Architects Guide 2010-03-18 PDF
Architects Guide 2010-03-18 PDF
Architects Guide 2010-03-18 PDF
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FOREWORD
This publication is part one of the design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings. The 11 parts in the Single-Storey Steel Buildings guide are: Part 1: Part 2: Part 3: Part 4: Part 5: Part 6: Part 7: Part 8: Part 9: Part 10: Part 11: Architects guide Concept design Actions Detailed design of portal frames Detailed design of trusses Detailed design of built up columns Fire engineering Building envelope Introduction to computer software Model construction specification Moment connections
Single-Storey Steel Buildings is one of two design guides. The second design guide is Multi-Storey Steel Buildings. The two design guides have been produced in the framework of the European project Facilitating the market development for sections in industrial halls and low rise buildings (SECHALO) RFS2-CT-2008-0030. The design guides have been prepared under the direction of Arcelor Mittal, Peiner Trger and Corus. The technical content has been prepared by CTICM and SCI, collaborating as the Steel Alliance.
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Contents
Page No
FOREWORD SUMMARY 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Steel as a construction material 1.2 Steel in single storey buildings ADVANTAGES OF CHOOSING A STEEL STRUCTURE 2.1 Low weight 2.2 Minimum construction dimensions 2.3 Speed of construction 2.4 Flexibility and adaptability 2.5 A sustainable solution FORM OF PRIMARY STEEL STRUCTURE 3.1 Structure types 3.2 Connections between columns and beams BUILDING ENVELOPE 4.1 Cladding systems 4.2 Secondary steelwork 4.3 Roofs FIRE SAFETY OVERHEAD CRANES CONCLUSIONS FURTHER READING i v 1 1 7 8 8 9 9 10 11 12 12 26 28 29 30 30 33 34 36 37
5 6 7 8
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SUMMARY
This publication presents an introduction for architects to the use of steel in single storey steel-framed buildings. The primary application of such buildings is for industrial use but single storey solutions are appropriate for many other applications. The advantages of the use of steel, in terms of low weight, minimum construction dimensions, speed of construction, flexibility, adaptability and sustainability are explained. The primary forms of steel structure and the methods of cladding them are introduced. It is noted that the requirements for fire resistance are usually modest, since occupants can usually escape quickly in the event of fire. The influence of providing a crane inside a single storey building, in terms of the structural design, is briefly addressed.
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1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Steel as a construction material
Steel is synonymous with modern architecture. Throughout the twentieth century, the material has inspired architects and engineers, for it combines strength and efficiency with unparalleled opportunities for sculptural expression. The key attribute of steel is its high strength to weight ratio, which gives remarkable spanning and load carrying ability. Steel lends itself to prefabrication. Whole structures can be created in a factory environment and then constructed quickly on site. Steel buildings are highly adaptable, in that frames can be modified and altered. Costs are low, recycling simple and aesthetic opportunities rich and varied. As designers, fabricators and constructors continually advance the boundaries of steel design, both technically and expressively, steel has a crucial role in modern architecture. Steel is basically a simple alloy of iron and carbon, but its properties can be enhanced and modified by the addition of other alloying elements and by the manufacturing process. The material is then made into sections, plate, or sheet, and these simple products used to produce structures and building components. Standard approaches have evolved for many types of single storey structures but they are not constraining: departures from norms are commonplace, for steel lends itself to creative solutions. Modern architecture is rich with solutions that defy simple categorization, even in single storey structures. These do not have to be utilitarian. They can be formed into gentle arcs or startling expressed structure. Although greatest economy is often achieved with regular grids and standardization, steel structures offer outstanding opportunity for architectural expression and outstanding design opportunities. Some illustrations of the dramatic structural forms that are possible in steel construction are shown in Figure 1.1 to Figure 1.5.
1-1
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
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Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
1-3
Figure 1.5
Structural steel frames generally rely on the use of hot rolled steel sections: for such sections, the material is heated and passed as a billet or blank through heavy rollers that gradually reduce and shape the cross-section whilst at the same time increasing the length; the final shape is generally in a standardised range. Typical cross section ranges are shown in Figure 1.6.
