side, to prevent the passage through it of flames and hot gases
- The insulation, I, is the ability of a separating element, when exposed to fire
on one side, to restrict the temperature rise on the unexposed face below
specified levels (in general a average value of 140C).
7 - 4
In prescriptive fire regulations, required fire resistance for a building element is
expressed in terms of the minimum period of time during which the building
element would function satisfactorily while subject to the standard fire.
When fire stability requirements are given for single-storey buildings, they
usually range from 15 minutes (R15) to 60 minutes (R60), depending on the
occupancy class of the building, the provision of sprinklers, the building height
and the compartment size.
2.3.2 Compartmentation and building separation
Single-storey building must be subdivided into compartments separated by fire
walls when the floor area of the building exceeds the allowed maximum
compartment size. Limits on the compartment size may be removed by fitting
the building with sprinklers.
The effects providing compartmentation on property loss is that direct damage
is confined to the content of the compartment in which the fire starts, reducing
the chances of the fire growing large. As regards the life safety, people in other
parts of the building can use escape routes to get out safely without being
exposed to the smoke or gases from the fire.
When considering fire walls between compartments, fire resistance is generally
in the range of REI 60 to REI 120.
Fire spread to neighbouring buildings also needs to be prevented. This is
achieved traditionally by sufficient separating distances or faade elements
with adequate fire resistance. In the French research project Flumilog, a design
method has been recently developed to assess the thermal radiant effects of
fires in single-storey storage buildings. The method allows calculation of the
safe separating distances, taking into account the main characteristics of the
building, such as the building content, the type of faade elements and roof,
etc.
2.3.3 Fire suppression
Sprinklers may be required by national fire regulations. In addition to their
obvious effect in the reduction of the fire growth, their use leads usually to a
reduction of the fire resistance rating required for the structure. They allow also
larger fire compartment sizes.
2.3.4 Smoke control systems
National fire regulations may require that smoke control systems are
implemented in public buildings, storage building and industrial buildings in
order to facilitate escape, by minimising risks of smoke inhalation and injury
and to some extend to enable fire-fighters to better see the fire and therefore to
extinguish it more speedily and effectively. Smoke control systems help in
removing smoke from the fire area, and in limiting the spread of hot gas
beneath the roof, which increases the time for the compartment to become
smoke-logged, giving people more time to escape safely from the building.
This can be achieved by a combination of smoke exhaust systems (mechanical
or natural) and screens (which contain the smoke in specific areas).
7 - 5
2.3.5 Fire detection and fire alarms
Adequate measures are necessary for detecting any outbreak of fire and for
alerting the building occupants and the fire department of the occurrence of
fire. In small single-storey buildings where all exits are visible, it is likely that
any fire will be quickly detected by the occupants and a shout of Fire! may be
sufficient. In larger single-storey buildings, a simple sounder such as a battery
powered alarm or rotary bell may be adequate. In an industrial building, the
ambient noise has to be considered, to ensure that the alarm will be heard by
the occupants.
2.3.6 Egress facilities
For safe evacuation, appropriate means of escape are needed, such as a proper
number and width of emergency exits and proper length, width and height of
passages and evacuation accesses. Escape routes in small single-storey
buildings generally lead directly to a safe location outside the building; they do
not normally require any special treatment. In larger buildings, where travel
distances are greater and where the fire is likely to make a single escape routes
unusable, an alternative means of escape may be necessary. Consideration of
disabled people must also be made
7 - 6
3 PRACTICAL FIRE ENGINEERING OPTIONS
IN THE EUROCODES
3.1 Current design approaches
Using the fire parts of Eurocodes
[8,9]
, single-storey buildings can be designed
using either the prescriptive approach or the performance-based approach
applying fire safety engineering principles
[10]
.
The prescriptive approach is mostly applied to fulfil standard fire resistance
requirements usually prescribed in national fire regulations. It gives a safety
level that is relatively easy to achieve and implement. However it may be
conservative, in requiring the use of important passive fire protection to fulfil
the required fire resistance rating. This approach is usually carried out for the
design of relatively simple buildings and structures.
As an alternative or when allowed by national regulation, the performance-
based approach can allow to assess adequate measures to satisfy a set-out of
defined fire safety objectives, such as stated in paragraph 2.1, and the
corresponding performance criteria. Using structural fire engineering,
engineers can assess the necessary fire resistance to structure in order to avoid
the spread of fire and/or to prevent a premature structural collapse. As regards
the single-storey buildings, the main structure could be designed to remain
stable under fire exposure conditions long enough for the occupants to escape.
Such an approach takes into account the severity of fire exposure by
appropriate estimations of actual fire loads and fire development parameters,
which may be calculated from the building activity.
The performance-based approach provides flexibility when selecting technical
solutions to meet the fire safety objectives, but usually requires the use of
sophisticated design tools. Engineers and designers using advanced
calculations models need to be properly educated in their use and in their
limitations. As fire safety engineering allows for highly efficient designs, with
little unassigned reserve capacity, an experienced user is required to ensure that
appropriate models are used.
Where national fire regulations authorise the performance-based approach,
regulatory bodies may require that the fire design is checked by a third party.
The fire performance of a whole structure, or a part of it, is carried out by
following, for a given design fire scenario, three successive steps of structural
fire engineering
[1]
.
- Fire Analysis. To calculate the thermal actions/exposure - Fire models.
- Thermal analysis. To determinate the heating rate and temperatures on
structural members - Thermal models.
- Structural analysis. To calculate the mechanical response of structural
members- Structural models.
7 - 7
Available design methods to evaluate the fire performance of structure are
briefly described below. These methods range from simple hand calculations to
the use of sophisticated computer models. The overall complexity of the fire
safety design will depend on the assumptions and methods adopted to predict
each of the three design steps.
3.2 Fire analysis
The main objective of the fire modelling is the simulation of the fire
development and the prediction of thermal actions (gas temperature, heat flux)
on the structural members (in order to determinate, in a following step, the
temperature in the structural members).
Although common practice is to represent a fire by a standard fire curve,
structural fire design may be based on a design fire that provides more realistic
conditions in fire compartment. In this way, parameters such as the magnitude
of the fire load, the rate of heat release and the ventilation factor, which play an
important role in fire severity, are taken into account. Moreover, the
identification of relevant and realistic design fire scenarios is a crucial aspect of
the fire safety design. The design fire scenarios used for the analysis of a
building fire have to be deduced from all the possible fire scenarios. In most
buildings, the number of possible fire scenarios is infinite and need to be
reduced. Only credible worst case fire scenarios will need to be studied.
When the design fire scenarios are chosen, a number of fire models are
available to assess the fire severity and calculate the corresponding thermal
actions
Different levels of fire models are relevant to the various stages of fire
development. When a fire is initiated, it is localised within a compartment and,
according to the characteristics of the compartment and of the fire load, it can
remain localised or becomes generalised to the whole compartment. In the case
of small compartments or compartments with small ventilation openings
relative to the size of the compartment, the fire develops into to a fully
engulfed fire.
Three levels of modelling are available to describe both localised and fully
generalised fires, as shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Levels of fire models
Levels of the model Localised fire Generalised fire
Simplified model Hasemi model
Heskestad model
Parametrical fires
Zone models 2 zone model 1-zone model
Field model CFD CFD

The simplified models are generally empirical models based on conventional
assumptions. The zone models take into account the main parameters
controlling the fire, but introduce simplified assumptions that limit the domain
of application. They would be used in simple easily defined compartment
geometries. The field models are more accurate but are rather complex for use
7 - 8
as a general design tool; they would be required in compartments with complex
geometries or with high and irregular ceilings.
Conditions of use will be briefly detailed in Chapter 6.
3.3 Heat transfer analysis
Once the thermal actions are calculated, the thermal transfer to the structural
elements has to be calculated. Thermal models, which will be used, should be
based on the acknowledged principles and assumptions of the theory of heat
transfer.
Different modelling can be used according to the assumptions and needs. In the
thermal models, there are the analytical rules allowing obtaining an estimation
of uniform temperature across-section, mainly for steel elements. There are
also advanced calculation methods based on either finite elements or the finite
difference method, allowing determination of the 2D or 3D temperature
distribution in structural members (through the cross-section and along the
length). Advanced models can be applied for any type of structural member
analysis in fire design.
Thermal models will be briefly detailed in following chapters.
3.4 Structural analysis
From the temperature fields previously obtained in the structural members and
from the combination of the mechanical actions loads in case of fire the
structural behaviour can be assessed following one of the three possible
approaches:
- Member analysis, in which each member of the structure will be assessed
by considering it fully separated from other members. The connection
condition with other members will be replaced by appropriate boundary
conditions.
- Analysis of parts of the structure, in which a part of the structure will be
directly taken into account in the assessment by using appropriate boundary
conditions to reflect its links with other parts of the structure
- Global structural analysis, in which the whole structure will be used in the
assessment
7 - 9

Member
analysis
Analysis of part
of the structure
Global structural
analysis

Figure 3.1 Different design approaches for mechanical response of
structures in fire
Member analysis is easy to use particularly with simplified calculation methods
and therefore largely used under standard fire condition. The analysis of the
whole structure or its subassemblies considers at least several structural
members together, so that the interaction effect between them will be directly
dealt with. In this way, load redistribution from heated parts (weakened parts
inside fire compartment) to cold parts (stronger parts outside fire compartment)
can be taken into account in accurate way and global analysis provides
therefore a much better understanding of overall behaviour of structure under
fire condition.
According to the Eurocodes, three types of design methods can be used to
assess the mechanical behaviour of structures under fire situation in the
different design approaches explained above. Fire design can be carried out by
means of:
- A simple calculation method, based on predefined tabulated data, as given
in EN 1994-1-2
[3]
. This method is only applicable to steel and concrete
composite structures. The tables were evaluated by numerical models and
experiments for basic types of structures, such as slabs, beams and
columns, for certain time of fire resistance, for heating according to the
nominal fire curve and for defined level of loading. The tables are easy to
use and safe but cover only a limited range of section types.
- Simple calculation models. This type of design method can be divided into
two different families. The first one is the critical temperature method
widely applied to steel structural member analysis. The second is the use of
simple mechanical models (verification in strength domain) developed for
both steel and composite structural member analysis. Models have been
developed for standard structural elements, e.g. slabs, beams, and columns.
- Advanced calculation models. This kind of design method can be applied to
all types of structures and the models are, in general, based on either finite
element method or finite difference method. They should provide a realistic
analysis of structures. The results of the analysis are generally obtained in
terms of deformation of structure during the whole fire period.
Structural models will be briefly detailed in following chapters.
7 - 10
4 GUIDANCE ON APPROPRIATE FIRE
ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS
4.1 Field of application of different design methods
The following table shows the field of application of the available fire design
methods, considering either design according to prescriptive requirements
based on the standard fire or a performance-based fire design
[11]
.

Table 4.1 Field of application of different design methods
Approach Tools
Thermal
actions
Thermal
modelling
Structural
modelling
Pre-engineered data
from standard fire
tests (Data from
manufacturers)

Tabulated data from
EN 1994-1-2
EN 1994-1-2, 4.2
Steel
EN 1993-1-2
4.2.5
Steel
EN 1993-1-2
4.2.3 4.2.4
Simplified calculation
models given in
Eurocodes
Composite EN 1994-1-2 4.3
Steel and composite
P
r
e
s
c
r
i
p
t
i
v
e

a
p
p
r
o
a
c
h

(
S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

f
i
r
e

d
e
s
i
g
n
)

Advanced calculation
models
Standard ISO
curve

EN 1991-1-2
FEA* or FDA** FEA*
Simplified calculation
models
Fully engulfed
fire (Parametric
fire, standard
ISO curve***)

Localized fire
Steel

EN 1993-1-2
4.2.5
Steel

EN 1993-1-2
4.2.3 4.2.4

Specific rules
based on fully
engulfed fire
5.4
Steel and composite
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

b
a
s
e
d

a
p
p
r
o
a
c
h

(
n
a
t
u
r
a
l

f
i
r
e

d
e
s
i
g
n
)

Advanced calculation
models
Zone models

Field models
FEA* or FDA** FEA*
*FEA : Finite element Analysis **FDA : Finite Difference analysis
*** Collapse of single-storey buildings usually occurs when the building structure (a part of it or
the whole structure) is fully engulfed in fire. In such fire condition, because the gas temperature
rise has no significant effect on the failure mode of the building structure, a performance-based
approach referring to thermal actions based on standard fire curve is appropriate to investigate
the fire behaviour of single-storey buildings. This approach can be used to demonstrate the
non-progressive collapse and the failure inwards of the building structure.
7 - 11
4.2 Choice of optimum design approach
The choice of the design approach depends on the type of building (storage
building, industrial building, commercial building, etc.), the requirements
specified in the corresponding national fire regulation and the acceptance or
not by the regulatory authorities of applying a performance-based approach as
an alternative to prescriptive rules.
Some suggestions on the choice of fire design approach are given below.
With the diversity of requirement, the most important first step is to answer the
following:
- What is the required fire resistance rating, if any?
- Is it possible to carry-out a performance-based approach?
When a prescriptive approach is to be used (with reference to standard fire
design):
- It may be appropriate to use simplified calculation models where low fire
resistance ratings (R15 or R30) are required for structural members
- Advanced calculation models must be used where structural members are
not covered by the simplified calculation models. They can also be
employed with some economic benefits for steel structure where high fire
resistance ratings (higher than R60) are required, reducing the thickness of
fire protection on steel members.
Where the performance-based approach is accepted by the regulatory
authorities and structural stability is needed:
- A performance-based approach is most likely to be beneficial where the
structure is unusual and may not be well covered by traditional prescriptive
methods
- Localised fire protection may be needed, considering the overall behaviour
of the whole structure in a real fire, to ensure adequate life safety for the
building occupants and firemen.
National fire regulations may require the use of the performance based
approach for single-storey buildings with significant fire risks (high fire loads).
National fire regulations may allow a performance-based fire safety design to
refer to simple rules and design recommendations for single-storey buildings.
Such approaches are given in 5.4 and Appendix A. Other design guidance and
recommendations can be found in reference
[12]
.
Active fire protection measures (installation of sprinklers, fire detectors, fire
alarms, smoke exhaust systems) and passive fire protection measures
(compartmentation, egress facilities, etc.) are usually implemented in buildings
in accordance with the requirements in fire national regulations.
7 - 12
5 DIRECT USE OF SIMPLE ENGINEERING
OPTIONS FOR USE BY NON SPECIALISTS
This chapter gives an overview of current easy-to-use simple calculation
design rules, for assessing the fire resistance of steel and composite steel and
concrete structural members.
Specific simple design rules and design recommendations to satisfy specific
safety requirements in terms of structural behaviour introduced recently in fire
safety regulations of many European countries for single-storey storage and
industrial buildings are given. It is noted that these methods are also applicable
to other type of single-storey buildings.
5.1 Fire models
5.1.1 Nominal temperature-time curves
EN 1991-1-2
[1]
provides three standard fire curves, defining arbitrary hot gas
temperature-time relationships in which no physical parameters of the fire load
or fire compartment are taken into account. The most commonly used
relationships in building design and in regulation prescriptions is the standard
temperature-time curve (standard ISO fire) which represents a fully developed
compartment fire. The second curve, the external fire curve, is intended for
faade elements and the third curve is the hydrocarbon fire curve, representing
a fire with hydrocarbon or liquid type fuel.
The nominal temperature-time curves are defined as follows:
- For standard temperature-time curve (standard ISO fire ):
) 1 8 ( log 345 20
10
+ + = t
g
u (1)
- For the external fire curve:
20 ) 313 , 0 687 , 0 1 ( 660
8 , 3 32 , 0
g
+ =
t t
e e u (2)
- For the hydrocarbon fire curve:
20 ) 675 , 0 325 , 0 1 ( 1080
5 , 2 167 , 0
g
+ =
t t
e e u (3)
where:
g
is the gas temperature in the fire compartment [C]
t is the time [min]
It is important to note that the previous curves are reference curves. They do
not represent the real thermal effect of a fire. The temperatures given by these
curves always increase with time, without considering the limited fire load.
The standard fire resistance rating required for structural members (expressed
in terms of time) does not therefore indicate the actual time for which they will
survive in a building fire.
7 - 13
5.1.2 Parametric fires
Parametric fire models provide a rather simple design method to estimate gas
temperature in fire compartment, taking into account in a simplified way the
main parameters that influence the fire development, such as the fire
compartment size, the fire load (corresponding to the mass of combustible
materials in the fire compartment), ventilation conditions (openings) and
thermal properties (such as thermal conductivity and specific heat) of the
compartment walls and ceilings.
Like nominal temperature-time curves, parametric temperature-time curves
provide gas temperature-time relationships for design. They are based on the
hypothesis that the temperature is uniform in the compartment, which limits
their field of application to post-flashover fires (fires generalised to the whole
compartment) in compartments of reasonable dimensions. The predicted fire
curve comprises a heating phase represented by an exponential curve up to a
maximum temperature, followed by a linearly decreasing cooling phase to a
residual temperature that is usually the ambient temperature. The maximum
temperature and the corresponding fire duration are the two main parameters
affecting the fire behaviour of structural members. Consequently, they were
adopted as the governing parameters in the design formulae for the parametric
fires.
Such a model is given in Annex A of EN 1991-1-2. It is valid for
compartments up to 500 m of floor area, without openings in the roof, and a
maximum compartment height of 4 m, for compartment linings with thermal
inertia between 100 and 2200 J/m
2
s
1/2
K, for an opening factor in the
range 0,02 to 0.20 and for compartments with mainly cellulosic type fire loads.
Due to these limitations, the model is mainly used for the office part of single-
storey buildings.
7 - 14
Time
u
g
u
max
t*max
heating
phase
cooling
phase
ug=20+1325(1-0,324e
-0,2t*
-0,2e
-1,7t*
-0,427e
-19t*
)

with t*= t.C where t is the time (hours) and
) 1160 / 04 . 0 /( ] b / O [ R =

Main parameters:
- Wall characteristics : thermal inertia c b =
- Opening characteristics: opening factor
t v
A / h A O =
umax= ug (t*max) = ug (tmax . I ) (C)
with tmax = max{ (0.2.10
-3
qt,d / O). I/ O, tlim } (hours)
where tlim is a function of fire growth rate (according to building type):
- tlim =25 min if slow fire growth rate
- tlim =20 min if medium fire growth rate,
- tlim =15 min if fast fire growth rate,
- qt,d is the design value of the load density [MJ/m]
ug = ug (t*, t*max, x) (C)
= umax 625.(t* - t*max.x) if t*max s 0,5
= umax 250.(3- t*max).(t* - t*max.x) if 0,5 < t*max s 2
= umax 250.(t* - t*max) if t*max > 2
with t*= t.I t*max = (0.2.10
-3
qt,d / O). I
and x is a function of tmax as follows:
x = 1 if tmax > tlim
x = tlim. I / t*max if tmax = tlim

Figure 5.1 Parametric Fire (Annex A of EN 1991-1-2)
The inputs for the parametric fire curves are the design fire load density, the
fire growth rate, the ventilation conditions (described by the size and the
position of the openings) and the thermal properties (heat capacity, the density
and the conductivity) of walls to evaluate the heat losses which occur by
convection and radiation at the compartment boundaries. For the fire load
density, it is common practice in design to refer to the characteristic values
given in EN 1991-1-2.
Even though these parametric fire curves offer a significant improvement
compared to the standard ISO-fire, the parametric fires are not yet able to
provide a very accurate evaluation of the fire severity. Consequently, some
European countries recommend their use only for pre-design calculation.
5.1.3 Localised fire
EN 1991-1-2 provides simple approaches for determining thermal actions of
localised fires in Annex C. Two situations are distinguished according to the
height of the fire flame relative to the ceiling of the compartment: where the
flame is not impacting the ceiling (based on Heskestads method); and where
the flame is impacting the ceiling (based on Hasemis method).
7 - 15

Flame axis
L
z
D
f
H
Z
0
= 1,02 D + 0,00524 Q
2/5
z
0
Flame axis
L
z
D
f
H
Z
0
= 1,02 D + 0,00524 Q
2/5
z
0
Flame axis L
h
D
H
r
Flame axis L
h
D
H
r
The flame is not impacting the ceiling The flame is impacting the ceiling
Required data:
- Rate of heat realase: Q (W)
- Distance fire Source-ceiling: H (m)
- Diameter of the fire: D (m)
Results:
- Flame length Lf (m) :
L
f
= -1,02 D + 0,0148 Q
2/5

-Temperature u(z) in the plume along
the symmetrical vertical axis:
u(z) = 20 + 0,25 (0.8Q)
2/3
(z-z0)
-5/3

u(z) s 900C
Results:
- Horizontal flame length Lh
- heat flux received by the fire exposed unit surface
area at the level of the ceiling at the distance r from
the flame axis:
h
= 100000 if y s 0,30
h
= 136300-121000 y if 0,30 < y < 1,0

h
= 15000 y
-3,7
if y > 1,0
with

'
'
h
z H L
z H r
y
+ +
+ +
=

where
r: is the distance from the flame axis to the
point where the thermal flux is calculated (m)
z: is the vertical position of the virtual heat
source (m)
D: is the diameter of the fire (m)

Figure 5.2 Localised Fires (Annex C of EN 1991-1-2)
For situations where the fire is not impacting the ceiling, a design formula is
given to calculate the temperature in the plume at heights along the vertical
flame axis. For situations where the fire is impacting the ceiling, some simple
steps are given to calculate the heat flux received by the fire-exposed surfaces
at the level of the ceiling.
These models are most often used to calculate thermal actions (expressed in
terms of heat flux resulting from a radiation part and a convection part) on
horizontal structural members, such as beams. At the present time, no method
is available for vertical steel members affected by a localised fire.
The input data are the rate of heat release (RHR), the distance between the fire
source and the ceiling, and the diameter of fire. The RHR is usually determined
by using EN 1991-1-2 section E.4.
These approaches are limited to cases where the diameter of fire D is less than
10 m and the rate of heat release of fire Q is less than 50 MW.
7 - 16
5.2 Thermal Models
Considering the high thermal conductivity of steel and the small thickness of
steel profiles commonly used in the construction, it is sufficiently accurate to
ignore thermal gradients within the cross-section of structural members and
assume a uniform temperature when uniformly heated.
Consequently, simple design equations can be used to predict the temperatures
of steel members that are fully exposed to fire or steel members that support a
concrete slab and are exposed on three sides. Similar rules exist for fire-
protected steel sections, although the thermal properties of the proposed
protection material are needed, which can be difficult to obtain.
For the composite steel-concrete members, strictly speaking, there are no
simplified models to estimate the evolution, as a function of time, of
temperature distribution through members. To simplify the design, information
on temperature distribution at current time of standard fire exposure (i.e. 30,
60, 90 and 120 minutes) is given in EN 1994-1-2.
5.2.1 Unprotected steel member
Heating of the unprotected steel members can be determined by means of the
simple analytical approach given in EN 1993-1-2. In this method, the
temperature rise depends on the thermal actions (expressed in terms of net heat
fluxes), the thermal properties of the steel and the section factor of the element
A
m
/V defined as the ratio between the surface area exposed to the heat flux A
m

[m/m] and the volume of the element by unit length V [m
3
/m]. The section
factors for some unprotected steel members are shown in Figure 5.3.

b
h
t
t
t
A
m
/V=Perimeter exposed to fire
/Cross-section area
A
m
/V=1 / t A
m
/V=2 / t

Figure 5.3 Example of section factor for unprotected steel members
Assuming an equivalent uniform temperature distribution in a cross-section,
the increase of temperature Au
a,t
in an unprotected steel member during a time
interval At may be determined from:
t
h
c
/V
A
k A = A

d net,
a
a
m
sh t a,
u with At s 5 s (4)
where:
sh
k is the correction factor for the shadow effect caused by local
shielding of radiant heat transfer due to shape of steel profile
a
C is the specific heat of steel [J/kgK]
7 - 17
a

is the unit mass of steel [kg/m
3
]
h
d net,
is the net heat flux per unit area [W/m]
Solving the incremental equation step by step gives the temperature
development of the steel element during the fire. In order to assure the
numerical convergence of the solution, some upper limit must be taken for the
time increment At. In EN 1993-1-2, it is suggested that the value of At should
not be taken as more than 5 seconds.
The thermal actions are determined by the net heat flux
r net,
h
absorbed by the
steel member during the fire exposure. It is expressed in terms of the hot gas
temperature as the sum of two distinct fluxes: a convective component
c net,
h

and a radiant component
r
h
net,
.
Convective heat flux is expressed as:
) (
m g c c net,
u u o = h
(5)
where:
c
o is the coefficient of heat transfer by convection [W/mK]
g
u is the gas temperature [C]
m
u is the surface temperature of the member [C]
Radiant heat flux is given by:
) 273) ( ) 273 ((
4
m
4
r m 0 r net,
+ + = u u c |o h
(6)
where:
| is the configuration factor, including position and shape effect (<1)
m
c is the surface emissivity of the member
r
u is the radiation temperature of the fire environment [C] (u
r
ug)
m
u is the surface temperature of the member [C]
0
o is the Stephan Boltzmann constant [= 5,67 10
-8
W/m
2
K
4
]
According to EN 1991-1-2, for many practical cases the configuration factor
may be taken equal to unity. The coefficient of convection (
c
o ) varies from
25 W/mK (standard fire conditions) to 50 W/mK (hydrocarbon fire
conditions). The emissivity of carbon steel and composite steel and concrete
members may be taken as 7 , 0
m
= c .
7 - 18
For cross-section with a convex shape, such as hollow steel sections, fully
embedded in fire, the shadow effect does not play a role and it can be taken
that k
sh
= 1. Otherwise, the correction factor for the shadow effects k
sh
is given
by:
=
cases others for
actions fire nominal under sections - I for
/
] / [
/
] / [ 9 , 0
m
b m
m
b m
sh
V A
V A
V A
V A
k (7)
where:
b m
] / [ V A

is the box value of the section factor [m
-1
].
Application of the EN 1993-1-2 calculation method with standard ISO fire
exposures of 15 and 30 minutes leads to the temperature curves illustrated in
Figure 5.4 and given in Table 5.1 as function of the section factor including
shadow effect (A
m
/V)
sh
= k
sh
A
m
/V.

Figure 5.4 Temperature of unprotected steel members after 15 and
30 minutes of standard ISO fire exposure
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
(A
m
/V)
sh
= k
sh
(A
m
/V) (m
-1
)
Temperature (C)
15 minutes
30 minutes
10
7 - 19
Table 5.1 Temperature of unprotected steel members after 15 and
30 minutes of standard ISO fire exposure
Steel temperature (C) Steel temperature (C) Section
factor
(A
m
/V)
sh

15 min 30 min
Section
factor
(A
m
/V)
sh

15 min 30 min
10 113 257 130 621 802
20 194 431 140 634 809
30 265 554 150 646 815
40 328 636 160 655 819
50 383 690 170 664 822
60 432 721 180 671 825
70 473 734 190 677 827
80 509 741 200 682 828
90 539 753 250 699 833
100 565 767 300 708 835
110 586 781 400 716 837
120 605 792 500 720 838

5.2.2 Protected steel member
EN 1993-1-2 also provides a simple design approach for insulated members
with passive fire protection materials. In such cases, the temperature rise
depends on the section factor A
p
/V for the steel member insulated by fire
protection material (A
p
is the appropriate area of fire protection material per
unit length and V is volume of the steel member per unit length) and the
insulation characteristics. The insulating materials can be in form of profiled or
boxed systems, but this simple approach does not cover intumescent coatings.
Assuming uniform temperature distribution, the temperature increase Au
a,t
in
an insulated steel member during a time interval At may be determined from:
( ) ( )
t g,
10 /
t a, t g,
p
a a
p p
t a,
1 e
3 / 1
1
/
u u u
|
u
|
A A
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= A t
V
A
c
d
(8)
with
V
A
d
c
c
p
p
a a
p p
| = (9)
where:
p
d is the thickness of fire protection material [m]
p
C is the specific heat of fire protection material [J/kgK]
p
is the thermal conductivity of the fire protection material [W/mK]
p
is the unit mass of the fire protection material [kg/m
3
]
7 - 20
g
u is the gas temperature [C]
Figure 5.5 gives expressions to calculate the section factor of protected steel
members.
A
m
/V= (P-b) / A
s
b
A
m
/V= (2h+b) / A
s
A
m
/V= 2(2+b) / A
s
A
m
/V= P / A
s

h
b
b
h
P : perimeter ; A
s
: cross-section area

Figure 5.5 Example of section factor for insulated steel members
It is important to note that thermal characteristics of fire protection materials
are usually determined from fire tests performed under standard fire conditions.
Consequently, referring to thermal actions based on natural fires, the use of
Equation (8) for the fire design situation of protected steel members should be
handled with some caution. The calculation should be performed only if
appropriate data are available or if it can be shown that fire conditions have no
significant effects on thermal characteristics and integrity of fire protection
materials. Nevertheless, it is commonly assumed that thermal properties of an
insulation material can be used under natural fire conditions when the
temperatures of hot gases remain lower than the maximum temperature reached
during the standard fire test for the insulation material (For example, about
1100C for 4 hours of the standard temperature-time curve).
The material properties given in Table 5.2 may be used as a first approximation
to calculate heating of protected steel members. These average values are
derived from fire tests by material manufacturers.
7 - 21
Table 5.2 Average materials properties of main fire protection materials
Material
Density
p
[(kg/m
3
]
Conductivity
p
[W/mK]
Specific heat
p
C [J/kgK])
Mineral fibre 300 0,12 1200
Vermiculite and
cement
350 0,12 1200 Sprays
perlite 350 0,12 1200
vermiculite (or
perlite) and cement
550 0,12 1100
High density
sprays
vermiculite (or
perlite) and gypsum
650 0,12 1100
vermiculite (or
perlite) and cement
800 0,2 1200
fibre-silicate or fibre
calcium-silicate
600 0,15 1200
fibre-cement 800 0,15 1200
Boards
gypsum board 800 0,2 1700
Compressed
fibre boards
fibre-silicate,
mineral, stone-wool
150 0,2 1200
5.3 Structural Models
According to the Eurocodes, several simple design methods can be used to
assess the fire resistance of structures under fire conditions. The first one is the
critical temperature method widely applied to steel structural member analysis
and the second one is the simple mechanical models developed for both steel
and composite steel and concrete structural members.
It is important to remember that the design methods available for composite
members are only valid for the standard fire exposure. Moreover, design
methods given for columns should be only applied to members of braced
frames (where the column ends have no horizontal displacement).
5.3.1 Critical temperature method
The critical temperature is calculated by using applied mechanical actions,
design resistance in the normal temperature condition and the strength loss of
steel at elevated temperature. This critical temperature generally varies
between 500C and 800C. It can be obtained by calculation according to the
simple rules given in the EN 1993-1-2 or by referring to default values.
According to the critical temperature method, the fire resistance of a steel
member without instability effect is satisfied after a time t if the steel
temperature
t , a
u does not exceed the critical temperature
cr
u of the element:
cr t , a
u u s (10)
7 - 22
The critical temperature of the member can be calculated from the degree of
utilization
0
as follows:
482 1
9674 . 0
1
ln 19 , 39
833 . 3
0
+
(
u
cr
(11)
The degree of utilization
0
is obtained from:
d,0 fi,
d fi,
0
R
E
= (12)
where:
d fi,
E is the design effect of actions for the fire design situation, according
to EN 1991-1-2
d,0 fi,
R is the corresponding design resistance of the steel member, for the
fire design situation, at time t = 0 (at normal temperature) but with
safety factor
fi , M
in fire situation
The expression for
cr
can be used for all classes of section except the very
slender Class 4 sections, for which a single conservative critical temperature of
350C should be used.
In principle, Expression (11) applies for members in pure bending, short
columns without buckling and members in tension, heated uniformly or with
slight temperature gradient. However, in situations of instability (slender
columns, unrestrained beams), the method becomes applicable by calculating
the design resistance for the fire design situation at time t = 0 with a value of
the slenderness that takes into account temperature effects on the slenderness
of structural members. As a simplification, the slenderness in fire situations can
be taken as
u
3 . 1 = (where
is the non dimensional slenderness at

normal temperature).
As an alternative, to relation (11) nationally determined critical temperatures
can be given in the National Annex to EN 1993-1-2.
A simple conservative expression for
0
can also be used for tension members
and restrained beams (where lateral-torsional buckling is not a potential failure
mode):
2 1
M
fi , M
t , fi 0
k k
q = (13)
where:
t , fi
q is the load level at time t
fi , M
is the relevant partial safety factor for fire situation ( 1
fi , M
= )
0 M
is the partial safety factor at normal temperature ( 1
0 M
= )
7 - 23
1
,
2
are the adaptation factors to take account a non-uniform
temperature distribution on steel member.
The load level at time t is defined as:
d
d fi,
t fi,
R
E
= q (14)
where:
d fi,
E is the design effect of actions for the fire design situation, according
to EN 1991-1-2
d
R is the ultimate resistance in room temperature
For a given fire duration t, assuming that
cr t , a
u u = , the maximum value of
utilization level
0
of unprotected steel members to satisfy the required fire
resistance may be easily calculated from (11), as function of section factor
including the shadow effect (A
m
/V)
sh
. In this way, it may be assumed that fire
resistance of unprotected steel members is satisfied after a time t if:
max 0
s (15)
Maximum degrees of utilisation
max
calculated for standard fire resistance
R15 and R30 are given in Figure 5.6. It should be noted that for a fire
resistance R30, unprotected members with a section factor (A
m
/V)
sh
higher than
50 m
-1
can only achieve very low values of the degree of utilisation.

Figure 5.6 Maximum utilization level as a function of section factor (A
m
/V)
sh

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
(A
m
/V)
sh
= k
sh
(A
m
/V)(m
-1
)

max
10
15 minutes
30 minutes
practical field of
0
7 - 24
5.3.2 Simple design method for steel members
According to EN 1993-1-2, the load-bearing function of a steel member should
be assumed to be maintained at a time t if:
t fi, d, d fi,
R E < (16)
where:
d fi,
E

is the design effect of actions for the fire design situation, according
to EN 1991-1-2
t fi, d,
R

is the corresponding design resistance of the steel member, for the
fire design situation, at time t
The following simplified calculation methods allow the designer to assess the
design fire resistance (buckling resistance, resistance moment) of steel
members. They are mainly based on the assumption of constant temperature
within the section.
Steel columns under compression only
The design resistance for the fire design situation at time t of a compression
member with a Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-sections at a uniform temperature
a

should be determined from:
( )
Rd y,
f M,
M0
f Rd t, fi,
N k N
i
i
_
u
= (17)
where:
y,
k is the reduction factor for the yield strength of steel at the steel
temperature reached at time t
fi , M
is the partial safety factor for fire situation ( 1
fi , M
= )
0 M
is the partial safety factor at normal temperature ( 1
0 M
= )
Rd
N is the design resistance of the cross-section N
pl,Rd
for the normal
temperature design according to EN 1993-1-1
fi
_ is the reduction factor for flexural buckling in the fire design
situation
The reduction factor
fi
_

for flexural buckling is obtained from the non-
dimensional slenderness
u
at temperature using:
2
2

f
1

_
+
=
i
but _
fi
s 1.0 (18)
with
| |
2

1
2
1
o + + =
7 - 25
where:
o is the imperfection factor for the appropriate buckling curve given
by
y
/ 235 65 . 0 f = o with f
y
is characteristic yield strength of steel.
The non dimensional slenderness at temperature is given by:
E, y,
/ k k =
(19)
where:
y,
k
is the reduction factor for the yield strength of steel at the
temperature u
E,
k
is the reduction factor for the slope of the linear elastic range at the
temperature u
The non dimensional slenderness at normal temperature, according

to EN 1993-1-1
The non dimensional slenderness at normal temperature is given by:
E
f
i
y
cr
1
= (20)
where:
cr
is the buckling length in the buckling plane considered
i is the radius of gyration about the relevant axis, determined using
the properties of the gross cross-section
For a practical use, the reduction factor
i f
_ for flexural buckling can be directly
calculated from values given in Table 5.3, according to the steel grade and the
non dimensional slenderness of steel member at normal temperature
. Values
of reduction factor
fi
_ in Table 5.3 were calculated assuming a slenderness in
the fire situation equal to 3 . 1
= . For intermediate value of non-

dimensional relative slenderness, linear interpolation may be used.
7 - 26
Table 5.3 Values of reduction factor _
fi
as function of non dimensional
slenderness at normal temperature and the steel grade
Steel grade Steel grade

S235 S275 S355

S235 S275 S355
0,2 0,8480 0,8577 0,8725 1,7 0,1520 0,1549 0,1594
0,3 0,7767 0,7897 0,8096 1,8 0,1381 0,1406 0,1445
0,4 0,7054 0,7204 0,7439 1,9 0,1260 0,1282 0,1315
0,5 0,6341 0,6500 0,6752 2 0,1153 0,1172 0,1202
0,6 0,5643 0,5800 0,6050 2,1 0,1060 0,1076 0,1102
0,7 0,4983 0,5127 0,5361 2,2 0,0977 0,0991 0,1014
0,8 0,4378 0,4506 0,4713 2,3 0,0903 0,0916 0,0936
0,9 0,3841 0,3951 0,4128 2,4 0,0837 0,0849 0,0866
1 0,3373 0,3466 0,3614 2,5 0,0778 0,0788 0,0804
1,1 0,2970 0,3048 0,3172 2,6 0,0725 0,0734 0,0749
1,2 0,2626 0,2691 0,2794 2,7 0,0677 0,0686 0,0699
1,3 0,2332 0,2387 0,2473 2,8 0,0634 0,0642 0,0653
1,4 0,2081 0,2127 0,2200 2,9 0,0595 0,0602 0,0612
1,5 0,1865 0,1905 0,1966 3 0,0559 0,0565 0,0575
1,6 0,1680 0,1714 0,1766

Steel beams
The design moment resistance for the fire design situation of a laterally
unrestrained beam with a Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-section, at a uniform
temperature u
a
is given by:
( )
Rd y,
fi M,
M0
f LT, Rd t, fi,
M k M
i
_
u
= (21)
where:
y,
k is the reduction factor for the yield strength of steel at the steel
temperature reached at time t
Rd
M is the moment resistant of the gross cross-section (plastic moment
resistant
Rd pl,
M or elastic plastic moment resistant
Rd el,
M for the
normal temperature design calculated using EN 1993-1-1
fi LT,
_ is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling in the fire
design situation. It may be calculated in the same way as the
reduction factor for flexural buckling but using the appropriate non-
dimensional slenderness
For laterally restrained beams, the same design method can be used, adopting
1
fi LT,
= _ .
Often structural members will not have a uniform temperature. An adaptation
factor
1
can be introduced to take account a non-uniform temperature
distribution over the height of the steel section. A further adaptation factor
2

can be also introduced to account for variations in member temperature along
the length of the structural member when the beam is statically indeterminate.
7 - 27
The value of the adaptation factors
1
and
2
should be taken according to
EN 1993-1-2.
Members subject to combined bending and axial compression
A simplified design method is also available to verify the fire resistance of
steel members subjected to combined bending and axial compression, such as
slender columns under eccentric load and long beams with lateral buckling. For
this situation, the simple calculation model takes into account the combination
effect of bending and compression by combining above two models for the
simple loading condition. Detailed information is given in EN 1993-1-2.
5.3.3 Determination of fire protection material thickness
In situations where requirements with respect to fire resistance are high
(generally more than R30), the application of prescriptive rules usually leads to
the fire protection of steel structures. When passive fire protection is necessary,
the knowledge of the critical temperature, the section factor and the fire
resistance time required, allow for a given fire protection system (spray, board,
intumescent coating), determination of the thickness to apply. Only products
which were tested and assessed in standard fire tests according to the European
standard EN 13881 may be used in practice.
The required thickness can usually be determined from manufacturers
published data. Such manufacturers data can be given in form of table or
diagram as illustrated in Figure 5.7. The data generally relates the thickness of
fire protection material to the section factor of the steel member (A
p
/V), the
critical temperature and the fire resistance time required. For typical building
construction using standard I and H steel profiles, the value of A
m
/V is usually
in the range 30 450 m
-1
.
Fire resistance rating R60
Section factor Ap/V (m
-1
)
S
t
e
e
l

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Figure 5.7 Example of French diagram for boarded fire protection
In practical design, for a given fire protection material, the thickness may be
determined according to following steps:
- Choose the data related to the fire resistance time required
- Calculate the section factor according to the shape of the steel profile, the
presence of any shading of the structural member against heat transfer from
7 - 28
the fire during the fire duration (for example a concrete slab put on the
upper flange of the profile), the type of fire protection (according to the
outline of the steel profile or in box)
- Determine the thickness from the manufacturers data using the critical
temperature and the section factor. Linear interpolation is permissible to
determine thickness.
The European Convention for Constructional Steelwork (ECCS) has developed
so-called Euro-nomograms
[13]
, which relate for a given time of standard fire
exposure, the temperature reached by insulated steel members to the factor
(
p
/d
p
) (A
p
/V) depending on the fire protection characteristics (
p
and d
p
) and
the section factor A
p
/V. Note that these Euro-nomograms are determined on the
basis of the ENV version of the fire part of Eurocode 3. Also for this reason
they should be used with some caution. Other nomograms based on
EN 1993-1-2 have been recently developed
[14]
.
5.3.4 Design tables for composite members
Design tables for composite members are given in EN 1994-1-2. They are
applicable only to steel and concrete composite members (composite beams
with partially or fully concrete encasement of steel beam, composite columns
with partially or fully concrete encased profiles, composite columns with
concrete filled rectangular or circular steel hollow sections). They use
predefined values, based mainly on standard fire test results, improved with
analytical investigation. The tables allow the designer to quickly obtain the
member size (minimum dimensions of cross-section, the necessary reinforcing
steel area and its minimum concrete cover) as a function of the load level for
common standard fire resistances. The most important advantage of this
method is the ease of application. However it is limited by a very strict set of
geometrical rules and it gives more conservative results compared to other
simple calculation models or advanced calculation models. As a consequence,
it should only be applied for the pre-design of a building.
Detailed information is given in EN 1994-1-2.
5.3.5 Simplified calculations models for composite members
The following design methods have been developed to predict the resistance of
individual members when exposed to a standard fire curve. Therefore they are
not applicable to natural fires.
Only the design methods for the most commonly used composite members in
single-storey building (composite columns and partially encased concrete
beams) are described here.
Composite columns
The simple design methods for columns allow the designer to assess the fire
resistance of a composite column by calculating its buckling resistance using
the temperature distribution through the cross-section and the corresponding
reduced material strength defined at the required fire resistance time. This
method is based on the buckling curve concept: the plastic resistance to axial
compression N
fi,pl,Rd
and the effective flexural stiffness (EI)
fi,eff
, are used to
derive a reduction factor for buckling. The method is applicable to all types of
7 - 29
composite column provide that an appropriate buckling curve is used.
Checking the column consists of proving that the axial compression (for the
combination of actions considered in fire situation according to EN 1991-1-2)
is less than the buckling resistance of the column.
For a given temperature distribution across the cross-section, the design
resistance of a composite column N
fi,Rd
can be determined from the appropriate
buckling column curve relating the load capacity N
fi,Rd
to the plastic load
N
fi,pl,Rd
and the elastic critical load N
fi,cr
as follows:
( )
Rd pl, fi, Rd fi,
.N N _ = (22)
_ is the reduction factor for flexural buckling depending on the slenderness in
fire situation
.For composite columns,
may be defined as:

cr fi, R pl, fi,
/ N N = (23)
where:
cr fi,
N is the Euler buckling load
R pl, fi,
N

is the value of N
fi,pl,Rd
according to (24) when the partial security
factors
M,fi,a
,
M,fi,s
, and

M,fi,c
,of the materials are taken as 1.0
The reduction factor _ is determined as for normal temperature design but
using an appropriate buckling curve defined as function of column type
(partially encased steel section, filled hollow steel section).
The ultimate plastic load, N
fi,pl,Rd
of the cross-section is determined by
summing the strengths of every part of the cross-section (yield stress for steel
parts, compressive strength for concrete parts) multiplied by the corresponding
areas, taking into account the effect of temperature on these elements, without
considering their interaction (due to differential thermal stresses), i.e.:

+ + =
m
c
k
s
j
f
A
f
A
f
A N ) ( ) ( ) . (
c fi, M,
c,
s fi, M,
s,
a fi, M,
ay,
a Rd pl, fi,

(24)
N
fi,cr
is the Euler buckling load calculated as a function of the effective flexural
stiffness of the cross-section
eff fi,
) (EI and the buckling length
u
of the
column in fire situation, i.e.:
2
eff fi, 2
cr fi,
) (
EI
N = (25)
The effective rigidity (EI)
fi,eff
is determined from:

+ + =
m k j
I E I E I E EI ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
c, sec, c, c, s, s, s, a, a, a, eff fi,
(26)
where:
, i
E is the characteristic modulus of material i at the temperature u. For
steel, it is the modulus of elasticity. For concrete: 2 / 3
sec c, c,
E E =
u

7 - 30
where
sec, c,
E is the characteristic value for the secant modulus of
concrete in the fire situation, given by the ration between f
c,
and
c
cu,u

I
i
is the second moment of area of material i related to the central axis
(y or z) of the composite cross-section
a,u
(for steel profile),
s,u
(for reinforcements) and
c,u
(for concrete) are
reduction coefficients due to the differential effects of thermal stresses.
Detailed information is given in EN 1994-1-2 4.3.5.
Partially encased steel beams
The simple design method for partially encased steel beams allows the designer
to assess the fire resistance by calculating its bending resistance at the required
fire resistance time. It is based on the simple plastic moment theory. The
method requires the calculation of the neutral axis and corresponding bending
resistance, taking into account temperature distribution through the cross-
section and corresponding reduced material strength. Distinction is made
between sagging moment capacity (usually at mid-span) and the hogging
moment capacity (at the support, if appropriate). If the applied moment is less
than the bending resistance of the beam, the member is deemed to have
adequate fire resistance.
The plastic neutral axis of the beam is determined such that the tensile and
compressive forces acting in the section are in equilibrium:
0
1
c fi, M,
c,
, c,
1
a fi, M,
, y
, y,
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

= =
m
j
j
j j
n
i
i
i i
f
k A
f
k A

u
(27)
where:
f
y,i
is the nominal yield strength for the elemental steel area A
i
taken as
positive on the compression side of the plastic neutral axis and
negative on the tension side
f
c,j
is the nominal compressive strength for the elemental concrete area
A
j
taken as positive on the compression side of the plastic neutral
axis and negative on the tension side
The design moment resistance
Rd t, fi,
M may be determined from:

= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
m
1 j c , fi , M
j c,
j , c, j j
n
1 i a , fi , M
i , y
i , y, i i Rd , t , fi
f
k z A
f
k z A M

u u
(28)
where:
z
i
, z
j
are the distances from the plastic neutral axis to the centroid of the
elemental area A
i
and A
j

7 - 31
For the calculation of the design value of the moment resistance, the cross-
section of the beam is divided into various components, namely:
- the flanges of the steel profile
- the web (lower and upper parts) of the steel profile
- the reinforcing bars
- the encased concrete.
To each of these parts of the cross-section, simple rules are given which define
the effect of temperatures and allow calculation of the reduced characteristic
strength in function of the standard fire resistance R30, R60, R90 or R120.
Detailed information is given in EN 1994-1-2 4.3.4.
5.4 Specific design rules for single-storey buildings
National fire regulations of many European countries have been changed
recently to introduce, for single-storey storage and industrial buildings with
significant fire risks (high fire loads), specific safety requirements in terms of
structural behaviour as an alternative to standard prescriptive requirements.
The following criteria relating to the structural behaviour of storage and
industrial buildings (load-bearing structure, faade elements, roofing and fire
walls) must be satisfied to ensure adequate life safety for building occupants
and firemen:
- In case of fire occurring in one of the cells of the building, its structure
(including faade elements) must not collapse towards the outside.
- In case of fire occurring in one of the cells of the building, the localized
failure of the cell in fire must not lead to the collapse of the neighbouring
cells.
To help the design of storage and industrial buildings with a steel structure,
several simple design methods can be used
5,6
. These design methods allow the
designer to easily prove that the behaviour of the steel structure of these
buildings in fire situations fulfils the above criteria. The methods are
implemented in the LUCA software
[15]
.
The design methods enable the designer to:
- Evaluate forces induced by the collapse of the heated part of the structure.
These forces should be used as additional horizontal load for the stability
check of the part of the frame that remains cold during the fire. That part
can be assessed using normal conditions design tools for structure analysis.
- Provide maximum horizontal displacements developed at the ends of the
compartment affected by the fire. These displacements are used to ensure
that movements of the structure in the event of fire do not adversely affect
the stability of fire walls or building faades. Design methods used for this
verification depend on the type of the wall (such as in lightweight concrete,
reinforced concrete, hollow block, steel sheeting with insulator,
plasterboard, bricks, etc.) and connection to the steel frame.
7 - 32
The following buildings can de designed by these methods:
- Storage and industrial buildings with steel structure. Either steel portal
frames with standard H or I hot rolled profiles or equivalent welded plate
girders, or steel frames based on lattice beams with columns in standard H
or I hot rolled profiles or equivalent welded plate girders
- Storage and industrial buildings of portal frame construction divided in
several cells, separated one from each other by fire walls. These walls can
be either perpendicular to the steel portal frames or parallel to the steel
portal frames (see Figure 5.8).
These methods were specifically developed for storage and industrial buildings
but they can also be applied to other type of single-storey buildings.

fire wall perpendicular
to the steel frame
fire wall parallel to the
steel frame

Figure 5.8 Location of fire wall compared to steel frames
Calculation methods (see Section 5.5) are only required when fire walls are
perpendicular to steel frames of the building and the building height exceeds
20 m
5
. When fire walls are parallel to steel frames, the risks of collapse
towards the outside and progressive collapse (between different fire
compartments) can be simply avoided by following the recommendations in
Section 5.5.3.
7 - 33
5.5 Simplified design methods
A flowchart showing simplified calculation methods is given in Figure 5.9.

yes
No
No
yes
(*) For all the possible fire scenarios according to the building arrangement
Industrial hall
Checking of failure modes
Choice of fire scenario
(*)
(see Figure 5-14)
Calculation of displacements of the steel structure i
(see expression (30))
Calculation of tensile force Fi
(see expression (29))
Checking of the compatibility of displacements
Steel structure and partition elements
Steel structure and facade elements
Checking of the stability at the
ultimate limit states of the cold
parts of the steel structure
End of
checking
yes
Change in the
steel structure
Change in the design of partition
or facade elements to ensure the
compatibility of displacements
No
Is it a simple isolated
portal frame?
Design recommendations
at the bottom of columns
(see end of 5.6.2)
yes

Figure 5.9 Application flowchart of calculation methods
The calculations of tensile force and lateral displacements at compartment ends
must be performed for all possible fire scenarios. Examples of scenarios are
given in Section 5.5.3. Calculation methods are given in Sections 5.5.1 and
5.5.2.
5.5.1 Tensile force at compartment ends
m
1
= 1 m
2
= 2 n = 1
K
2

F
F
K
1

Figure 5.10 Horizontal tensile force at the fire compartment ends
When a fire occurs in a compartment of the building, the horizontal tensile
force F at the compartment ends resulting from the collapse of the roof
structure (see Figure 5.10), which is needed to verify the stability of the cold
part of the structure can be obtained from:
q n c F
eff p
= (29)
7 - 34
where:
p
c is an empirical coefficient (depending on the slope of the roof and
the type of steel structure)
=
Frames Lattice for
Frames Portal for
45 , 1
slope 10% for 10 , 1
slope 5% for 16 , 1
slope 0% for 19 , 1
p
c
n
eff
is a coefficient related to the total number of heated bays n in the
fire compartment (see Table 5.4)
q is the linear load on roof [N/m] (equal to the load density multiplied
by the spacing between frames) applied on the beam and calculated
in fire situation (q = G +
1
S
n
), where G is the permanent load
including self-weight of the steel frame and service overloads, S
n
is
the snow load and
1
is the load factor according to load
combination coefficients defined in EN 1990 and corresponding
national annexes.
is the span of on heated bay connected to the column [m]
Table 5.4 Values of coefficient n
eff

Portal frame Lattice Frame
Setting of compartment in fire Setting of compartment in fire
Number of bay
in fire
end middle end middle
n = 1 n
eff
=0,5 n
eff
=1,0 n
eff
=0,6 n
eff
=1,0
n > 2 n
eff
=1,0 n
eff
=2,0 n
eff
=1,0 n
eff
=1,0
Where columns of the steel frame support a boundary fire wall, columns
should be designed (providing adequate robust base to columns) to resist a
horizontal force calculated according to equation (29) but using n
eff
= 1,0.
5.5.2 Lateral displacements at the fire compartment ends
In the event of fire, movements of steel single-storey buildings can be of the
order of several tens of centimetres and therefore could lead to the failure of
faade or the partition element if it is not sufficiently ductile or not accurately
fixed. So it is important to check that faade elements and fire walls in contact
with the steel structure are compatible with the lateral displacements developed
at the ends of fire compartments and that they keep their integrity to avoid the
collapse towards outside and the progressive collapse between different fire
compartments
7 - 35
Maximum lateral displacements
i
(i = 1, 2) induced at the top of columns
located at the compartment ends can be obtained using the following
expression (see Figure 5.11):
)
`
=
building the of middle in the is fire when the ; Max
building the of end at the is fire when the
th
t
th
t
i i
i
i
K
F
nl c
K
K
nl c
K
K
o (30)
where:
n is the number of heated bays
K
i
is the equivalent lateral stiffness of the considered part i of the
structure [N/m]
K
t
is the equivalent stiffness (depending on equivalent stiffnesses
1
K and
2
K ) given by:

2 1
2 1
t
K K
K K
K
+
=
is the span of one heated bay connected to the column [m]
F is the tensile force [N]
c
th
is an empirical coefficient (dependent on the slope of the roof and
the type of steel structure)
=
Frames Lattice for
Frames Portal for
009 , 0
slope 10% for 015 , 0
slope 5% for 011 , 0
slope 0% for 01 , 0
th
c
Lateral stiffness K for fire in the middle of a frame
If the fire compartment is in the middle of the frame as illustrated in
Figure 5.11 , K
1
and K
2
should be calculated by an elastic method.
1
o
2
o
m
1
= 1 m
2
= 2 n = 1
K
2

K
1

Figure 5.11 Fire located in a cell at the middle of the building
However, for usual steel frames (constant range, even standard steel profiles
from one span to another), the equivalent lateral stiffness
i
K on either side of
the fire can be calculated approximately according to the number of cold spans
on that side (m
i
) using the following relationships:
7 - 36
>
=
=
2 for
1 for
i
i
i
m ck
m k
K (31)
)
6 , 0
1 (
2 1
1 2
2
2
1
) (
12
2 1
with
c
b
3
c
h
f
l
f h
I
I
j
i
m
j
j
c
f h
EI
k
+
=
+
+
=
+ =
+
+
=
o
o
o
o
o
(32)
where, for each side in turn (i = 1, 2):
h is the height of the columns
f is the ridgepole
l is the length of the span
I
b
is the second moment of area of the beam
I
c
is the second moment of area of the column
E is the modulus of elasticity of steel for normal temperature

f
h
mi=2
Ib
Ic

Figure 5.12 Definition of parameters of cold parts on side i of the frame
Lateral stiffness K for fire at the end of a frame
If fire compartment is at the end of the frame, K
2
should be calculated as for
fire in the middle compartment. K
1
, which is defined as the lateral stiffness of
the steel frame of the heated fire compartment, should be calculated as follows:
)
`
>
=
>
=
=
=
frames lattice for
2 for 3 , 0
1 for 2 , 0
frames portal for
2 for 13 , 0
2 for 13 , 0
1 for 065 , 0
2
2
1
n K
n K
n k c
n k
n k
K (33)
where k and c are calculated from equation (32) with m
1
= n 1, where n is the
number of heated bays, as shown in Figure 5.13.
7 - 37
K
1

1
o
2
o
n = 1 m
2
= 3
K
2

Figure 5.13 Fire in a compartment at the end of the building
5.5.3 Example of fire scenarios
The above calculations must be performed for all possible fire scenarios. These
scenarios are defined in accordance with the arrangement of the storage
building (structure and partitioning) as illustrated in the example in
Figure 5.14.

Configuration of storage building: 5 spans and 3 cells
Cell 1 Cell 2 Cell 3
Fire wall Fire wall
Scenario 1: fire in cell 1
3 fire scenarios need to be considered

Figure 5.14 Fire scenarios according to the arrangement of the building
5.6 Design recommendations
Additional design recommendations for fire walls, faade elements and bracing
systems must be put into practice to avoid the collapse toward the outside of
the building and the progressive collapse of the steel structure. Obviously,
recommendations allow also the collapse of the steel structure under fire
condition on either side of fire wall without causing any damage to this wall.
7 - 38
5.6.1 Fire walls
To limit the fire spread to a neighbouring compartment from the fire
compartment, a solution that requires the building to be subdivided into
independent compartments can be achieved by implementing one of the
following construction details:
- Two independent fire walls (such as sandwich panels, prefabricated panels,
etc.) each fixed to an independent structural frame (see Figure 5.15 (a)). In
this case, when one structure and its fire wall collapse during a fire, the fire
cannot spread to the neighbouring structure, which remains stable and fire
protected by the second fire wall
- A single fire wall inserted between both structures. This fire wall can be a
self-stabilized wall and fully independent. The fire wall can be also fixed at
its top to both structures by means of fusible ties (see Figure 5.15 (b))
which, in case of fire near the wall, releases the connection to the hot
structure (usually when a temperature from 100 to 200C is reached in
bolts) without causing any damage to the wall (it one remains attached to
the steel structure located on the cold side) and the stability of the
neighbouring cold structure.
Self-stabilized walls are commonly used in practice. However during a fire,
this solution can be dangerous for people (occupants and firemen) because they
collapse away from the fire as a consequence of thermal bowing effect. So,
they should be used only if their behaviour has been evaluated by advanced
calculation model taking into account second order effects. Moreover, where
spacing from the self-stable wall to the neighbouring steel structure is not
sufficient, it is important to make sure that the fire wall can bear the force
which may be induced by the movements of the building due to the thermal
elongation of the roof structure (beams and purlins) due to the increase of
temperature in the cell with the fire.
As an alternative to the previous solutions, it is possible to insert the fire wall
into the steel structure of the single-storey building as illustrated in
Figure 5.15(c). Such wall can be either perpendicular to the steel frame or
parallel to the steel frame. Several solutions can be then considered: fire wall
inserted into a line of columns, fire wall attached to columns or fire wall
moved from a line of columns. For these solutions, adequate measures must be
implemented to avoid the collapse of the wall as a result of significant lateral
displacements of the steel structure. These measures concern:
- The attachment of fire walls to the steel structure
- The fire protection of the steel structure near fire walls,
- The roof system above fire walls
- The bracing system.
7 - 39
a) Doubling of the structure as
well as fire walls
b) Doubling of structure with
fire wall fixed by fusible
ties
c) Example of fire wall
inserted into the steel
structure

Figure 5.15 Some solutions of fire walls
Attachment of faade elements and fire walls to steel structure
Fire walls and faade elements fixed to steel structure of single-storey-
buildings have to remain solidly attached in order to prevent any failure of
these elements due to significant lateral displacements of structure in the event
of fire, and so to avoid risks of progressive collapse and collapse towards the
outside of the building.

3m
3m
3m
3m
Fire wall
Facade element

Figure 5.16 Design detail for faade elements and fire walls
One solution consists of fixing these elements to the columns of the load-
bearing structure by means of suitable attachment systems uniformly
distributed over the building height. The maximum spacing of these
attachments will be fixed by the manufacturer of the walls; it is recommended
that the spacing should not exceed 3 m for walls constructed on-site walls
(concrete, masonry, etc.).
In addition, fastenings used to connect fire walls and faade elements on the
columns must be designed to resist the forces produced due to wind and self-
weight of partition elements under the effect of the lateral displacement
induced by the steel frame of the building. If these fastenings are in steel and
unprotected against fire, each of them must be designed at ambient temperature
to resist the following force:
n d p W F
i
/ 5 o + = (34)
where:
W is the characteristic wind load used for the design at ambient
temperature and applied to each fastening [N]
p is the self-weight of the wall [N/m]
d is the spacing between frames [m]
7 - 40
n is the total number of fastenings (uniformly distributed along the
height)
i
o is the maximum lateral displacement obtained from relation
(26) [m]
Fire protection of steel elements near to fire walls
The requirement that there should be no fire propagation between different
compartments and no progressive collapse (i.e. the integrity condition of fire
walls must be preserved and the cold parts of the structure must remain stable),
leads to the requirement that that columns used as supports of fire walls must
achieve the same fire resistance as required for fire walls. In common cases,
these fire requirements lead to the application of fire protection to the columns.
On the other hand, columns which do not support fire walls will not require fire
protection.
Additionally, structural members that could damage fire walls (such as beams
and purlins near or crossing the walls) will also have to be fire protected.
5.6.2 Recommendations for steel portal frames
Fire wall perpendicular to steel frame
Figure 5.17 illustrates the situation where the fire wall is perpendicular to the
steel frame. For this situation:
- Columns that are built into or near a wall must be fire protected.
- Where fire wall is inserted between the flanges of the columns, no
additional fire protection is needed for the roof beams (Figure 5.17 (a)).
- Where portal frames do not have haunches and fire wall is fixed to one
flange of columns, fire protection must be applied to any beam crossing the
fire wall (on the side of the wall) over a minimum length of 200 mm
beyond the wall limit. This protection allows a shift of the plastic hinges
away from the walls and thus prevents damage to the wall as a result of the
collapse of the beam (see Figure 5.17 (b)). Where portal frames have
haunches, no fire protection is needed for the beams.
- Purlins do not cross the fire wall in this situation and no special
considerations are required.
The thickness of fire protection material applied to columns may be calculated
assuming a critical temperature of 500C and the same required fire resistance
as the fire walls. Fire protection should be provided over the full height of
columns.
If beams are partially protected, the thickness of fire protection material may
be calculated assuming a steel section exposed on four faces for the section
factor, a standard fire exposure of one hour and a critical temperature of 500C.
7 - 41
beam
purlin
fire
wall
protected
column

purlin
fire
wall
protected
column
fire
protection
d > 200 mm
beam

a) Wall inserted between the flanges of
columns
b) Wall fixed to one flange of columns

Figure 5.17 Design detail near fire walls perpendicular to portal steel frame
Fire wall parallel to steel frame
Figure 5.18 illustrates the situation where the fire wall is parallel to the steel
frame.
For this situation:
- The fire wall either be located between two frames or in the plane of the
frame, between faces of the columns and beams.
- Columns and beams that within the fire wall or near a fire wall must be fire
protected.
- Purlins will cross the fire walls. It is therefore necessary to fire protect
continuous purlins (over a distance of 200 mm from the wall) or to design a
non-continuous purlin system. For example, where fire wall is in the plane
of a frame, steel elements fixed to the beams should be inserted through the
wall to support the purlins.
The thickness of fire protection material applied to columns and beams may be
calculated assuming a critical temperature of 500C and the same required fire
resistance as the fire walls. Fire protection should be provided over the full
height of columns.
7 - 42
fire
wall
protected
beam
purlin
protected
column
purlin
flexible fire
protection
material
continuous purlin
protected
beam
d > 200 mm
protected
column fire wall
fire
protection
purlin
Rigid
support
fire wall
purlin
protected
beam
protected
column
a) Fire wall inserted between
the flanges of columns
b) Fire wall fixed to one flange of columns

Figure 5.18 Design detail near fire walls parallel to portal steel frame
If purlins are partially protected, the thickness of fire protection material may
be calculated assuming a steel section exposed on four faces for the section
factor, a standard fire exposure of one hour and a critical temperature of 500C.
Additional design recommendations for simple portal steel frames
In the case of single-storey buildings with simple portal steel frame where the
column height/beam span ratio of the frame (h/l) is greater than 0,4, the failure
mode towards the outside can be avoided by designing the connections
between columns and foundation, and the foundation itself, to have sufficient
resistance to sustain the vertical loads in the fire situation together with an
additional bending moment equal to 20% of the ultimate plastic moment of the
column at normal temperature.
Fire wall
simple portal steel frame
simple portal steel frame
h
L

Figure 5.19 Single-storey buildings with simple portal steel frame
Examples of fire walls
Illustrations of fire walls adopting some of the above recommendations are
shown in Figure 5.20. They show clearly that the fire walls were not damaged,
despite the collapse of the steel structure.
7 - 43

a) Self-stable fire wall inserted between two
independent steel framework
b) Partially fire protected steel beam crossing
a fire wall fixed to steel columns

Figure 5.20: Views of fire walls after fire disaster in steel single-storey building
5.6.3 Recommendations for steel frames based on lattice beams
Fire wall perpendicular to steel frame
Figure 5.21 illustrates the situation where the fire wall is perpendicular to the
steel frame. For this situation:
- Columns that are built into or near a wall must be always fire protected.
- Where fire wall is inserted between the flanges, the lattice beams should be
fire protected on both side of the wall (see Figure 5.21 (a)).
- Were the fire wall is fixed to one flange, only the lattice beams on the wall
side have to be protected. Fire protection must be applied to the beams over
a minimum length equal to the distance separating the wall with the first
vertical member of lattice frame (see Figure 5.21 (b)).
- Purlins do not cross the fire wall in this situation and no special
considerations are required.
The thickness of fire protection material applied to columns may be simply
calculated assuming a critical temperature of 500C and the same fire
resistance as required for fire walls. Fire protection should be provided over the
full height of the columns.
If lattice beams are partially protected, the thickness of fire protection material
may be calculated assuming for the section factor: a steel section exposed on
four faces for bottom chords, vertical members and diagonals; and on three
faces for top chords. A standard fire exposure of one hour and a critical
temperature of 500C may be used.
7 - 44
first vertical
member
fire wall
protected
column
fire protection
lattice beam

fire
Wall
protected
column
fire protection
first vertical
member
lattice beam

a) Fire wall inserted between the flanges
of columns


Figure 5.21 Design detail near fire walls perpendicular to steel frame with
lattice beam
Where fire wall is parallel to steel frame
Figure 5.22 illustrates the situation where the fire wall is parallel to the steel
frame. For this situation:
- It is not practical to provide a wall in the plane of a frame, because it is
difficult to make it continuous through the depth of the lattice beam. roof,
Fire walls parallel to a frame are therefore usually either beside and in
contact with the steel frame or between two independent steel structures.
- Where the fire wall is attached to a steel frame, the columns and beams
must be fire protected (see Figure 5.22 (b)). Moreover purlins and beam
stays near the wall must be fire protected over a minimum length
corresponding to the distance from the wall to the joint purlin/beam stay
when the roof structure is made of purlins.
- Where the fire wall is inserted between two independent steel structures, no
fire protection is needed (see Figure 5.22 (a)).
If columns are protected, the thickness of fire protection material may be
calculated assuming a critical temperature of 500C and the same fire
resistance as required for fire walls. Fire protection should be provided over the
full height of the columns.
If lattice beams are protected, the thickness of fire protection material may be
calculated assuming for the section factor: a steel section exposed on four faces
for bottom chords, vertical members and diagonals; and three faces for top
chords. A standard fire exposure of one hour and a critical temperature of
500C may be assumed. Fire protection should be provided over the full length
of the lattice beams.
The thickness of fire protection material applied to purlins and beam stays may
be simply calculated assuming a steel section exposed on four faces for the
section factor, a standard fire exposure of one hour and a critical temperature of
500C.
7 - 45
purlin
fire wall

beam stay
column

protected
column
purlin
fire
wall
protected
lattice beam

beam stay

a) Fire wall inserted between two independent
steel framework


Figure 5.22 Design detail near fire walls parallel to steel frame with lattice
beam
5.6.4 Recommendations for bracing system
The requirement for no collapse towards the outside of the building in the the
longitudinal direction (perpendicular to steel frames) can be satisfied using
appropriate bracing systems. Specifically, each compartment must have its own
bracing system.
Fire wall perpendicular to the steel frame
Figure 5.23 (a) illustrates the situation where the fire wall is perpendicular to
the steel frame. For this situation:
- Use additional vertical bracing systems at both ends of fire wall, to ensure
integrity of wall. These bracing systems should be designed to support a
lateral load taken as 20% of that due to normal wind actions (according to
the combination of actions for the fire situation), calculated for a gable area
that is limited to the width between gable posts.
- Provide double bracing systems (i.e. have bracing systems on both sides of
fire walls) or protect the bracing system.
- The bracing systems must be arranged in a way that they will not cause
problems for normal temperature design, for example by compromising
movement of an expansion joint.
Fire wall parallel to the steel frame
Figure 5.23 (b) illustrates the situation where the fire wall is parallel to the steel
frame. For this situation:
- Install bracing systems (vertical bracing and horizontal bracing on roof) in
each compartment. This solution may lead to additional bracing systems for
normal conditions.
- Design each bracing system to provide adequate stability in normal
condition and to support in fire condition a horizontal uniform load [N/m]
taken as F = 1,19 (G +
1
S
n
)l
f
, where l
f
is the spacing between steel
frames, G is the permanent action, including service overloads, S
n
is the
7 - 46
snow load and
1
is the frequent combination factor according given in the
relevant National Annex to EN 1990.
- Where the fire wall is fixed to one flange of the columns, the elements of
bracing systems must be fixed to rigid steel elements supporting the purlins
on the side of the wall.

Fire wall
Building end
Doubling of additional
bracing system put at the
end of fire wall
Bracing system for
normal temperature
Building
end

Wall perpendicular to steel frame

Fire wall
Bracing system

Wall parallel to steel frame

Figure 5.23 Recommendations for bracing system
5.6.5 Recommendations for roof systems above the separation
elements
The roof should be independent from one compartment to the next, adopting
the following recommendations (see Figure 5.24 (a)):
- Purlins should be provided either side of the fire wall.
- The roof should be stopped on both sides of the fire wall
- The roof should be provided with fire protection over a width of 2,50 m
either side of the wall.
Alternatively, the wall may be extended above the roof, up to a specific
distance d (see Figure 5.24 (b)).
National regulations may specify other special requirements for roof covering
adjacent to fire walls.
protected
column
Fire wall

beam
purlin
roof with fireproof material >2x2,50m
roof

part of roof between purlins
fire
protection

Protected
column
fire wall
beam

purlin
roof

d
fire
protection

a) Roof with fireproof material b) wall above the roof

Figure 5.24 Roof system above the separation elements
7 - 47
6 GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF MORE
ADVANCED SOLUTIONS
This chapter gives an overview of advanced calculation models available for
fire modelling, thermal modelling, and structural modelling that can be used in
fire engineering design
[9,16]
.
6.1 Fire models
Two kind of numerical models are available to model the development of real
fires: zone models and field models. These models and allow temperatures,
smoke descent, flame spread, time to flashover and many other effects to be
calculated.
6.1.1 Zone models
The simplest model is a one-zone model for fully developed fires (post-
flashover fires), in which the conditions within the compartment are assumed
to be uniform and represented by a single temperature.
Two-zone models may be used for pre-flashover situations, mainly in the
growth phase of a fire. The model is based on the hypothesis of smoke
stratification, separating the fire compartment into two distinct layers: a hot
upper layer (containing most of the fires heat and smoke), and a cool lower
layer (which remains relatively uncontaminated by smoke). A fire plume feeds
the hot zone just above the fire. The temperature of each layer is calculated
from conservation of energy; the amount of toxic combustion products in each
layer is calculated from conservation of chemical species; and the size of each
zone is calculated from conservation of mass. Simple rules govern plume
entrainment, heat exchange between zones and mass flow through openings to
adjoining compartments. As a result of the simulation the evolution of gas
temperature in each of the two layers, the evolution of wall temperatures,
evolution of flux through the openings and the evolution of the thickness of
each layer are given as a function of time. The thickness of the lower layer,
which remains at rather cold temperature and contains no combustion products,
is very important to assess the tenability of the compartment for the occupants.
Often, the local effect near the fire may be studied using a simple model such
as Hasemi methodology with the two-zone models. The combination of both
models then allows the determination of the gas temperature field near and far
from the fire (see Figure 6.1).
When the thickness of the lower layer is too small compared to the height of
the compartment, the two-zone assumption becomes inapplicable and a one
zone model becomes more appropriate. Moreover if the fire area is big
compared to the floor area, the one-zone model assumption is usually better
than the two-zone one.
Some zone models include the possibility of a switch from a two-zone model
to a one-zone model when some conditions for temperatures, fire area and
smoke layer thickness corresponding to flashover) are encountered.
7 - 48
It is also still possible to choose to follow a two-zone or a one-zone strategy for
the entire duration of a fire. With these strategies, the whole simulation is made
considering two or one zones, from the initial time to the end of the calculation.
No modification of the rate of heat release is made, except via the combustion
models.
Localised fire
2 zone
model
roof
u
g
Beam
Hasemi methods
u
20C
z
u
g
2-zone model
u at beam l evel
x

Figure 6.1 Combination of two-zone model with Hasemi methods
Some of the more complex zone models allow radiation calculations between
the upper layer and room objects. They may also allow multiple fire plumes
and multiple compartment analysis with mass exchange between each
compartment (see Figure 6.2).
The input data are usually the room geometry, room construction (including all
walls, floors and ceilings), number of vents (or holes) and their sizes, room
furnishing characteristics, and fire data (such as RHR curve, pyrolisis rate,
combustion heat of fuel). The output data are usually the prediction of sprinkler
and fire detector activation time, time to flashover, upper and lower layer
temperature, smoke layer height, and species yield.
The fire load can be considered to be uniformly distributed if the combustible
material is present more or less over the whole floor surface of the fire
compartment and when the fire load density (quantity of fuel per floor area) is
more or less uniform. By contrast, the fire load should be localised if the
combustible material is concentrated on quite a small surface compared to the
floor area with the rest of the floor area being free of fuel.
An essential parameter in advanced fire models is the rate of heat release. For
design it is common practice to refer to the values given in EN 1991-1-2.
For irregular or complex building geometry, complex ventilation systems, or
where more detail is required on convective or radiant heat exposure levels at
specific targets, the use of a field model should be considered.
7 - 49
A7
12.5m*9m
A13
25m*54m
A3
12.5m*9m
A4
12.5m*9m
A8
12.5m*9m
A2
25m*18m
A1
25m*18m
A12
25m*18m
A9
12.5m*9m
A14
25m*54m
A10
12.5m*9m
A5
12.5m*9m
A6
12.5m*9m
A11
25m*18m

Fire source

Figure 6.2 Example of fire modelling using zone models for an industrial
building
6.1.2 Field models
Field models (computational fluid dynamics models) are the most sophisticated
deterministic models for simulating enclosure fires. They incorporate sub-
models for turbulence, heat transfer and combustion.
The CFD modelling technique is based on a complete, time-dependent, three-
dimensional solution of the fundamental conservation laws (conservation of
mass, momentum, and energy). The volume under consideration, usually a fire
compartment, is divided into a very large number (sometimes hundreds of
thousands or even millions) of cells. The approximate number of cells
appropriate for the studied compartment will depend on the compartment
geometry, the accuracy required, and from a practical standpoint, the computer
speed and memory.
Three cases of field models, according to the turbulence method implemented
in model, exist:
- Direct numerical simulations (DNS): The basic equations are directly
solved but need very short time and spatial steps in order to simulate all
time and spatial scales coming from the turbulent and the chemical
processes. DNS require particularly powerful computers and are used for
academic studies or are confined to simple applications.
- Large Eddy Simulation (LES): Large scale motions of the flow are
calculated while the effect of smaller scales is modelled using sub-grid
scale model. The most commonly used sub-grid model is the Smazorinsky
model.
7 - 50
- Reynolds-averaged Navier Stokes (RANS): The basic equations are
averaged and all turbulent scales are modelled. The most frequently model
used is c k model.
The input data are the same as those required for a zone model but they have to
be supplied with a higher degree of detail. They are the detailed room
geometry, room construction (including all walls, floors and ceilings), number
of vents (or holes) and their sizes, room furnishing characteristics,
fuel/combustion characteristics, turbulence parameters, and radiation
parameters.
The output data are the smoke and heat movements, prediction of sprinkler and
fire detector activation time, time to flashover, temperatures in the domain,
velocities, smoke layer height, and species yield.
Due to their complexity and the CPU time needed, field models are very little
used for evaluating fire resistance of structures, particularly for fully developed
fire. In the fire domain, the use of a field model is often reduced to specific
cases with sophisticated geometry.
6.2 Thermal Models
Advanced heat transfer models can be used to calculate temperature
distribution in a structure in a fire. They are mostly based on either finite
difference methods or finite element methods. They are often used to estimate
temperature gradients through structural members primarily made of materials
with a low thermal conductivity and/or high moisture content, such as concrete.
Moreover, they can be applied to structural members under nominal fire
conditions or natural fire conditions.
Such methods have to take into account non-linearity due to temperature
dependence of material properties and boundary conditions. As commonly
assumed in fire design, heat transfer from fire to exposed surfaces is essentially
by convection and radiation. Inside homogeneous materials such as steel, heat
is only transferred by conduction. On the other hand, for porous materials such
as concrete or where internal cavities exist, heat transfers are more complex.
The three processes: conduction, convection and radiation can occur together,
to which may be added mass exchange. However, by way of simplification,
only the dominating process is explicitly introduced in thermal analysis, taking
into account secondary processes through adequate adjustment. In fire design,
it is usually assumed that concrete is a homogeneous material and that heat
transfer occur mainly by conduction. Heat transfer by convection and radiation
occurring in pores are considered as secondary processes and are implicitly
taken into account in thermal properties available for concrete (conductivity,
specific heat). Moreover, mass-exchange is generally neglected and only
moisture evaporation in concrete is taken into account. The effects of moisture
(assumed uniformly distributed in the concrete) is treated in a simplified way,
assuming that when the temperature in a concrete part reaches 120C, all of the
heat transferred to that part is used to evaporate water. Moisture movements
are rarely modelled. For composite members, contact between steel parts and
concrete parts can be assumed to be perfect (no gap). Radiation in internal
7 - 51
voids (such as hollow steel section) should be considered in the thermal
analysis.
In principle, where the effects of a fire remain localised to a part of the
structure, temperature distributions along structural members can be strongly
non-uniform. So a precise calculation of temperatures should be determined by
a full 3D thermal analysis. However, due to the prohibitive computing time of
such analysis, it is often considered an acceptable simplification to perform a
succession of 2D thermal analyses through the cross-sections of the structural
members. Calculations are then performed at relevant location along the length
of each structural member and the temperature gradients are obtained, assuming
linear variation between adjacent temperature profiles. This approach gives
usually a reasonable approximation to the actual temperature profile through
members and allows significant reduction of the modelling and numerical
effort. In 2D thermal analysis, cross-sections of members are commonly
discretised by means of triangular or quadrilateral plane elements with thermal
conduction capability. All sections encountered in civil engineering can thus be
modelled. Each plane element describing the cross-section can have its own
temperature-dependent material such as steel, concrete or insulation materials.
Boundary conditions can be either prescribed temperatures or prescribed
impinging heat flux to simulate heat transfer by convection and radiation from
fire to the exposed faces of structural members. Effects of non-uniform thermal
exposure may be introduced in modelling with appropriate boundary
conditions.
Effects of mechanical deformations (such as buckling of steel element,
cracking and crushing of concrete, etc.) on the temperature rise of structural
members is neglected, which is the standard practice. Consequently geometry
of structural members does not vary during the analysis
As for simple models, the use of advanced models require knowledge of the
geometry of structural members, thermal properties of the materials (thermal
conductivity, specific heat, density, moisture...) and heat transfer coefficients at
the members boundaries (emissivity, coefficient of heat transfer by
convection).
Usually for fire design, temperature-dependent thermal material properties of
concrete and steel are taken from EN 1992-1-2 and EN 1993-1-2 and heat
transfer coefficients are those given in EN 1991-1-2 respectively.
6.3 Structural models
Advanced numerical models for the mechanical response should be based on
the acknowledged principles and assumptions of the theory of structural
mechanics. They are usually finite element models. They can simulate a partial
or a whole structure in static or dynamic modes, providing information on
displacements, stress and strain states in structural members and the collapse
time of whole building if collapse occurs within the period of the fire. The
changes of mechanical properties with temperature, as well as non-linear
geometrical and non-linear material properties, can be taken into account in the
structural fire behaviour. The transient heating regime of structures during fire
7 - 52
is modelled by use of step-by-step iterative solution procedures, rather than a
steady state analysis.
This Section outlines some of the primary considerations in modelling the
behaviour of single-storey buildings with steel or composite frames in the fire
situation, notably features related to material models, computation procedure,
structural modelling, etc.
Advanced calculation models can be used in association with any heating
curve, provided that the material properties are known for the relevant
temperature range and that material models are representative of real
behaviour. At elevated temperature, the stress-strain curve of steel is based on a
linear-elliptic-plastic model, in contrast to the elasto-plastic model adopted for
normal temperature design. The steel and concrete stress-strain relationships
given in EN 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2 are commonly used.
In the fire situation, the temperature field of structural members varies with
time. As stress-strain relationships of materials are non-linear and temperature
dependant, an appropriate material model has to be adopted in advanced
numerical modelling to allow the shift from one behaviour curve to another, at
each step of time (and thus of temperature). The so-called kinematical material
model is usually used for steel structures, assuming that the shift from one
stress-strain curve to another one due to the change of temperature is made by
staying at a constant plastic strain value (see Figure 6.3). This model can be
used at any stress state of steel (tension or compression). For concrete, it is
much more complicated, since the material has a different behaviour in tension
and in compression. Therefore, different shift rules are needed for when the
material is in tension or in compression. Generally, this kinematic model is
used in most advanced calculation models for fire safety engineering
applications.
Behaviour of steel is often modelled with a Von Mises yield contour including
hardening. Behaviour of concrete in compression is modelled with a
Drucker-Prager yield contour, including hardening.

c
) , (
d
d
0
1
= |
.
|
\
|
(t) =
1
t) (t + =
2
a) Behaviour law of structural steel
Parallel to
) 0
2
= |
.
|
\
|
, (
d
d
Parallel to
o
Compression
b) Behaviour law of concrete
c
o
(t) =
1
t) (t + =
2
tensile

Figure 6.3 Kinematic material models for steel and concrete
Another aspect to be noted in the application of advanced calculation models
for steel and composite structures under natural fire conditions is the material
behaviour during cooling phase. It is well known that for commonly used steel
grades, the variation of mechanical properties with temperature are considered
7 - 53
as reversible, which means that once they cool down they will recover their
initial mechanical properties. However, this phenomenon is not true with
concrete, whose composition will be totally modified when heated to an
elevated temperature. After cooling down, it cannot recover its initial strength.
Indeed, its strength might even be less after cooling than at maximum
temperature.
The effects of thermal expansion should be taken into account. This is done by
assuming that the total deformation of structural members is described by the
sum of independent terms:
r tr c th t
) ( c c c c c c + + + + = (30)
where
th
c ,
c ,
r
c and
c
c are the strains due to thermal expansion, stress, residual
stress and creep, respectively.
tr
c is the strain due to transient and non uniform
heating regime for concrete (usually neglected).
In Eurocodes, the creep strain is considered to be included implicitly in stress-strain
relationships of steel and concrete. The residual stress is usually neglected except for
some special structural analysis. The thermal strain is the thermal expansion (AL/L)
that occurs when most materials are heated. Thermal strains are not important for fire
design of simply supported steel members, but they must be considered for
composite members, frames and complex structural systems, especially where
members are restrained by other parts of the structure (as for single-storey
building divided into cells separated from one another by fire walls) since
thermally induced strains, both due to temperature rise and temperature
differential, can generate significant additional internal forces.