1-4
IPE 80 - 750
UPE 80 - 400
HD 260 - 400
HE 100 - 1000
HL 620 - 1100
Figure 1.6
For larger spans, deep beams or other structural members can be fabricated from hot rolled sections and plate to form geometrically complex members. Hot rolled sections can be curved after manufacture, using bending equipment, or be converted to perforated web profiles using a variety of approaches, some of which split the beam into two in such a way that the two parts can be welded together as a deeper beam, with its spanning ability much increased. Lighter steel sections can be formed by bending thin sheet steel into C or Z profiles. Normally this is done using either a cold rolling line (for standard sections) or by using a press or folding machine (for special sections). Common structural profiles range from around 80 mm to 350 mm deep, as shown in Figure 1.7, and are particularly suitable for roof purlins and side rails that support cladding, for lightweight frames, and as support to internal walls and partitions. Wide thin sheets can be formed by cold rolling into profiled cladding for roofs and walls (see typical profiles in Figure 1.8) and into profiled floor decking.
1-5
H H
175 mm
195 mm
210 mm Z shape
240 mm
260 mm
max. 350 mm
H min. 80 mm
min. 30 mm
C shape Sheet thickness 1,5 4 mm
max. 100 mm
max. 350 mm
min. 80 mm
min. 30 mm
U shape
max. 100 mm
Figure 1.7
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Micro profile
Trapezoidal
Corrugated
Figure 1.8
Steel members can be joined using a wide variety of techniques including welding and bolting; connection design is an important part of any structural system. Connection arrangements can be highly standardised or unique to suit a complex form. In expressed steelwork, connections often become important architectural elements in their own right.
1.2
1-7
2.1
Low weight
A steel structure has a relatively low self-weight compared to masonry or concrete structures. This advantage not only reduces the foundations required for the structure, but also means that the structure is lightweight, reducing material delivery to the site. The off-site prefabrication of steel construction is a significant contribution to reduced transport of materials to site and reduced site activities, minimising construction disruption and environmental impact.
Figure 2.1
The relatively low self weight of steel structures reduces material delivery to site
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2.2
Figure 2.2
2.3
Speed of construction
Structural steel components are pre-fabricated off site by a steelwork contractor; any protective coating that is required is applied at this stage. The site activity is primarily an assembly operation, bolting steelwork parts together, which leads to short construction periods. The building can be made weather tight quickly, allowing the following trades early access to commence their work. Modern fabrication is achieved using numerically controlled machines, with data from three-dimensional electronic models of the complete structure. Modern fabrication is therefore extremely accurate, and errors that need rectification on site are rare. Three-dimensional building models can be used by other trades to ensure that their own contribution (for example, the cladding, or the mechanical and electrical services) can be properly co-ordinated with the structural frame before the building is constructed. All these facilities contribute to minimizing the period from conception to completion.
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Figure 2.3
2.4
Figure 2.4
Thanks to the numeric control of modern fabrication, components may be designed and fabricated to almost any shape desired. In most cases, a structure with an irregular floor plan or curved components is manufactured as easily as a rectilinear design, although there will be cost implications of the more complex fabrication.
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The building can also be made adaptable for future changes in use. Columnfree floor space facilitates future changes in internal layout, which is likely to happen several times in the life of a structure. The building structure can be modified, strengthened and extended. The facility to extend the structure at some future stage can be incorporated into the original design and construction details. The external envelope maybe renewed, upgraded or modified. Future owners/users with different requirements can readily adapt a steel building to their requirements.
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A sustainable solution
Steel can be recycled any number of times without loss of quality or strength. Significant quantities of recycled steel are used in the manufacture of new steel products and there is a commercial value in scrap steel for this reason. Figure 2.5 shows scrap material being recycled to make new steel. Steel building components are fabricated under controlled conditions with minimal waste (off-cuts are recycled as scrap). As the site activity is mainly assembly, there is rarely any waste on site. Steel structures can often be dissembled, as they are primarily bolted skeletal structures. The steel members may reused in other structures portal frames and similar structures are frequently dismantled and used at other locations.
Figure 2.5
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3.1
Structure types
There are four basic structural configurations that provide a clear interior space for a single storey building: Rigid framed structures (portal frames and rigid-frame trusses) Pinned frame beam-and-column structures Cable-supported roofs Arched roofs For the first three configurations, the designer has the option of providing either a flat roof or a pitched roof. Typical spans and span/depth ratios for the primary roof members in pinned and rigid framed buildings are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1
Pinned frames Simple beam Fabricated Beam Perforated web beam Truss roof (pitched) Truss roof (flat) Rigid frames Portal frame Truss roof (flat) span/60 span/15 to span/20 15 m 45 m Up to approximately 100 m span/30 to span/40 span/20 to span/25 span/20 to span/60 span/5 to span/10 span/15 to span/20 Up to approximately 20 m Up to approximately 30 m Up to approximately 45 m Up to approximately 20 m Up to approximately 100 m
Structure type
3.1.1
Rigid-framed structures Rigid frames are achieved by providing a rigid (moment resisting) connection between the ends of the roof beams (or trusses) and the columns. The stiff frame that is created is much more efficient in carrying the imposed loads on the roof than a simply supported roof member (with nominally pinned connections at its ends) and the frame also provides resistance against wind forces on the sides of the building. Because the frames are self-supporting in the plane of the frame, the bracing in the roof can be reduced, compared to a structure with simply supported roof beams. Rigid framed structures broadly fall into two categories, portal framed structures and truss framed structures. 1 - 12
Portal frames
Portal frames typically use hot-rolled I-section beams and columns for the roof rafters and supporting columns, although cold formed sections may be adequate for small span structures. Portal frames come in a variety of different shapes and sizes, with flat and pitched roofs. A typical configuration is shown in Figure 3.1. The roof and wall cladding is supported on purlins and side rails that span between the portal frames. Bracing is not needed between every frame but is needed in at least one bay to transfer longitudinal forces (normal to the frames) to the side walls and thus to ground level. In some special design situations, the cladding can be used as the bracing this is known as stressed skin design. The design of the cladding and the fixings to the supporting members will be assessed by the structural engineer. In most cases, bracing will be provided that does not rely on the sheeting.
Figure 3.1
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6 6m 25 - 40 m
8m
25 m
6 8m
3.5 m 10 m
10
3.00
6m 40 m
Figure 3.2
Portal frames typically have straight rafters, as shown in Figure 3.3. The same structural principles can be followed to form a portal frame with a curved rafter, as shown in Figure 3.4. In each case, the connection of the rafter to the column is substantial, and usually the rafter is haunched locally to the column. The dimensions of the haunch should be allowed for when considering the clear height requirements.
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Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
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Figure 3.5
In most cases, the rafter (and possibly the column) will need local restraints, as shown on Figure 3.6. In some countries, special provision must be made when using this form of restraint, to ensure that the purlins align with the roof bracing system. The location of these restraints will be specified by the structural engineer.
Figure 3.6
When flat trusses are used, both top and bottom chords can easily be connected to the supporting columns, thus creating a rigid frame. For larger spans, roof trusses provide an effective and economic alternative. Typical flat truss shapes are shown in Figure 3.7, and a truss roof is illustrated in Figure 3.8.