Distribution of temperature
for z = cte
Unit strain
Cross-section
(x = cte)
z
y
G
u
c
c
th
c
o
c
t
c
r
c

Figure 6.4 Strain composition of material in advanced numerical modelling
In general, the structural analysis in the fire situation is based on ultimate limit
state analysis, at which there is equilibrium of the structure between its
resistance and its applied loading. However, significant displacement of the
structure will inevitably occur, due to both material softening and thermal
expansion, leading to large material plastification. Therefore, advanced fire
analysis is a non-linear elasto-plastic calculation in which both strength and
stiffness vary non-linearly. From a mathematical point of view, the solution of
such analysis cannot be obtained directly and has to be achieved using an
iterative procedure:
- A step-by-step analysis is carried out in order to find the equilibrium state
of the structure at various instants (at different temperature fields).
- Within each time step, an iterative solution procedure is carried out to find
the equilibrium state of the structure behaving in elasto-plastic way.
7 - 54
Different types of convergence procedure are usually employed, such as the
pure Newton-Raphson procedure and the modified Newton-Raphson
procedure. The pure Newton-Raphson procedure is recommended for
structures made of beam elements, and the modified Newton-Raphson
procedure is recommended for structures made of shell elements.
Static analysis is normally sufficient for modelling the behaviour of a structure
in fire. However, local failure or instability of a structural member (such as
lateral buckling of purlin) does not lead to overall structural failure.
Consequently, analysis should be performed by a succession of subsequent
static and dynamic analyses to pass instabilities and to obtain the complete
failure mechanism to predict the influence of a local failure on the global
behaviour of the structure and to follow eventually progressive collapse. It has
to be kept in mind that here the aim is not the precise modelling of dynamic
effects. So, default values of the main parameters fixed in models to
determinate acceleration and damping effects can be used.
Existing boundary conditions should be rightly represented. It is common to
design structure by assuming pinned support conditions at the column bases.
However, as fully pinned bases of columns are never achieved in reality, it is
also possible, when data are available, to introduce semi-rigid connections.
Where only a part of the structure is modelled, some restrained conditions from
unmodelled part of the structure should be taken into consideration in
appropriate way. The choices of restrained conditions that have to be applied at
the boundaries between the modelled substructure and the rest of the structure
have to be chosen by the designer. For example, in case of symmetry boundary,
restraints to translation across the symmetry boundary and rotational restraint
about the two major axes on the plane of symmetry are introduced in
modelling.
Usually, beam-to-column joints are assumed to be fully rigid in the fire design
of steel and steel-concrete composite frames. However, in the case of steel
frames based on lattice beams, joints between members of lattice beams and
connections between top and bottom chords of lattice beams and columns can
be assumed pinned or fully rigid according to the type of truss.
Two types of action need to be applied to heated structures. The first type is
static loading. It must correspond to that for fire situation. The second type
consists of the temperature increase (above ambient) of the structural members
obtained, from previous thermal analysis. Boundary conditions at supports as
well as applied gravity loads are assumed to remain unchanged throughout the
fire exposure
It is important to choose an appropriate structural modelling strategy.
Simulation of the mechanical behaviour of single-storey building in fire
conditions can be performed either by a 2D or a 3D analysis.
In a 2D analysis, simulation are performed in the plane of each portal frame,
assuming a three dimensional behaviour of the frame to take into account the
lateral instability of the members (columns, beams). In such modelling,
adequate restraint conditions should be introduced to stabilize the frame
laterally. In reality, these out-of-plane restraints are provided by roof structure
7 - 55
(as purlins) as well as faades elements fixed on columns (concrete walls,
sandwich panels, steel sheeting), so that out-of-plane collapse does not occur.
In a 3D analysis, several parallel portal frames, the roof structure (purlins) and
eventually bracing system are explicitly modelled (see Figure 6.5). The main
difference in this 3D analysis is that the interaction effects between members
will be directly dealt with; load redistribution from heated parts (weakened
parts inside fire compartment) to cold parts (stronger parts outside fire
compartment) can be taken into account in an accurate way and the global
behaviour of structures will be analysed, providing a more realistic situation of
mechanical response of structures in fire. Computation cost with a three-
dimensional analysis is high because of significant number of elements used in
the modelling.
The choice between 2D and 3D analysis will depend on several parameters,
such as the type of structure (steel or composite frame), the dimensions of the
single-storey building, the fire scenario and objectives of structural fire design
(to fulfil a prescriptive requirement, or to verify a failure mode).
Fire
wall

Figure 6.5 Example of 3D mechanical modelling
The basic finite element set-ups used to represent the structural members of
frame are given below. Solid elements are omitted. as they are numerically too
expensive.
7 - 56
REFERENCES

1 EN 1991-1-2:2002 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-2: General rules -
Actions on structures exposed to fire
2 EN 1993-1-2:2003 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-2: General rules
Structural fire design
3 EN 1994-1-2:2003 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
Part 1-2: General rules - Actions on structures exposed to fire
4 HOCKEY, S.M., and REW, P.J.
Human response to thermal radiation
HSE Books, UK, 1996.
5 VASSART, O., CAJOT, L-G., ZHAO, B., DE LA QUINTA, J.MARTINEZ DE
ARAGON, J. and GRIFFIN, A.
Fire Safety of industrial halls and low-rise buildings: Realistic fire design, active
safety measures, post-local failure simulation and performance based requirements
ECSC research project 7210-PR-378.
6 RFCS Research: Fire safety of industrial hall, Design Guide, Arcelor Mittal,
CTICM, Labein tecnalia, ULG, Directorate-General for research, Research Fund
for Coal and Steel Unit, RFS2-CR-2007-00032, Luxembourg, 2007.
7 Report to ECCS: Fire building regulations for single-storey buildings in 9
European countries. Document RT915. Version 02 June 2002.
8 LENNON, T., MOORE,D., WANG, B. Y. C. and BAILEY, G.
Designers Guide to EN 1991-1-2, EN 1992- 1-2, EN 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2
Actions on Structures Exposed to Fire and Structural Fire Design
Thomas Telford, 2007.
9 DIFISEK - Dissemination of Structural Fire Safety Engineering Knowledge
ECSC research project RFS-C2-03048.
10 PURKISS, J.A.
Fire safety design of structures
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK
11 Risk Based Fire Resistance Requirements Competitive (RISK -REI), ECSC
research project 7210-PR-378.
12 SIMMS, W.I., and NEWMAN, G.M.
Single-storey steel framed building in fire boundary conditions (P313)
The Steel Construction Institute, 2002.
13 ECCS TC3: Euro-monograms for fire exposed steelwork.
14 SD005a-EN-EU, Data: Nomogram for protected members, www.steel-access.com
15 RFCS Research: Fire safety of industrial hall, Design Guide, Arcelor Mittal,
CTICM, Labein tecnalia, ULG, Directorate-General for research, Research Fund
for Coal and Steel Unit, RFS2-CR-2007-00032, Luxembourg, 2007.
16 FRANSSEN J. M., KODUR V. and ZAHARIA R.
Designing steel structures for fire safety
Balkema Book, 2009.
7 - 57
APPENDIX A German fire safety procedure for
single-storey industrial and commercial
buildings
In Germany, buildings for commercial and industrial use must conform to the
Musterbauordnung (MBO) and to all federal state building regulations
Bauliche Anlagen und Rume besonderer Art und Nutzung (Structural
facilities and spaces with special requirements and uses). In such cases, and in
order to meet essential requirements (concerning human safety, public security,
and protection of the natural environment), it is possible to adopt alternative
solutions to the prescriptive federal state building regulations.
This general statement has to be considered in the context of physical and
technical fire protection requirements for a building with reference to of
Wohngebude und vergleichbare Nutzungen (residential and similar uses)
according to the federal state building regulations. For commercial and
industrial uses, it is neither necessary nor appropriate to apply the requirements
of the federal state building regulations. When it comes to meeting general
structural fire protection objectives, it is more important to consider each
building on an individual basis.
A standard procedure for assessing requirements, using scientifically based
methods, is recommended.
Since industrial buildings are considered Sonderbauten (special buildings)
within the definition of 51 Abs.1 MBO and cannot usually be exempt from
the applicable regulations, the goal of MIndBauRl (the technical construction
regulation) is to determine the minimum requirements for structural fire
prevention. The MIndBauRl also uses design procedures according DIN
18230-1: Structural fire protection in industrial buildings fire resistance
design.
Regarding 3 Abs. 3, Satz 3 MBO, which permits variations from technical
construction standards, the procedure limits this to accepted methods for fire
protection engineering and requires that these are listed in accordance with
Annex 1.
The aim of the procedure is to regulate the minimum requirements for fire
protection of industrial buildings, in particular regarding:
- the fire resistance of components and the flammability of building materials
- the size of fire compartments and fire-fighting areas
- the availability, location and length of emergency escape routes.
The procedure will facilitate design for building owners, designers, draftsmen
and specialists; for the authorities it will provide justification for relaxation or
deviation from the alternatively applicable rules of the MBO. It offers building
control and approval bodies a benchmark for equivalent risks. A design method
that requires no detailed engineering analyses and no particular calculation has
been established. This responds to legal responsibilities and offers a
straightforward form of approval.
7 - 58
MIndBauRl applies to all industrial buildings regardless of their size. It does
not apply to:
- industrial buildings which are only used for storing technical equipment or
facilities and where only access is temporarily needed for maintenance and
inspection purposes
- industrial buildings that are mostly open, such as covered outdoor areas or
open warehouses
- buildings which can be assimilated due to their behaviour in fire.
In addition, the procedure does not apply to storage shelves more than 9.0 m
high (to the top of stored material).
This procedure may also be used for allowing and justifying relaxation of the
regulations according to 51 MBO for buildings and structural facilities, which
are not directly covered by the scope of MIndBauRl, although they are
comparable to industrial structures in respect to fire risk.
Justification for relaxation of conditions under 51 Abs. 1 MBO may be
provided with one of the following procedures.
- Simplified procedure
In the procedure according to Abs. 6, the maximum fire compartment
surface for a fire section area will depend on the fire-resistance
classification of the supporting and stiffening components as well as the
structures fire technical protection infrastructure.
- Complete verification procedure
In the procedure according to Abs. 7, the maximum surface area and the
requirements for the components in accordance with the fire safety classes
for a fire compartment will be based on the calculation procedure according
to DIN 18230-1.
- Engineering methods
Instead of proceeding according to Abs. 6 and 7, standard fire protection
engineering design methods may also be used.
The initiator of a fire protection concept has the choice which method (Abs. 6
or 7) will be implemented when using the MIndBauRl. However it is not
permissible to combine procedures.
Concerning the fire engineering methods, the MIndBauRl identifies the
principles and conditions for the hypotheses of such designs. It regulates the
verification and checking as well as documentation.
The MIndBauRl, which has been introduced as a standard in the Building
Regulations in all German states, is legally applicable. As part of the
application of IndBauRl, there are several procedural methods. The same
general requirements apply for all verifications; these are identical for all
procedures and must be respected. These include fire-fighting water
requirements, smoke evacuation, location and accessibility, emergency exits
and fire spread.
7 - 59
Fire-fighting water requirements must be agreed with the responsible fire
department taking into account the surface areas and fire loads. These
requirements should be assumed to last for a period of two hours.
- minimum 96 m/h for a surface area up to 2500 m
- minimum 192 m/h for a surface area greater than 4000 m.
Intermediate values can be linearly interpolated.
For industrial buildings with automatic fire extinguishing systems, a water
quantity of at least 96 m/h over a period of one hour is sufficient to extinguish
the fire.
Any factory or warehouse with an area of more than 200 m must have wall or
ceiling openings to allow smoke evacuation.
Individual spaces which are bigger than 1600 m must have a smoke evacuator,
so that fire fighting operations are possible. This is because a smoke layer of
2,5 m height has been mathematically proven.
In addition to the location and accessibility of each fire compartment, at least
one side has to be located at one outside wall and be accessible from there for
the fire department. This is not applicable for fire compartments which have an
automatic fire extinguishing system.
Stand-alone and linked industrial structures with foundations of greater than
5,000 m have to be accessible from all sides by fire fighting vehicles. These
access routes must meet the requirements for fire brigade usage.
The fire service access roads, operating areas and other routes should be kept
continuously free. They have to be permanently and easily recognizable.
Included in the emergency exits in industrial buildings are the main production
corridors and storage areas, the exits from these areas, staircases and exits to
the outside. Each room with an area of more than 200 m must have at least
two exits.
Regarding the maximum allowable length for emergency escape routes,
equipment and structural fire protection both influence each other.
The maximum length of emergency escape routes is limited as a rule to 35 m
for a clear height up to 5 m. However, if a fire alarm system is installed, then
this increases to 50 m.
The maximum increase in length in relation to free height up to 50 is 70 m.
The distances are measured as distances in space, but not through construction
elements or components. The real length should not be more than 1.5 times the
distance that was measured in space. Attention should be paid to the fact that
from any point in a room, a main gangway must be reachable within a
maximum of 15 minutes.
7 - 60
In case of fire, roofs often contribute significantly to fire spread; damage will
depend on which structural fire prevention measures were implemented for the
roof.
Regarding fire propagation in case of a fire from below, then the following
failure mechanisms are typical:
- The Durchbrand burn- through. This is the worst case, with fire spreading
on top of the roof, followed by the spread of fire down into other areas
through existing roof openings.
- Failure of the load-bearing roof shell by slipping from the supports, for
example with large spans.
- Fire propagation below the roof.
- Fire propagation within the roof shell. This is very dangerous because it
will not be seen from below. It becomes very critical when the fire services
are fighting at the fire source and suddenly it begins to burn behind them.
Table A.1 Fire compartment sizes
Maximum fire compartment size (m)
Safety category
Without fire resistance
requirement
R0
With fire resistance
requirement
R30
K1
Without requirements
1800* 3000
K2
Fire detection
2700* 4500
K3
Rescue service
3200 - 4500* 5400-7500
K4
Fire suppression
(Sprinkler system)
10000 10000
* heat extraction area > 5% and building width s 40m
The simplified method is based on the relationship between the permitted
surface area of the fire compartment and the safety category, the number of
storey and the fire rating classification of the components.
The surface area is given in Table A.1 and is well within extreme safety
measures.
For industrial buildings with an existing sprinkler system (safety category K4),
a maximum fire compartment surface area of 10000 m can be realized without
requirements for the fire resistance of structural components.
Without any fire protection requirements, surface areas up to 1800 m can be
left unprotected.
For industrial buildings which cannot be evaluated using the simplified
procedure, the entire verification procedure will be based in accordance with
DIN 18230-1.
7 - 61
First, the equivalent fire duration is determined using this method. With the
equivalent fire duration, a relationship between the incendiary effect of a
natural fire and the Einheitstemperaturzeitkurve (ETK standard temperature
time curve) is generated. The equivalence refers to the maximum temperature
of structural components under a natural fire.
Once the equivalent fire duration has been determined, two different methods
are available.
The first method is to determine the maximum floor surfaces using Table A.2.
No requirements for fire resistance of structural components are needed when
using this table.
The second method requires somewhat more effort. First, the maximum floor
surface is calculated using a formula. In this procedure, the fire resistance
rating of the structural components has to be proven. This is done with the
necessary fire resistance.
Table A.2 Maximum floor area (m
2
) according to safety category and
equivalent fire duration
Equivalent fire duration
Safety category
15 30 60 90
K1
Without requirements
9000* 5500* 2700* 1800*
K2
Fire detection
13500* 800* 4000* 2700*
K3
Rescue service
1600-22500* 10000-13500* 5000-6800* 3200-4500*
K4
Fire suppression
(Sprinkler system)
30000 20000 10000 10000
Minimum heat extraction
area
1 1 3 4
Maximum building width 80 60 50 40

In Table A.2, the maximum admissible floor surface can be defined with
reference to its safety category and the equivalent fire duration. In addition, the
corresponding heat extraction surface can be identified, indicated as a % of the
floor surface and the corresponding maximum width of the building.
Using the second method for the entire verification procedure, the maximum
floor area (m) is calculated using the base value for the surface area of
3000 m and factors F1 to F5.
A = 3000 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
where:
F1 the equivalent fire duration
F2 the safety category
F3 : the height of the lowest floors
7 - 62
F4 : the number of storey
F5 : the type of floor openings
The sum of the total surface area shall not exceed 60000 m.
According to the Table A.2, when the simplified procedure is used for
structural components without requirements, the result is a maximum possible
surface area of 10 000 m.
When using the full verification procedure according to this table, a maximum
surface of 30000 m is possible. When using the full verification procedure in
addition to the fire resistance calculation, then a 60000 m surface area is
possible.
Under very special conditions, even larger surfaces, up to 120000 m can be
achieved.
Example:
The procedure and possibilities associated with MIndBauRl can best be shown
and explained by an example:
Building parameters
Length: 100 m
Width: 50 m
Average height: 6 m
Size: 5000 m
Number of storey: 1
Openings in the roof: 135 m
Doors, windows: 132 m
Fire load: q
R
= 126 kWh/m
Automatic fire alarm systems: Safety category K2
No internal fire walls
The first possibility is the simplified method according to Table A.1. The
industrial building must be equipped with an automatic sprinkler in order to
meet the above conditions.
In order to apply fully the full verification method, the equivalent fire duration
must first be determined. In this case, the heat extraction factor w is needed.
The heat extraction factor is determined by taking into account the related
opening surfaces. The related opening surfaces are auxiliary values. This is
simply a question of dividing the roof openings by the ground surface and then
the wall openings by the ground surface.
- Determination of the related horizontal opening surface a
h
:
a
h
= A
h
/ A = 135 m / 5000 m = 0,027
7 - 63
- Determination of the related vertical opening surface a
v
:
a
v
= A
v
/ A = 132 m / 5000 m = 0,026
The values of the related opening surfaces are introduced in Figure A.1 and the
value w
0
can be defined. In Figure A.2, the height of the hall is considered.
vertical opening area a
v
horizontal opening area ah

Figure A.1 Factor w
0
according to opening areas

height of the hall (m)

Figure A.2 Factor o
w
according to height of the hall
The heat extraction value of the buildings is:
w = w
0
= 1,70 1,0 = 1,70
The equivalent fire duration (t
) is based on the following factors: the fire load

density, the heat extraction factor and a factor c which takes into account the
7 - 64
heat extraction surface of the peripheral construction elements. In this example
c is given, for simplicity, the worst value.
t
= q
R
c w = 126 0,25 1,70 = 54,0 min
Through interpolation in Table A.2, in the safety category K2 for an equivalent
fire duration of 54 minutes, a maximum surface area of 4800 m can be
defined. At this point, some additional work by the designer could be useful in
reviewing the input data. Is the fire load case too high? What will happen when
the opening surfaces are modified and the ground floor is also modified at the
same time? Alternatively, what about the surfaces? Can the surface be reduced
by 200m? The onus is on the designer to present and explain the different
opportunities to the client and to list the comparison costs.
The second possibility using the full verification method is more precise. The
maximum floor surface is calculated using the basic value for the surface of
3000 m times factors F1 to F5. The factor values are taken from tables of DIN
18230-1 and do not need to be determined.
According to table 3 of DIN 18230-1 the factor F1 is: 1,9
According to table 7 of DIN 18230-1the factor F5 is: 0,7.
Inserted into the formula:
A = 3000F1F2F3F4F5 = 3000 1,9 1.5 1,0 1,0 0,7
A = 5989 m.
In this method, the fire resistance classification of the structural components
has to be calculated with the following equation:
Required fire resistance duration t
f
= t
o
L

The design of the fire resistance duration includes the following factors:
- the equivalent fire duration of 54 minutes
- the safety factor of 0,6 according to Table 2 of DIN 18230-1, and
- the factor alpha L takes into account the fire related infrastructure of 0,9
according to Table 4 of DIN.
Hence: t
f
= 54 0,6 0,9 = 29,16 min => R30

7 - 65
Table A.3 Summary of maximum compartment sizes
Area given by simplified method (m
2
)
Safety
category Without fire resistance
requirement
With fire resistance requirement
K1
K2 2700 4500
K3 5400-7500
K4 10000
R0 R30

A comparison of these methods, the options available and responsibilities of
the designer, can be seen in table A.3. In order to contain the industrial
building in one single fire compartment without requirements for the load-
bearing structure, it is necessary to install an automatic sprinkler system when
using the simplified method. When using the full verification method and
respecting the given conditions, a fire compartment of 4800 m is possible. To
achieve one fire compartment of 5000 m, at least one plant fire service must
be present.
With a fire resistance requirement of R30 for the load bearing structure, at least
one plant fire service is required for the simplified method (according to the
table). With a fire detector system, however, only one fire compartment area of
4500 m is possible. With the full verification method, a fire compartment
surface of 5989 m is possible.
Based on the results of the different methods, the designers task is clearly
defined. He should not only develop one fire protection concept, but has to
demonstrate alternative and more economical procedures to the client in
relation to the various production processes.


Part 8: Building Envelope


2 - ii

8 - iii
FOREWORD
This publication is part eight of the design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
Part 3: Actions
8 - iv

8 - v
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 The building envelope 1
1.2 The functions of building envelope 3
2 TYPES OF METAL CLADDING SYSTEMS 4
2.1 Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting 4
2.2 Built-up double skin cladding 5
2.3 Insulated (composite or sandwich) panels 8
2.4 Standing seam systems 9
2.5 Structural liner trays 10
2.6 Structural deck and membrane roof systems 10
3 SPECIFICATION OF THE CLADDING 12
3.1 Weathertightness 13
3.2 Building appearance 14
3.3 Thermal performance 15
3.4 Interstitial condensation 18
3.5 Acoustics 18
3.6 Fire performance 20
3.7 Durability 21
3.8 Structural performance 21
4 COLD ROLLED SECONDARY STEELWORK 24
4.1 Purlin and side rail options 24
4.2 Loading 30
4.3 Deflections 31
4.4 Purlin and side rail selection 31
4.5 Restraint provided to the rafters and columns 32
4.6 Restraint of purlins and cladding rails 33
5 HOT-ROLLED SECONDARY STEELWORK 35
REFERENCES 37

8 - vi

8 - vii
SUMMARY
This publication provides guidance on selection of the building envelope for single-
storey buildings. The building envelope is generally formed of secondary steelwork
(often cold-rolled steel members) and some form of cladding. In addition to providing a
weathertight barrier, the envelope may also have to meet thermal, acoustic and fire
performance requirements. In some arrangements, the building envelope may have an
important structural role in restraining the primary steel frames.
The document describes the common forms of cladding for single storey buildings, and
offers advice on how an appropriate system is specified. The document also describes
the systems of secondary steelwork that support the cladding.
8 - viii

8 - 1
1 INTRODUCTION
Metal cladding systems provide an efficient, attractive and reliable solution to
the building envelope needs of single storey buildings (steel, concrete or wood
framed structures). Over the years, these systems have evolved from the single
skin metal cladding often associated with agricultural buildings to highly
developed systems used in industrial, retail and leisure applications. However,
as with all construction components, the ability of the cladding to satisfy its
functional requirements is dependent on its correct specification and
installation and, equally as important, on its interaction with the other elements
of the building envelope and structure.
This publication provides guidance relating to the secondary structures and
building envelope types used in single storey buildings. Description is given of
the common types of profiled metal cladding systems currently used in Europe.
These systems include insulated panels, built-up systems, deck and membrane,
and liner trays. Guidance is also given on key issues that should be considered
when specifying either the building envelope or its supporting structure.
Reference is made to a selection of technical documents published by The
Metal Cladding and Roofing Manufacturers Association (MCRMA). These
technical documents provide comprehensive guidance on various associated
topics, which are applicable throughout Europe and can be readily downloaded
from www.mcrma.co.uk. Additional information can also be found on the
French language website Acier Construction at
http://www.acierconstruction.com
Guidance has been included in this document which considers the restraining
action of the secondary steelwork to primary steelwork and the restraint
provided by cladding sheeting to secondary steelwork. However, in certain
countries within Europe (e.g. in France), this restraining behaviour cannot be
utilised, and a footnote has been added highlighting where this is the case.
1.1 The building envelope
The principal components of a modern metal-clad industrial type building are
8 - 2
2
1
3
4
5

1 Profiled steel roof cladding
2 Wall cladding
3 Purlins

4 Side rails
5 Primary steel frame

Figure 1.1 Principal building components
There are essentially three layers to the structure:
1. The primary steel frame, consisting of columns, rafters and bracing. The
example shown in Figure 1.1 is a portal frame, but the guidance given in
this publication is also applicable to other types of structure.
2. The secondary steelwork, consisting of side rails for the walls and purlins
for the roof. These members serve three purposes:
- To support the cladding
- To transfer load from the cladding to the primary steel frame
- To restrain the primary steel frame members (see Section 4.5 on
limitations on such use) .
3. The roof and wall cladding, whose functions include some or all of the
following:
- Separating the enclosed space from the external environment
- Transferring load to the secondary steelwork
- Restraining the secondary steelwork
- Providing thermal insulation
- Providing acoustic insulation
- Preventing fire spread
- Providing an airtight envelope
8 - 3
- Providing ventilation to a building (ventilated or unventilated roofs and
walls).
The cladding will also normally include ancillary components such as
windows, rooflights, vents and gutters.
As an alternative to the layout shown in Figure 1.1, some types of cladding
may be installed directly to the primary steelwork without the need for purlins
or cladding rails. Examples of this type of construction are deck and membrane
for roofs and liner trays for walls. Where such solutions are chosen, the
cladding must be designed to:
- Span directly between the rafters, roof beams or trusses. This is usually
achieved by the use of deep profiled decks or trays, but where these are
insufficient for the required span, intermediate supports in the form of
secondary beams or hot-rolled purlins will need to be installed.
- Restrain the primary steel members. Structural decks and liner trays, if
fastened correctly, should be able to provide sufficient lateral restraint
to the outer flange of the supporting rafter or column. This should allow
the columns and rafters to be designed as fully restrained under gravity
loads or positive wind pressure. However, additional restraining
members will need to be included in the structure in order to provide
intermediate restraint against wind suction (uplift on the roof).
1.2 The functions of building envelope
All buildings, whatever their use, must provide a controlled internal
environment that is protected from the variable and uncontrollable external
climate. The nature of the internal environment will depend on the intended use
of the building and this will naturally determine the requirements for the
building envelope.
Generating and maintaining a controlled internal environment is a complex
process, requiring a combination of mechanical and electrical services to heat
and/or cool the building and a well-designed building envelope to regulate the
heat gain and loss. The design of the building envelope is an important factor
in specifying the Mechanical and Electrical (M&E) plant and in determining
the energy performance of the building. With pressure to reduce energy
consumption now being placed on the construction industry across Europe, the
building envelope has never before been under such close scrutiny.
In addition to forming the building envelope, the roof and wall cladding may
also have an important role to play in the structural performance of the
building, by providing restraint to the secondary steelwork against
lateral-torsional instability. Where such restraint is assumed (as is often the
case in the purlin and side-rail manufacturers load/span tables), it is essential
that the cladding is capable of providing this restraint in practice.
8 - 4
2 TYPES OF METAL CLADDING SYSTEMS
There are a number of proprietary types of cladding that may be used in
industrial buildings. These tend to fall into a few broad categories as described
in this Section.
The steel sheet is generally coated with a zinc or zinc-aluminium alloy in a
hot-dip process. The top coating is an organic coating to provide an attractive
finish, typically based on Polyvinylchloride (PVC or Plastisol),
Polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF or PVF2), Polyester or Polyurethane
formulations. Aluminium cladding sheets are also available.
For hot-dip galvanised sheeting, typical design lives are shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Typical design life for coated steel sheet
Coating Design life (years)
PVC 200 microns 10 30
PVC 120 microns 10 25
PVDF or PVF2 25 microns 10 15
Polyester 25 microns 5 10
Polyurethane 50 microns 10 15
2.1 Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting
Single-skin sheeting is widely used in agricultural and industrial structures
where no insulation is required. The sheeting is fixed directly to the purlins and
side rails as shown in Figure 2.1. The cladding is generally made from 0,7 mm
gauge pre-coated steel with a 32 mm to 35 mm trapezoidal profile depth.
1

1 Slope

Figure 2.1 Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting
8 - 5
2.2 Built-up double skin cladding
This common type of cladding consists of a metal liner, a layer of insulation
material, a spacer system and an outer metal sheet, as illustrated in Figure 2.2.
The span of such systems is limited by the spanning capability of the cladding
sheets, which is typically in the order of 2 m to 2,5 m depending on the applied
loading. Built-up cladding systems must, therefore, be supported by secondary
steelwork (purlins or side rails). As the name suggests, these systems are built
up from their constituent parts on site.
2
1
6
5
4
3

1 Weather sheet
2 Slope
3 Bar
4 Liner sheet
5 Bracket
6 Insulation

Figure 2.2 Built-up roof cladding
2.2.1 Liner sheet
The liner sheet serves several purposes:
It supports the thermal insulation
It provides an airtight layer
It provides restraint to the purlins.
Liner sheets are usually manufactured from cold formed pre-coated steel or
aluminium and possess a shallow trapezoidal profile (i.e. height 18 mm to
20 mm is illustrated in Figure 2.3). For steel liners, the sheet thickness is
usually either 0,4 mm or 0,7 mm, while aluminium liner sheets are slightly
thicker at 0,5 mm or 0,9 mm. The choice of liner will depend on the required
spanning capability, the cladding installation method and the acoustic
requirements of the cladding. Where required, the acoustic performance of the
cladding, in particular its ability to absorb sound and minimise reverberation,
may be enhanced by the use of a perforated liner sheet.
8 - 6
1
2

1 Thickness (0,4 0,7 mm)
2 Profile height (18 20 mm)

Figure 2.3 Liner sheet profile
The shallow liner sheets are not strong enough to walk on, so it is essential that
the insulation, spacer system and weather sheet are installed from boards or
access platforms, as illustrated in Figure 2.4. However, they do provide a
non-fragile barrier against falling once they have been fully fastened. Where
walking access is required, it is common practice to replace the shallow liner
profile with a more substantial sheet (i.e. 32 mm to 35 mm trapezoidal profile
in 0,7 mm gauge steel).

Figure 2.4 Liner sheet installation progressing into the span of the purlins.
2.2.2 Insulation
The primary function of the insulation layer is to provide a barrier to the flow
of heat between the interior of the building and the external environment. The
thickness of the insulation layer in roof and wall assemblies has increased
significantly in recent years from approximately 80 mm in the 1980s to values
approaching 200 mm in 2009. Further increases in thickness are expected over
the next few years as the regulations on energy use in buildings become more
onerous.
The most common form of insulation in built-up cladding systems is mineral
wool quilt, which is favoured due to its light weight, low thermal conductivity,
ease of handling and relatively low cost. Rigid mineral wool slabs are
available, but are less deformable than mineral wool quilts, giving rise to the
8 - 7
potential for air gaps between the insulation and the profiled metal sheets.
Rigid mineral wool slabs are also much heavier than mineral wool quilts, with
consequences for the loading on the supporting steelwork and manual handling
on site.
2.2.3 Spacer system
The primary function of the spacer system is to support the weather sheet at the
required spacing from the liner sheet. The components of the system must,
therefore, possess sufficient strength and stiffness to safely transmit the
required loading through to the purlins, without excessive deformation. A
common form of spacer is a bar and bracket system, as shown in Figure 2.5.
The system consists of cold formed steel bars, which provide continuous
support to the weather sheet, supported at intervals by steel brackets firmly
attached to the purlins through the liner. Many bar and bracket systems also
incorporate plastic pads (which act as thermal breaks) in order to minimise
thermal bridging. Other types of spacer systems are also available, for example
Z spacers supported on thermally insulating plastic blocks.
1
2
3
4

1 Bar
2 Bracket
3 Sway bracket
4 Purlin

Figure 2.5 Bar and bracket spacer system
2.2.4 Weather sheet
The outer sheet of a double skin built-up cladding system is known as the
weather sheet. As the name suggests, its primary function is to protect the
building from the exterior climate by forming a weather-tight envelope.
However, the weather sheet should also be regarded as a structural element, as
it plays an important role in transferring externally applied loads (e.g. from
wind, snow and foot traffic) through to the other cladding components,
secondary steelwork and the primary load-bearing frame.
The weather sheets are usually made from either steel or aluminium and are
available in a wide variety of finishes and colours. Steel weather sheets are
manufactured from pre-coated steel coil. Aluminium weather sheets are
available in a mill finish or in a range of painted finishes. Detailed
requirements for the weather sheets for roof and wall cladding applications are
given in EN 14782
[1]
.
8 - 8
2.2.5 Fasteners
A wide variety of proprietary fasteners are available, which where required,
can be watertight. Most fasteners used for metal cladding applications are both
self-tapping and self-drilling, although screws which are only self-tapping are
also available for use in pre-drilled holes. Fasteners can be used to connect
sheeting to supporting steelwork (or other materials) or to connect adjacent
sheets. For most fastener applications, a choice between plated carbon steel and
stainless steel (typically grade 304 austenitic stainless steel is used) is made.
Visible fasteners have the option of factory coloured plastic heads to suit the
weather sheet. Further information describing these and other fasteners (e.g.
secret fix fasteners) is available from MCRMA Technical Paper No 12
Fasteners for Metal Roof and Wall Cladding: Design, Detailing and
Installation Guide
[2]
.
2.3 Insulated (composite or sandwich) panels
Insulated roof and wall cladding panels consist of a rigid layer of insulation
sandwiched between two metal skins, as shown in Figure 2.6. The result is a
strong, stiff, lightweight panel with good spanning capabilities due to
composite action in bending. These panels are commonly used on industrial
buildings and retail sheds in place of the built-up cladding described in
Section 2.2. In this case, the panels span between cold formed purlins or side
rails, which in turn span between the primary frame members. However, for
commercial buildings, where the secondary steelwork is not needed for
restraint purposes, it is quite common for composite wall cladding panels to
span directly between the columns.
Standing seam and through-fixed systems are available, with either a
trapezoidal weather sheet and shallow profiled liner, as shown in Figure 2.6, or
two flat / micro-ribbed sheets. Profiled composite panels are used for roofs to
allow rainwater to run off without penetrating the fastener holes, while flat
panels are favoured for walls due to their better appearance.
1
2
1 Insulation
2 Metal sheets

Figure 2.6 Insulated panel
Unlike built-up systems, there is no need for a spacer system, as the rigid
insulation is strong and stiff enough to maintain the correct spacing of the
sheets. Any loads applied in the plane of the cladding (e.g. down-slope loads
8 - 9
on a pitched roof) are transferred from the external sheet through the two
adhesive bonds and the layer of insulation to the internal sheet and the
supporting structure.
Polyisocyanurate (PIR) is the most common insulation material used in
foam-insulated panels. PIR expands rapidly when sprayed onto the metal
profile and bonds to it without the need for an adhesive. This property makes it
ideally suited to the type of continuous manufacturing process employed by the
larger manufacturers of foam-filled panels. Alternatively, rigid slabs of mineral
wool or other insulating materials may be bonded to the metal sheets using an
adhesive. This method is commonly used for flat-faced wall panels.
2.4 Standing seam systems
Standing seam or secret fix systems use a specially designed profile for the
weather sheet, which incorporates a clipped joint between adjacent sheets. This
eliminates the need for exposed fasteners and improves the weather tightness
of the cladding system. Consequently, standing seam systems may be used on
very low roof slopes (down to 1 compared to 4 for systems with exposed
fasteners). Insulated panel systems are also available with a standing seam joint
in the weather sheet. Standing seam sheeting can be manufactured from steel or
aluminium.
A typical standing seam system is shown in Figure 2.7.
5
3
4
1 2

1 Outer sheeting
2 Slope
3 Standing seam clip
4 Inner sheeting
5 Insulation

Figure 2.7 Standing seam roof cladding
The disadvantage of this system is that significantly less restraint is provided to
the purlins than with a conventionally fixed system. Nevertheless, a correctly
fixed liner will provide adequate restraint.
Further information on standing seam cladding systems may be obtained from
MCRMA Technical Paper 3 Secret fix roofing design guide
[3]
and also from
ECCS-TC7 Publication 41 Good practice in steel cladding and roofing
[6]
.
8 - 10
2.5 Structural liner trays
Structural liner trays are a popular alternative to composite wall panels. They
comprise a deep structural profile into which a slab of insulation is inserted on
site. The assembly is completed with the addition of an external profiled metal
sheet, as shown in Figure 2.8. Unlike built-up systems, liner trays span directly
between the main structural columns, thereby removing the requirement for
secondary cladding rails. This is possible because of the depth of the liner tray
profile and its resulting bending stiffness. The lack of secondary steelwork
therefore can have clear advantages in terms of the speed and cost of the
construction process and installation tolerances.
However, consideration, should be given to thermal bridging that can exist
with liner trays. This issue may be partially overcome by placing an additional
layer of rigid insulation on the outside of the tray.
Where plastic design of portal frames is a common design approach, the
absence of side rails can create issues when attempting to provide restraint to
the inside flange of the columns (e.g. in the hogging region of a portal frame),
since traditional knee bracing cannot easily be attached to the liner tray profile.
Structural liner trays can also be specified with perforations where improved
acoustic performance is required.
1
2
3

1 External profile sheeting
2 Insulation
3 Liner tray

Figure 2.8 Structural liner tray cladding systems
2.6 Structural deck and membrane roof systems
Structural deck and membrane systems provide a long spanning alternative to
built-up cladding on cold formed purlins and are especially popular on flat or
very low pitch roofs on which a waterproof membrane is required. The roof
construction comprises a trapezoidal profiled metal deck of sufficient depth
and gauge to span directly between the rafters, roof beams or trusses. A
common metal deck typically has a profile height of 100 mm and a steel
8 - 11
thickness between 0,75 mm and 1,0 mm. The deck supports a layer of rigid
insulation on top of which the waterproof membrane is placed, as shown in
Figure 2.9. The use of a high density rigid membrane permits the loads from
foot traffic and snow to be carried through the insulation layer to the structural
deck without the need for an external metal sheet or spacer system. The deck is
capable of restraining the top of the beam or truss, making it ideal for building
designs that have simply supported roof structures. However, structural decks
are not suitable for plastically designed portal frames due to the need to restrain
the inner flange of the rafter in the hogging region.
1
2
3
4
5
6

1 Structural deck
2 External membrane
3 Rigid gypsum roof
boards
4 Insulation
5 Vapour retarder
6 Supporting steelwork

Figure 2.9 Structural deck and membrane cladding system
8 - 12
3 SPECIFICATION OF THE CLADDING
The specification of roof and wall cladding has implications well beyond the
aesthetics and weathertightness of the building. The choice of cladding can
affect many aspects of the buildings performance, from its construction right
through to its eventual demolition and disposal. Indeed, the fitness for purpose
of the whole building could be compromised if sufficient care is not taken when
specifying the cladding. Listed below are the factors that should be taken into
consideration when specifying profiled metal cladding systems. Further details
on the principal technical considerations are given in Sections 3.1 to 3.8.
Weathertightness
Strength and rigidity
Thermal insulation
Control of condensation
Control of thermal movement
Sound insulation
Fire resistance
Appearance
Durability
Cost
Daylighting
External attachments
Lightning protection
Design detailing
Maintenance, remedial work and renewal.
Control of air leakage.
Minimum performance requirements for a number of these factors are laid
down by legislation in Europe. Other factors, such as appearance and day
lighting, may not seem to be as critical from an engineering viewpoint, but
might be crucial to the success of the building in terms of the well-being of the
occupants and the acceptance of the building by the local community. It should
not be forgotten that the cost of the insulated cladding in a typical commercial
or industrial building is usually a significant proportion of the overall
construction cost, so decisions related to the cladding could influence the
economic success or failure of the project. The cladding also has a significant
impact on the operational energy requirements and, therefore, the operating
costs of the building in service, specifically heating, cooling and lighting.
8 - 13
3.1 Weathertightness
The primary function of the cladding system is to provide a weathertight
building envelope, suitable for the intended use of the building. With this in
mind, the cladding specifier must give careful consideration to the selection of
the cladding components and the detailed design of the system. The location of
the building, its orientation and the external climate should all be considered
when specifying the cladding. The satisfactory performance of the system also
depends on the correct assembly of the components in the factory and/or on
site.
In general, roofs are at greater risk of leakage than walls, and this risk increases
as the roof pitch decreases. This is an important factor in the design of modern
non-domestic buildings, since many have low pitch or flat roofs in order to
minimise the volume of empty roof space. Not all types of roof cladding are
suitable for use on low pitch roofs. Specifiers must, therefore, pay careful
attention to the minimum pitch recommended by the manufacturers, together
with the published guidance on detailing and installation.
Trapezoidal metal roof sheets with through fix fasteners are generally suitable
for slopes of 4 (7%) or steeper. This 4 limit is critical to the performance of
the cladding and should take into account deflections in the supporting
steelwork and localised cladding deformations that may lead to ponding.
Where the primary steelwork is precambered to off-set the deflections due to
permanent actions, great care must be taken to ensure that excessive precamber
does not result in local high points, as these could also cause ponding. For
shallower pitches, down to 1,5 (1,5%), a secret fix system with no exposed
through fasteners, special side laps and preferably no end laps should be used.
Secret fix systems may also be used on steeper roofs where increased reliability
is desired.
For low pitch roofs, ponding is a potential problem that must be considered at
the design stage in order to avoid the deleterious effects of prolonged soaking
and the increased loading due to the weight of the water. Where ponding
occurs on rooflights, there is also the additional problem of the water leaving
dirt deposits as it evaporates.
Side and end laps in profiled sheeting are weak points in the building envelope,
where the wind and rain could potentially penetrate the cladding. The design
and construction of the laps is therefore critical to the weathertightness of the
cladding system. End laps typically consist of two continuous butyl sealant
strips, which are compressed to form a weathertight seal by the clamping
action of the fasteners. The pitch of fasteners required to achieve a proper seal
will depend on the profile geometry, but one fastener per trough is common. A
typical side lap between trapezoidal sheets is formed by overlapping the
profiles with a strip of butyl sealant positioned on the weather side of the
fastener to provide a weather-resistant seal. The side laps should be stitched at
500 mm centres or closer using steel stitcher fasteners. Further information on
side and end lap details is given in MCRMA Technical Paper No. 6 Profiled
metal roofing design guide
[4]
and Technical Paper No. 16 Guidance for the
effective sealing of end lap details in metal roofing constructions
[5]
. Reference
can also be made to ECCS-TC7 Publication 41 Good practice in steel cladding
and roofing
[6]
.
8 - 14
3.2 Building appearance
The choice of wall and roof cladding can have a significant impact on the
appearance of a building. The following factors are particularly important:
Profile shape
Colour
Fasteners.
The profile shape can have a significant impact on the appearance of a building
due to its effect on the perceived colour and texture of the cladding (caused by
the reflection of light). The orientation of the cladding (ribs horizontal or ribs
vertical) will also influence the appearance of the building, due to the effects of
shadow and reflection. A potential disadvantage of horizontal ribs is that they
tend to suffer from an accumulation of dirt over time, unless the cladding is
cleaned regularly. Where the location and function of the building demand a
smooth flat exterior, insulated wall panels with flat facing sheets may be used,
however, it should be noted that any defect on the surface will be readily
noticeable.
The steel from which profiled cladding sheets are made is available pre-coated
in a wide range of colours and textures, allowing architects to choose a finish
that best suits the location and function of the building. In choosing the finish,
the architect should bear in mind the influence of the profile shape on the
overall appearance by making an allowance for the effects of reflection and
shadow on the perceived shade of colour.

8 - 15

Figure 3.1 Typical wall cladding with a mix of flat panels and profiled
sheeting
The overall appearance of the building can also be affected by the choice of
fasteners, especially on wall cladding or on steeply pitched roofs. Cladding
specifiers should, therefore, give careful consideration to the size, shape, colour
and locations of the fasteners and washers. Fasteners with factory coloured
plastic heads are available to match the colour of the weather sheet. Where
exposed fasteners are considered detrimental to the appearance of the building,
the architect may consider the use of secret fix insulated panels or standing
seam systems in which all fasteners are hidden from view. Further information
on fasteners is available from MCRMA Technical Paper No 12 Fasteners for
Metal Roof and Wall Cladding: Design, Detailing and Installation Guide
[2]
.
3.3 Thermal performance
3.3.1 Energy consumption
The increase in public awareness of global climate change and the association
with human activity has placed energy consumption and carbon dioxide
emissions high on the political agenda. Under the terms of the Kyoto Protocol,
European countries are now legally bound to reduce their carbon dioxide
8 - 16
emissions and meeting this obligation will require significant changes in many
sectors of industry, especially construction.
A significant proportion of carbon dioxide emissions in Europe is related to the
operational energy requirements of buildings (heating, lighting, ventilation
etc.). This issue is addressed by European Directive 2002/91/EC: Energy
performance of buildings
[7]
. Although many factors influence a buildings
energy efficiency, the thermal performance of the building envelope is
significant. Consequently, it has been sought to reduce energy consumption by
improving the thermal performance of the cladding and associated components.
The main sources of heat loss through the building envelope are shown in
Figure 3.2.

1 2 3

1 Thermal bridge (metal spacer)
2 Thermal transmittance through insulation
3 Air leakage through joints

Figure 3.2 Main sources of heat loss through the building envelope
3.3.2 Thermal transmittance
Thermal transmittance through the building envelope can be a significant
source of energy loss within a building, especially if there is insufficient
insulation. One measure of thermal transmittance is the U-value, which is
defined as the rate of heat transfer through an element of the building envelope
(e.g. a wall, window, section of roof or rooflight) per square metre. The SI unit
for the U-value is W/m
2
K. For an individual component such as a cladding
panel, the elemental U-value depends on the conductivity and thickness of the
insulation, the profile shape and the presence of thermal bridges. Cladding and
insulation manufacturers usually quote U-value for their products for a range of
insulation thicknesses. Alternatively, the U-value of a given built-up of
envelope may be calculated using software.
National regulations generally specify maximum U-values. These are often the
weighted average (or similar overall figure) for the whole of the roof or wall,
with maximum values for individual elements such as doors. The individual
elements tend to have much higher U-values than the cladding.
Typical limiting U-values are shown in Table 3.1.
8 - 17
Table 3.1 Limiting U-values
Element
Area weighted average
(Wm
-2
K
-1
)
Wall 0,35
Roof 0,25
Window 2,2
Pedestrian door 2,2
Roof ventilator 6

Over recent years, the drive to improve the energy performance of buildings
has resulted in a significant reduction in the U-values for building envelope
elements, resulting in a considerable increase in insulation thickness. This has
had important implications for the structural performance of the cladding
system and its relationship with other structural elements. Of particular concern
to the structural engineer are the increased depth and weight of the cladding
and its ability to adequately restrain the purlins or side rails. Inevitably the
trend will continue towards improved thermal efficiency. However, the
diminishing returns obtained from further reductions in U-values means that in
future more emphasis is likely to be placed on airtightness and the performance
of mechanical services, rather than ever increasing insulation thicknesses.
While some countries have adopted the U-value as the preferred means of
quantifying the performance of the envelope, elsewhere the chosen parameter
is the R-value or thermal resistance. The R-value is simply the reciprocal of the
U-value and the points noted in the preceding paragraphs are equally
applicable in these countries.
Typical U-values for different cladding systems are shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Typical U-values for cladding
Element U-value
(Wm
-2
K
-1
)
Built-up system, 180 mm insulation 0,25
Built-up system, 210 mm insulation 0,2
Composite panel, mineral fibre, 120 mm 0,34
Composite panel, mineral fibre, 150 mm 0,27
Composite panel, PIR, 60 mm 0,33
Composite panel, PIR, 100 mm 0,20

3.3.3 Thermal bridges
Thermal bridges are areas or components within the roof or wall cladding
assembly whose thermal insulation properties are lower (often much lower)
than those of the surrounding material, thereby permitting local high heat flows
through the building envelope. A common example of a thermal bridge would
be an all-metal spacer in a built-up cladding system. In general, all metal
components will act as thermal bridges, because of their high thermal
conductivity, unless specific measures are taken to interrupt the heat flow by
introducing a layer of thermal insulation. Thermal bridging increases the heat
8 - 18
loss from a building, thereby increasing the operational energy requirement. It
can also lead to a reduction in the internal surface temperature of the cladding,
causing condensation to form under certain conditions.
3.3.4 Airtightness
The airtightness of a building is central to the requirements of the building
regulations and is likely to become even more important as architects strive to
improve the thermal performance of the building envelope without significant
increases in insulation thickness. The airtightness of a building is quantified in
terms of its air permeability, which is defined as the volume flow rate of air per
square metre of building envelope and floor area at a given pressure. The
maximum permissible air permeability for a given building will depend on a
number of factors including the requirements of the building regulations, the
specified CO
2
rating for the building and the means by which this rating is to
be achieved (e.g. the architect may specify a very low level of air permeability
as an alternative to increasing the thickness of insulation). In many countries,
achievement of the specified air permeability must be demonstrated by
post-construction testing.
3.4 Interstitial condensation
Interstitial condensation occurs within the layers of the cladding construction
and is due to warm moist air from within the building penetrating the liner and
condensing on the cold outer sheet and other components. The severity of the
problem will depend on the relative humidity of the air within the building, the
external air temperature and humidity, and on how well the liner is sealed.
Buildings in cold climates and those containing swimming pools, laundries or
other similar applications are most at risk, as are cladding systems that
incorporate a perforated liner and separate vapour control barrier. In extreme
cases, the condensation could result in corrosion of steel components within the
roof assembly or in wetting of the insulation.
Recommendations for avoiding interstitial condensation are usually given in
National Standards.
3.5 Acoustics
Depending on the application, acoustic performance can be an important
consideration when specifying roof and wall cladding. There are three
categories of acoustic performance to consider, as illustrated in Figure 3.3.
3.5.1 Airborne sound transmission
Where there is a need to limit the passage of sound through the building
envelope, the cladding specifier needs to consider the Sound Reduction Index
(SRI) of the cladding. The SRI is a measure of the reduction in sound energy
(in decibels) as sound passes through a construction at a given frequency. The
acoustic performance of a particular cladding system will depend on the
insulation material, the weather sheet and liner sheet profiles and the method of
assembly. Of these, the insulation is the dominant factor, with soft mineral
wool insulation giving better sound insulation than rigid board (dependent
upon density).
8 - 19

3
1
2

1 Impact noise from rain
2 Reverberation
3 Airborne sound transmission

Figure 3.3 Categories of acoustic performance
3.5.2 Reverberation
In certain applications, such as offices or residential accommodation, internal
acoustic performance might be critical to the functionality of the building. Of
particular interest is the reverberation caused by sound waves reflecting off
hard internal surfaces, including elements of the building envelope. Typically,
the internal finishes of the building will be used to limit reverberation, but
architects may also take advantage of the sound absorbing properties of the
cladding insulation layer by replacing the standard liner sheet with a perforated
liner. Where the envelope consists of insulated sandwich panels, it is not
uncommon to install a perforated liner and a layer of mineral wool insulation
on the inside of the envelope in order to reduce reverberation.
3.5.3 Impact noise
The noise created by the impact of rain or hail on metal roof sheeting can
sometimes create a nuisance for the building occupants. Where impact noise is
considered to be important, it can sometimes be reduced by placing a flexible
insulation layer directly below the outer sheet to act as a damper.
3.5.4 Noise associated with building services equipment
Consideration should also be given to attenuating noise emanating from
services equipment. These include providing sound enclosures for noise prone
machinery and/or including equipment supports with dampers. Reduction of
noise from services is particularly appropriate in industrial buildings.
National regulations may specify acoustic performance standards in terms of
reducing noise coming into a building but these are often for residential
buildings. 65 dB is generally considered a suitable indoor noise level in
industrial buildings, whereas 50 to 55 dB is considered a suitable indoor
ambient noise level for commercial, retail and leisure buildings. For industrial
buildings, noise break-out is usually a greater concern. Local regulations may
8 - 20
specify acoustic requirements to reduce noise break-out from within a building
(for example if the building is sited adjacent to a residential area).
Cladding system manufacturers will be able to provide acoustic performance
data for different constructions, and be able to recommend a system to meet the
specification.
A built-up system comprising an inner and outer sheet of pre-finished steel
with mineral wool insulation generally achieves over 40 dB of sound reduction.
Rock mineral wool has a greater density than glass mineral wool, and generally
improves the sound insulation. Sound insulation can be improved by including
a layer of dense acoustic mineral wool slab, in addition to the insulation quilt.
In general, factory insulated foam filled composite systems are not as effective
as built up systems, because of the low mass of the foam core and the direct
coupling of the inner and outer skins.
The sound reduction index R
w
for various systems is shown in Table 3.3. A
higher index indicates higher sound reduction.
Table 3.3 Sound reduction index for typical cladding systems
Cladding type Sound reduction index R
w

Built-up system with rock wool and acoustic
insulation
47
built-up system with rock wool 45
built-up system with glass mineral wool 41
composite panel with mineral wool 31
composite panel with foam 25
single skin 24

3.5.5 Further information
Further guidance is available in MCRMA Technical paper No. 8 Acoustic
design guide for metal roof and wall cladding
[8]
and also from ECCS-TC7
Publication 41 Good practice in steel cladding and roofing
[6]
.
3.6 Fire performance
In general, any concerns about the reaction of cladding to fire are far
outweighed by concerns about the smoke and gas generated by the contents of
the building, not the envelope.
Single sheet cladding is considered to contribute significantly to any fire.
Single sheet cladding is generally assumed not to make any contribution to fire
resistance, although in practice some integrity and resistance will be provided.
Single skin sheeting is generally not used on boundaries, when prevention of
fire spread to neighbouring structures is important.
Built-up systems that use mineral wool or glass wool insulation are not
considered to contribute significantly to any fire. Built-up systems may also be
8 - 21
specified to meet the requirements for external envelope applications.
Composite panels that use mineral wool fall in the same category.
Factory insulated composite panels may use polyurethane (PUR) or
polyisocyanurate (PIR). It is generally considered that PIR panels have
improved performance in fire compared to PUR panels. The core of either type
of panel is difficult to ignite. Panels with appropriate joint designs with either
PUR or PIR filling do not present an undue fire risk, and PUR panels are the
standard core in many European countries.
Polystyrene filled panels present a fire risk, and their use is diminishing.
3.7 Durability
All cladding systems suffer a certain degree of degradation over time due to
moisture, atmospheric pollution and UV radiation. However, the cladding
specifier can have a considerable influence on the long term performance of the
cladding through careful selection of materials and good detailing. Once in
service, regular maintenance will prolong the life of the building envelope.
The metal from which the weather sheet is made is available with several types
of coating with a wide variety of colours and finishes. Guidance on the
expected design lives of these coatings is available from MCRMA Technical
paper No. 6 Profiled metal roofing design guide
[4]
and also from ECCS-TC7
Publication 41 Good practice in steel cladding and roofing
[6]
. It is worth noting
that the colour of the coating has a very significant impact on its design life.
Light colours reflect thermal radiation more efficiently than dark colours,
resulting in lower surface temperatures and a reduction in the degradation
experienced by the coating.
When detailing the building envelope, particular attention should be given to
the avoidance of water and dirt traps by specifying suitable slopes and end laps.
Careful detailing is needed at the external interfaces to avoid the ingress of
water and at the internal interfaces to prevent water vapour from within the
building entering the cladding assembly (resulting in interstitial condensation).
In order to ensure that the building envelope remains fully functional
throughout its design life, it is important that it receives regular maintenance,
including inspection, removal of debris, cleaning and repair of damage. Since
maintenance usually involves access by workmen, often carrying equipment, it
is essential that this is allowed for in the design of the building envelope and
the supporting structure. The need for maintenance may be greatly reduced by
specifying a coating for the weathersheet with a maintenance free guarantee
for the expected design life of the cladding (typically 20 to 30 years). Such
coatings can provide significant benefits to the client in terms of whole life
costs and improved safety.
3.8 Structural performance
Metal cladding systems are required to carry externally applied loads, such as
snow and wind loading without deflecting excessively or compromising the
other performance requirements. The individual characteristic loads (actions)
8 - 22
should be obtained from the appropriate part of EN 1991
[9]
, taking into account
the building geometry and location as applicable. These individual actions
should then be combined using the appropriate safety factors from EN 1990
[10]

to obtain the load cases used in design.
3.8.1 Actions
Permanent actions
For most industrial and commercial applications of metal cladding technology,
the only permanent action for which the roof cladding needs to be designed is
its own self-weight, including the weight of the insulation. Typical weights of
insulated panels and built-up cladding systems are given in Table 3.4. For
information on specific cladding products, designers should consult the
technical literature available from manufacturers or suppliers. For wall
cladding, it is not normally necessary to consider permanent actions, since the
self-weight acts in the plane of the cladding. However, where a rainscreen
system is attached to the outer face of the cladding panel or assembly, it will be
necessary to consider the impact of the rainscreen system weight when
specifying the fasteners.
Table 3.4 Typical cladding system weights
Sheet thickness
System Insulation Depth*
Inner Outer
Weight
kN/m
2

Built-up Mineral wool 180 mm 0,4 mm 0,7 mm 0,16
Built-up Mineral wool 180 mm 0,7 mm 0,7 mm 0,20
Insulated
Panels
PIR 80 mm 0,4 mm 0,5 mm 0,12
* The depths chosen in Table 3.1 correspond to a U-value of 0,25 W/m
2
K for typical cladding
systems using the insulation shown.
Variable actions
In addition to its self-weight, the roof cladding must also be designed for the
following variable actions as specified in the appropriate parts of EN 1991:
Access for cleaning and maintenance
A uniformly distributed load due to snow over the complete roof area. The
value of this load will depend on the buildings location
Asymmetric snow load and loading due to snow drifts
Wind pressure and suction.
Care should be taken when green roofs are specified, as they tend to be
considerably heavier than traditional metal roofs and, in the case of roof
gardens, must be designed for the presence of garden furniture and people.
Wall cladding should be designed for wind loading according to
EN 1991-1-4
[9]
. Positive wind pressure and wind suction will need to be
considered, with special attention paid to the areas of high wind suction close
to the corners of the building. The wind suction design case is often governed
by the resistance of the fasteners connecting the cladding panels or sheets to
the supporting steelwork.
8 - 23
3.8.2 Deflections
The cladding must be capable of carrying the specified design loads without
deflecting excessively, if the other performance requirements such as
weathertightness, airtightness and durability are to be achieved. The predicted
deflections are normally calculated for the unfactored variable actions only.
Loading at the construction stage is not normally included in the serviceability
load cases and is not normally considered when specifying cladding systems.
However, care must be taken on site to avoid excessive local deflections,
especially those caused by concentrated loads such as foot traffic or stacked
materials on roof liner sheets, as these could result in permanent damage to the
cladding. Typical deflection limits imposed on the cladding are dependent on
the loading regime considered (imposed load only or permanent plus imposed
loading), the location (wall or roof) of the structural component and whether a
brittle material is present. Deflection limits may be specified by National
regulations. Common deflection limits are:
Span/150 for wall cladding, spanning between secondary steelwork
Span/200 for roof cladding, spanning between purlins
Span/180 for purlins or side rails.
3.8.3 Use of safe load tables
The manufacturers of profiled metal sheeting and insulated panels provide safe
load tables for their products, which may be used either to select a suitable
profile or, where the profile has already been chosen, to determine the
maximum permissible purlin spacing. It is important to note that the load tables
often assume that the loading is uniformly distributed and that safe working
loads are usually specified. If in doubt, specifiers should seek guidance from
the cladding manufacturers.
8 - 24
4 COLD ROLLED SECONDARY STEELWORK
For steel portal framed industrial type buildings with low pitch roofs (5 to 10
degrees), the cladding panels or sheets are normally supported by a system of
light steel purlins and side rails spanning between the rafters and columns
respectively. See Figure 4.1 showing secondary steelwork in the roof where the
purlins span between the rafters of the main frame. The primary function of
these secondary members is to transfer load from the cladding to the primary
steel frame, including cladding self-weight, wind loads and, for roofs, imposed
loads due to snow and maintenance access. The purlins and side rails may also
be used to provide restraint to the rafters and columns and to transfer horizontal
loads into the bracing system.

Figure 4.1 Purlins spanning between rafters in the roof
This Section presents guidance on some of the key issues relating to the use of
cold formed purlins and cladding rails.
4.1 Purlin and side rail options
Purlins and side rails are generally cold formed light gauge galvanized steel
members, supplied as part of a proprietary cladding support system, together
with fittings, fasteners and other associated components.
4.1.1 Section options
Purlins and side rails are available in a variety of shapes and a wide range of
sizes. The depth of the section typically lies between 120 mm and 340 mm,
with the profile thickness varying between 1,2 mm and 3,2 mm. Some of the
more common section shapes are shown in Figure 4.2. Purlins and side rails,
because of their high length/thickness values, are typically classed as Class 4
8 - 25
sections as defined in EN 1993-1-3
[11]
, hence section properties will be need to
be based on effective values (reduced gross properties).
Further information on these sections may be obtained from the manufacturers
technical literature.
1 2 3 4

1 Zed
2 Ult razed
3 Zet a
4 Sigma

Figure 4.2 Common types of purlin
4.1.2 Purlin and side rail layout options
Most manufacturers produce guidance on typical purlin layouts that are
efficient for various situations. These layouts are governed by such aspects as
maximum purlin length (generally not more than 16 m for transport and site
access reasons) and the ability to provide semi continuity by the use of sleeves
or overlaps for maximum efficiency. The most commonly used layouts are
shown in Figure 4.3 to Figure 4.7. Specifiers seeking further information on
when and how to use a particular layout should consult the purlin
manufacturers for detailed information relating to their specific systems. In any
event, the purlin manufacturer should be consulted before the layout is
finalised.
Single-span lengths - sleeved system
In sleeved systems, each purlin is the length of a single span but sleeves are
provided at alternate supports so that each purlin is effectively continuous
across two spans (Figure 4.3). At the penultimate support, sleeves are provided
at each purlin, to provide semi continuity and additional strength in the end
bay. This system is considered to be the most efficient for buildings with bay
centres between 5 m and 7 m. Heavier sections can be provided in the end bay
if necessary.
1
2
3
4

1 Sleeved purlin
2 Penult imat e
support
3 Raft er
4 Sleeve

Figure 4.3 Single-span lengths sleeved system
8 - 26
Single-span lengths - butted system
Single-span butted systems have a lower capacity than the other systems, but
are simpler to fix either over the rafters or between rafter webs (Figure 4.4).
This layout may be used for small buildings with close frame centres, such as
agricultural applications.

1 Single-span
purlin
2 Rafter

Figure 4.4 Single-span lengths - butted system
Single-span lengths - overlapping system
An overlapping system provides greater continuity and can be used for heavy
loads and long spans (Figure 4.5). It is best suited to buildings with a large
number of bays.

1 Purlin
2 Rafter

Figure 4.5 Single-span lengths - overlapping system
Double-span lengths non sleeved system
In this system, the double-span lengths are staggered (Figure 4.6). Sleeves are
provided at the penultimate supports to ensure semi continuity. The capacity
will generally be less than for the equivalent double span sleeved system, but
double-span purlins use fewer components and lead to faster erection. This
system is limited to bay sizes less than 8 m, for reasons of transport and
erection of the purlins.
8 - 27

1 Double-span
purlin
2 Penultimate
support
3 Rafter
4 Sleeve

Figure 4.6 Double-span lengths non sleeved system
Double-span lengths - sleeved system
In double-span sleeved systems, the double-span lengths are staggered and
sleeves are provided at alternate supports (Figure 4.7). Sleeves are provided to
every purlin at the penultimate support to ensure semi continuity. A double
span sleeved system has a slightly higher capacity than the double-span
non-sleeved system and has the advantages of semi continuity at all sleeve
positions. This system is limited to bay sizes less than 8 m, for reasons of
transport and erection. Heavier purlins can be provided in the end bays, if
necessary.

1 Sleeved
double-span
purlin
2 Sleeve

Figure 4.7 Double span lengths - sleeved system
4.1.3 The use of anti-sag rods for purlins
Anti-sag rods are small rods or angles that are bolted or clipped between the
purlins. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 4.8; other systems are also
available. When used, they are commonly placed either at mid-span or at third
points along the purlin and serve the following functions:
They provide restraint to the purlins against lateral-torsional buckling under
wind uplift conditions
8 - 28
They provide restraint to the purlins in the construction condition (before
the installation of the cladding)
They provide additional support to the down-slope component of the
applied loads
They help to maintain the alignment of the purlins.
The anti-sag rods are assisted in these functions by eaves beam struts and apex
ties, both of which are also illustrated in Figure 4.8.
6
10
8
11
7
9
1
2
3
4
5

1 Purlin
2 Eaves beam
3 Column
4 Eaves beam
5 Column
6 Eaves beam strut
7 Purlin
8 Anti-sag ties (at 1/2 or 1/3 span)
9 Rafter
10 Apex tie
11 Rafter

Figure 4.8 Typical anti-sag ties and eaves beam strut layout
The need for anti-sag rods is dependent on a number of factors, including the
chosen purlin section, the spacing between the purlins, the span of the purlins
and the magnitude of the applied loads. Advice on this issue may be obtained
from the purlin manufacturers technical literature. In some instances, the
specifier may have a choice between the use of anti-sag rods or the selection of
a heavier purlin that does not require intermediate restraint or support. There is
clearly a trade-off between the cost of a heavier purlin section and the time
(and corresponding cost) associated with the installation of additional
components.
Anti-sag rods only provide restraint at discrete locations along the span of the
purlin. The purlins should only be considered to be fully restrained under
8 - 29
gravity loading in the finished condition, when continuous restraint is provided
to the compression flange of the purlin by the cladding.
4.1.4 The use of side rail supports for wall cladding
Support for wall cladding is provided by a framework of horizontal cladding
side rails that span between the columns of the buildings primary steelwork.
Vertical restraints are connected to the side rails at discrete locations (similar to
the anti-sag rods in roofs). These restraints prevent the occurrence of
lateral-torsional buckling (due to bending of the side rails under wind suction
loading) and also prevent the side rails from sagging under the weight of the
cladding and its supporting steelwork. These vertical restraints are typically
light gauge steel sections (tubes, angles or channels) or steel bars/rods.
In order to channel the forces generated in the side rail supports efficiently to
the primary structure (columns) and to prevent the side rails from sagging prior
to the installation of the cladding, it is customary to provide a vertical braced
bay arrangement between the lowest two side rails, as shown in Figure 4.10.
These bracing members operate in tension, so it is common to use steel wires
rather than cold formed light gauge steel sections. To restrict the forces in the
tie wires, it is common practice to restrict the angle of the tie wire to the
cladding rail to a minimum of 25 or 30 (refer to the manufacturers
recommendations). With this restriction imposed on the diagonal tie wires, the
number of side rail supports is predetermined, based on the spacing of the side
rails and the spacing of the columns.
For column spacings up to 6 m with a typical side rail spacing of 1,8 m, a
single central vertical restraint will normally be sufficient (see Figure 4.10).
However, for greater column spacings, two or even three vertical restraints
may be required. In many cases, the uppermost side rail is connected to the
eaves beam. This arrangement will reduce the forces in the tie wires, but the
additional force in the eaves beam will need to be considered when this
member is sized. It is also worth noting that, once installed, the cladding will
stiffen up the wall substructure and transfer a significant proportion of the
vertical load to the columns by diaphragm action. The cladding will also fully
restrain the side rails against lateral-torsional buckling in the sagging case and
will provide partial restraint in the hogging case.
4.1.5 Cleats
Purlins are attached to rafters using cleats that are usually welded to the rafter
in the shop before delivery to site. However, the use of bolted cleats (see
Figure 4.9) is becoming popular due to savings in transportation (as the rafters
stack more compactly) and the opportunity they present to adjust the alignment
of the purlins on site (with beneficial consequences for the installation of the
cladding). The cleats are often provided by the purlin manufacturer, in which
case it is likely that they will have been designed specifically for that design of
purlin. However, generic bolted cleats made from an angle section or simple
flat plates welded to the rafter may also be used in many cases, either
unstiffened or stiffened.
8 - 30
1
2
3
4
5

1 Eaves beam
2 Main column
3 Tension wire
4 Anti sag bar
(section or tube)
5 Side rail

Figure 4.9 Cleat supporting a purlin using a bolted connection
1
2

1 Purlin
2 Cleat

Figure 4.10 Side rail support for wall cladding
4.2 Loading
The purlins and cladding rails need to be designed to carry all of the loads
applied to them from the cladding and to transfer these loads into the structural
frame. These loads will include the permanent actions due to the weight of the
cladding and secondary steelwork together with the variable actions described
in Section 3.7.1. It will usually be acceptable to consider these actions as acting
uniformly over the purlins, but account must be taken of high local forces such
as the wind suction forces close to the edges of the building. In addition to the
cladding loads, the purlins may also be required to support the weight of
8 - 31
services or suspended ceilings. The structural engineer responsible for
specifying the purlins will frequently play little or no part in the specification
of the services or ceilings. Nevertheless, it is important that an accurate
estimate of these loads is obtained together with the nature of the loading
(whether concentrated or distributed), since they could form a significant
proportion of the overall gravity loading on the purlins. Particular care should
be taken where the purlins are required to support concentrated loads. Gutters
and their supporting structure require special attention, as the loads associated
with them are often very high. Designers need to consider the weight of the
gutters plus that of their contents (water or snow). Specific information on the
specified gutter system should be sought from the gutter manufacturers.
During the construction stage, the purlins may still be required to carry
significant gravity loads, but without the benefit of any restraint provided by
the cladding. The magnitude of the construction load will depend largely on the
cladding installation procedure and the materials, plant and labour used. The
cladding installation sequence, in particular, can have a significant effect on the
buckling resistance of a purlin, due to its influence on the unrestrained length
of the purlin and the location of the load within the span. It is therefore
essential that the designer takes account of the proposed method of working
when specifying the purlins. Preferably, this should be achieved by dialogue
between the roofing contractor and the designer at the time of the purlin
specification.
4.3 Deflections
The deflection limits for the purlins and side rails are generally governed by
the choice of roof and wall cladding, since the governing factor is the ability of
the cladding to deflect without compromising weathertightness, airtightness,
non-fragility or any other performance requirement. In general, the greater the
flexibility of the cladding, the larger the allowable purlin or side-rail deflection.
In this respect, profiled metal cladding systems are far more tolerant of
deflections than brittle materials such as masonry. By contrast, windows are
often critical and further guidance should be sought from the glazing
manufacturers.
Excessive deflection under purlin or rail self-weight, or under the action of
construction loads prior to the fixing of the cladding, can lead to difficulties for
the cladding installation. This should be addressed by careful consideration of
the likely construction loading and by specifying a method of cladding
installation that avoids overloading the unrestrained purlins. Gutters are
especially sensitive to deflections, due to the need to avoid backfalls.
4.4 Purlin and side rail selection
The major purlin and cladding rail suppliers have invested heavily over many
years in the development and testing of their systems and all publish design
guidance and load/span tables for their products. In many cases, design
software is also available. Thanks to these design tools, the structural engineer
is spared the complexities of the design of light steel members and can simply
select the most suitable section from the available range. However, specifiers
8 - 32
should note that in using the load/span tables they are automatically accepting
the assumptions made by the purlin and cladding rail manufacturers, including
assumptions regarding the level of restraint provided by the cladding to the
supporting steelwork. If in doubt, the secondary steelwork specifiers should
contact the manufacturers for advice on the suitability of the chosen section for
the application in question, taking into account the proposed cladding type and
any other circumstances likely to invalidate the manufacturers assumptions,
e.g. heavy point loads.
4.5 Restraint provided to the rafters and columns
The structural efficiency of any steel framed building depends not only on the
selection of light and efficient sections, but also on the interaction between the
frame members, the secondary steelwork and the cladding system. For this
reason, it is common practice to use the secondary steelwork (the purlins and
rails) to restrain the primary steelwork.
It is generally accepted that purlins and rails need not be checked for forces
arising from the lateral restraint of rafters in either roof trusses or portal frames
provided that the following conditions are met:
The purlins are adequately restrained by sheeting
There is bracing of adequate stiffness in the plane of the rafters or
alternatively the roof sheeting is capable of acting as a stressed-skin
diaphragm
The rafters carry predominantly roof loads.
In certain European countries, the assumption that the secondary members can
restrain the primary frame is acceptable as long as the secondary member
providing the restraint is connected to a node point of the bracing system. In
other countries, it is presumed that the roof system supplies a sufficiently stiff
diaphragm to relax the requirement. In this case, roof bracing is still required,
but need not intersect with every secondary member providing restraint. If a
purlin or side rail cannot be used with stays (as shown in Figure 4.11) as a
torsional restraint, a hot rolled member may be provided to meet this
requirement.
Ideally, the compression flange of the rafter or column should be laterally
restrained by direct attachment of the purlins or cladding rails. However, under
the action of wind uplift, or close to the haunches of a portal frame under
gravity loading, the inner flange of the member (i.e. the one to which the
cladding is not attached) will be in compression and cannot be restrained
directly by the purlins or cladding rails. In this situation, the frame designer can
either introduce an additional hot-rolled steel member (often a structural
hollow section) to laterally restrain the compression flange or, alternatively, the
compression flange can be effectively held in position by a combination of
lateral restraint to the tension flange (provided by the purlins or rails) and
torsional restraint provided by rafter or column stays. Recommendations for
the provision and design of restraints are given in EN 1993-1-1
[12]
, 6.3.5.2
and Annex BB.3.
8 - 33
Rafter or column stays, as shown in Figure 4.11, may be used to provide
torsional restraint to the rafter or column provided that they are connected to a
suitably stiff purlin or cladding rail. Thin cold formed steel straps (working as
ties) are often used, although angles may be used if the stay must work in
compression (for example, if a stay can only be provided on one side of a
member).
2
1
3
4

1 Built up or
composite cladding
2 Cold-rolled eaves
beam
3 Rafter stay
4 Column stay

Figure 4.11 Details of column and rafter stay and connection
In order to provide the required level of torsional restraint to the rafters or
columns, the purlins or cladding rails must possess sufficient flexural stiffness.
Otherwise, there is a risk that the restraining member will bend and allow the
restrained members to rotate, as shown in Figure 4.12. As a rule of thumb, it is
normally adequate to provide a purlin or cladding rail of at least 25% of the
depth of the member being restrained. In practice, this generally means that the
purlins and side rails will be sufficiently stiff for portal frames with spans up to
40 m and frame spacings of 6 to 8 m. However, as the span increases relative to
the frame spacing (and the rafter size increases relative to that of the purlins),
the purlin stiffness may become insufficient to provide adequate torsional
restraint and should, therefore, be checked.