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Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
In some situations, the columns are also of lattice form and then the building configuration is typically as shown in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9
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The lateral stability of the top chords of trusses is usually provided by the purlins (and by one panel of bracing, as for portal frames) but where stressed skin design is permitted, it may provide the restraint without bracing, as shown in Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10 Roof cladding acting as stressed skin in a rigid-framed truss roof
3.1.2
Pinned frame beam and column structures In a pinned frame beam and column structure, the basic configuration is a series of parallel beams, each supported by columns at its ends, with a pinned or flexible connection between the beam and the column. Bracing has to be provided in the roof to transfer horizontal forces due to wind loads to the end and side walls; the walls are braced to transfer the forces to the foundations. (Alternatively, some countries allow the roof cladding to act as a stressed skin, thus largely eliminating the need for separate bracing.) A typical structural configuration is shown in Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11 Typical structural configuration for a beam and column structure
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There are numerous options for the beams: Hot rolled sections (I-beams) Plate girders Fabricated beams with holes in the webs Trusses
Hot rolled I section beams
The most common type of beam and column structure uses hot rolled steel I sections for both beams and columns. These sections are produced in accordance with international standards and there are design tables available to allow for an easy selection of section size to suit the loading. The most common section sizes are readily available from stockists and can be ordered at short notice. Deep sections with relatively narrow flanges are preferred for roof beams, as shown in Figure 3.12, where they primarily resist bending. Columns, which primarily resist compression, are usually thicker, shallower sections with wider flanges. The span/depth ratio for the roof beams is typically 30 to 40 for spans up to 20 m.
Plate girders
Plate girders are built up beams consisting of two flange plates, welded to a web plate to form an I-section. This type of beam offers a solution when the standard I and H beams are not suitable. The section dimensions are chosen to suit the design bending moments and shear forces; the beams can be profiled in elevation, as shown in Figure 3.13. The span/depth ratio is typically 20 to 25 for spans up to 30 m. An alternative that is sometimes used for large spans, to reduce the thickness of the web plate, is the use of a corrugated plate (profiled in plan). The span/depth ratio with a profiled web plate is typically 30 to 40 for spans up to 100 m.
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Plate girders are likely to be more expensive than hot-rolled standard sections.
Beams with web openings
Because roof beams generally carry relatively light uniformly distributed loads, beam sections that span large distances can be created by fabricating sections with openings in the webs. Historically, the first beam of this type was the castellated beam, with hexagonal holes. Now beams with circular openings are commonly used. In both cases, the beam is fabricated from a rolled I section by cutting along the web, to a special profile, separating the two halves and then displacing one half relative to the other and welding them back together. This is illustrated in Figure 3.14. The major advantage of this type of beam is the weight reduction: approximately 30% less than a beam with a solid web of similar depth and bending resistance. An example of the use of beams with circular openings is shown in Figure 3.15. Beams with web openings are less suitable for heavy concentrated loads. The span/depth ratio is typically 30 for spans up to 50 m.
Hexagonal holes
Circular holes
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Trusses
Trusses are a triangulated assembly of members. Two basic configurations are used in single storey buildings pitched roof trusses and flat trusses of near uniform depth.
Pitched roof trusses
A variety of pitched roof truss forms are used in pinned frames, as illustrated in Figure 3.16. The trusses illustrated in Figure 3.16 are commonly fabricated from T and angle sections, and are used to create a sloped roof. The large (mostly unused) space between the trusses may be considered a disadvantage, requiring heating and raising the overall height of the structure, but it is a cost effective solution for modest spans and provides space for services. Because these trusses are used with a steeply sloping roof, the span/depth ratio is typically 5 to 10 for spans up to 20 m
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Belgian truss
English truss
Mansard truss
Flat trusses
Flat trusses are used mainly in rigid frames (see Section 0 for a more comprehensive description) but they are also employed in pinned frames an example is shown in Figure 3.17.
Trusses typically have a greater depth than single beams or plate girders. The deflection of a truss is modest, and can be controlled, making trusses especially suitable when significant loads have to be supported from the roof structure, or when a flat (or nearly flat) roof is to be provided. The larger depth of the trusses increases the dimensions of the faade, but also provides space for services to be placed in the roof structure instead of below. The weight of a trussed roof structure per unit area of roof in general is less than that of single beam girders, but the fabrication costs are higher. Trusses
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may be exposed in the completed structure, which may increase the fabrication costs if, for example, hollow sections are used for the members. The span/depth ratio for flat trusses is typically 15 to 20 for spans up to 100 m. Trusses are usually planar and will generally require bracing of some form to provide stability. As an alternative, three-dimensional trusses can be created, as shown in cross section in Figure 3.18 and illustrated in Figure 3.19. This form of truss is generally expensive to fabricate, because of the complex intersections of the internal members. The span/depth ratio for three-dimensional trusses is typically 16 to 20 for spans over 50 m.