Figure 4.12 The importance of adequate purlin stiffness
4.6 Restraint of purlins and cladding rails
Cold formed steel purlins and cladding rails are extremely efficient at carrying
loads by bending action, but they are susceptible to failure through
lateral-torsional buckling unless they are adequately restrained. The economic
8 - 34
and safe design of the cladding and its supporting steelwork relies on the
interaction between the individual components that make up the whole system.
Purlins and cladding rails are normally selected from manufacturers load/span
tables, which are derived from analytical models supported by test data. In
producing their design data, all purlin manufacturers have to make a judgement
regarding the degree of restraint that is available from the cladding system
under gravity and wind uplift conditions. These assumptions are central to the
design model and can have a significant effect on the design resistance of the
purlin or rail. It is therefore essential that an equal or greater level of restraint is
achieved in practice. This will depend on the choice of sheeting and the
spacing of the fasteners.
In the gravity load case (or positive wind pressure in the case of a wall),
restraint is provided directly to the top flange of the purlin (or side rail) by the
liner sheet or insulated panel, as shown in Figure 4.13(a). Built-up cladding
and insulated panels are generally capable of providing sufficient lateral
restraint for the gravity loading case. In general, perforated liners are not
considered to be restraining and the supporting purlins should, therefore, be
designed as unrestrained members.
C
T
(a)
(b)
T
C
1
2

1 Lateral restraint provided to
compression flange by cladding
2 Cladding provides lateral restraint to
tension flange and partial torsional
restraint

Figure 4.13 Purlin restraint
For wind uplift (or negative pressure on a wall), the cladding cannot provide
lateral restraint directly to the compression flange. In this case, the purlin (or
cladding rail) is restrained by a combination of lateral restraint to the tension
flange and torsional restraint, as shown in Figure 4.13(b). The ability of the
cladding to provide restraint is dependent not only on its in-plane shear
stiffness (including the fasteners), but also its flexural stiffness. EN 1993-1-3
includes a method in Section 10 for assessing the degree of restraint provided
by the cladding in this case. Unlike the gravity load case, the cladding only
provides partial restraint to the purlin or rail. Consequently, the purlin
manufacturers technical literature should always give a lower capacity for
purlins subjected to wind uplift loading (or suction on cladding rails).
EN 1993-1-3
[11]
covers the design of purlins, liner trays and sheeting in
Section 10.
8 - 35
5 HOT-ROLLED SECONDARY STEELWORK
As an alternative to cold formed steel, purlins and cladding rails may also be
made from hot-rolled steel sections. At one time, this type of purlin was
common in industrial buildings, often used in conjunction with steel roof
trusses. The development of cold formed purlins (which are considerably
lighter and cheaper) and the trend towards plastically designed portal frames
with their onerous restraint requirements meant that the use of hot-rolled
purlins became unusual in the UK and Ireland. However, hot-rolled purlins
continue to be used in Continental Europe, often with long spanning cladding
solutions such as deck and membrane or composite panels. They are
particularly useful for providing an intermediate support to structural decking,
where the decking by itself is incapable of spanning rafter to rafter.
Hot-rolled purlins have a higher load-carrying capacity than all but the largest
cold formed purlins. This means that they are generally used at much greater
spacings than their cold formed counterparts, typically 3 m or more. This wide
spacing makes them unsuitable for plastically designed portal frames, which
commonly require restraint to the rafters at approximately 1,8 m intervals.
However, they are suitable for elastic frames and also for spans beyond the
range of standard cold formed purlins (above 8 m). Hot-rolled purlins could of
course be used at closer centres, but this would be uneconomic in most
circumstances.
A considerable advantage of hot-rolled purlins over their cold formed rivals is
their resistance to lateral-torsional bucking, especially where rectangular
hollow sections are used. This property is essential if the cladding is unable to
provide adequate restraint against lateral-torsional buckling. By contrast, cold
formed purlins are only able to span as far as they do (typically 6 m to 8 m)
because of the continuous restraint provided by the cladding. Similarly, where
the local building regulations forbid using the cladding to restrain the structure,
hot-rolled purlins are the only viable alternative to long spanning decks
running rafter to rafter. Of course, apart from square hollow sections, hot-rolled
purlins are not immune to lateral-torsional buckling and must, therefore, be
designed with this mode of failure in mind.
Unlike cold formed purlins, it is not common for the manufacturers to produce
safe load tables for hot-rolled beams. Their capacities must, therefore, be
calculated by a structural engineer according to the recommendations of
EN 1993-1-1
[12]
, taking account of the cross section resistance, lateral-torsional
buckling and deflections. This process must be repeated for gravity and uplift
load cases. If lateral-torsional buckling is the critical design criterion, the
resistance of the member could be enhanced by the introduction of tubular
restraints either at the mid-span or third points of the purlin. However, this will
add cost to the structure in terms of additional steelwork and erection time.
Hot-rolled purlins can be designed as single or double-span beams. The latter
option will significantly increase the bending stiffness of the purlin and should
be used where deflection is the governing criterion. However, the high reaction
at the intermediate support (1,25 load in one span) can cause web crushing at
this location. Sleeves are not generally used with hot-rolled purlins.
8 - 36
Hot rolled purlins have the added advantage of better fire resistance than light
gauge cold formed purlins. This is shown by the noticeably higher inherent
Massivity factor (cross section area/perimeter) which is used as a measure to
define the fire resistance of a structural section.

8 - 37
REFERENCES

1 EN 14782:2006 Self-supporting metal sheet for roofing, external cladding
and internal lining. Product specification and requirements
2 MCRMA Technical Paper No 12: Fasteners for metal roof and wall
cladding: Design, detailing and installation guide
The Metal Cladding and Roofing Manufacturers Association, 2000
3 MCRMA Technical Paper No. 3: Secret fix roofing design guide.
4 MCRMA Technical Paper No. 6: Profiled metal roofing design guide
5 MCRMA Technical paper No. 16: Guidance for the effective sealing of end
lap details in metal roofing constructions
6 ECCS Publication 41 European recommendations for steel construction:
Good practice in steel cladding and roofing
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork Recommendations for
steel construction Technical Committee TC7, 1983.
7 European Directive 2002/91/EC: Energy Performance of Buildings
The European Commission, 2002
8 MCRMA Technical paper No. 8: Acoustic design guide for metal roof and
wall cladding.
9 EN 1991:2002: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures
10 EN 1990: 2002: Eurocode Basis of structural design
11 EN 1993-1-3:2006: Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures. General rules.
Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
12 EN 1993-1-1:2005: Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures. General rules
and rules for buildings


Part 9: Introduction to Computer
Software

Part 9: Introduction to Computer
Software

9 - ii

Part 9: Introduction to Computer Software
9 - iii
FOREWORD
This publication is part nine of the design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
Part 3: Actions
The design guides have been prepared under the direction of Arcelor Mittal,
Peiner Trger and Corus. The technical content has been prepared by CTICM and SCI,
9 - iv

9 - v
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Software listing 1
1.2 Use of software 2
2 AVAILABLE FREE SOFTWARE 3
2.1 Member design, such as beams and columns 3
2.2 Composite construction 4
2.3 Cellular beam design 6
2.4 Portal frames 6
2.5 Simple connections 7
2.6 Moment resisting connections 8
2.7 Fire 8
2.8 Seismic 10

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SUMMARY
This document contains details of freely available software to assist in design of single-storey steel
buildings according to the Eurocodes.

9 - 1
1 INTRODUCTION
Design in accordance with the Eurocodes may be facilitated by the use of
software. In many cases, the verifications required by the Standard can be
readily programmed into simple spreadsheets or into more complex
programmes, which minimise the manual effort and reduce the risk of
numerical errors.
In many countries, software has been written for the purpose of facilitating
design to the Eurocodes and has been made freely available. This publication
presents a summary of software that is available, at March 2010. All the
software listed in this document is freely available.
No endorsement of any of the software programmes listed in this document
should be presumed. Equally, the omission of existing software from the listing
does not imply that it is inappropriate, inaccurate or non-endorsed. More
software will undoubtedly become available as design to the Eurocodes
becomes more widespread.
Apart from the list of freely available software presented here, there are
numerous software houses that provide comprehensive analysis and design
packages, covering all aspects of steel building design, as described in this
guide.
1.1 Software listing
In Section 2, software is listed under the following headings:
Member design, such as beams and columns
Composite construction
Cellular beam design
Analysis of frames
Portal frames
Simple connections
Moment resisting connections
Fire
Seismic
For each item of software, the following details are listed:
Scope. A general description of the software
Design Standard. The design standard may be the published Eurocode, but
may be early versions of the Standard. Users must ensure that the version of
the Eurocode is appropriate.
National Annex. Which National Annex is covered in the software, if any
Source. Where the software can be obtained (web site)
Language. The language used in the software
9 - 2
1.2 Use of software
No systematic review of the software listed in this document has been
undertaken, so the user must verify that the software is appropriate for the
design situation.
9 - 3
2 AVAILABLE FREE SOFTWARE
2.1 Member design, such as beams and
columns
Software Verifica di profili sottili piegati a freddo
Scope Design and analysis of cold formed sections
Design Standard EN 1993-1-3, EN10162
National Annex Italian NTC2008
Source http://www.promozioneacciaio.it/costruttori_schede.php
Language Italian

Software Corus sections interactive "blue book"
Scope The Corus sections interactive "blue book" comprises design data for the
Advance, Celsius and Hybox ranges of sections. All design data is
generated from the root software functions used to populate SCI P363:
Steel Building Design: Design Data, in accordance with Eurocodes and
the UK National Annexes and SCI P202: Steelwork Design Guide to
BS 5950-1: 2000. Volume 1 - Section Properties - Member Capacities.
Design Standard BS 5950 and BS EN 1993-1-1
National Annex UK only
Source http://www.corusconstruction.com/en/design_guidance/the_blue_book/
Language English

Software A3C (ArcelorMittal CTICM Columns Calculator)
Scope A3C is a new software that allows a structural designer to check the
resistance of a member under bending moment and axial force according
to EN 1993-1-1.
The field of application covers rolled profiles.
The ULS verifications include classification of the cross-sections, section
resistance, flexural buckling, lateral torsional buckling, shear buckling and
all interactions (M+N, M+V, M+N+V). Various design options are
available (for example: Annex A or Annex B for interaction factors in
EN 1993-1-1).
A detailed calculation sheet can be edited and printed.
Design Standard EN 1993-1-1
National Annex French National Annex as option
Source http://www.arcelormittal.com/sections
http://www.cticm.com
Language English, French

9 - 4
Software LTBeam
Scope LTBeam software has been designed to calculate the critical moment for
Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB), in simple or complex situations.
Even for simple cases, the critical moment is often a complex step in the
process of verification of the LTB resistance. Moreover usual formulae do
not allow the designer to take into account the specific restraint
conditions of real cases. So they lead the designer to choose
conservative assumptions. That is why LTBeam can be used to
determine a more realistic value of the critical moment.
LTBeam software is based on a modelling by beam elements that
permits to take into account specific aspects like warping stiffness,
position of the transverse loads from the shear centre, position of the
lateral restraints, etc.
LTBeam aims at facilitating the application of Eurocode 3, but it can be
used with other codes, for a LTB verification based on the concept of
critical moment.
Even though the calculations are complex, LTBeam is very simple to use
and it does not require special training provided that the phenomenon is
well known by the user.
Design Standard n/a
National Annex n/a
Source http://www.cticm.com/spip.php?rubrique6
Language French, English
2.2 Composite construction
Software ABC V2.11
Scope ABC Software allows a structural designer to check the resistance of
beams according to the European standards EN 1993-1-1 and
EN 1994-1-1.
The field of application covers simply supported beams, composite or
non composite, made from a I-rolled profile.
For composite beams, the connection can be ensured by either welded
studs or HILTI connectors. Partial connection is allowed. At the
construction stage, the composite beam can be fully propped or a
propping can be defined. Appropriate verifications at the construction
stage are carried out when necessary.
The ULS calculations include the verification of the section resistance
under bending moment and shear force, the resistance to lateral torsional
buckling, the shear buckling resistance where necessary. The resistance
to lateral torsional buckling is based on the critical moment calculated by
a modal analysis performed by the LTBeam engine.
A detailed calculation sheet can be edited and printed.
Design Standard EN 1993-1-1 and EN1994-1-1
National Annex n/a
Source http://www.arcelormittal.com/sections/index.php?id=119
Language French, English

9 - 5
Software ACP V1.02
Scope Construction phase for composite solution. To check the LTB behaviour
of composite and/or partially encased beams during erection
Design Standard EN 1993-1-1 and EN1994-1-1
National Annex n/a
Language English, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese

Software ACDV3.06
Scope ArcelorMittal composite column design according to Eurocode 4.
Replaces CDD
Design Standard ENV 1994-1-1
National Annex n/a
Language English, French, German, Spanish

Software Software compendium for steel and composite structures
Scope This new software (currently a Beta version) for the analysis, calculation
and design of steel and composite structures, has been developed by
Consulting Engineers FHECOR with funding from the Association for the
Advancement of Steel Technology (APTA) and ArcelorMittal. It is meant
as a tool for use in design offices to facilitate the pre-design of structures
or verification of existing projects and designs. It is not intended to
compete with commercial software and can be used as a teaching tool
for steel structures (levels of deformation, stresses, effective widths,
section grade, etc.). as well as the development of checking examples.
Design Standard It complies with Spanish CTE code and Eurocode 3, according to users
selection.
National Annex n/a
Source http://piem.fhecorconocimiento.es/
Language Spanish
9 - 6
2.3 Cellular beam design
Software ACB+ V2.01
Scope Cellular beams design
ACB+ is a piece of software dedicated to the design of cellular beams
made up from rolled profiles. It covers composite and non composite
cellular beams, including curved beams.
ACB+ includes practical tools for selecting the diameter and the spacing
of the openings in accordance with fabrication requirements.
ULS verifications are performed according to the principles of the
Eurocodes (EN 1993-1-1 and EN 1994-1-1), with specific verifications for
cellular beams (Vierendeel effect, web post buckling, etc).
For SLS verifications, the deflections are calculated by taking into
account the local bending due to the Vierendeel effect.
ACB+ allows the designer to assess the fire resistance according to the
principles of EN 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2.
Design Standard EN 1993-1-1, EN 1994-1-1, EN 1993-1-2, EN 1994-1-2
National Annex n/a
Language English, German, French, Italian

Software Angelina
TM

Scope Angelina software has been especially designed for the calculation of a
special type of beams with sinusoidal web openings, called Angelina
beams, fabricated from hot rolled I-profiles. This new software covers
both composite and non composite beams.
ULS verifications are carried out according to the principles of the
Eurocodes. They take into account the specific aspects of such beams,
like local bending by Vierendeel effect. The deflections are also
calculated by appropriate methods, in view to SLS verifications.
Design Standard EN 1993-1-1, EN 1994-1-1
National Annex
2.4 Portal frames
Software PORTAL Version 1.1
Scope PORTAL is a pre-design software for portal frames with single span,
made of rolled sections. It includes an automatic calculation of the snow
load and the wind action, elastic global analysis of the frame, verifications
of the members, calculations of the deflections. The calculations are
carried out according to Eurocodes (ENV 1993-1-1).
The automatic pre-design is based on the weight criterion for a given
steel grade, but sections can be defined by the user for performing
verifications.
National Annex Not suitable for National Annex application. Only partial safety factors
may be user defined.
9 - 7
Software Pre-design of one span of a portal frame
Scope Pre-design of one span of a portal frame
National Annex EN 1993-1-1 ANB 2008
Source Online calculation on www.infosteel.be
Language Dutch and French

Software Pre-deSsign of a roof structure for residential buildings
Scope Pre-design of a roof structure for residential buildings
National Annex EN 1993-1-1 ANB 2008
Source Online calculation on www.infosteel.be
Language Dutch and French
2.5 Simple connections
Software ACOP V1.02
Scope Connection programme to design joints in steel building structures.
National Annex n/a
Language English, French, German

Software Unioni bullonate
Scope Bolted joints. Scheda di calcolo (ZIP 4 Mb)
Language Italian

Software Unioni saldate
Scope Welded joints.
Scheda di calcolo (ZIP 500 kb).
Language Italian

9 - 8
Software Verifica collegamenti a squadretta
Scope Joint design.
Design Standard EN 1993-1-1 and EN 1993-1-8
Scheda di calcolo (ZIP 600 Kb).
Language Italian

Software Dimensionamiento unioni travature reticolari
Scope Joint verification of the trusses, bolted and welded
Scheda di calcolo (ZIP 650 Kb)
Language Italian
2.6 Moment resisting connections
Software PlatineX
Scope PlatineX is an on-line software that covers the design of moment
connections made of rolled profiles (European I and H sections),
according to EN 1993-1-8. Various geometries are possible for beam-to-
beam connections (apex connections) and beam-to-column connections.
This piece of software checks the validity of the dimensions defined by
the user (edge distances, distance between bolts, etc). If the geometry is
valid, it calculates the moment resistance, the shear resistance, the axial
resistance and the flexural stiffness.
A detailed calculation sheet can be edited and saved as PDF file.
National Annex French NA
Source http://www.steelbizfrance.com/prog/platinex/
Language French
2.7 Fire
Software ArcelorMittal Ozone 2.2.6
Scope Gas temperature in the event of fire according to EN 1991-1-2,
corresponding steel temperature according to EN 1993-1-2 and simplified
resistance check.
National Annex n/a
Language English

9 - 9
Software Software LUCA
Scope LUCA is software accompanying a design guide for industrial halls in fire
conditions. This tool calculates displacements and additional horizontal
forces that appear in industrial halls during fire enabling the engineers to
consider their effect in the design in order to avoid collapse or risk of
human life. Software was developed within RFCS project RFS2-CR-
2007-00032.
Design Standard EN 1991-1, EN 1993-1-2
National Annex n/a
Language English, French, Spanish

Software AFCB V3.08
Scope Composite beam design in case of fire
National Annex n/a

Software AFCC V3.06
Scope Composite column design in case of fire
National Annex n/a

Software Fracof
Scope Composite floor slabs
This software designs composite floor slabs at elevated temperatures by
taking into account the enhancing effects of the membrane action in slab.
FRACOF also checks perimeter beams and provides a critical
temperature for each of them.
Design Standard EN 1994-1-1, EN 1990, EN1991-1
National Annex n/a
Language English and French
9 - 10
2.8 Seismic
Software INERD 1.0.0
Scope Innovation for earthquake design.
INERD concept is a composite constructive system to improve the
robustness and the safety of reinforced concrete frame structure
Design Standard
National Annex
Language English


Part 10: Model Construction
Specification

Part 10: Model Construction
Specification

10 - ii

Part 10: Model Construction Specification
10 - iii
FOREWORD
This publication is the tenth part of the design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
Part 3: Actions

10 - iv

10 - v
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Scope 2
2 NORMATIVE REFERENCES 4
3 BASIS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN 9
3.1 General assumptions according to EN 1990 9
4 ACTIONS ON STRUCTURES 10
4.1 Self-weight and imposed loads for buildings 10
4.2 Snow loads 10
4.3 Wind loads 11
4.4 Thermal actions 11
4.5 Actions during execution 11
4.6 Accidental actions 13
4.7 Actions induced by cranes 14
4.8 Seismic actions 15
5 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 17
5.1 Rules for single-storey buildings EN 1993-1-1 17
5.2 Supplementary rules for sheeting EN 1993-1-3 18
5.3 Design of plated structural elements EN 1993-1-5 18
5.4 Design of joints EN 1993-1-8 18
5.5 Fatigue EN 1993-1-9 19
5.6 Material toughness and through-thickness properties EN 1993-1-10 19
5.7 Crane supporting structures EN 1993-6 20
6 EXECUTION SPECIFICATION 21
6.1 General 21
6.2 Execution classes 21
6.3 Preparation grades 21
6.4 Geometrical tolerances 21
7 CONSTITUENT PRODUCTS 23
7.1 Identification, inspection documents and traceability 23
7.2 Structural steel products 23
7.3 Welding consumables 23
7.4 Mechanical fasteners 23
7.5 Grouting materials 24
8 PREPARATION AND ASSEMBLY 25
8.1 Identification 25
8.2 Handling and storage 25
8.3 Cutting 25
8.4 Shaping 25
8.5 Holing 25
8.6 Assembly 26
9 WELDING 27
9.1 General 27
9.2 Qualification of welding procedures 27
10 - vi
9.3 Welders and welding operators 27
9.4 Welding coordination 27
9.5 Preparation and execution of welding 27
9.6 Acceptance criteria 29
10 MECHANICAL FASTENING 30
11 ERECTION 31
12 CONSTRUCTORS DOCUMENTATION 34
13 INTERFACES OF THE STEEL STRUCTURE 35
13.1 Interface to concrete surfaces 35
13.2 Interface to neighbouring constructions 36
Appendix A MODEL PROJECT SPECIFICATION 37

10 - vii
SUMMARY
This guide is a Model Construction Specification to be used in contract documents for a
typical construction project of a single-storey building. Its main objectives are to
achieve greater uniformity in steelwork contract specifications in Europe and to provide
a guide to specification of appropriate standards for the design, fabrication and erection
of steelwork structures for buildings.
It deals with structural steelwork designed in accordance with applicable parts of the
Eurocode Standards, to be executed in accordance with applicable parts of EN 1090. All
the relevant Sections of the model specification are included in an appendix that can be
directly copied and used in contracts, with any additional project-specific information
that may be required.

10 - viii

10 - 1
1 INTRODUCTION
This guide is a Model Construction Specification to be used in contract
documents for a typical construction project of a single-storey building. Its
main objectives are:
To achieve greater uniformity in steelwork contract specifications in
Europe.
To provide a guide to specification of appropriate standards for the design,
fabrication and erection of steelwork structures for buildings.
It is essential that the designer and the steelwork contractor receive, on time, all
information necessary for them to carry out the contract. This Model
Construction Specification gives guidance on the items and information that
should be included in the Project Specification.
The Member States of the EU and EFTA recognise that Eurocodes serve as
reference documents for the following purposes:
As a means to prove compliance of building and civil engineering works
with the essential requirements of Construction Products Directive
89/106/EEC of 21 December 1988 (amended by Directive 93/68/EEC of 22
July 1993), particularly Essential Requirement No. 1 Mechanical
resistance and stability and Essential Requirement No. 2 Safety in case
of fire.
As a basis for specifying contracts for construction works and related
engineering services.
As a framework for drawing up harmonised technical specifications for
construction products (ENs and ETAs).
The Eurocodes, as far as they concern the construction works themselves, have
a direct relationship with the Interpretative Documents referred to in Article 12
of the Construction Products Directive, although they are of a different nature
from harmonised product standards. There is a need for consistency between
the harmonised technical specifications for construction products and the
technical rules for works.
The steel construction industry in Europe will have to use CE marked products.
The performances of these products can be declared by reference to
requirements given in:
The harmonised European Standards such as the standards EN 10025 and
EN 1090. Parts 1 of these Standards (i.e. EN 10025-1 and EN 1090-1
respectively) include a special Annex ZA relating to CE marking.
A European Technical Approval (ETA).
CE Marking of steel products to EN 10025 has been mandatory since 2006.
The use of CE marked products according to EN 1090 will be mandatory from
the first semester 2011 for most of the European countries. Once it appears in
the European Official Journal, the standard will be in the application phase.
10 - 2
In EN 1090-1, for some special types of construction products (modular
construction for example), reference is made to the Eurocodes. In this case, it
shall be mentioned which Nationally Determined Parameters have been taken
into account.
Much of the information noted in this Model Construction Specification is
based upon that given in these Standards, but it must not be inferred that the
full details of the standards are not relevant.
References to applicable parts of European Standards have been made
throughout this Model Construction Specification.
1.1 Scope
This Model Construction Specification deals with structural steelwork designed
in accordance with applicable parts of the Eurocode Standards and executed in
accordance with applicable parts of EN 1090.
It can be used for all types of single- storey building construction designed for
static loading, including cases where the dynamic effects are assessed using
equivalent quasi-static loads and dynamic amplification factors, including wind
actions and actions induced by hoists and cranes and cranes on runway beams.
It is not intended to be used for steelwork in dynamically loaded structures.
This Model Construction Specification covers structural steelwork produced
from hot rolled structural steel products only. It does not cover structural
steelwork produced from cold formed structural steel (only cold formed
profiled steel sheeting and cold formed stressed-skin sheeting used as a
structural diaphragm are herein covered), structural hollow sections, channels
and tubes, and stainless steel products.
This Model Construction Specification should be introduced into a steelwork
contract by a Project Specification, the contents of which are detailed in
Appendix A of this document and completed with project-specific information.
The Project Specification should also include any additions or modifications
that may be required by the National Structural Steelwork Specification by the
Client for a particular contract if the form of behaviour or other aspects of the
structure are unorthodox.
Contract documents (which include architectural and/or structural design
drawings, specifications and addenda) vary considerably in intricacy and
completeness. Nonetheless, the designer, the fabricator and the erector must be
able to rely upon the accuracy of the contract documents, in order to allow
them to provide the Client with bids that are adequate and complete. It also
enables the preparation of the general arrangement drawings and the shop and
erection drawings, the ordering of materials and the timely fabrication and
erection of construction components.
Critical requirements that are necessary to protect the Clients interest, that
affect the integrity of the structure or that are necessary for the designer, the
10 - 3
fabricator and the erector to proceed with their work, must be included in the
contract documents. Non-exhaustive examples of critical information include:
Standard specifications and codes that govern structural steel design and
construction, including bolting and welding
Material specifications
Welded-joint configuration and weld-procedure qualification
Surface preparation and shop painting requirements
Shop and field inspection requirements
If any, non-destructive testing (NDT) requirements, including acceptance
criteria
Special requirements on delivery and special erection limitations.
10 - 4
2 NORMATIVE REFERENCES
The European Standards incorporate, by dated or undated reference, provisions
from other publications. These normative references are cited at the appropriate
places in the text and the publications are listed in Tables 2.1 to 2.3.
Table 2.1 Design and structural engineering
Title
EN 1990:2002 Basis of structural design
EN 1991-1-1:2003 Actions on structures Part 1-1: General actions Densities,
self- weight, imposed loads for buildings
EN 1991-1-2:2002 Actions on structures Part 1-2: General actions Actions on
structures exposed to fire
EN 1991-1-3:2003 Actions on structures Part 1-3: General actions Snow
loads
EN 1991-1-4:2005 Actions on structures Part 1-4: General actions Wind loads
EN 1991-1-5:2003 Actions on structures Part 1-5: General actions Thermal
actions
EN 1991-1-6:2005 Actions on structures Part 1-6: General actions Actions
during execution
EN 1991-1-7:2006 Actions on structures Part 1-7: General actions Accidental
actions
EN 1991-3:2006 Actions on structures Part 3 : Actions induced by cranes and
machinery
EN 1993-1-1:2005 Design of steel structures Part 1-1: General rules and rules
for buildings
EN 1993-1-2:2005
Design of steel structures Part 1-2: General rules
Structural fire design
EN 1993-1-3:2006
Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
EN 1993-1-4:2006
Supplementary rules for stainless steels
EN 1993-1-5:2005 Design of steel structures Part 1-5: Plated structural
elements
EN 1993-1-8:2005 Design of steel structures Part 1-8: Design of joints
EN 1993-1-9:2005 Design of steel structures Part 1-9: Fatigue
EN 1993-1-10:2005 Design of steel structures Part 1-10: Material toughness and
through-thickness properties
EN 1993-6:2007 Design of steel structures Part 6: Crane supporting
structures
EN 1998-1:2004 Design of structures for earthquake resistance Part 1:
General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings

10 - 5
For each European country, each part of the Eurocode applies with its National
Annex when the latter is available.
Table 2.2 Execution, fabrication and erection
Title
EN 1090-1:2009 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures.
Part 1: Requirements for conformity assessment of structural
components
EN 1090-2:2008 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures.
Part 2: Technical requirements for steel structures
EN ISO 12944 Paints and varnishes Corrosion protection of steel structures
by protective paint systems
EN 1461 Hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated iron and steel
articles specifications and test methods
EN ISO 17659:2004 Welding - Multilingual terms for welded joints with illustrations
EN ISO 14555:1998 Welding - Arc stud welding of metallic materials
EN ISO 13918:1998 Welding - Studs for arc stud welding
EN ISO
15609-1:2004
Specification and qualification of welding procedures for
metallic materials - Part 1: Welding procedure specification for
arc welding of steels
EN ISO
15614-1:2004
Specification and qualification of welding procedures for
metallic materials Welding procedure test - Part 1: Arc and
gas welding of steels and arc welding of nickel and nickel
alloys
EN 1011-1:1998 Welding Recommendations for welding of metallic materials
Part 1: General guidance for arc welding
EN 1011-2:2001 Welding Recommendations for welding of metallic materials
Part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels
EN ISO 25817:2003 Arc-welded joints in steel - Guidance for quality levels for
imperfections
ISO 286-2:1988 ISO system of limits and fits - Part 2: Tables of standard
tolerance grades and limit deviations for hole and shafts

10 - 6
Table 2.3 Products
Title
EN 10025-1:2004 Hot-rolled products of structural steels - Part 1: General
delivery conditions.
EN 10025-2:2004 Hot-rolled products of structural steels - Part 2: Technical
delivery conditions for non-alloy structural steels.
delivery conditions for normalized rolled weldable fine grain
structural steels.
delivery conditions for thermo-mechanical rolled weldable fine
grain structural steels.
delivery conditions for structural steels with improved
atmospheric corrosion resistance.
delivery conditions for flat products of high yield strength
structural steels in the quenched and tempered condition.
EN 10164:2004 Steel products with improved deformation properties
perpendicular to the surface of the product - Technical delivery
conditions.
EN 10210-1:2006 Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine
grain structural steels Part 1: Technical delivery
requirements.
EN 10219-1:2006 Cold formed hollow sections of structural steel
Part 1: Technical delivery requirements.
EN 10029:1991 Hot rolled steel plates 3 mm thick or above - Tolerances on
dimensions, shape and mass
EN 10034:1993 Structural steel I- and H-sections - Tolerances on shape and
dimensions
EN 10051:1991 Continuously hot-rolled uncoated plate, sheet and strip of non-
alloy and alloy steels - Tolerances on dimensions and shape
EN 10055:1995 Hot rolled steel equal flange tees with radiused root and toes -
Dimensions and tolerances on shape and dimensions
EN 10056-1:1995 Structural steel equal and unequal leg angles
Part 1: Dimensions
EN 10056-2:1993 Structural steel equal and unequal leg angles
Part 2: Tolerances on shape and dimensions
EN 13001-1:2004 Cranes General design Part 1 : General principles and
requirements
EN 13001-2:2004 Crane safety General design Part 2 : Load effects
EN 14399-1:2002 High strength structural bolting for preloading
Part 1 : General Requirements
Part 2 : Suitability Test for preloading
Part 3 : System HR - Hexagon bolt and nut assemblies

10 - 7
Table 2.3 Continued
Title
Part 4 : System HV - Hexagon bolt and nut assemblies
Part 5 : Plain washers for system HR
Part 6 : Plain chamfered washers for systems HR and HV
EN ISO 898-1:1999 Mechanical properties of fasteners made of carbon steel and
alloy steel - Part 1: Bolts, screws and studs (ISO 898-1:1999)
EN 20898-2:1993 Mechanical properties of fasteners
Part 2: Nuts with special proof load values - Coarse thread
(ISO 898-2:1992)
EN ISO 2320:1997 Prevailing torque type steel hexagon nuts - Mechanical and
performance requirements (ISO 2320:1997)
EN ISO 4014:2000 Hexagon head bolts - Product grades A and B (ISO
4014:1999)
EN ISO 4016:2000 Hexagon head bolts - Product grade C (ISO 4016:1999)
EN ISO 4017:2000 Hexagon head screws - Product grades A and B (ISO
4017:1999)
EN ISO 4018:2000 Hexagon head screws - Product grade C (ISO 4018:1999)
EN ISO 4032:2000 Hexagon nuts, style 1 - Product grades A and B (ISO
4032:1999)
EN ISO 4033:2000 Hexagon nuts, style 2 - Product grades A and B (ISO
4033:1999)
EN ISO 4034:2000 Hexagon nuts - Product grade C (ISO 4034:1999)
EN ISO 7040:1997 Prevailing torque hexagon nuts (with non-metallic insert), style
1 - Property classes 5, 8 and 10
EN ISO 7042:1997 Prevailing torque all-metal hexagon nuts, style 2 - Property
classes 5, 8, 10 and 12
EN ISO 7719:1997 Prevailing torque type all-metal hexagon nuts, style 1 -
Property classes 5, 8 and 10
ISO 1891:1979 Bolts, screws, nuts and accessories - Terminology and
nomenclature Trilingual edition
EN ISO 7089:2000 Plain washers- Nominal series- Product grade A
EN ISO 7090:2000 Plain washers, chamfered - Normal series - Product grade A
EN ISO 7091:2000 Plain washers - Normal series - Product grade C
EN ISO 10511:1997 Prevailing torque type hexagon thin nuts (with non-metallic
insert)
EN ISO 10512:1997 Prevailing torque type hexagon nuts thin nuts, style 1, with
metric fine pitch thread - Property classes 6, 8 and 10
EN ISO 10513:1997 Prevailing torque type all-metal hexagon nuts, style 2, with
metric fine pitch thread - Property classes 8, 10 and 12

When manufactured construction products, with Harmonised Standards (i.e.
EN 10025, EN 1090), are to be used, CE marking shall be placed on the
products according to the relevant European Harmonised Standards.
Harmonised Standards are European Standards adopted by the European
10 - 8
Committee for Standardisation (CEN), following a mandate issued by the
European Commission (mandate M/120 for structural metallic products). Not
all European Standards (ENs) are harmonised - only those which have been
listed in the Official Journal.
When manufactured construction products, without Harmonized Standards, are
to be used (i.e. metal anchors, fire protective products, metal frame building
kits, fire stopping and fire sealing products, prefabricated building units, etc.),
European Technical Approval Guidelines (ETAG) require manufacturers to
place CE marking on their products in accordance with the relevant European
Technical Approval (ETA).
The relevant ETAs shall be specified in the contract documents.
An full list of valid ETAs is available on the official website of the European
Organisation for Technical Approvals (EOTA): www.eota.be.
The latest edition of the publication referred to applies.
National Standards Bodies publish up-to-date versions on their official
websites.
Table 2.4 National Standards Bodies
Country Standards body Web site
Belgium NBN www.nbn.be
France AFNOR www.afnor.org
Germany DIN www.din.de
Italy UNI www.uni.com
Netherlands NEN www.nen.nl
Poland PKN www.pkn.pl
Spain AENOR www.aenor.es
Switzerland SNV www.snv.ch
Luxembourg ILNAS www.ilnas.lu
Austria ASI www.as-institute.at

10 - 9
3 BASIS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN
EN 1990 establishes the Principles and Requirements for safety, serviceability
and durability of structures, describes the basis for their design and verification
and gives guidelines for related aspects of structural reliability.
For the design of new structures, EN 1990 is intended to be used, for direct
application, together with Eurocodes EN 1991 to 1999.
EN 1990 is applicable for the structural appraisal of existing construction, in
developing the design of repairs and alterations or in assessing changes of use.
Design of steel structures shall conform to the basic requirements of 2.1 of
EN 1990.
Reliability, durability and quality management shall conform to 2.2, 2.4
and 2.5 of EN 1990.
National choice is allowed through clauses listed in the Foreword to EN 1990.
3.1 General assumptions according to EN 1990
The choice of structural system and the design of the structure is made by
appropriately qualified and experienced personnel
Execution is carried out by personnel having the appropriate skill and
experience
Adequate supervision and quality control is provided during the execution
of the work, i.e. in design offices, factories, plants and on site
The construction materials and products are used as specified in EN 1990 or
in the relevant execution standards or reference material or product
specifications
The structure will be adequately maintained
The structure will be used in accordance with the design assumptions.
Additional contract document requirements
According to 2.1(4)P of EN 1990, relevant additional specific events (impact,
explosion, etc.), defined by the Client and the relevant authority, must be taken
into account in the design and the execution of a structure.
According to 2.3 of EN 1990, the contract documents should specify the
design working life of the structure.
According to 3.3(2) of EN 1990, the contract documents should state any
relevant additional specific circumstances where the limit states that concern
the protection of the contents are to classified as ultimate limit states.
According to 3.4(1) of EN 1990, the contract documents shall specify the
serviceability requirements of the project.
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4 ACTIONS ON STRUCTURES
4.1 Self-weight and imposed loads for buildings
EN 1991-1-1 gives design guidance and actions for the structural design of
buildings, including the following aspects:
Densities of construction materials and stored materials
Self-weight of construction elements
Imposed loads for buildings.
National choice is allowed through clauses listed in the Foreword to
EN 1991-1-1.
According to 3.3.2(4) of EN 1991-1-1, the contract documents shall specify
the imposed loads to be considered for serviceability limit state verifications, in
accordance with the service conditions and the requirements concerning the
performance of the structure.
According to 4.1(1) and 4.1(2) of EN 1991-1-1, characteristic values of
densities of construction and stored materials shall be specified in the contract
documents, especially for materials which are not covered by the Tables in
Appendix A.
According to 6.1(4) of EN 1991-1-1, loads for heavy equipment (e.g. in
communal kitchens, radiology rooms, boiler rooms, etc.) shall be agreed
between the Client and the relevant authority and specified in the contract
documents.
4.2 Snow loads
EN 1991-1-3 gives guidance to determine the values of loads due to snow, to
be used for the structural design of buildings.
EN 1991-1-3.
According to 1.5 of EN 1991-1-3, in some circumstances tests and proven
and/or properly validated numerical methods may be used to obtain snow loads
on the construction works. These circumstances are those agreed with the
Client and the relevant authority, and specified in the contract documents.
According to 4.1(1) of EN 1991-1-3, to cover unusual local conditions, the
National Annex may additionally allow the Client and the relevant authority to
agree upon different characteristic values of snow load which have to be
specified in the contract documents.
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4.3 Wind loads
EN 1991-1-4 gives guidance on the determination of natural wind actions for
the structural design of buildings (with heights up to 200 m) for each of the
loaded areas under consideration.
EN 1991-1-4.
According to 7.2.2 of EN 1991-1-4, the rules for the velocity pressure
distribution for leeward wall and sidewalls may be given in the National Annex
or be defined for the individual project and specified in the contract documents.
4.4 Thermal actions
EN 1991-1-5 gives design guidance, principles and rules for calculating
thermal actions arising from climatic and operational conditions for the
structural design of buildings. Principles needed for cladding and other
appendages of buildings are also provided.
EN 1991-1-5 describes the changes in the temperature of structural elements.
Characteristic values of thermal actions are presented for use in the design of
structures which are exposed to daily and seasonal climatic changes. For
structures not exposed to climatic conditions, thermal actions may not need to
be considered.
National choice is allowed through clauses listed in the foreword to
EN 1991-1-5.
According to 5.2(2)P of EN 1991-1-5, operational effects (due to heating,
technological or industrial processes) shall be considered in accordance with
the particular project, and thus specified in the contract documents.
According to 5.2(3)P of EN 1991-1-5, values of T
M
and T
p
may be
provided for the particular project, and thus specified in the contract
documents.
4.5 Actions during execution
EN 1991-1-6 gives principles and general rules for the determination of actions
to be taken into account during the execution of buildings. EN 1991-1-6 can be
used as guidance for the determination of actions to be taken into account
during structural alterations, reconstruction, partial or full demolition, and for
the determination of actions to be used for the design of auxiliary construction
works (false-work, scaffolding, propping system, etc.) needed for the execution
phases. Rules and additional information are given in Annexes A1 and B, and
can also be defined in the National Annex or in the contract documents for the
individual project.
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National choice is allowed through clauses listed in the foreword to
EN 1991-1-6.
The rules concerning the safety of persons, on and around the construction site,
shall be specified in the contract documents for the individual project, and are
outside the scope of EN 1991-1-6.
EN 1991-1-6 also provides rules for determining the actions that can be used
for the calculation of auxiliary construction works needed for the execution
phases.
The contract documents shall classify construction loads in accordance with
Tables 2.2 and 4.1 of EN 1991-1-6.
Loads due to construction equipments, cranes and/or auxiliary structures can be
classified as fixed or free loads, depending on their possible spatial variation;
contract documents shall specify the loads and their classification.
If construction loads are classified as fixed, then the contract documents shall
define tolerances for the possible deviations to the theoretical position.
If construction loads are classified as free, then the contract documents shall
define the limits of the potential area of spatial variation.
In the absence of any specific requirement in the National Annex, the contract
documents shall specify:
Return periods for the assessment of the characteristic values of variable
(climatic, seismic, etc.) actions during execution phases (see 3.1(5) of
EN 1991-1-6)
A minimum wind velocity during execution phases (see 3.1(5) of
EN 1991-1-6)
Rules of combination of snow loads and wind action with the construction
loads (see 3.1(7) of EN 1991-1-6)
Geometric imperfections of the structure and the structural elements, for the
selected design situations during execution (see 3.1(8) of EN 1991-1-6)
Criteria associated with serviceability limit states during execution (see
3.3(2) of EN 1991-1-6)
When appropriate, frequent values of particular loads to be taken into
account (see 3.3(5) of EN 1991-1-6)
Requirements of suitability for service of auxiliary structures in order to
avoid excessive deformation and/or deflection that affect the durability,
fitness for use or aesthetic appearance in the final stage (see 3.3(6) of
EN 1991-1-6).
Concerning the wind actions, the contract documents shall specify whether or
not a procedure is needed for calculating dynamic response of the structure
during the various stages of execution, taking into account the degree of
10 - 13
completion and stability of the structure and its components (see 4.7(1) of
EN 1991-1-6).
The contract documents shall specify the maximum allowable wind velocity
during crane operations or other short term execution stages (see 4.7(1) of
EN 1991-1-6).
The contract documents shall specify, when relevant, accidental design
situations due to cranes or exceptional conditions applicable to the structure or
its exposure, such as impact, local failure and subsequent progressive collapse,
fall of structural or non-structural parts, and abnormal concentrations of
building equipment and/or building materials, water accumulation on steel
roofs, fire, etc. (see 4.12(1) and (3) of EN 1991-1-6).
The contract documents shall specify, when relevant, the design values of the
ground acceleration as well as the importance factor
I
to be taken into account
for the assessment of seismic actions, given the reference period of the
considered transient situation (see 4.13 of EN 1991-1-6).
The contract documents shall specify the characteristic values of horizontal
actions due to imperfections or deformations related to horizontal
displacements to be taken into account during execution phases (see A1.3(1)
of EN 1991-1-6).
4.6 Accidental actions
EN 1991-1-7 describes Principles and Application rules for the assessment of
accidental actions on buildings and bridges. The following actions are
included:
Impact forces from vehicles, rail traffic, ships and helicopters
Actions due to internal explosions
Actions due to local failure from an unspecified cause.
EN 1991-1-7 does not specifically deal with accidental actions caused by
external explosions, warfare and terrorist activities, or the residual stability of
buildings damaged by seismic action or fire.
EN 1991-1-7.
According to 2(2)P of EN 1991-1-7, the contract documents may specify the
treatment of accidental actions which are not classified as free actions.
According to 3.1(2) of EN 1991-1-7, the contract documents shall specify the
strategies and rules to be considered for accidental design situations.
According to 3.1(2) of EN 1991-1-7, notional values for identified accidental
actions may be specified in the contract documents.
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According to 3.4(1) of EN 1991-1-7, the strategies for accidental design
situations may be based on the Consequence Classes as set out in EN 1990.
Thus, these Consequence Classes shall be specified in the contract documents.
According to 4.3.1(2) of EN 1991-1-7, the contract documents shall specify
whether or not the equivalent static design forces due to vehicular impact on
members supporting structures over or adjacent to roadways, F
dx
and F
dy
, act
simultaneously.
According to 4.5.1.2 of EN 1991-1-7, if the building may be subject to
impact from derailed railway traffic, the contract documents shall define
whether it is a Class A or Class B structure.
According to 4.5.2(1) of EN 1991-1-7, frontal and lateral dynamic design
forces due to impact from river and canal traffic, as well as the height of
application of the impact force and the impact area shall be specified in the
contract documents.
4.7 Actions induced by cranes
EN 1991-3 gives design guidance and specifies imposed loads (models and
representative values) induced by hoists and cranes on runway beams, which
include dynamic effects and braking, acceleration and accidental forces.
EN 1991-3.
Unless more accurate data (concerning the crane characteristics) is specified in
the contract documents (the crane supplier shall therefore be known at the time
of writing the contract documents), provisions of Section 2 of EN 1991-3
apply.
According to 2.3(6) of EN 1991-3, the contract documents shall specify
whether or not tests are performed with cranes on the supporting structures for
the serviceability limit state verification.
According to 2.5.2.2(2) of EN 1991-3, the contract documents shall specify
whether one or several forces of the five horizontal types (a) to (e) listed in
2.5.2.2(1) shall be included in the same group of simultaneous crane load
components.
According to 2.5.2.2(4) of EN 1991-3, the contract documents shall specify
the way the longitudinal horizontal forces H
L,i
and the transverse horizontal
wheel forces H
T,i
, caused by acceleration and deceleration of masses of the
crane or the crab, shall be applied. Otherwise, provisions given in Figure 2.3 of
EN 1991-3 shall apply.
According to 2.5.3(2) of EN 1991-3, the contract documents shall define the
maximum number of cranes to be taken into account as acting simultaneously.
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The Hoisting Class (HC1 to HC4) of the crane shall be specified in the contract
documents, unless it is specified in the crane supplier specification. Reference
can be made to Annex B (informative) of EN 1991-3.
According to 2.9.1(1) of EN 1991-3, the contract documents shall specify the
vertical load to be applied to access walkways, stairs and platform. Otherwise,
provisions given in 2.9.1(2), 2.9.1(3) or 2.9.1(4) shall apply.
According to 2.9.2(1) of EN 1991-3, the contract documents shall specify the
horizontal load to be applied to the guard rail. Otherwise, provisions given in
2.9.2(1) or 2.9.2(2) shall apply.
To make allowance of relevant accidental actions, the contract documents shall
specify:
Whether buffers are used or not
Whether or not a crane with horizontally restrained loads can tilt when its
load or lifting attachment collides with an obstacle.
To make allowance for fatigue effects, the contract documents shall provide
sufficient information on the operational conditions; the fatigue loads can then
be determined according to EN 13001 and Annex A of EN 1993-1-9.
Otherwise, provisions of 2.12 of EN 1991-3 apply.
Where a simplified approach for determining the fatigue loads is favoured in
the contract documents, the latter shall specify:
the class of load spectrum (Q
0
to Q
5
) for all tasks of the crane
the class of total number of working cycles (U
0
to U
9
) during the design life
of the crane
the crane classification (S
0
to S
9
). If the crane classification is not included
in the crane supplier specification, reference can be made to Annex B
(informative) of EN 1991-3.
According to A.3.2(1) of the normative Annex A of EN 1991-3, the contract
documents shall specify the partial factor for actions on crane supporting
structures to be used in serviceability limit states. Otherwise, this partial factor
shall be taken as 1,0.
4.8 Seismic actions
EN 1998-1 applies to the design and construction of buildings and civil
engineering works in seismic regions. Its purpose is to ensure that in the event
of earthquakes:
Human lives are protected
Damage is limited
Structures important for civil protection remain operational (special
structures such as nuclear power plants, offshore structures and large dams,
are beyond the scope of EN 1998-1).
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One fundamental issue in EN 1998-1 is the definition of the seismic action.
Given the wide difference of seismic hazard and seismo-genetic characteristics
in the various member countries, the seismic action is herein defined in general
terms. The definition allows various Nationally Determined Parameters which
shall be confirmed or modified in the National Annexes.
EN 1998-1.
According to 2.1(2) and (3) of EN 1998-1, target reliabilities for the no-
collapse requirement and for the damage limitation requirement are established
by the National Authorities for different types of buildings on the basis of the
consequences of failure. Contract documents shall specify the Importance
Class of the individual project (see 4.2.5 of EN 1998-1).
Depending on the Importance Class of the structure and the particular
conditions of the project, contract documents shall specify whether or not
ground investigations and/or geological studies shall be performed to identify
the ground type (A, B, C, D, E, S1 or S2), according to Table 3.1 of
EN 1998-1.
Contract documents shall specify the seismic zone of the individual project
(according to the zonation map, decided by the National Authority, and found
in the National Annex to EN 1998-1).
Contract documents shall specify according to which concept earthquake
resistant steel buildings shall be designed to (DCL, DCM or DCH).
According to 6.2(8) of EN 1998-1, the required toughness of steel and welds
and the lowest service temperature adopted in combination with the seismic
action shall be defined in the contract documents.
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5 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Eurocode 3 is intended to be used in conjunction with:
EN 1990 Basis of structural design
EN 1991 Actions on structures
ENs, ETAGs and ETAs for construction products relevant for steel
structures
EN 1090 Execution of Steel Structures Technical requirements
EN 1992 to EN 1999 when steel structures or steel components are referred
to.
Eurocode 3 is concerned only with requirements for resistance, serviceability,
durability and fire resistance of steel structures. Other requirements, e.g.
concerning thermal or sound insulation, are not covered.
5.1 Rules for single-storey buildings EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1 gives basic design rules for steel structures with material
thicknesses t > 3 mm. It also gives supplementary provisions for the structural
design of single-storey steel buildings.
Material properties for steels and other construction products and the
geometrical data to be used for design shall be those specified in the relevant
ENs, ETAGs or ETAs unless otherwise indicated.
EN 1993-1-1.
The design working life shall be taken as the period for which a building
structure is expected to be used for its intended purpose. For the specification
of the intended design working life of a permanent building see Table 2.1 of
EN 1990.
The effects of deterioration of material, corrosion or fatigue where relevant
shall be taken into account by appropriate choice of material, see EN 1993-1-4
and EN 1993-1-10, and details, see EN 1993-1-9, or by structural redundancy
and by the choice of an appropriate corrosion protection system.
The dimensional and mass tolerances of rolled steel sections and plates shall
comply with the relevant product standard, ETAG or ETA unless more severe
tolerances are specified.
Any semi-finished or finished structural product used in the structural design of
buildings shall comply with the relevant EN Product Standard or ETAG or
ETA.
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With reference to Annex A1.4 of EN 1990, limits for vertical deflections
according to Figure A1.1, for horizontal deflections according to Figure A1.2
and for vibrations of structures on which the public can walk, shall be specified
in the contract documents and agreed with the Client.
5.2 Supplementary rules for sheeting EN 1993-1-3
EN 1993-1-3 gives, among other, design requirements for profiled steel
sheeting. Methods are also given, in this part of Eurocode 3, for stressed-skin
design using steel sheeting as a structural diaphragm.
EN 1993-1-3.
According to 2(6) of EN 1993-1-3, contract documents shall define the
Structural Class (I to III) of the construction, associated with failure
consequences according to Annex B of EN 1990:
Structural Class I: construction where sheeting is designed to contribute to
the overall strength and stability of a structure
Structural Class II: construction where sheeting is designed to contribute to
the strength and stability of individual structural elements
Structural Class III: construction where sheeting is used as an element that
only transfers loads to the structure.
5.3 Design of plated structural elements
EN 1993-1-5
EN 1993-1-5 gives design requirements of stiffened and unstiffened plates
which are subject to in-plane forces.
EN 1993-1-5.
5.4 Design of joints EN 1993-1-8
EN 1993-1-8 gives design methods for the design of joints subject to
predominantly static loading using steel grades S235, S275, S355 and S460.
EN 1993-1-8.
According to 3.4.1 of EN 1993-1-8, the category of bolted connections
(Category A, B or C for joints loaded in shear, and Category D or E for joints
loaded in tension) shall be specified in the contract documents.
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According to 3.9 of EN 1993-1-8, the contract documents shall specify the
class of friction surfaces for slip-resistant connections using pre-loaded 8.8 or
10.9 bolts.
According to 4.1 of EN 1993-1-8, the contract documents shall specify the
quality level of welds according to EN ISO 25817. The frequency of inspection
of welds shall be specified in the contract documents and shall conform to the
requirements of EN 1090-2.
5.5 Fatigue EN 1993-1-9
EN 1993-1-9 gives methods for the assessment of fatigue resistance of
members, connections and joints subjected to fatigue loading.
According to 2(1) of EN 1993-1-9, structures designed using fatigue actions
from EN 1991 (i.e., EN 1991-3) and fatigue resistance according to
EN 1993-1-9 are deemed to satisfy an acceptable level of probability that their
performance will be satisfactory throughout their design life.
EN 1993-1-9.
According to 3(1) of EN 1993-1-9, contract documents shall specify whether
fatigue assessment shall be undertaken using either damage tolerant method
or safe life method. If the damage tolerant method is specified, a prescribed
inspection and maintenance regime for detecting and correcting fatigue damage
shall be implemented throughout the design life of the structure. The safe life
method shall be specified in cases where local formation of cracks in one
component could rapidly lead to failure of the structural element or structure.
According to 3(7) of EN 1993-1-9, contract documents shall specify the
Failure Consequence classification (Low Consequence or High Consequence)
in order to determine the partial factor for fatigue strength, in conjunction with
the specified fatigue assessment method.
5.6 Material toughness and through-thickness
properties EN 1993-1-10
EN 1993-1-10 contains design guidance for the selection of steel for fracture
toughness and for through-thickness properties of welded elements where there
is a significant risk of lamellar tearing during fabrication, for constructions
executed in accordance with EN 1090.
The guidance given in Section 2 of EN 1993-1-10 shall be used for the
selection of material for new construction. The rules shall be used to select a
suitable steel grade from the European Standards for steel products listed in
EN 1993-1-1.
The choice of Quality Class shall be selected from Table 3.1 EN 1993-1-10
depending on the consequences of lamellar tearing.
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Depending on the Quality Class selected from Table 3.1, either:
through thickness properties for the steel material shall be specified from
EN 10164, or
post-fabrication inspection shall be used to identify whether lamellar
tearing has occurred.
Guidance on the avoidance of lamellar tearing during welding is given in
EN 1011-2.
EN 1993-1-10.
5.7 Crane supporting structures EN 1993-6
EN 1993-6 provides design rules for the structural design of runway beams and
other crane supporting structures. It covers overhead crane runways inside
buildings and outdoor crane runways for:
Overhead travelling cranes, either:
- supported on top of the runway beams or
- underslung below the runway beams
Monorail hoist blocks.
EN 1993-6.
According to 2.1.3.2(2) of EN 1993-6, the design working life of temporary
crane supporting structures shall be agreed with the Client and the Public
Authority, taking account of possible re-use.
According to 4(3) of EN 1993-6, where crane rails are assumed to contribute
to the strength or stiffness of a runway beam, contract documents shall specify
the appropriate allowances for wear to be made in determining the properties of
the combined cross-section.
According to 4(4) of EN 1993-6, where actions from soil subsidence or
seismic actions are expected, tolerances for vertical and horizontal imposed
deformations shall be specified in the contract documents, agreed with the
crane supplier, and included in the inspection and maintenance plans.
According to 7.3(1) of EN 1993-6, the specific limits for deformations and
displacements, together with the serviceability load combinations under which
they apply, shall be specified in the contract documents for each project.
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6 EXECUTION SPECIFICATION
6.1 General
The necessary information and technical requirements for execution of each
part of the works shall be agreed and complete before commencement of
execution of that part of the works. Execution of works shall comply with the
requirements of EN 1090-2.
6.2 Execution classes
Execution Classes (EXC1 to EXC4) may apply to the whole structure or to a
part of the structure or to specific details. A structure can include several
Execution Classes. A detail or group of details will normally be ascribed one
Execution Class. However, the choice of an Execution Class does not
necessarily have to be the same for all requirements.
If no Execution Class is specified EXC2 shall apply.
The list of requirements related to Execution Classes is given in Annex A.3 of
EN 1090-2.
Guidance for the choice of Execution Classes is given in Annex B of
EN 1090-2.
The choice of Execution Classes is related to Production Categories and
Service Categories, with links to Consequence Classes as defined in Annex B
of EN 1990.
6.3 Preparation grades
Preparation grades (P1 to P3 according to ISO 8501-3) are related to the
expected life of the corrosion protection and corrosivity category as defined in
10 of EN 1090-2.
Preparation grades may apply to the whole structure or to a part of the structure
or to specific details. A structure can include several preparation grades.
A detail or group of details will normally be ascribed one preparation grade.
6.4 Geometrical tolerances
Two types of geometrical tolerances are defined in 11 of EN 1090-2:
a) Essential tolerances shall be in accordance with Annex D.1 of EN 1090-2.
The values specified are permitted deviations.
- Manufacturing tolerances are described in 11.2.2 of EN 1090-2;
- Erection tolerances are described in 11.2.3 of EN 1090-2.
10 - 22
b) Functional tolerances in terms of accepted geometrical deviations shall be in
accordance with one of the following two options:
- The tabulated values described in 11.3.2 and Annex D.2 of
EN 1090-2;
- The alternative criteria defined in 11.3.3 of EN 1090-2.
If no option is specified the tabulated values shall apply.
Tolerances on products are defined in the standards:
- EN 10034 for structural steel I and H sections,
- EN 10056-2 for angles,
- EN 10210-2 for hot-finished structural hollow sections,
- EN 10219-2 for cold formed hollow sections.

10 - 23
7 CONSTITUENT PRODUCTS
7.1 Identification, inspection documents and
traceability
If constituent products that are not covered by the European Standards listed in
Table 2 of EN 1090-2, are to be used, their properties shall be specified in the
contract documents.
The properties of supplied constituent products shall be documented in a way
that enables them to be compared to the specified properties. Their conformity
with the relevant product standard shall be checked in accordance with 12.2
of EN 1090-2.
For metallic products, the inspection documents according to EN 10204 shall
be as listed in Table 1 of EN 1090-2.
For Execution Classes EXC3 and EXC4, constituent products shall be
traceable at all stages from receipt to hand over after incorporation in the
works.
For Execution Classes EXC2, EXC3 and EXC4, if differing grades and/or
qualities of constituent products are in circulation together, each item shall be
designated with a mark that identifies its grade.
Methods of marking shall be in accordance with that for components given in
6.2 of EN 1090-2.
7.2 Structural steel products
Structural steel products shall conform to the requirements of the relevant
European product standards as listed in Table 2 of EN 1090-2, unless otherwise
specified. Grades, qualities and, if appropriate, coating weights and finishes,
shall be specified together with any required options permitted by the product
standard, including those related to suitability for hot dip zinc-coating, if
relevant.
7.3 Welding consumables
All welding consumables shall conform to the requirements of EN 13479 and
the appropriate product standard, as listed in Table 5 of EN 1090-2. The type of
welding consumables shall be appropriate to the welding process (defined in
7.3 of EN 1090-2), the material to be welded and the welding procedure.
7.4 Mechanical fasteners
All mechanical fasteners (connectors, bolts, fasteners) shall conform to the
requirements of 5.6 of EN 1090-2.
10 - 24
7.5 Grouting materials
The grouting materials to be used shall conform to the requirements of 5.7 of
EN 1090-2.
10 - 25
8 PREPARATION AND ASSEMBLY
This Section specifies the requirements for cutting, shaping, holing and
assembly of constituent steel components.
Structural steelwork shall be fabricated considering the surface treatment
requirements in 10 of EN 1090-2, and within the geometrical tolerances
specified in 11 of EN 1090-2.
8.1 Identification
At all stages of manufacturing, each piece or package of similar pieces of steel
components shall be identifiable by a suitable system, according to the
8.2 Handling and storage
Constituent products shall be handled and stored in conditions that are in
accordance with product manufacturer's recommendations. Structural steel
components shall be packed, handled and transported in a safe manner, so that
permanent deformation does not occur and surface damage is minimized.
Handling and storage preventive measures specified in Table 8 of EN 1090-2
shall be applied as appropriate.
8.3 Cutting
Known and recognized cutting methods are sawing, shearing, disc cutting,
water jet techniques and thermal cutting. Hand thermal cutting shall be used
only if it is not practical to use machine thermal cutting. Cutting shall be
carried out in such a way that the requirements for geometrical tolerances,
maximum hardness and smoothness of free edges as specified in 6.4 of
EN 1090-2 are met.
8.4 Shaping
Steel may be bent, pressed or forged to the required shape either by the hot or
by the cold forming processes, provided the properties are not reduced below
those specified for the worked material.
Requirements of 6.5 of EN 1090-2 shall be applied as appropriate.
8.5 Holing
Dimensions of holes, tolerances on hole-diameters and execution of holing
shall comply with the requirements of 6.6 of EN 1090-2.
10 - 26
8.6 Assembly
Assembly of components shall be carried out so as to fulfil the specified
tolerances. Precautions shall be taken so as to prevent galvanic corrosion
produced by contact between different metallic materials.
Requirements of 6.9 and 6.10 of EN 1090-2 shall be applied as appropriate.
10 - 27
9 WELDING
9.1 General
Welding shall be undertaken in accordance with the requirements of the
relevant part of EN ISO 3834 or EN ISO 14554 as applicable.
A welding plan shall be provided as part of the production planning required
by the relevant part of EN ISO 3834. The content of a welding plan is
described in 7.2.2 of EN 1090-2.
Welding may be performed by the welding processes defined in EN ISO 4063,
and listed in 7.3 of EN 1090-2.
9.2 Qualification of welding procedures
Welding shall be carried out with qualified procedures using a Welding
Procedure Specification (WPS) in accordance with the relevant part of
EN ISO 15609 or EN ISO 14555 or EN ISO 15620. If specified, special
deposition conditions for tack welds shall be included in the WPS.
Qualifications of welding procedures, depending on welding processes, are
described in 7.4.1.2 and 7.4.1.3 of EN 1090-2.
9.3 Welders and welding operators
Welders shall be qualified in accordance with EN 287-1 and welding operators
in accordance with EN 1418. Records of all welder and welding operator
qualification tests shall be kept available.
9.4 Welding coordination
For Execution Class EXC2, EXC3 and EXC4, welding coordination shall be
maintained during the execution of welding by welding coordination personnel
suitably qualified for, and experienced in the welding operations they supervise
as specified in EN ISO 14731.
With respect to the welding operations being supervised, and for structural
carbon steels, welding coordination personnel shall have a technical knowledge
according to Table 14 of EN 1090-2.
9.5 Preparation and execution of welding
Precautions shall be taken to avoid stray arcing, and if stray arcing does occur
the surface of the steel shall be lightly ground and checked. Visual checking
shall be supplemented by penetrant or magnetic particle testing.
Precautions shall be taken to avoid weld spatter. For Execution Class EXC3
and EXC4, it shall be removed.
10 - 28
Visible imperfections such as cracks, cavities and other not permitted
imperfections shall be removed from each run before deposition of further
runs.
All slag shall be removed from the surface of each run before each subsequent
run is added and from the surface of the finished weld.
Particular attention shall be paid to the junctions between the weld and the
parent metal.
Any requirements for grinding and dressing of the surface of completed welds
shall be specified.
Joint preparation shall be appropriate for the welding process. If qualification
of welding procedures is performed in accordance with EN ISO 15614-1,
EN ISO 15612 or EN ISO 15613, joint preparation shall comply with the type
of preparation used in the welding procedure test. Tolerances for joints
preparations and fit-up shall be given in the WPS.
Joint preparation shall be free from visible cracks. Visible cracks shall be
removed by grinding and the joint geometry corrected as necessary.
If large notches or other errors in joint geometry are corrected by welding, a
qualified procedure shall be used, and the area shall be subsequently ground
smooth and feathered into the adjacent surface.
All surfaces to be welded shall be dry and free from material that would
adversely affect the quality of the welds or impede the process of welding (rust,
organic material or galvanizing).
Prefabrication primers (shop primers) may be left on the fusion faces only if
they do not adversely affect the welding process. For Execution Class EXC3
and EXC4, prefabrication primers shall not be left on the fusion faces, unless
welding procedure tests in accordance with EN ISO 15614-1 or EN ISO 15613
have been completed using such prefabrication primers.
Other special requirements are described in EN 1090-2, as indicated in
Table 9.1:
10 - 29
Table 9.1 Special requirements
Clause
Storage and handling of welding consumables 7.5.2
Weather protection 7.5.3
Assembly for welding 7.5.4
Preheating 7.5.5
Temporary attachments 7.5.6
Tack welds 7.5.7
Fillet welds 7.5.8
Butt welds 7.5.9
Stud welding 7.5.12
Slot and plug welds 7.5.13
9.6 Acceptance criteria
Welded components shall comply with the requirements specified in 10 and
11 of EN 1090-2.
The acceptance criteria for weld imperfections shall conform to the
10 - 30
10 MECHANICAL FASTENING
Section 8 of EN 1090-2 covers requirements for shop and site fastening,
including the fixing of profiled sheeting; it refers to bolting assemblies
consisting of matching bolts, nuts and washers (as necessary).
Contract documents shall specify if, in addition to tightening, other measures
or means are to be used to secure the nuts.
Minimum nominal fastener diameter, bolt length, length of protrusion, length
of the unthreaded bolt shaft and clamp length shall comply with the
requirements of 8.2.2 of EN 1090-2.
Requirements given in 8.2.3 of EN 1090-2 for washers shall apply.
Tightening of non-preloaded bolts shall comply with the requirements of 8.3
of EN 1090-2.
Precautions and preparation of contact surfaces in slip resistant connections
shall comply with the requirements of 8.4 and Table 18 of EN 1090-2. Slip
factor shall be determined by test as specified in Annex G of EN 1090-2.
Tightening methods of preloaded bolts shall comply with the requirements of
8.5 of EN 1090-2, and shall be specified in the contract documents.

10 - 31
11 ERECTION
Section 9 of EN 1090-2 gives requirements for erection and other work
undertaken on site including grouting of bases as well as those relevant to the
suitability of the site for safe erection and for accurately prepared supports.
Erection shall not commence until the site for the construction works complies
with the technical requirements with respect to the safety of the works. Safety
items related to site conditions are listed in 9.2 of EN 1090-2.
If the structural stability in the part-erected condition is not evident, a safe
method of erection, on which the design was based, shall be provided. Items
related to the design basis method of erection are listed in 9.3.1 of
EN 1090-2.
A method statement describing the steelwork contractor's erection method shall
be prepared and checked in accordance with design rules. The erection method
statement shall describe procedures to be used to safely erect the steelwork and
shall take into account the technical requirements regarding the safety of the
works. The erection method statement shall address all relevant items in 9.3.1
of EN 1090-2; additional items are listed in 9.3.2 of EN 1090-2.
Erection drawings or equivalent instructions, in accordance with the
requirements of 9.6.1 of EN 1090-2, shall be provided and form part of the
erection method statement.
Site measurements for the works shall be in accordance with the survey
The condition and location of the supports shall be checked visually and by
appropriate measurement before the commencement of erection. If supports are
unsuited to erection, they shall be corrected prior to the commencement of
erection. Nonconformities shall be documented.
All foundations, foundation bolts and other supports for the steelwork shall be
suitably prepared to receive the steel structure. Installation of structural
bearings shall comply with the requirements of EN 1337-11. Erection shall not
commence until the location and levels of the supports, anchors or bearings
comply with the acceptance criteria in 11.2 of EN 1090-2, or an appropriate
amendment to the specified requirements.
If foundation bolts are to be pre-stressed, arrangements shall be made that the
upper 100 mm of the bolt, as a minimum, has no adhesion to the concrete.
Foundation bolts intended to move in sleeves shall be provided with sleeves
three times the diameter of the bolt with a minimum diameter of 75 mm.
Whilst erection is proceeding, the supports for the steelwork shall be
maintained in an equivalent condition to their condition at the commencement
of erection.
10 - 32
Areas of supports that require protection against rust staining shall be identified
and appropriate protection provided.
Compensation for settlement of supports is acceptable, unless otherwise
specified in the contract documents. This shall be done by grouting or packing
between steelwork and support. The compensation will generally be placed
beneath the bearing.
Shims and other supporting devices used as temporary supports under base
plates shall be placed in accordance with the requirements of 8.3, 8.5.1,
9.5.4 and 9.6.5.3 of EN 1090-2.
Grouting, sealing and anchoring shall be set in accordance with their
specification and the requirements of 5.8, 9.5.5 and 9.5.6 of EN 1090-2.
Components that are individually assembled or erected at the site shall be
allocated an erection mark, in accordance with the requirements of 6.2 and
9.6.2 of EN 1090-2.
Handling and storage on site shall comply with the requirements of 6.3 and
9.6.3 of EN 1090-2.
Any site trial erection shall be performed in accordance with the requirements
of 6.10 and 9.6.10 of EN 1090-2.
The erection of the steelwork shall be carried out in conformity with the
erection method statement and in such a way as to ensure stability at all times.
Foundation bolts shall not be used to secure unguyed columns against
overturning unless they have been checked for this design situation.
Throughout the erection of the structure, the steelwork shall be made safe
against temporary erection loads, including those due to erection equipment or
its operation and against the effects of wind loads on the unfinished structure.
At least one third of the permanent bolts in each connection should be installed
before that connection can be considered to contribute to stability of the part
completed structure.
All temporary bracing and temporary restraints shall be left in position until
erection is sufficiently advanced to allow its safe removal.
All connections for temporary components provided for erection purposes shall
be made in accordance with the requirements of EN 1090-2 and in such a way
that they do not weaken the permanent structure or impair its serviceability.
If backing bars and draw cleats are used to support the structure during
welding, it shall be ensured that they are sufficiently strong and that their
retaining welds are appropriate for the erection load conditions.
If the erection procedure involves rolling or otherwise moving the structure, or
part of the structure, into its final position after assembly, provision shall be
10 - 33
made for controlled braking of the moving mass. Provision for reversing the
direction of movement may need to be considered.
All temporary anchoring devices shall be made secure against unintentional
release.
Only jacks that can be locked in any position under load shall be used unless
other safety provisions are made.
Care shall be taken that no part of the structure is permanently distorted or
over-stressed by stacking of steelwork components or by erection loads during
the erection process.
Each part of the structure shall be aligned as soon as practicable after it has
been erected and final assembly completed as soon as possible thereafter.
Permanent connections shall not be made between components until sufficient
of the structure has been aligned, levelled, plumbed and temporarily connected
to ensure that components will not be displaced during subsequent erection or
alignment of the remainder of the structure.
Alignment of the structure and lack-of-fit in connections may be adjusted by
the use of shims (see above). If lack-of-fit between erected components cannot
be corrected by the use of shims, components of the structure shall be locally
modified in accordance with the methods specified in EN 1090-2. The
modifications shall not compromise the performance of the structure in the
temporary or permanent state. This work may be executed on site. Care shall
be taken with structures built of welded latticed components and space
structures to ensure that they are not subjected to excessive forces in an attempt
to force a fit against their inherent rigidity.
Unless otherwise prohibited in the contract documents, drifts may be used to
align connections. Elongation of holes for bolts used for transmission of loads
shall not be more than the values given in 6.9 of EN 1090-2.
In case of misalignment of holes for bolts, the method of correction shall be
checked for consistency with the requirements of 12 of EN 1090-2.
Realigned holes may be proven to comply with the oversize or slotted hole
requirements specified in 8.1 of EN 1090-2, provided the load path has been
checked.
Correction of misalignment by reaming or using a hollow milling cutter is
preferred, but if the use of other cutting methods is unavoidable, the internal
finish of all holes formed by these other methods shall be specifically checked
for consistency with the requirements of 6 of EN 1090-2.
Completed site connections shall be checked in accordance with 12.5 of
EN 1090-2.
Erection tolerances are detailed in 11.2.3 and Tables D.1.11 to D.1.15 and
Tables D.2.19 to D.2.28 of Annex D of EN 1090-2.
10 - 34
12 CONSTRUCTORS DOCUMENTATION
Quality documentation, mandatory for Execution Classes EXC2 to EXC4, is
defined in 4.2.1 of EN 1090-2.
If required, a quality plan (defined in EN ISO 9000) for the execution of the
works is described in 4.2.2 of EN 1090-2. Annex C of EN 1090-2 gives a
check-list for the content of a quality plan recommended for the execution of
structural steelwork with reference to the general guidelines in ISO 10005.
Method statements giving detailed work instructions shall comply with the
technical requirements relating to the safety of the erection works as given in
9.2 and 9.3 of EN 1090-2.
Sufficient documentation shall be prepared during execution and as a record of
the as-built structure to demonstrate that the works have been carried out
according to the execution specification.
Design and structural engineering documentation shall be prepared before
execution of the works, and approved by any approval body designated by the
Owner. The documentation should contain:
Design assumptions
Software used (if any)
Member and joint design verification
General Arrangement drawings and joint details.

10 - 35
13 INTERFACES OF THE STEEL STRUCTURE
13.1 Interface to concrete surfaces
Information showing holding-down bolts and the interface of steelwork
components to foundations shall include a Foundation Plan showing the base
location, position and orientation of columns, the marks of all columns, any
other components in direct contact with the foundations, their base location and
level, and the datum level.
Similar information shall also be provided for components connecting to walls
and other concrete surfaces.
Complete details of fixing steel and bolts to the foundations or walls, method
of adjustment and packing space shall be provided.
Before erection of steelwork starts, the steelwork contractor shall inspect the
prepared foundations and holding-down bolts for position and level; if he finds
any discrepancies which are outside the deviations specified in D.2.20 of
EN 1090-2, he shall request that remedial work be carried out before erection
commences.
Shims and other supporting devices used as temporary supports under base
plates shall present a flat surface to the steel and be of adequate size, strength
and rigidity to avoid local crushing of the substructure concrete or masonry.
If packings are subsequently to be grouted, they shall be placed so that the
grout totally encloses them with a minimum cover of 25 mm unless otherwise
specified.
If packings are left in position after grouting, they shall be made from materials
with the same durability as the structure.
If adjustment to the position of the base is achieved using levelling nuts on the
foundation bolts under the base plate, these may be left in position unless
otherwise specified. The nuts shall be selected to ensure that they are suitable
to maintain the stability of the part-erected structure but not to jeopardize the
performance of the foundation bolt in service.
If spaces under base plates are to be grouted, fresh material shall be used in
accordance with 5.8 of EN 1090-2.
Grouting shall not be carried out under column base plates until a sufficient
portion of the structure has been aligned, levelled, plumbed and adequately
braced.
Grouting material shall be used as follows:
The material shall be mixed and used in accordance with product
manufacturer's recommendations notably regarding its consistency when
used. Material shall not be mixed or used below 0C unless the
manufacturer's recommendations permit it.
10 - 36
The material shall be poured under a suitable head so that the space is
completely filled.
Tamping and ramming against properly fixed supports shall be used if
specified and/or recommended by the grout manufacturer.
Vent holes shall be provided as necessary.
Immediately before grouting, the space under the steel base plate shall be free
from liquids, ice, debris and contaminants.
If treatment of steelwork, bearings and concrete surfaces is required before
grouting, it shall be specified in the contract documents.
Care shall be taken that the external profile of grouting allows water to be
drained away from structural steel components. If there is a danger of water or
corrosive liquid becoming entrapped during service, the grout around base
plates shall not be surcharged such that it rises above the lowest surface of the
base plate and the geometry of the concrete grout shall form an angle from the
base plate.
If no grouting is needed, and the edges of the base plate are to be sealed, the
method shall be specified.
Anchoring devices in concrete parts of the structure or adjacent structures shall
be set in accordance with their specification. Suitable measures shall be taken
to avoid damage to concrete in order to achieve the necessary anchoring
resistance.
Foundations shall be adequately designed by a qualified foundation engineer to
support the building reactions and other loads which may be imposed by the
building use. The design shall be based on the specific soil conditions of the
building site.
13.2 Interface to neighbouring constructions
The mutual influence of neighbouring constructions for wind or snow actions
must be carefully considered. Design wind and snow loads may vary
considerably regarding the site and the construction environment, hence,
precise indications shall be given, in the contract documents, concerning the
surrounding constructions.
10 - 37
APPENDIX A MODEL PROJECT SPECIFICATION
The execution of steelwork for single-storey buildings in Europe will generally
be specified to be in accordance with EN 1090-2, and the design to be in
accordance with applicable parts of the Eurocode Standards. These Standards,
which cover technical requirements for a wide range of steel structures, include
clauses where the execution/design specification for the works is required to
give additional information or where it has the option to specify other
requirements.
Appendix A offers a set of clauses that may be used for single-storey steel
building projects to supplement and quantify the rules of the European
Standards.
The clauses are arranged in a two-column format. The left column contains the
proposed clauses. The right column gives a commentary to several clauses, for
the information of the person drawing up project documents; those
commentaries are not intended to be included within the execution
specification. The model specification must be made specific to the
construction project by completing the relevant clauses with appropriate
information.
The model project specification proposed in this Appendix covers structural
steelwork produced from hot rolled structural steel products only. It does not
cover structural steelwork produced from cold formed structural steel (only
cold formed profiled steel sheeting and cold formed stressed-skin sheeting used
as a structural diaphragm are herein covered), structural hollow sections,
channels and tubes and stainless steel products. This model project
specification relates principally to conventional construction using constituent
products to the standards referenced in EN 1090-2. If more complex forms of
construction are involved or other products are used, designers need to consider
any modifications that might be needed to the execution specification to ensure
that the desired quality and/or functionality are achieved.
For consistency, in Appendix A, those clause headings that are numbered and
in bold, correspond to the Section headings of this document.
10 - 38
Proposed Clauses Commentary
3 BASIS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN
3.1 Design of steel structures shall conform
to the basic requirements of 2.1 of
EN 1990.