3.1.3
Cable stayed roofs In a cable-stayed structure, tensile members (wire ropes or bars) are provided to give intermediate support to members such as roof beams, thus allowing those members to be reduced in size. The stays need to be supported by columns or masts and those members need to be anchored or braced with other stays. The bracing arrangement is usually very conspicuous and the aesthetics
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of the building must be considered carefully. An example of a cable stayed building structure is shown in Figure 3.20.
Alternative configurations for a flat roof building are shown in Figure 3.21. Cable stayed configurations are most economical for spans between 30 m and 90 m. As most of the structure is outside of the building, maintenance costs can be high. Care must be taken in detailing the waterproofing where the stays pass through the cladding.
1 Roof beam Bending moment + 2 ++ 3 +
1
Compression force Anchorage Tensile force -+
++
--
--
Figure 3.21 Comparison of the three main configurations for cable stayed structures
The arrangement of the structure has a significant effect on the internal forces and therefore the member sizes. The building arrangement should be developed in collaboration with the structural engineer. 1 - 24
3.1.4
Arches Arches have a parabolic or circular form, as illustrated in Figure 3.22. Uniform loading is carried by compression in the arch members; modest bending moments are induced by non-uniform loading and point loads. The compression forces must be resisted by horizontal forces in the foundation of the building or by tie members between the foundations, as shown in Figure 3.22. Arch members can be formed by cold bending I-section beams. The span/depth ratio for the arch members is typically between 60 and 75 for spans up to 50 m. An example of an arched roof building is shown in Figure 3.23.
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3.2
3.2.1
2
1 2 3 Extended end plate Extended end plate with stiffener Haunched connection with stiffener
Figure 3.24 Rigid bolted connections between roof beams and columns
Connections between trusses and columns are usually achieved by end plates on the top and bottom chords, bolted to the face of the column. A typical example is illustrated in Figure 3.25.
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3.2.2
Nominally pinned connections In a beam and column structure, the connections are nominally pinned and are not assumed to transfer any moments between the connected members. Externally applied actions, such as wind forces, must be resisted by bracing systems. The bracing system may be steel bracing, or a stiff core. For single storey structures, a system of steel bracing is almost universally adopted. Pinned connections are relatively easy (and cheap) to fabricate. Typical connections use partial depth end plates, fin plates or angle cleats; the members are bolted together on site.
1 2 3
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BUILDING ENVELOPE
The steel structure of a single storey building generally comprises three principal components: a primary construction (roof beams and columns, with bracing); secondary steelwork, such as purlins and side rails that support the roof panels and wall cladding; and the roof panels and cladding themselves. The roof panels and cladding are generally referred to as the building envelope. The building envelope provides a weather-tight enclosure to the building space. In most cases, it also provides thermal insulation from the exterior environment. The exterior appearance is often a major consideration in the choice of the form of the envelope. The architect must therefore choose a system that balances the demands of sustaining actions such as wind pressure and (on flat or near-flat-roofs) imposed loads, of achieving thermal performance that meets criteria for low energy use, and of producing an appearance that meets the clients aspirations. A single type of cladding system is often used for both roof and walls. Detailing will be an important element of envelope design. Drainage systems that do not block or leak are essential and the integration of openings (windows and doors) with the cladding must not compromise thermal insulation. A striking example of using coloured profiled sheeting is shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1
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4.1
Cladding systems
The principal options for cladding systems are: Profiled steel sheeting Single-skin Double-skin, built up on site from a liner panel, insulation and an outer sheet Composite sandwich panels, pre-fabricated off site from an inner sheet, and outer sheet and insulation.