3.2 Reliability, durability and quality
management shall conform to 2.2, 2.4
and 2.5 of EN 1990.

3.3 The following additional specific events
shall be taken into account for the
design and the execution of the
structure: (insert list)
2.1(4) of EN 1990.
3.4 The design working life of the structure
shall be equal to ... years.
2.3 of EN 1990.
For the specification of the intended design
working life of a permanent building, see
Table 2.1 of EN 1990.
A working life of 50 years will provide
adequate durability for common single-storey
buildings.
3.5 For the following additional specific
circumstances, the limit states that
concern the protection of the contents
shall be classified as ultimate limit
states: (insert list)
3.3(2) of EN 1990.
3.6 The serviceability requirements of the
project shall be as follows: (insert
requirements)
3.4(1) of EN 1990.
4. ACTIONS ON STRUCTURES
4.1 Self-weight and imposed loads
4.1.1 The following imposed loads shall be
considered for serviceability limit state
verifications: (insert list)
3.3.2(4) of EN 1991-1-1.
In accordance with the service conditions
and the requirements concerning the
performance of the structure.
4.1.2 The characteristic values of densities of
construction and stored materials shall
be taken as follows: (insert list)
4.1(1) and 4.1(2) of EN 1991-1-1.
Especially for materials which are not
covered by the Tables in Annex A of
EN 1991-1-1.
4.1.3 Loads of heavy equipments shall be as
specified on the relevant drawings.
6.1(4) of EN 1991-1-1.
e.g. in communal kitchens, radiology rooms,
boiler rooms, etc.
4.2 Snow loads
4.2.1 In the following circumstances, tests
and proven and/or properly validated
numerical methods may be used to
obtain snow loads on the construction
works: (insert particular circumstances,
if any)
1.5 of EN 1991-1-3.
These circumstances should be agreed upon
with the Client and the relevant authority.
4.2.2 Particular snow loads shall comply with
the following requirements: (insert
special requirements, if any)
4.1(1) of EN 1991-1-3.
To cover unusual local conditions, the
National Annex may additionally allow the
Client and the relevant authority to agree
upon different characteristic values of snow
load.
10 - 39
4.3 Wind loads
4.3.1 (Optional) The following rules for the
velocity pressure distribution for leeward
wall and sidewalls shall apply: (insert
rules)
7.2.2 of EN 1991-1-4.
Certain rules may also be given in the
National Annex.
4.4 Thermal actions
4.4.1 The following specific operational
thermal effects shall apply: (insert list of
specific thermal actions)
5.2(2)P of EN 1991-1-5.
due to heating, technological or industrial
processes.
4.4.2 The following specific values of T
M
and
T
P
shall apply: (insert values)
5.2(3)P of EN 1991-1-5.
T
M
: linear temperature difference
component;
T
P
: temperature difference between
different parts of a structure given by the
difference of average temperatures of these
parts.
4.5 Actions during execution
4.5.1 The following rules concerning the
safety of persons, on and around the
construction site, shall apply: (insert
rules)
These rules are outside the scope of
EN 1991-1-6.
4.5.2 Construction loads shall be as specified
on the relevant drawings
See Tables 2.2 and 4.1 of EN 1991-1-6.

4.5.3 Tolerances for the possible deviations to
the theoretical position of construction
loads shall be as specified on the
relevant drawings
If construction loads are classified as fixed
loads.
4.5.4 The limits of the potential area of spatial
variation of construction loads shall be
as specified on the relevant drawings
If construction loads are classified as free
loads.
4.5.5 The following minimum wind velocity
during execution phases shall apply: ...
3.1(5) of EN 1991-1-6.
In the absence of any choice in the National
Annex.
4.5.6 The following rules of combination of
snow loads and wind action with the
construction loads shall apply: (insert
rules)
3.1(7) of EN 1991-1-6.
Annex.
4.5.7 The geometric imperfections of the
structure and the structural elements
during execution shall be as follows:
(insert values)
3.1(8) of EN 1991-1-6.
Annex.
4.5.8 Criteria associated with serviceability
limit states during execution shall be as
follows: (insert criteria)
3.3(2) of EN 1991-1-6.
Annex.
4.5.9 The maximum allowable wind velocity
during crane operations shall be ...
4.7(1) of EN 1991-1-6.
4.6 Accidental actions
4.6.1 The following notional accidental loads
shall apply: (insert accidental actions)
Equivalent static design forces due to
vehicular impact;
Frontal and lateral dynamic design forces
due to impact from river and canal traffic, as
well as the height of application of the impact
force and the impact area;
Classification of structures subject to impact
from derailed railway traffic ( 4.5.1.2 of
EN 1991-1-7);
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4.7 Actions induced by cranes
4.7.1 For the serviceability limit state
verification, tests shall (or may not) be
performed with the cranes on the
supporting structures (specify the
alternative to be recommended)
2.3(6) of EN 1991-3
4.7.2 The following forces shall be included in
the same group of simultaneous crane
load components: (insert list of forces)
2.5.2.2(2) of EN 1991-3

Insert one or several forces among the five
horizontal types (a) to (e) listed in
2.5.2.2(1) of EN 1991-3.
4.7.3 The longitudinal horizontal forces H
L,i

and the transverse horizontal wheel
forces H
T,i
, caused by acceleration and
deceleration of masses of the crane or
the crab, shall be applied according to
the following provisions: (insert
provisions)
2.5.2.2(4) of EN 1991-3

Otherwise, provisions given in Figure 2.3 of
EN 1991-3 should apply.

4.7.4 The maximum number of cranes to be
taken into account as acting
simultaneously shall be: (insert number)
2.5.3(2) of EN 1991-3
4.7.5 The Hoisting Class of the crane shall
be: (specify class from HC1 to HC4)
Hoisting class to be specified unless it is
specified in the crane supplier specification.

Reference can be made to Annex B
(informative) of EN 1991-3
4.7.6 The vertical load to be applied to access
walkways, stairs and platform shall be
equal to: (insert provisions)
2.9.1(1) of EN 1991-3

Otherwise, provisions given in 2.9.1(2),
2.9.1(3) or 2.9.1(4) should apply.
4.7.7 The horizontal load to be applied to the
guard rail shall be equal to: (insert
provisions)
2.9.2(1) of EN 1991-3

Otherwise, provisions given in 2.9.2(1) or
2.9.2(2) should apply.
4.7.8 To make allowance of relevant
accidental actions:
- Buffers are (or are not) used;
- A crane with horizontally restrained
loads can (or cannot) tilt when its load
or lifting attachment collides with an
obstacle.
(specify construction conditions)

4.7.9 To make allowance for fatigue effects,
the following operational conditions shall
apply: (insert information)

If sufficient information is provided, the
fatigue loads can then be determined
according to EN 13001 and Annex A of
EN 1993-1-9.

Otherwise, provisions of 2.12 of EN 1991-3
should apply.
10 - 41
(Optional clause in case a simplified approach
for determining the fatigue loads is
favoured)
4.7.10
- The class of load spectrum for all tasks
of the crane shall be: (specify class from
Q
0
to Q
5
);
- The class of total number of working
cycles (U
0
to U
9
) during the design life of
the crane shall be: (specify class from
U
0
to U
9
);
- The crane classification shall be:
(specify class from S
0
to S
9
)

If the crane classification is not included in
the crane supplier specification, reference
can be made to Annex B (informative) of
EN 1991-3.
4.7.11 The partial factor for actions on crane
supporting structures to be taken in
serviceability limit states shall be equal
to: (specify factor value)
Clause A.3.2(1) of normative Annex A of
EN 1991-3

Otherwise, this partial factor should be taken
as 1,0.
4.8 Seismic actions
4.8.1 The Importance Class of the project
shall be ...
Table 4.3 of EN 1998-1.
Ordinary buildings (other than schools, fire
stations, power plants, hospitals, etc.)
correspond to Importance Class II;
4.8.2 The Ground Type shall be as specified
on the relevant documents.
Table 3.1 of EN 1998-1.
Depending on the particular conditions of the
project, contract documents should specify
whether ground investigations and/or
geological studies should be performed to
identify the ground type;
4.8.3 The seismic zone of the project shall
be....
According to the zonation map, decided by
the National Authority, and found in the
National Annex of EN 1998-1
4.8.4 Earthquake resistant steel building shall
be designed according to ... concept
DCL, DCM or DCH.

5. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
5.1 General rules
5.1.1 To ensure durability, the building and its
components shall either be designed for
environmental actions (and fatigue if
relevant) or else protected from them.
2.1.3.3(1)B of EN 1993-1-1.
5.1.2 The effects of deterioration of material
and corrosion (and fatigue where
relevant) shall be taken into account by
appropriate choice of material (see
EN 1993-1-4 and EN 1993-1-10), and
details (see EN 1993-1-9), or by
structural redundancy and by the choice
of an appropriate protection system.
2.1.3.3(2)B of EN 1993-1-1.
5.1.3 For the following components, the
possibility of their safe replacement
shall be verified as a transient design
situation (insert list of the components of
the building that need to be replaceable)
2.1.3.3(3)B of EN 1993-1-1.
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5.1.4 With reference to Annex A1.4 of
EN 1990, vertical deflections (according
to Figure A1.1), horizontal deflections
(according to Figure A1.2) and
vibrations of structures on which the
public can walk shall comply with the
following limits: (insert serviceability
limits states)
7 of EN 1993-1-1.
5.2 Rules for sheeting
5.2.1 The Structural Class of the construction
(Class I to III), associated with failure
consequences according to Annex B of
EN 1990, shall be as specified on the
relevant documents.
2(6) of EN 1993-1-3
Structural Class I: construction where
sheeting is designed to contribute to the
overall strength and stability of a structure;
Structural Class II: construction where
sheeting is designed to contribute to the
strength and stability of individual structural
elements;
Structural Class III: construction where
sheeting is used as an element that only
transfers loads to the structure.
5.4 Design of joints
5.4.1 Bolted connections Category shall be as
specified on the relevant documents.
3.4.1 of EN 1993-1-8.
5.4.2 Friction surfaces for slip-resistant
connections using pre-loaded 8.8 or
10.9 bolts shall be as specified on the
relevant documents.
3.9 of EN 1993-1-8.
5.4.3 According to EN ISO 25817, the quality
level of welds shall be as specified on
the relevant documents.
4.1 of EN 1993-1-8.
5.4.4 The frequency of inspection of welds
shall conform to the requirements of
EN 1090-2 and shall be as specified on
4.1 of EN 1993-1-8.
5.5 Fatigue
5.5.1 Fatigue assessment shall be
undertaken using damage tolerant
method or safe life method (specify
assessment method to be used).
3(1) of EN 1993-1-9

If the damage tolerant method is specified, a
prescribed inspection and maintenance
regime for detecting and correcting fatigue
damage should be implemented throughout
the design life of the structure.
The safe life method should be specified in
cases where local formation of cracks in one
component could rapidly lead to failure of the
structural element or structure.
5.5.2 In order to determine the partial factor
for fatigue strength, in conjunction with
the specified fatigue assessment
method, the failure Consequence
classification shall be taken as Low
Consequence or High Consequence
(specify the consequence class).
3(7) of EN 1993-1-9
5.6 Material toughness and through-
thickness properties

5.6.1 The guidance given in section 2 of
EN 1993-1-10 shall be used for the
selection of materials for fracture
toughness.

10 - 43
5.6.2 The guidance given in section 3 of
EN 1993-1-10 shall be used for the
selection of materials for through-
thickness properties.

5.7 Crane supporting structures
5.7.1 Where crane rails are assumed to
contribute to the strength or stiffness of
a runway beam, the properties of the
combined cross-section shall be
determined as follows:
(Specify the appropriate allowances for
wear to be made).
4(3) of EN 1993-6
5.7.2 Where actions from soil subsidence or
seismic actions are expected,
tolerances for vertical and horizontal
imposed deformations shall be taken as
follows:
(Specify the appropriate allowances).
4(4) of EN 1993-6

These allowances should be agreed with the
crane supplier, and included in the inspection
and maintenance plans.
5.7.3 The limits for deformations and
displacements shall be taken as follows:
(specify the specific limits together with
the serviceability load combinations
under which they apply).

7.3(1) of EN 1993-6
6. EXECUTION SPECIFICATION
6.1 General
6.1.1 The requirements for the execution of
structural steelwork for the project are
given in the following documents: (Insert
list)
Insert a list of the relevant drawings and
other documents, including reference to
EN 1090-2.
6.2 Execution Class
6.2.1 For building structures, EXC2 shall
generally apply, except where specified
otherwise on the drawings.
The use of EXC2 as the default class will
provide adequate reliability for most elements
of ordinary buildings. For some structures, a
greater scope of inspection and testing
and/or higher quality level acceptance criteria
may be required, either generally or for
particular details. Particular details where this
is required, such as where special inspection
and testing is required, should be indicated
on the drawings.
Table A.3 of EN 1090-2 gives a list of
requirements related to execution classes;
Annex B of EN 1090-2 gives guidance for the
choice of execution classes;
The choice of execution classes is related to
production categories and service categories,
with links to consequence classes as defined
in Annex B of EN 1990.
6.3 Preparation grades
6.3.1 The preparation grade of all surfaces to
which paints and related products are to
be applied shall be ...
Otherwise,
The expected life of the corrosion
protection shall be ... years or corrosivity
category shall be ...
Preparation grades (P1 to P3 according to
ISO 8501-3) are related to the expected life
of the corrosion protection and corrosivity
category as defined in 10 of EN 1090-2.
10 - 44
6.4 Geometrical tolerances
6.4.1 For essential tolerances, the tabulated
values in Annex D.1 of EN 1090-2 shall
apply.
If the steelwork is not within tolerance, it
shall be reported to the designer of the
permanent works and shall be adjusted,
if necessary, to maintain the structural
adequacy in accordance with the design
rules.
Manufacturing tolerances are described in
11.2.2 of EN 1090-2;
Erection tolerances are described in 11.2.3
of EN 1090-2;
6.4.2 For functional tolerances (in terms of
accepted geometrical deviations), either
the tabulated values in 11.3.2 and
Annex D.2 of EN 1090-2 shall apply, or,
the alternative criteria defined in
11.3.3 of EN 1090-2 shall apply.

7. CONSTITUENT STEEL PRODUCTS
7.1 Identification, inspection documents
and traceability

7.1.1 Properties for (...) shall comply with the
requirements given in (...).
5.1 of EN 1090-2
Insert details for any constituent product not
covered by the European Standards listed in
Table 2 of EN 1090-2.
7.1.2 The inspection documents (according to
EN 10204) shall be as listed in Table 1
of EN 1090-2.
5.2 of EN 1090-2.

(Optional clause)
7.1.3 For Execution Classes EXC3 and
EXC4, constituent products shall be
traceable at all stages from receipt to
hand over after incorporation in the
works.
5.2 of EN 1090-2.

7.1.4 For Execution Classes EXC2, EXC3
and EXC4, if different grades and/or
qualities of constituent products are in
circulation together, each item shall be
designated with a mark that identifies its
grade.
5.2 of EN 1090-2.
Methods of marking should be in accordance
with that for components given in 6.2 of
EN 1090-2.
If marking is required, unmarked constituent
products should be treated as non
conforming product.
7.2 Structural steel products
7.2.1 The grade and quality of structural steel
shall be as specified on the drawings.

7.2.2 For structural steel plates, thickness
tolerances class A, in accordance with
EN 10029, shall be used.
5.3.2 of EN 1090-2.
Class A is usually sufficient, even where
EXC4 is specified, but if class C is required
by the technical authority or for other
reasons, that class should be specified
instead.
10 - 45
7.2.3 Structural carbon steels shall conform to
the requirements of the relevant
European product standards as listed in
Table 2 of EN 1090-2, unless otherwise
specified on the drawings. Grades,
qualities and, if appropriate, coating
weights and finishes, together with any
required options permitted by the
product standard, including those
related to suitability for hot dip zinc-
coating, if relevant, shall be as specified
on the drawings.
5.3.1 of EN 1090-2.

7.2.4 For carbon steels, surface condition
shall be as follows:
Class A2, for plates in accordance with
the requirements of EN 10163-2;
Class C1, for sections in accordance
with the requirements of EN 10163-3.
If relevant, surface imperfections (such
as cracks, shell or seams) or repair of
surface defects by grinding in
accordance with EN 10163, shall
comply with the following restrictions :
(insert list of special restrictions)
5.3.3 of EN 1090-2.
(Optional clause)
7.2.5 For EXC3 and EXC4, the locations (and
width) where internal discontinuity
quality class S1 of EN 10160 is
required, are specified on the relevant
drawings.
5.3.4 of EN 1090-2.
Especially for welded cruciform joints
transmitting primary tensile stresses through
the plate thickness, and for areas close to
bearing diaphragms or stiffeners.
7.2.6 Areas where material shall comply with
requirements for improved deformation
properties perpendicular to the surface
(according to EN 10164) are specified
on the drawings.
5.3.4 of EN 1090-2.
Consideration should be given to specifying
such material for cruciform, T and corner
joints. Should only be invoked where
necessary; specify only those parts of the
structure which need these properties.
7.3 Welding consumables
7.3.1 All welding consumables shall conform
to the requirements of EN 13479 and
the appropriate product standard, as
listed in Table 5 of EN 1090-2. The type
of welding consumables shall be
appropriate to the welding process
(defined in 7.3 of EN 1090-2), the
material to be welded and the welding
procedure.
5.5 of EN 1090-2.

7.4 Mechanical fasteners
7.4.1 All mechanical fasteners (connectors,
bolts, fasteners) shall conform to the
Studs for arc stud welding including
shear connectors for steel/concrete
composite construction shall comply
with the requirements of EN ISO 13918.

7.4.2 The property classes of non-preloaded
bolts and nuts, and surface finishes,

7.4.3 The property classes of preloaded bolts
and nuts, and surface finishes, shall be
as specified on the drawings.
HV bolts are sensitive to over-tightening, so
they require a greater level of site control.
It is not advisable to use both HR and HV
assemblies on the same project.
10 - 46
7.4.4 The chemical composition of weather
resistant assemblies shall comply with
the requirements for Type 3 Grade A
fasteners to ASTM standard A325, or
equivalent.

7.4.5 Reinforcing steels may be used for
foundation bolts. In this case, they shall
conform to EN 10080 and the steel
grade shall be as specified on the
drawings.

(Optional clause)
7.4.6 Where locking devices are specified on
the drawings, they shall comply with the
relevant standards listed in 5.6.8 of
EN 1090-2, and additionally ... (Insert
any particular requirements for locking
devices).

7.5 Grouting materials
7.5.1 Grouting materials to be used shall be
as specified on the relevant drawings.

8. PREPARATION AND ASSEMBLY
8.1 Identification
8.1.1 Soft or low stress stamps may be used,
except in any areas specified on the
drawings.
Soft or low stress stamp marks can easily be
obliterated by the protective system. The
fabricator will usually mask the stamped area
after application of primer and complete the
coating locally after erection.
8.1.2 Areas where identification marks are not
permitted or shall not be visible after
completion are specified on the
drawings.

8.2 Handling and storage
8.2.1 Structural steel components shall be
packed, handled and transported in a
safe manner, so that permanent
deformation does not occur and surface
damage is minimized.
Handling and storage preventive
measures specified in Table 8 of
EN 1090-2 shall be applied as
appropriate.

8.3 Cutting
8.3.1 Hand thermal cutting shall be used only
if it is not practical to use machine
thermal cutting.
Cutting shall be carried out in such a
way that the requirements for
geometrical tolerances, maximum
hardness and smoothness of free
edges, as specified in 6.4 of
EN 1090-2, are met.

8.4 Shaping
8.4.1 Requirements of 6.5 of EN 1090-2
shall be applied as appropriate.

10 - 47
8.5 Holing
8.5.1 Dimensions of holes, tolerances on
hole-diameters and execution of holing
shall comply with the requirements of
6.6 of EN 1090-2.

8.5.2 Where specified on the drawings, holes
with special dimensions shall be
provided for connections of movement
joints.

8.5.3 Special tolerances on hole diameters
Special tolerances would only be needed in
exceptional conditions.
If pins are used, tolerances should be
specified for both holes and pins.
8.5.4 Holes for fasteners shall be formed by
drilling or by punching followed by
reaming.

8.5.5 Long slotted holes shall be executed as
specified on the drawings.
This option is only needed for special cases,
such as slotted holes for pins in movement
joints. Details must then be given on the
drawings.
8.6 Assembly
8.6.1 Requirements of 6.9 and 6.10 of
appropriate.

8.6.2 Holes for which elongation is not
permitted are shown on the relevant
drawings.
This option is needed for fit bolts for instance.
8.6.3 The acceptability of the addition of any
welded temporary attachments and the
making of any butt welds additional to
those specified on the drawings shall be
verified according to the design rules.
A record of the details of such
attachments and butt welds shall be
provided as part of the constructors
execution documentation.
Areas where temporary attachments
have been made shall be made good.
If weld repairs are necessary these shall
be carried out in accordance with the
requirements of the appropriate
Standard.
If there are any restrictions on positioning of
temporary attachments, they should be
specified, either in this clause or on the
drawings.
In general, temporary welded attachments
are not acceptable within 25 mm of the
edges of flange plates.
9. WELDING
9.1 General
9.1.1 Welding shall be undertaken in
accordance with the requirements of the
relevant part of EN ISO 3834 or
EN ISO 14554 as applicable.

9.1.2 A welding plan shall be provided as part
of the production planning required by
the relevant part of EN ISO 3834.
The content of a welding plan is described in
7.2.2 of EN 1090-2.
9.1.3 Welding may be performed by the
welding processes defined in
EN ISO 4063.
Welding processes are listed in 7.3 of
EN 1090-2.
10 - 48
9.2 Qualification of welding procedures
9.2.1 Welding shall be carried out with
qualified procedures using a Welding
Procedure Specification (WPS) in
accordance with the relevant part of
EN ISO 15609 or EN ISO 14555 or
EN ISO 15620.
Qualifications of welding procedures,
depending on welding processes, are
described in 7.4.1.2 and 7.4.1.3 of
EN 1090-2.
9.3 Welders and welding operators
9.3.1 Welders shall be qualified in accordance
with EN 287-1 and welding operators in
accordance with EN 1418.
Records of all welder and welding
operator qualification tests shall be kept
available.

9.4 Welding coordination
9.4.1 Welding coordination shall be
maintained during the execution of
welding by welding coordination
personnel suitably qualified for, and
experienced in the welding operations
they supervise as specified in
EN ISO 14731.
This option is needed for Execution Class
EXC2, EXC3 and EXC4.
With respect to the welding operations being
supervised, and for structural carbon steels,
welding coordination personnel should have
a technical knowledge according to Table 14
of EN 1090-2.
9.5 Preparation and execution of welding
9.5.1 Precautions shall be taken to avoid
stray arcing, and if stray arcing does
occur the surface of the steel shall be
lightly ground and checked. Visual
checking shall be supplemented by
penetrating or magnetic particle testing.

9.5.2 Precautions shall be taken to avoid weld
spatter.
For Execution Class EXC3 and EXC4, weld
spatter should be removed.
9.5.3 Visible imperfections such as cracks,
cavities and other not permitted
imperfections shall be removed from
each run before deposition of further
runs.

9.5.4 All slag shall be removed from the
surface of each run before each
subsequent run is added and from the
surface of the finished weld.

9.5.5 Particular attention shall be paid to the
junctions between the weld and the
parent metal.

9.5.6 Special requirements for grinding and
dressing of the surface of completed
welds are shown on the relevant
drawings.

9.5.7 Joint preparation shall be free from
visible cracks. Visible cracks shall be
removed by grinding and the joint
geometry corrected as necessary.

9.5.8 If large notches or other errors in joint
geometry are corrected by welding, a
qualified procedure shall be used, and
the area shall be subsequently ground
smooth and feathered into the adjacent
surface.

10 - 49
9.5.9 All surfaces to be welded shall be dry
and free from material that would
adversely affect the quality of the welds
or impede the process of welding.
Such as rust, organic material or galvanizing.
9.5.10 Requirements of 7.5.1 to 7.5.16 of
appropriate.

9.6 Acceptance criteria
9.6.1 Welded components shall comply with
the requirements specified in 10 and
11 of EN 1090-2.

9.6.2 The acceptance criteria for weld
imperfections shall conform to the

10. MECHANICAL FASTENING
10.1 General
10.1.1 Minimum nominal fastener diameter,
bolt length, length of protrusion, length
of the unthreaded bolt shaft and clamp
length shall comply with the
requirements of 8.2.2 of EN 1090-2.

10.1.2 Requirements given in 8.2.3 of
EN 1090-2 for washers shall apply.

10.1.3 Tightening of non-preloaded bolts shall
comply with the requirements of 8.3 of
EN 1090-2.
The bolt shall protrude from the face of
the nut, after tightening, not less than
one full thread pitch.

10.1.4 Precautions and preparation of contact
surfaces in slip resistant connections
8.4 and Table 18 of EN 1090-2. Slip
factor shall be determined by test as
specified in Annex G of EN 1090-2.

10.1.5 Tightening methods of preloaded bolts
8.5 of EN 1090-2; special
requirements are specified on the
relevant documents.

10.2 Bolts
10.2.1 Bolt sizes for structural bolting shall be
as specified on the drawings.

10.2.2 Where the structure has been designed
to utilise the shear resistance of the
unthreaded shank of bolts, this is
specified on the drawings and the
dimensions of the bolts are given.
The locations and dimensions must be given
on the drawings. Reliance on the resistance
of the unthreaded shank, rather than the
threaded part, is inadvisable because it
requires a higher level of control on bolt
supply and installation to ensure that only
unthreaded parts exist in the part of the
connection where the resistance to shear is
required.
10.3 Nuts
10.3.1 Nuts shall be assembled so that their
designation markings are visible for
inspection after assembly.

10 - 50
10.3.2 Nuts shall run freely on their partnering
bolt, which is easily checked during
hand assembly.
Any nut and bolt assembly where the nut
does not run freely should be discarded.
10.4 Washers
10.4.1 Washers shall be provided under the
nut or the bolt head of non-preloaded
bolts, whichever is to be rotated.

10.4.2 For preloaded bolts :
- for 8.8 bolts, a washer shall be used
under the bolt head or the nut,
whichever is to be rotated;
- for 10.9 bolts, washers shall be used
under both the bolt head and the nut.

10.5 Preparation of contact surfaces in slip-
resistant connections.

10.5.1 The area of contact surfaces in
preloaded connections shall be as
specified on the drawings.
For contact surfaces in slip-resistant
connections shown on the relevant
drawings, the following particular
treatment shall apply: ... (Insert
requirements).
The treated surfaces shall be
adequately protected until they are
brought together.

10.5.2 Preparation of contact surfaces in slip-
resistant connections shall comply with
the requirements of 8.4 of EN 1090-2;
special requirements are specified on

10.6 Tightening of preloaded bolts
10.6.1 The nominal minimum preloading force
F
p,C
shall be taken as indicated on the
relevant drawings.
Usually, F
p,C
= 0,7.f
ub
.A
s
.
10.6.2 The following tightening method(s) shall
be used: ... (insert specific tightening
methods)
The different tightening methods are
described in Table 20 of EN 1090-2.
10.6.3 As an alternative to Table 20 of
EN 1090-2, calibration to Annex H of
EN 1090-2 may be used:
- for all tightening methods;
- for all tightening methods, except for
the torque method.
(choose one of the above options)

10.6.4 When bolts are tightened by rotation of
the bolt head, the following special
precautions shall be taken: ... (insert
special precautions depending on the
tightening method adopted).

10.6.5 For thick surface coatings shown on the
relevant drawings, the following
measures shall be taken to offset
possible subsequent loss of preloading
force: ... (insert specific measures,
depending on the tightening method
adopted).
If torque method is used, this may be by
retightening after a delay of some days.
10 - 51
10.6.6 For the combined method, when using
the value M
r,1
for the first tightening
step, the simplified expression of M
r,1
(in
8.5.4 of EN 1090-2) may (or may not)
be used. (choose one of the above
options)

10.6.7 For the combined method, values other
than those given in Table 21 of
EN 1090-2 shall not be used unless
calibrated in accordance with Annex H
of EN 1090-2.

10.6.8 For the HRC method, the first tightening
step shall be repeated as necessary if
the pre-tightening is relaxed by the
subsequent tightening of the remainder
of the bolts in the connection.
This first step should be completed for all
bolts in one connection prior to
commencement of the second step.
Guidance of the equipment manufacturer
may give additional information on how to
identify if pre-tightening has occurred, e.g.
sound of shear wrench changing, or if other
methods of pre-tightening are suitable.
10.7 Fit bolts
10.7.1 Where permitted on the drawings, the
length of the threaded portion of the
shank of a fit bolt may exceed 1/3 of the
thickness of the plate, subject to the
following requirements: ... (Insert
details)

Insert this clause if such permission is to be
given and specify on the drawings for which
bolts the longer thread length is permitted.
11. ERECTION
11.1 The design is based on the construction
method and/or sequences given in the
following documents: (Insert list).
11.2 Requirements for temporary bracing
compatible with the construction method
and/or sequences are specified on the
following drawings: (Insert list)
Insert list of relevant drawings and other
documents. Information should include,
amongst other things, allowances for
permanent deformations (pre-camber),
settlement of supports, assumptions for
temporary stability and assumptions about
propped/un-propped conditions in staged
construction.
The designer has the duty to ensure that the
permanent works can be built safely. The
drawings will show a construction method
and/or sequences and will show either in
detail or indicatively the nature and positions
of temporary bracings compatible with those
sequences. These temporary bracings will
normally be those required to provide stability
in the bare steel and wet concrete
conditions. The elements of the temporary
bracing would normally be designed by the
permanent works designer; if that is not the
case, it should be stated in the contract
documents (preferably on the drawings) that
their design is the constructors responsibility.
10 - 52
11.3 The allowances for permanent
deformation and other associated
dimensions specified on the relevant
drawings allow for the quasi-permanent
effects of the following actions, using
the design basis method of erection:
i) after steelwork erection:
- Self weight of structural steelwork;
ii) after completion of structure:
- Self weight of structural steelwork;
- Self weight of structural concrete;
- Self weight of non-structural parts;
- The effects of shrinkage modified
by creep.
It is the designers responsibility to determine
the allowances (i.e. the addition to the
nominal profile) required to offset the effects
of permanent actions, including shrinkage
effects. These allowances have often been
termed, somewhat loosely, pre-camber.
11.4 If the constructor proposes to adopt an
alternative construction method and/or
sequences to that referred to 11.1, the
constructor shall verify, in accordance
with the design rules, that the alternative
method and/or sequences can be used
without detriment to the permanent
works.
The constructor shall allow a period of
at least ... (insert number) weeks for the
verification of the erection method in
accordance with the design rules, to the
satisfaction of the permanent works
designer.
For major single-storey structures, the design
basis method of erection will normally be
produced through a close working between
the designer and the constructor because the
method of erection will often dictate aspects
of the design.
Even for lesser or minor structures, the
fundamental issue is that the constructor's
erection method must be compatible with the
design basis method of erection or, if it is
different, for whatever reason, the design of
the permanent works must be re-verified, for
that erection method.
11.5 The steelwork dimensions on the
drawings are specified for a reference
temperature of ... C (Insert reference
temperature)
The steelwork contractor will make
adjustments to suit the calibration
temperature of his measuring equipment.
11.6 Compensation for settlement of
supports shall be made by the
constructor if such settlement differs
from the design assumptions.
The designer should state the range of
settlement of the supports (including
temporary supports) that was considered in
the design.
11.7 The finished cover to steel packings
(comprising a total thickness of grout
and any concrete) shall comply with the
cover requirements of EN 1992.
It is normal practice to remove steel
packings. Softer packings may be left in
place.
11.8 Packings and levelling nuts may be left
in position, provided that it can be
verified, in accordance with the design
rules, that there is no detriment to the
permanent works.
The implications of introducing a hard spot
into the bearing area should be checked with
respect to both steel and concrete elements.
11.9 The treatment of steelwork, bearings
and concrete surfaces before grouting

11.10 Areas where the edges of the base
plate are to be sealed, without grouting,
are specified on the drawings.
If grouting is not specified in bearing areas,
the perimeter of base plates should be
sealed. The locations for sealing must be
shown on the drawings.
11.11 Surfaces that are to be in contact with
concrete, including the undersides of
baseplates, shall be coated with
protective treatment applied to the
steelwork, excluding any cosmetic
finishing coat, for the first ...mm (insert
length, minimum 50 mm) of the
embedded length, and the remaining
surfaces need not be coated (or shall be
coated, choose one option).
Additional requirements are given in 10.7 of
EN 1090-2.


Part 11: Moment Connections


11 - ii

11 - iii
FOREWORD
This publication is part eleven of the design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.
Part 3: Actions
11 - iv

11 - v
Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Design approach 1
1.2 Tension zone 1
1.3 Plastic distribution 4
1.4 Resistance of the compression zone 5
1.5 Resistance of the column web panel 6
1.6 Calculation of moment resistance 6
1.7 Weld design 7
1.8 Vertical shear 8
1.9 Stiffeners 9
2 JOINT STIFFNESS 10
2.1 Classification by calculation 10
2.2 Classification boundaries 11
3 BEST PRACTICE GUIDELINES FOR MOMENT CONNECTIONS 12
3.1 Eaves haunch 12
3.2 End plate 12
3.3 Stiffeners 13
3.4 Bolts 13
3.6 Welds 14
4 JOINT DESIGN TABLES 16
4.1 General 16
4.2 Main design assumptions 17
4.3 Notes to the tables 18
4.5 Eaves connections 37
REFERENCES 53

11 - vi
SUMMARY
This publication provides an introduction to the design process for moment-resisting
bolted connections in single storey steel framed buildings. It explains that the design
process is complex, involving many steps to determine the resistance of individual bolt
rows in the tension zone, checking whether the resistance of the bolt group has to be
reduced on account of the performance of the connected elements, and evaluating the
bending resistance from the tensile resistances of the rows. To simplify design, a series
of design tables for standard connections are given, for eaves and apex connections in
portal frames, with haunched and un-haunched rafters.

11 - 1
1 INTRODUCTION
Manual design of moment-resisting bolted connections is laborious,
particularly when there are several bolt rows acting in tension. Any iteration of
connection geometry or connection component (such as changing the bolt
setting out or bolt size) necessitates a full re-design. For these reasons, the
design of moment-resisting bolted connections is generally carried out by using
appropriate software.
This Section aims to provide an introduction to the verification process
described in EN 1993-1-8
[1]
.
1.1 Design approach
The verification of a bolted moment resisting connection involves three distinct
steps:
1. Determine the potential resistance of the bolt rows in the tension zone, in
isolation.
2. Check whether the total tension resistance can be realised, as it may be
limited by the web panel shear resistance of the column, or the resistance of
the connection in the compression zone.
3. Calculate the moment resistance as the sum of the tension forces multiplied
by their respective lever arms.
The key features of the approach are firstly that a plastic distribution of bolt
row forces is allowed, as long as either the end plate or the column flange is
sufficiently thin. The second key feature is that the complex yield line patterns
in the tension zone are replaced by an equivalent, simple T-stub model which is
more amenable to calculation.
1.2 Tension zone
According to EN 1993-1-8 6.2.7.2(6), the effective design tension resistance
F
tr,Rd
at each bolt row in the tension zone is the least of the following
resistances:
- Column flange bending and bolt strength (F
t,fc,Rd
)

- Column web in transverse tension (F
t,wc,Rd
)

- End plate bending and bolt strength (F
t,ep,Rd
)

- Rafter beam web in tension (F
t,wb,Rd
).

For each bolt row, the effective design tension resistance may thus be
expressed as:
F
tr,Rd
= min(F
t,fc,Rd
; F
t,wc,Rd
; F
t,ep,Rd
; F
t,wb,Rd
)
The relevant clauses of EN 1993-1-8 for the above components are given in
Table 1.1.
11 - 2
Table 1.1 Components of the joint to determine the potential
design resistance of a bolt row
Component EN 1993-1-8 clause number
Column flange in bending
Rd fc, t,
F
6.2.6.4 and Table 6.2
Column web in transverse
tension
Rd wc, t,
F
6.2.6.3
End-plate in bending
Rd t,ep,
F
6.2.6.5 and Table 6.6
Rafter web in tension
Rd wb, t,
F
6.2.6.8

The resistance for each row is calculated in isolation. The connection resistance
may be limited by:
- The design resistance of a group of bolts
- The stiffness of the column flange or end plate, which may preclude a
plastic distribution of tension forces
- The shear resistance of the column web panel
- The resistance in the compression zone.
Because the tension resistance of a row may be limited by the effects of forces
in other rows in the bolt group, the effective design tension resistances are
considered to be potential resistances their full realisation may be limited by
other aspects of the design.
The potential design tension resistance F
tr,Rd
for each bolt row should be
determined in sequence, starting from the furthest bolt row from the centre of
compression (with the maximum lever arm). In accordance with 6.2.7.2(4),
the resistance of any bolt rows closer to the centre of compression are ignored
when calculating the resistance of a specific bolt row, or group of rows.
Subsequent rows are verified both in isolation and also as part of a group in
combination with rows above. The resistance of row 2 is therefore taken as the
lesser of:
- the resistance of row 2 acting alone, and
- the resistance of rows 1 and 2 acting as a group minus the resistance
already allocated to row 1.
Row 1 is furthest from the centre of compression, and rows are numbered
sequentially.
A stiffener in the column, or in the rafter, disrupts any common yield line
pattern, which means that groups containing a stiffener need not be verified on
that side. In a detail with an extended end plate, such as in Figure 1.1, the
flange of the rafter means that there cannot be a common yield line pattern
around the top two bolt rows in the end plate. On the column side, however, a
common yield line pattern around the top two rows is possible, and must be
verified.
11 - 3
r =1
r =2
r =3
r =4

Figure 1.1 Extended end plate in a haunched eaves connection
1.2.1 End plate and column flange in bending
When determining the potential tension resistance of the end plate in bending,
F
t,ep,Rd
and the column flange in bending
,
F
t,fc,Rd,
EN 1993-1-8 converts the real
yield line patterns into an equivalent T-stub. Generally, a number of yield line
patterns are possible each with a length of equivalent T-stub. The shortest
equivalent T-stub is taken. When bolts are located adjacent to a stiffener, or
adjacent to the rafter flange, the increased resistance of the flange or end plate
is reflected in a longer length of equivalent T-stub. Bolts adjacent to an
unstiffened free edge will result in a shorter length of equivalent T-stub.
.
Effective lengths of equivalent T-stubs
eff
are given in Table 6.4 of
EN 1993-1-8 for unstiffened flanges, in Table 6.6 for unstiffened end plates
and in Table 6.5 for stiffened flanges (or end plates
).
.
In all cases, effective lengths of equivalent T-stubs are given for individual bolt
rows and for bolt rows as part of a group the length of the equivalent T-stub
for a group of bolts is assembled from the contributions of the rows within the
group.
The beneficial effect of stiffeners depends on the geometry of the stiffener, the
location of the bolt and the proximity to the web. This is addressed in
Figure 6.11 of EN 1993-1-8, which provides an o factor used in determining
the effective length of equivalent T-stub. When the bolt is sufficiently far from
both web and stiffener, the stiffener has no effect the effective length is the
same as that in an unstiffened zone.
Once the effective length of T-stub has been determined, the resistance of the
T-stub is calculated. Three modes, as illustrated in Figure 1.2, are examined:
- Mode 1, in which the flange of the T-stub is the critical feature, and yields
in double curvature bending
- Mode 2, in which the flange and the bolts yield at the same load
- Mode 3, in which the bolts are the critical component and the resistance is
the tension resistance of the bolts.
11 - 4

Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3

Figure 1.2 Behaviour modes of an equivalent T-stub
The expressions to calculate the resistance in the different modes are given in
Table 6.2 of EN 1993-1-8.
1.2.2 Column web in transverse tension
The design resistance of an unstiffened column web in transverse tension is
given by expression 6.15 in EN 1993-1-8, and is simply the resistance of a
length of web, with a reduction factor e for the interaction with shear in the
column web panel. For bolted connections, 6.2.6.3(3) states that the length of
web to be assumed at each row, or for each group of rows, is equal to the
length of the equivalent T-stub determined for that row (or group of rows).
1.2.3 Beam web in tension
The design resistance for a beam web in tension is given by 6.2.6.8 and is the
same as that for the column web in transverse tension, (see Section 1.2.2), but
without an allowance for shear. The length of the beam web in tension is taken
to be equal to the length of the equivalent T-stub determined for that pair (or
group) of bolts.
1.3 Plastic distribution
A plastic distribution of forces in bolt rows is permitted, but this is only
possible if the deformation of the column flange or end plate can take place.
This is ensured by placing a limit on the distribution of bolt row forces if the
critical mode is mode 3, because this failure mode is not ductile.
According to 6.2.7.2(9) of EN 1993-1-8, this limit is applied if the resistance
of one of the previous bolt rows is greater than 1,9 F
t,Rd
, where:
F
t,Rd
is the tensile resistance of a single bolt
The limit is applied by reducing the resistance of the row under consideration,
to a value F
tr,Rd
, such that:
x Rd tx, Rd , t
/ h h F F
r r
s , where:
F
tx,Rd
is the design tension of the furthest row from the centre of
compression that has a design tension resistance greater than 1,9 F
t,Rd

h
x
is the lever arm from the centre of compression to the row with
resistance F
tx,Rd

h
r
is the lever arm from the centre of compression to the row under
consideration.
11 - 5
The effect of this limitation is to apply a triangular distribution of bolt row
forces.
1.4 Resistance of the compression zone
1.4.1 General
The design resistance in the compression zone may be limited by:
- The resistance of the column web (F
c,wc,Rd
), or
- The resistance of the beam (rafter) flange and web in compression (F
c,fb,Rd
).
The relevant clauses of EN 1993-1-8 are given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Joint Components in compression
Component EN 1993-1-8
clause number
Resistance of column web F
c,wc,Rd
6.2.6.2
Resistance of the beam
(rafter) flange and web
F
c,fb,Rd
6.2.6.7

1.4.2 Column web without a compression stiffener
Ideally, stiffeners in the column should be avoided, as they are expensive and
can be disruptive when making connections in the minor axis. However,
stiffeners in the compression zone of a column are usually required, especially
in a portal frame eaves connection. In a portal frame, the bending moment is
large, producing a large compression force, and the column is usually an I-
section with a relatively thin web.
The design resistance of an unstiffened column web subject to transverse
compression is given by EN 1993-1-8, 6.2.6.2. The design resistance is based
on an effective width of web in compression, with the web verified as a strut,
and with a reduction factor for shear and a reduction factor for longitudinal
compressive stress in the column.
1.4.3 Column web with a compression stiffener
The design resistance of a stiffened column subject to transverse compression
may be calculated in accordance with 9.4 of EN 1993-1-5.
1.4.4 Beam (rafter) flange and web in compression
The compression resistance of the beam flange and adjacent web in
compression is given in 6.2.6.7 of EN 1993-1-8 by:
( )
fb
Rd c,
Rd, fb, c,
t h
M
F
=
where:
h is the depth of the connected beam
11 - 6
M
c,Rd
is the design moment resistance of the beam cross-section, reduced if
necessary to allow for shear, see EN 1993-1-1 6.2.5. For a haunched
beam, such as a rafter, M
c,Rd
may be calculated neglecting the
intermediate flange
t
fb
is the flange thickness of the connected beam.
For haunched beams, such as those commonly used for rafters in portal frames,
the depth h, should be taken as the depth of the fabricated section, and the
thickness t
fb
should be that of the haunch flange.
If the height of the beam (rafter + haunch) exceeds 600 mm the contribution of
the rafter web to the design compression resistance should be limited to 20%.
This means that if the resistance of the flange is
fb y, fb fb
f b t then:
8 , 0
fb y, fb fb
Rd fb, c,
f b t
F s
1.5 Resistance of the column web panel
The resistance of the column web panel is given by 6.2.6.1 of EN 1993-1-8,
which is valid for c 69 s
w
t d .
The resistance of an unstiffened column web panel in shear, V
wp,Rd
is given by:
M0
vc wc y,
Rd wp,
3
9 , 0
A f
V =
where:
A
vc
is the shear area of the column, see EN 1993-1-1 6.2.6(3).
1.6 Calculation of moment resistance
Having calculated potential resistances in the tension zone (Section 1.2), the
design resistance in the compression zone (Section 1.4) and the resistance of
the column web panel in shear (Section 1.5), the effective design resistances in
the tension zone may be determined.
According to EN 1993-1-8 6.2.7.2(7), the total design resistance in the
tension zone must not exceed the design resistance in the compression zone.
Similarly, the total design resistance in the tension zone must not exceed the
design resistance of the column web panel, modified by a transformation
parameter, |. This is expressed as:
|
Rd wp, Rd t,
V F s

The transformation parameter, | is taken from 5.3(7), and may be taken from
Table 5.4 as 1.0 for one-sided connections.
If either the resistance in the column web panel or in the compression zone is
less than the total design resistance in the tension zone, the resistances in the
tension zone must be reduced.
11 - 7
The resistance of the bolt row nearest the centre of compression is reduced as a
first step, and then the next row, until the total design resistance in the tension
zone is no more than the compression resistance, or the web panel shear
resistance. Reducing the bolt row resistance in this way is satisfactory, as the
design approach presumes a plastic distribution of bolt forces.
As an alternative to reducing the resistance in the tension zone, stiffeners can
be provided to increase the design resistance of the web panel in shear, and the
web in compression.
Once the effective design tension resistances have been calculated, by reducing
the potential resistances if necessary, the design moment resistance of the
connection can be calculated, as the summation of each bolt row tension
resistance multiplied by its lever arm from the centre of compression, i.e.:
=
r
r r
F h M
Rd , t Rd j,
(as given in 6.2.7.2 of EN 1993-1-8)
The centre of compression is assumed to be in line with the centre of the
compression flange.
1.7 Weld design
EN 1993-1-8 6.2.3(4) requires that the design moment resistance of the joint
is always limited by the design resistance of its other basic components, and
not by the design resistance of the welds. A convenient conservative solution is
therefore to provide full-strength welds to components in tension. When
components are in compression, such as the bottom flange of a haunch, it is
normally assumed that the components are in direct bearing, and therefore only
a nominal weld is required. If the joint experiences a reversed bending
moment, the weld will be required to carry some tension force, and this should
be considered.
1.7.1 Tension flange welds
The welds between the tension flange and the end plate may be full strength.
Alternatively, common practice is to design the welds to the tension flange for
a force which is the lesser of:
(a) The tension resistance of the flange, which is equal to b
f
t
f
f
y

(b) The total tension force in the top three bolt rows for an extended end plate
or the total tension force in the top two bolt rows for a flush end plate.
The approach given above may appear conservative, but at the ultimate limit
state, there can be a tendency for the end plate to span vertically between the
beam flanges. As a consequence, more load is attracted to the tension flange
than from the adjacent bolts alone.
A full strength weld to the tension flange can be achieved by:
- a pair of symmetrically disposed fillet welds, with the sum of the throat
thickness equal to the flange thickness, or
- a pair of symmetrically disposed partial penetration butt welds with
superimposed fillet welds, or
11 - 8
- a full penetration butt weld.
For most small and medium sized beams, the tension flange welds will be
symmetrical, full strength fillet welds. Once the leg length of the required fillet
weld exceeds 12 mm, a full strength detail with partial penetration butt welds
and superimposed fillets may be a more economical solution.
1.7.2 Compression flange welds
Where the compression flange has a sawn end, a bearing fit can be assumed
between the flange and end plate and nominal fillet welds will suffice. If a
bearing fit cannot be assumed, then the weld must be designed to carry the full
compression force.
1.7.3 Web welds
It is recommended that web welds in the tension zone should be full strength.
For beam webs up to 11,3 mm thick, a full strength weld can be achieved with
8 mm leg length (5.6 mm throat) fillet welds. It is therefore sensible to consider
using full strength welds for the full web depth, in which case no calculations
are needed for tension or shear.
For thicker webs, the welds to the web may be treated in two distinct parts,
with a tension zone around the bolts that have been dedicated to take tension,
and with the rest of the web acting as a shear zone.
Tension zone
Full strength welds are recommended. The full strength welds to the web
tension zone should extend below the bottom bolt row resisting tension by a
distance of 1,73g/2, where g is the gauge (cross-centres) of the bolts. This
allows an effective distribution at 60 from the bolt row to the end plate.
Shear zone
The resistance of the beam web welds for vertical shear forces should be taken
as:
P
sw
= 2 a f
vw,d
L
ws

where:
a is the fillet weld throat thickness
f
vw,d
is the design strength of fillet welds (from EN 1993-1-8, 4.5.3.3(2))
L
ws
is the vertical length of the shear zone welds (the remainder of the
web not identified as the tension zone).
1.8 Vertical shear
Design for vertical shear is straightforward. Generally, the bolts at the bottom
of the connection are not assumed to be carrying any significant tension, and
are allocated to carry the vertical shear. The bolts must be verified in shear and
bearing in accordance with EN 1993-1-8 Table 3.4.
11 - 9
1.9 Stiffeners
Components of the joint may be strengthened by providing additional material,
although this means additional expense. Table 1.3 summarises the
opportunities to strengthen moment resisting joints. Types of stiffeners are
illustrated in Figure 1.3.
Table 1.3 Stiffeners
Stiffener type Effect Comments
Compression stiffener Increases the resistance to
compression
Generally required in portal frame
connections.
Flange stiffener in the
tension zone
Increases the bending
resistance of the column flange

Diagonal shear
stiffener
Improves the column web
panel resistance and also
strengthens the tension flange
A common solution connections on
the minor axis may be more
complicated.
Supplementary web
plate
Increases the column web
resistance to shear and
compression
Minor axis connections are simplified.
Detail involves much welding. See
6.2.6.1 of EN 1993-1-8.
End plate stiffener Increases the bending
resistance of the end plate
Should not be used a thicker end
plate should be chosen.
Cap plate Increases the bending
resistance of the flange, and
the compression resistance
(in reversed moment
situations)
Usually provided in the column,
aligned with the top flange of the
rafter. Generally provided for the
reversal load combination, but
effective as a tension stiffener to the
column flange.
Flange backing plate Increases the bending
resistance of the flange
Only effective to increase mode 1
behaviour. See EN 1993-1-8, 6.2.4.3

1 1
2
3
4
5
6
2 Column flange stiffener
3 Cap plate
4 Shear stiffener
5 Supplementary web plate
6 End plate stiffener

Figure 1.3 Types of stiffeners
11 - 10
2 JOINT STIFFNESS
EN 1993-1-8 5.2 requires that all joints are classified, by strength or by
stiffness. Classification by strength is appropriate for plastic global analysis.
According to 5.2.2.1(1), a joint may be classified according to its rotational
stiffness, which should be calculated in accordance with the method described
in Section 6.3 of EN 1993-1-8. It is recommended that software is used to
calculate the initial joint stiffness. An introduction to the approach is given in
Section 2.1.
In 5.2.2.1(2) it is noted that joints may be classified on the basis of
experimental evidence, experience of previous satisfactory performance in
similar cases or by calculations based on test evidence. Some countries will
accept classification on the basis of satisfactory performance this may even
be confirmed in the National Annex, which may point to nationally accepted
design methods or joint details, and allow these to be classified without
calculation.
2.1 Classification by calculation
In 6.3.1(4) the initial stiffness, S
j
is given as:
i
i
2
j
1
k
Ez
S

where:
E is the modulus of elasticity
is a stiffness ratio that depends on the ratio of the applied moment to
the moment resistance of the joint
z is the lever arm, given by 6.2.7
k
i
is the stiffness of the basic joint component
2.1.1 Stiffness of basic joint components
Table 6.10 of EN 1993-1-8 identifies the basic joint components to be
considered. For a one-sided bolted end plate connection, such as in a portal
eaves frame, the basic joint components to be considered are given in
Table 2.1.
11 - 11
Table 2.1 Basic joint components in a portal frame eaves connection
Stiffness coefficient Joint component
k
1
column web panel in shear
k
2
column web in compression
k
3
column web in tension
k
4
column flange in bending
k
5
end plate in bending
k
10
bolts in tension

For a joint with two or more rows of bolts, the basic components for each row
should be represented by a single equivalent stiffness, k
eq
. For a beam-to-
column joint with an end plate connection, this equivalent stiffness is
determined using k
3
, k
4
, k
5
and k
10
for each individual bolt row, and an
equivalent lever arm. (see EN 1993-1-8, 6.3.3.1(4)).
Table 6.11 of EN 1993-1-1 indicates how the individual stiffness coefficients
should be determined.
2.2 Classification boundaries
Classification boundaries are given in EN 1993-1-8 5.2.2.5. They depend on
the initial stiffness, S
j,ini
, the second moment of area of the beam, I
b
, the length
of the beam, l
b
and a factor, k
b
that depends on the stiffness of the frame.
Joints are classified as rigid when
b b b ini j,
l EI k S >
Thus, for a given initial stiffness S
j,ini
, a minimum beam length, l
b
, may be
calculated such that the joint is classified as rigid. This is the basis for the
minimum lengths given in Section 4.
11 - 12
3 BEST PRACTICE GUIDELINES FOR
MOMENT CONNECTIONS
Any moment-resisting connection will involve additional expense compared to
simple (shear only) details. Connections should be detailed to carry the applied
forces and moments in the most economical way. This may involve providing
larger member sizes, or changing the geometry of the connection, to reduce the
fabrication effort involved in fitting stiffeners.
The following Sections offer guidance on appropriate detailing.
3.1 Eaves haunch
The haunch in a portal frame is usually taken to mean an additional triangular
cutting that is welded below the rafter beam at the connection to the column.
The length of the cutting will generally be around 10% of the span, or up to
15% of the span in the most efficient elastic designs. The haunch is generally
cut from the same section as the rafter, or a deeper and heavier section.
Pairs of haunch cuttings are fabricated from one length of member, as shown in
Figure 3.1. If the haunch is cut from the rafter section, the maximum depth of
the haunched section is therefore just less than twice the depth of the rafter
section. Deeper haunches require larger sections, or fabrication from plate.

Figure 3.1 Fabrication of haunch cuttings
3.2 End plate
End plates are generally fabricated from S275 or S235 steel. For class 8.8 bolts
and S275 steel, the end plate thickness should be approximately equal to the
bolt diameter. Common thicknesses are:
20 mm thick when using M20 class 8.8 bolts
25 mm thick when using M24 class 8.8 bolts
The end plate should be wider than the rafter section, to allow a weld all
around the flanges. The end plate should extend above and below the haunched
section, to allow for the fillet welds. In the compression zone, the end plate
should extend below the fillet weld for a distance at least equal to the thickness
of the plate, as shown in Figure 3.2, to maximise the stiff bearing length when
verifying the column in compression.
11 - 13
t
p
> t
p
t
p
> t
p

Figure 3.2 End plate compression zone
3.3 Stiffeners
The various types of stiffener used in an eaves connection are shown in
Figure 1.3. A compression stiffener is usually provided. Other stiffeners should
be avoided if possible. Stiffeners to the end plate are never needed a thicker
end plate can be chosen to increase the resistance. Column flange stiffeners are
used to increase the resistance of the connection. In preference to providing
stiffeners, increased resistance can also be achieved by:
- Providing more bolt rows
- Extending the end plate above the top of the rafter, as shown in Figure 3.3
- Increasing the depth of the haunch
- Increasing the weight of the column section.
2
1

1 Extended column may require skew cut
2 End plate stiffener not preferred

Figure 3.3 Extended end plate connection
3.4 Bolts
Bolts in moment connections are generally M20 or M24, class 8.8 or 10.9. In
some countries, class 8.8 is standard. Bolts should be fully threaded, which
means that the same bolts may be used throughout a building.
Bolts are generally set out at cross-centres (gauge) of 90 or 100 mm. The
vertical pitch is generally 70 to 90 mm. In some countries, common practice is
to have bolts regularly spaced over the complete depth of the connection. In
other countries there may be a significant distance between the tension bolts
and the shear bolts. EN 1991-1-8 does not preclude either detail. Maximum
bolt spacings are given in the Standard to ensure components do not buckle
11 - 14
between connectors, but this behaviour does not occur in end plate
connections.
Preloaded bolts are not required in portal frame connections.
A typical apex connection is shown in Figure 3.4. Under gravity loads the
bottom of the haunch is in tension. The haunch may be fabricated from the
same section as the rafter, or may be fabricated from plate.

Figure 3.4 Typical apex connection
For modest structures and small bending moments, the apex detail may simply
have a stiffening plate, as shown in Figure 3.5, rather than a flanged haunch.

Figure 3.5 Alternative apex detail
3.6 Welds
As described in Section 1.7, full strength welds are generally required to the
tension flange and adjacent to the tension bolts, as shown in Figure 3.6 for the
eaves connection. The remainder of the weld to the web is designed to carry
shear. Although the shear web welds may be smaller than those in the tension
zone, it is common practice to continue the same size weld for the full depth of
the web.
In the compression zone, assuming that the ends of the member have been
sawn, the components are in direct bearing and only a nominal weld is
required. For the reversed moment design situation (with uplift due to wind),
the welds at the bottom of the eaves haunch and at the top of the apex
connection are in tension, and the welds should be verified for adequacy under
this combination of actions.
11 - 15

1 nominal weld (but verified for tension when moment is reversed)
2 continuous fillet weld
3 full strength weld

Figure 3.6 Haunch welds
The weld between the haunch cutting and the underside of the rafter is
generally a continuous fillet weld. Although an intermittent weld would be
perfectly adequate structurally, it is usually more convenient to provide a
continuous weld.
1
2
3
11 - 16
4 JOINT DESIGN TABLES
4.1 General
This Section gives design tables for several typical configurations of moment
connections in portal frames. It covers both eaves and apex connections.
Three basic profiles are covered: IPE 300, IPE 400 and IPE 500, in steel grades
S235, S275 and S355. The profile sizes are generally those appropriate to span
lengths of 20, 25 and 30 m respectively.
For each profile, three configurations of apex connections are tabulated for a
typical bolt size and end plate thickness, and three configurations of eaves
connections are tabulated for the same typical bolt size and end plate thickness.
For each profile there are two additional tables, one for a different bolt class
and the other for a different end plate thickness. These two additional tables are
only given for apex connections without external bolts and for eaves
connections with half haunch. Tables 4.1 and 4.2 give the table numbers of all
the configurations.
Table 4.1 Apex connections
Profile
End plate
t
p
(mm)
Bolt
size
Bolt
class
Without
external bolts
With external
bolts
With external
bolts and
stiffener
IPE 300 15 M16 8.8 Table 4.10 Table 4.13 Table 4.14
15 10.9 Table 4.11
20 8.8 Table 4.12
20 10.9 Table 4.16
25 8.8 Table 4.17
25 10.9 Table 4.21
20 8.8 Table 4.22

Table 4.2 Eaves connections
Profile
End plate
t
p
(mm)
Bolt
size
Bolt
class
Haunch
(a)
haunch
(b)
No haunch
15 10.9 Table 4.26
20 8.8 Table 4.27
20 10.9 Table 4.31
25 8.8 Table 4.32
25 10.9 Table 4.36
20 8.8 Table 4.37
(a) The depth of the haunched beam is twice the depth of the basic profile
(b) The depth of the haunch beam is 1,5 times the depth of the basic profile
11 - 17
In Tables 4.10 to 4.39, the following information is given:
- A detailed sketch of the connection
- The basic parameters (profile, bolt size, bolt class, end plate thickness)
- The main design resistances (moment resistance, axial resistance, shear
resistance).
The tables provide the following results:
- The design moment resistance M
j,Rd
+
for positive moment
- The minimum span length L
b,min
for the connection to be considered as
rigid, for positive moment
- The design moment resistance M
j,Rd
for negative moment

- The minimum span length L
b,min
for the connection to be considered as
rigid, for negative moment
- The design axial resistance N
t,j,Rd
for tension
- The design axial resistance N
c,j,Rd
for compression
- The maximum shear resistance V
j,Rd
for which no interaction with bending
moment needs to be considered.
When a connection is subjected to a bending moment M
Ed
and an axial force
N
Ed
, a linear interaction criterion should be applied from the above mentioned
resistances:
N
Ed
/N
j,Rd
+ M
Ed
/M
j,Rd
1,0
The interaction should use the appropriate design resistances, in the same
direction as the internal forces:
- N
t,j,Rd
or N
c,j,Rd
for the axial force (tension or compression)
- M
j,Rd
+
or M
j,Rd
for the bending moment (positive or negative)

4.2 Main design assumptions
The tables have been prepared using the PlatineX software available on the
web site www.steelbizfrance.com. This software can be freely used online and
allows the designer to deal with any configuration of connections apex or
eaves connection.
The tables are based on the following design assumptions:
- Calculations according to EN 1993-1-8
- S235 end plate and stiffeners with S235 members, S275 otherwise
- Bolt classes 8.8 and 10.9
- Partial factors
M
as recommended (not to any particular National Annex).
11 - 18
Sign convention:
The bending moment is positive when it generates compression stresses in the
lower flange and tension stresses in the upper flanges (Figure 4.1).
IPE 300 M > 0 IPE 300 IPE 300 M > 0

Figure 4.1: Sign convention for bending moment
4.3 Notes to the tables
4.3.1 Apex connections
Tables 4.4 to 4.6 summarize the design moment resistances for the apex
connections subject to positive moments. They can be compared with the
plastic moment resistance of the cross-section (Table 4.3).
Table 4.3 Plastic moment resistance of the cross section (kNm)
Profile S235 S275 S355
IPE 300 148 173 223
IPE 400 307 359 464
IPE 500 516 603 779

Bolts outside the profile have a major influence on the moment resistance when
they are in tension. The stiffener welded to the tension flange always increases
the moment resistance, but not to the same degree.
The moment resistance is lower than the plastic moment of the cross-section.
However this is not a problem since the member resistance is usually reduced
by the buckling effects, including lateral-torsional buckling.
The minimum span length to consider the apex connection as fully rigid is
relatively low. In practice, these connections will always be used for portal
frames with a span length greater than this minimum value, and so can be
considered rigid.
At the apex, the shear force is small and this verification will never be critical
in common practice.
11 - 19
Table 4.4 Apex connections with S235 beams Moment resistance (kNm)
Profile
End plate
t
p
(mm)
Bolt
size
Bolt
class
Without
external bolts
With external
bolts
With external
bolts and
stiffener
IPE 300 15 M16 8.8 75,4 118 123
15 10.9 86,3
20 8.8 78,4
IPE 400 20 M20 8.8 189 258 269
20 10.9 210
25 8.8 197
IPE 500 25 M24 8.8 358 449 472
25 10.9 363
20 8.8 340

Profile
End plate
t
p
(mm)
Bolt
size
Bolt
class
Without
external bolts
With external
bolts
With external
bolts and
stiffener
IPE 300 15 M16 8.8 78,4 123,5 132,8
15 10.9 91,7
20 8.8 78,4
IPE 400 20 M20 8.8 199,7 284,3 301,2
20 10.9 231,0
25 8.8 199,7
IPE 500 25 M24 8.8 407,3 504,8 533,6
25 10.9 421,5
20 8.8 360,0

Profile
End plate
t
p
(mm)
Bolt
size
Bolt
class
Without
external bolts
With external
bolts
With external
bolts and
stiffener
IPE 300 15 M16 8.8 78,4 123,5 132,8
15 10.9 91,7
20 8.8 78,4
IPE 400 20 M20 8.8 199,7 293,9 318,4
20 10.9 231,3
25 8.8 199,7
IPE 500 25 M24 8.8 426,3 577,1 620,4
25 10.9 479,4
20 8.8 360,0
11 - 20
4.3.2 Eaves connections
The minimum span length to consider the eaves connection as fully rigid is
relatively low when a haunch is provided, and in practice these connections
will always be used for portal frames with a span length greater than this
minimum value. The connections may therefore be considered as rigid.
Without a haunch, the bending resistance is lower and the connection might be
classified as semi-rigid. Therefore it is good practice to design the eaves
connections with a haunch, so that the overall depth is at least 1,5 times the
depth of the rafter.
The shear resistance of the column web is often the critical criterion.
For the eaves connections, the shear force is significant but the verification is
generally not critical for the design.
Table 4.7 Eaves connections (S235 members) Moment resistances (kNm)
Profile
End plate
t
p
(mm)
Bolt
size
Bolt
class
Haunch haunch No haunch
IPE 300 15 M16 8.8 177,2 134,7 87,4
15 10.9 136,4
20 8.8 134,7
IPE 400 20 M20 8.8 388,0 291,2 186,6
20 10.9 293,9
25 8.8 291,2
IPE 500 25 M24 8.8 683,3 511,0 327,8
25 10.9 514,9
20 8.8 500,2

Profile
End plate
t
p
(mm)
Bolt
size
Bolt
class
IPE 300 15 M16 8.8 204,1 154,3 98,9
15 10.9 158,2
20 8.8 154,3
IPE 400 20 M20 8.8 451,8 338,3 214,8
20 10.9 341,6
25 8.8 338,3
IPE 500 25 M24 8.8 795,8 593,9 379,0
25 10.9 599,2
20 8.8 580,9

11 - 21
Profile
End plate
t
p
(mm)
Bolt
size
Bolt
class
IPE 300 15 M16 8.8 251,9 187,4 113,6
15 10.9 197,2
20 8.8 189,1
IPE 400 20 M20 8.8 564,0 417,5 258,2
20 10.9 435,2
25 8.8 420,8
IPE 500 25 M24 8.8 1000 739,7 462,3
25 10.9 763,7
20 8.8 716,4
IPE 300 M > 0

Figure 4.2 Sign convention for bending moment in apex connections

11 - 22
Table 4.10 Apex connection IPE 300
60
M16
60
75
150
300
IPE 300
8.8
4
330 3x70
15
15
6
8.5
15

Bolts M16 8.8
Hole diameter 18 mm
End plate t
p
= 15 mm

Beam IPE 300 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
Design moment resistance M
j,Rd
(kNm) 75,4 78,4 78,4
Minimum span length for rigid L
b,min
(m) 6,37

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 75,4 78,4 78,4
b,min
(m) 6,37

Design axial resistance
Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 567 595 595
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 1264 1480 1710

Design shear resistance V
j,Rd
(kN) 135

11 - 23
60
M16
60
75
150
300
IPE 300
4
330 3x70
15
15
6
8.5
10.9
15

Bolts M16 10.9
Hole diameter 18 mm
End plate t
p
= 15 mm

Beam IPE 300 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 86,3 91,7 91,7
b,min
(m) 6,37

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 86,3 91,7 91,7
b,min
(m) 6,37

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 668 696 696
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 1264 1480 1710

j,Rd
(kN) 141

11 - 24
4
6
8.5
20
60
60
3x70 300
IPE 300
8.8
M16
75
150
15
15
330

Bolts M16 8.8
Hole diameter 18 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm

Beam IPE 300 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 78,4 78,4 78,4
b,min
(m) 5,37

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 78,4 78,4 78,4
b,min
(m) 5,37

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 688 723 723
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 1264 1480 1710

j,Rd
(kN) 135

11 - 25
4
15
6
8.5
60
35
80
15
300
IPE 300
150
75
8.8
3x70
M16
70
385

Bolts M16 8.8
Hole diameter 18 mm
End plate t
p
= 15 mm

Beam IPE 300 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 117,8 123,5 123,5
b,min
(m) 3,34

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 75,4 78,4 78,4
b,min
(m) 6,37

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 699 732 732
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 1264 1480 1710

j,Rd
(kN) 169

11 - 26
4
15
6
8.5
60
35
80
300
IPE 300
150
75
8.8
3x70
M16
70
385
15 8
Min = 140
70
7.1
5

Bolts M16 8.8
Hole diameter 18 mm
End plate t
p
= 15 mm
Stiffeners t
p
= 8 mm

Beam IPE 300 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 123,4 132,8 132,8
b,min
(m) 2,90

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 75,4 78,4 78,4
b,min
(m) 6,37

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 723 761 761
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 1264 1480 1710

j,Rd
(kN) 169

11 - 27
5
15
7
9.9
8.8
400
75
75
4x70
430
15
20
180
90
M20 IPE 400

Bolts M20 8.8
Hole diameter 22 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm

Beam IPE 400 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 189,4 199,7 199,7
b,min
(m) 6,36

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 189,4 199,7 199,7
b,min
(m) 6,36

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 1038 1142 1142
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 1986 2279 2553

j,Rd
(kN) 263

11 - 28
5
15
7
9.9
400
75
75
4x70
430
15
20
180
90
M20 IPE 400
10.9

Bolts M20 10.9
Hole diameter 22 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm

Beam IPE 400 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 210,2 231,0 231,3
b,min
(m) 6,36

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 210,2 231,0 231,3
b,min
(m) 6,36

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 1038 1200 1338
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 1986 2279 2553

j,Rd
(kN) 274

11 - 29
5
15
7
9.9
8.8
400
75
75
4x70
430
15
180
90
M20 IPE 400
25

Bolts M20 8.8
Hole diameter 22 mm
End plate t
p
= 25 mm

Beam IPE 400 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 196,9 199,7 199,7
b,min
(m) 5,61

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 196,9 199,7 199,7
b,min
(m) 5,61

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 1038 1200 1344
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 1986 2279 2553

j,Rd
(kN) 263

11 - 30
5
15
7
9.9
75
4x70
20
180
90
M20 IPE 400
105
8.8
45
505
90
400

Bolts M20 8.8
Hole diameter 22 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm

Beam IPE 400 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 257,7 284,3 293,9
b,min
(m) 3,72

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 189,4 199,7 199,7
b,min
(m) 6,36

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 1244 1357 1357
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 1986 2279 2553

j,Rd
(kN) 316

11 - 31
5
15
7
75
4x70
20
180
90
M20 IPE 400
105
8.8
45
505
90 90
400
Min = 180
9.9
10
6
8.5

Bolts M20 8.8
Hole diameter 22 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm
Stiffeners t
p
= 10 mm

Beam IPE 400 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 269,4 301,2 318,4
b,min
(m) 3,14

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 189,4 199,7 199,7
b,min
(m) 6,36

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 1292 1413 1413
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 1986 2279 2553

j,Rd
(kN) 316

11 - 32
6
15
8.8
15
500
90
90
5x70 M24
100
200
530
25
IPE 500
4
10.3

Bolts M24 8.8
Hole diameter 26 mm
End plate t
p
= 25 mm

Beam IPE 500 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 358,1 407,3 426,3
b,min
(m) 5,62

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 358,1 407,3 426,3
b,min
(m) 5,62

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 1404 1642 1839
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 2726 3190 4044

j,Rd
(kN) 455

11 - 33
6
15
15
500
90
90
5x70 M24
100
200
530
25
IPE 500
4
10.3
10.9

Bolts M24 10.9
Hole diameter 26 mm
End plate t
p
= 25 mm

Beam IPE 500 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 363,1 421,5 479,4
b,min
(m) 5,62

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 363,1 421,5 479,4
b,min
(m) 5,62

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 1404 1642 1839
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 2726 3190 4044

j,Rd
(kN) 474

11 - 34
6
15
8.8
15
500
90
90
5x70 M24
100
200
530
IPE 500
4
10.3
20

Bolts M24 8.8
Hole diameter 26 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm

Beam IPE 500 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 339,9 360,0 360,0
b,min
(m) 7,18

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 339,9 360,0 360,0
b,min
(m) 7,18

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 1404 1445 1691
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 2726 3190 4044

j,Rd
(kN) 455

11 - 35
6
15
8.8
500
90
5x70 M24
100
200
25
IPE 500
4
10.3
625
110
130
55

Bolts M24 8.8
Hole diameter 26 mm
End plate t
p
= 25 mm

Beam IPE 500 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 448,6 504,8 577,1
b,min
(m) 3,87

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 358,1 407,3 426,3
b,min
(m) 5,62

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 1684 1934 2131
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 2726 3190 4044

j,Rd
(kN) 531

11 - 36
6
15
8.8
500
90
5x70 M24
100
200
25
IPE 500
4
10.3
625
110
130
55
12
110
6
8.5
Min = 220

Bolts M24 8.8
Hole diameter 26 mm
End plate t
p
= 25 mm
Stiffeners t
p
= 12 mm

Beam IPE 500 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 472,4 533,6 620,4
b,min
(m) 3,03

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 358,1 407,3 426,3
b,min
(m) 5,62

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 1775 2041 2238
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 2726 3190 4044

j,Rd
(kN) 531

11 - 37
4.5 Eaves connections
IPE 300 IPE 300 M > 0

Figure 4.3 Sign convention for bending moment in eaves connections

11 - 38
Table 4.25 Eaves connection IPE 300
4
5
6
8.5
3
4.2
300
70
60
IPE 300
IPE 300
M16
7.1
80
35
80
10
10
450
150
70
75
150
3x70
535
15
15
8.8

Bolts M16 8.8
Hole diameter 18 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 10 mm
End plate t
p
= 15 mm

Column IPE 300 Beam IPE 300 S235 S275 S355

Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 134,7 154,3 187,4
b,min
(m) 9,03

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 110,5 124,2 146,6
b,min
(m) 12,10

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 348 408 526
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 348 408 526

j,Rd
(kN) 236

11 - 39
4
5
6
8.5
3
4.2
300
70
60
IPE 300
IPE 300
M16
7.1
80
35
80
10
10
450
150
70
75
150
3x70
10.9 535
15
15

Bolts M16 10.9
Hole diameter 18 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 10 mm
End plate t
p
= 15 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 136,4 158,2 197,2
b,min
(m) 9,03

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 112,7 130,4 158,8
b,min
(m) 12,10

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 348 408 526
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 348 408 526

j,Rd
(kN) 246

11 - 40
4
5
6
8.5
3
4.2
300
70
60
IPE 300
IPE 300
M16
7.1
80
35
80
10
10
450
150
70
75
150
3x70
535
15
8.8
20

Bolts M16 8.8
Hole diameter 18 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 10 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 134,7 154,3 189,1
b,min
(m) 8,91

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 110,5 124,2 146,6
b,min
(m) 12,02

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 348 408 526
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 348 408 526

j,Rd
(kN) 236

11 - 41
4
5
6
8.5
300
IPE 300 IPE 300
7.1
80
35
10
10
70
75
150
3x70
15
8.8
60
M16
15
385

Bolts M16 8.8
Hole diameter 18 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 10 mm
End plate t
p
= 15 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 87,4 98,9 113,6
b,min
(m) 16,65

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 60,4 63,2 68,9
b,min
(m) 27,89

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 348 408 526
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 348 408 526

j,Rd
(kN) 176

11 - 42
4
5
6
8.5
3
4.2
300
IPE 300
IPE 300
7.1
80
35
80
10
10
855
70
75
150
3x70
3x70
15
15
55
285
670
M16
8.8

Bolts M16 8.8
Hole diameter 18 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 10 mm
End plate t
p
= 15 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 177,2 204,1 251,9
b,min
(m) 6,31

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 156,0 178,9 219,0
b,min
(m) 7,61

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 348 408 526
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 348 408 526

j,Rd
(kN) 317

11 - 43
5
6
7
9.9
3
4.2
8.5
12
12
600
15
8.8
45
90
4x70
105
400
70
200
705
180
90
105
100
M16
IPE 400
IPE 400
20

Bolts M20 8.8
Hole diameter 22 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 12 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 291,2 338,3 417,5
b,min
(m) 11,53

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 233,9 263,0 311,8
b,min
(m) 16,56

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 579 678 875
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 579 678 875

j,Rd
(kN) 421

11 - 44
5
6
7
9.9
3
4.2
8.5
12
12
600
15
45
90
4x70
105
400
70
200
705
180
90
105
100
M20
IPE 400
IPE 400
20
10.9

Bolts M20 10.9
Hole diameter 22 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 12 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 293,9 341,6 435,2
b,min
(m) 11,53

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 234,9 274,3 336,5
b,min
(m) 16,56

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 579 678 875
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 579 678 875

j,Rd
(kN) 439

11 - 45
5
6
7
9.9
3
4.2
8.5
12
12
600
15
8.8
45
90
4x70
105
400
70
200
705
180
90
105
100
M20
IPE 400
IPE 400
25

Bolts M20 8.8
Hole diameter 22 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 12 mm
End plate t
p
= 25 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 291,2 338,3 420,8
b,min
(m) 11,41

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 233,9 263,0 311,8
b,min
(m) 16,49

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 579 678 875
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 579 678 875

j,Rd
(kN) 421

11 - 46
5
6
7
9.9
8.5
12
12
15
8.8
45
90
4x70
105
400
180
90
IPE 400 IPE 400
75
505
M20
20

Bolts M20 8.8
Hole diameter 22 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 12 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 186,6 214,8 258,2
b,min
(m) 21,58

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 142,7 160,0 176,5
b,min
(m) 35,16

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 579 678 875
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 579 678 875

j,Rd
(kN) 316

11 - 47
5
7
9.9
3
4.2
12
12
1155
8.8
20
IPE 400
IPE 400
90
180
45
90
105
4x70
4x70
105
15
890
385
400
75
M20
6
8.5

Bolts M20 8.8
Hole diameter 22 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 12 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 388,0 451,8 564,0
b,min
(m) 7,95

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 347,3 400,9 498,3
b,min
(m) 9,59

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 579 678 875
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 579 678 875

j,Rd
(kN) 580

11 - 48
6
7
3
4.2
8.8
15
875
M24
5x70
2x70
70
500
110
250
130
100
200
14
14
IPE 500
IPE 500
4
10.3
9.9
750
25
55
130

Bolts M24 8.8
Hole diameter 26 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 14 mm
End plate t
p
= 25 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 511,0 593,9 739,7
b,min
(m) 13,80

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 458,4 529,9 650,5
b,min
(m) 16,62

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 812 951 1227
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 812 951 1227

j,Rd
(kN) 759

11 - 49
6
7
3
4.2
15
875
M24
5x70
2x70
70
500
110
250
130
100
200
14
14
IPE 500
IPE 500
4
10.3
9.9
750
25
10.9
55
130

Bolts M24 10.9
Hole diameter 26 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 14 mm
End plate t
p
= 25 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 514,9 599,2 763,7
b,min
(m) 13,80

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 492,3 537,6 682,1
b,min
(m) 16,62

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 812 951 1227
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 812 951 1227

j,Rd
(kN) 791

11 - 50
6
7
3
4.2
15
875
M24
5x70
2x70
70
500
110
250
130
100
200
14
14
IPE 500
IPE 500
4
10.3
9.9
750
55
130
8.8
20

Bolts M24 8.8
Hole diameter 26 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 14 mm
End plate t
p
= 20 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 500,2 580,9 716,4
b,min
(m) 14,17

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 458,4 529,9 650,5
b,min
(m) 16,77

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 812 951 1227
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 812 951 1227

j,Rd
(kN) 759

11 - 51
6
7
15
5x70 500
110
100
200
14
14
IPE 500 IPE 500
4
10.3
9.9
25
55
130
8.8
90
625
M24

Bolts M24 8.8
Hole diameter 26 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 14 mm
End plate t
p
= 25 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 327,8 379,0 462,3
b,min
(m) 25,97

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 258,4 297,9 353,7
b,min
(m) 40,84

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 812 951 1227
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 812 951 1227

j,Rd
(kN) 531

11 - 52
6
7
3
4.2
15
5x70 500
110
100
200
14
14
IPE 500
IPE 500
4
10.3
9.9
1455
25
55
130
8.8
1110
M24
5x70
130
485
95

Bolts M24 8.8
Hole diameter 26 mm
Column stiffeners t
p
= 14 mm
End plate t
p
= 25 mm


Positive moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 683,3 795,8 1000
b,min
(m) 9,45

Negative moment
j,Rd
(kNm) 612,8 712,6 899,3
b,min
(m) 11,28

Tension N
t,j,Rd
(kN) 812 951 1227
Compression N
c,j,Rd
(kN) 812 951 1227

j,Rd
(kN) 987

11 - 53

REFERENCES

1 EN 1993-1-8: Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures. Joint design

Single-Storey Steel Buildings - Steel Buildings in Europe

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STEEL BUILDINGS IN EUROPE

the normal stress to the throat plane

the shear stress (in the plane of throat) perpendicular to the

= 136300-121000 y if 0,30 < y < 1,0

is the non dimensional slenderness at

The non dimensional slenderness at normal temperature, according

= . For intermediate value of non-

.For composite columns,

may be defined as:

) is based on the following factors: the fire load

for negative moment

for the bending moment (positive or negative)

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