Steel sheeting with insulation, covered by a waterproof membrane commonly used on flat roofs. Wooden panels/decking Precast concrete slabs Blockwork (for walls) 4.1.1 Profiled sheet cladding The basic types of profiled steel sheeting system, used in roofs and walls, are summarized in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
System Built up systems
free choice for exterior profiled sheeting high fire resistance good sound proofing and good sound absorption fast construction, with simple mechanical fasteners fast construction fully prefabricated cheap and fast construction easy to dismantle large freedom of form
yes no
4.1.2
Precast concrete slabs For flat roofs with significant imposed loads, cellular concrete slabs provide both a relatively easily installed building component and a thermal insulation layer. Precast concrete slabs (either hollow core or sandwich panel) provide the necessary strength where there are heavy snow loads or a heavy roof is required for safety reasons (e.g. resisting explosive pressures in accidental situations). However, precast slabs are much heavier than profiled steel cladding and the primary steel structure must be correspondingly stronger.
4.1.3
Blockwork Blockwork construction is often used for the walls of single storey buildings, either full height or partial height (with sheet cladding for the top of the wall). The blockwork provides insulation and robustness; it may also be chosen for appearance.
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4.2
Secondary steelwork
Secondary beams are used when the spacing of the main beams or trusses is too large for the cladding or roof panels to span between them, or where the cladding spans parallel to the main beams, which is usually the case with pitched roofs. For these secondary members, there is a choice between cold-formed and hotrolled steel sections. The profiles of typical cold formed sections are shown in Figure 4.2. A cold formed section can be up to 30% lighter than a hot rolled section.
1 C profile
profile max = 12 m
3 profile
4 Z profile
max = 10 m
max = 16 m
max = 12 m
140 mm < h < 300 mm 140 mm < h < 300 mm 250 mm < h < 420 mm 120 mm < h < 400 mm
Figure 4.2
Cold formed sections are manufactured from galvanized steel and this normally provides sufficient protection against corrosion in the internal environment of the building (an exception might be, for example, in aggressive environments such as cattle sheds, where ammonia is present). Secondary members of cold-formed sections are used at relatively low spacing, typically between 1,6 m and 2,5 m. Very long secondary members can be fabricated as small trusses.
4.3
Roofs
The choice between a flat roof and a pitched roof often depends on the particular preferences in the local or national region. Some countries favour flat roofs that are able to sustain significant imposed loading, other countries favour pitched roofs that facilitate drainage and which are subject to only very modest imposed loading. Clearly, the type of cladding that is appropriate depends on those choices and circumstances.
4.3.1
Pitched roofs The slope of a pitched roof also depends on local circumstances and custom. A slope of at least 10% (6) is normally provided. Where profiled sheeting is used, the profiles run down the slope, to facilitate drainage. Insulation must therefore be below the outer sheeting (possibly as a composite panel). The sheeting is supported on purlins spanning between the
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roof beams and is fastened with screws or bolts. The lapped sheets do not require a waterproof membrane; the panels are simply lapped, the higher above the lower on the slope. A typical arrangement of a pitched roof at the eaves is shown in Figure 4.3. It is important that the drainage system is adequate for the run-off from the whole roof.
1 2
1 2 3
Sandwich roof panel and sandwich faade panel Roof slope > 6 Hot rolled or cold formed section
Figure 4.3
4.3.2
Flat roofs Where the roof is flat, it must be fully watertight against standing water and it is therefore usual to apply a waterproofing membrane on its top surface. Where profiled steel sheeting is used, it is typically a deep profile, spanning between the primary structural members. Insulation is then placed on top of the sheeting, fixed with bolts or screws. The waterproof membrane is then applied on top of the insulation. An example is shown in Figure 4.4. Where flat roofs are provided, there is a risk of ponding. Water can accumulate in the central area if the roof deflects significantly. If there is inadequate drainage, water can also be retained by kerbs or other details around the edge of the roof. It is vitally important to minimise the risk of ponding by precambering the roof and providing adequate drainage.
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5 1 6
1 2 3 4
5 6 7
Figure 4.4
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FIRE SAFETY
Requirements for fire safety are defined by national regulations but there are recognised international rules for assessing the fire resistance of steel structures. The minimum level of safety for structural fire design aims to provide an acceptable risk associated with the safety of building occupants, fire fighters and people in the proximity of the building. Levels of safety can be increased to protect the building contents, the building superstructure, heritage, business continuity, corporate image of the occupants or owner, and the environmental impact. Requirements are usually expressed in relation to: Spread of fire: combustibility of the materials expressed in relation to time until flashover. It is classified as A1 (flashover not possible) down to E (flashover in less than 2 minutes) and F (not tested). Smoke intensity: materials are classified from class A2 to F depending on the smoke produced on combustion. Fire resistance: the period of time for which a structural component can perform in a standardized fire test. The three criteria of load-bearing capacity, integrity and insulation (commonly expressed as R, E and I) are considered and the rating is expressed as R30, R60 etc. where the number refers to the period in minutes. In order to achieve the required fire safety level in a single storey building the following items should be taken in account: regulatory requirements fire partitioning fire spreading escape routes Single storey buildings often have very modest requirements for fire resistance because occupants can escape quickly. The main requirement is often the prevention of fire spread to adjacent properties. To protect contents, especially in large production facilities and warehouses, partitioning may be needed or, where that is not feasible, alternative measures may be taken, such as the installation of a sprinkler system.
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OVERHEAD CRANES
Certain industrial buildings require overhead cranes examples are printing shops (for moving rolls of paper) and engineering shops (for moving heavy equipment and components). An example is shown in Figure 6.1. Most overhead cranes use single or twin beams spanning across the building and with a hoist mounted on the beams. The crane beams are supported on runway beams that run the length of the building. The crane serves the whole floor by moving along the runway beams and by moving the hoist along the crane beams (Figure 6.2). Incorporating an overhead crane in a building always influences the design of the building structure, even when the hoisting capacity is very modest. A key design consideration is to limit the spread of the columns at the level of the crane. For this reason, portal frames are not appropriate for heavy cranes as limiting the column movement becomes uneconomic. Crane use also results in horizontal forces from movement of the loads, so additional bracing is usually provided. A crane with a lifting capacity up to a safe working load of about 10 tons (100 kN) can usually be carried on runway beams that are supported off the columns that support the roof. For larger cranes, it is more economical to use separate columns (or vertical trusses) to support the runway beams and avoid excessive loads on the building structure.
Figure 6.1
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3 1 6
5 4 min. 500 mm
8 9 10 11 12 13
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13
Figure 6.2
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CONCLUSIONS
Steel is a versatile material that allows the architect and engineer to design any type of structure, ranging from orthodox portal frames for industrial use to state of the art buildings with architectural features, unorthodox shapes or any other requirements the stakeholders might have. Structural steel design is familiar and efficient, providing elegant cost effective solutions. Structural steel can be combined with other materials to achieve the desired look, properties or functionality. Fabrication of a steel building is carried out in a workshop, ensuring a high quality product and contributing to a low waste, sustainable solution. Standardised details and forms of construction are available which allow fast erection on site, with minimised disruption to the surroundings. Steel has a very high resistance to weight ratio, resulting in a light, attractive solution with minimal intrusion into the working area of the structure. The transportation of highly prefabricated elements reduces deliveries to site, which is especially important in congested areas, such as city centres. The structural efficiency of steelwork results in lower loads being transferred to the foundations, leading to further economy. Long span buildings can easily be designed in steel, resulting in large clear areas. This increases the functionality of the structure, offering flexibility of building use. Steel buildings are adaptable and may be easily extended, making refurbishment of the building a realistic solution for future use, instead of demolition. Steel has excellent sustainability credentials. Steel buildings can easily be dismantled and reused. The steel can always be recycled without any loss of strength, minimising the amount of raw material required. Steels low weight, sustainability and versatility, make steel the optimum choice for any type of building.
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FURTHER READING
Best Practice in Steel Construction: Industrial Buildings, Guidance for Architects, Designers and Constructors RFCS project deliverable for Euro-Build Available from the Steel Construction Institute, UK It can be downloaded from www.eurobuild-in-steel.com
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