SW010104 SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH INDIVIDUALS

Total Credits: 3 Total Hours: 54

Course  Understand Social Case Work as a method of Social Work and apply it
Outcomes as an intervention method.
 Demonstrate knowledge of the values and Principles of Social Case
Work and to develop the capacity to practice them.
 Acquire the required skills for practicing social case work.
 Demonstrate ability to adopt a multi- dimensional approach in
assessment.
 Able to document and social case work practice
 Apply social case work method in various settings.
Course Outline
Module 1 Introduction to Social Case Work
UNIT 1: Definition and objectives of Social Case Work
Historical developments of Case Work in West and India. Trends in Social Case
Work Practice, Social Case Work practice in Indian Society.
UNIT 2: Practice Frame Work- Values, Principles. Application of Code of
Ethics.
UNIT 3: Components of Social Case Work; the Person, The Place, The
problem, problem solving process
Module 2 Overview of the phases of social case work:
UNIT 4: Study, Diagnosis, Treatment, Follow up
 Psycho Social Study- Purpose, nature, Contents,
 Social Diagnosis- Definition, Contents, Types, and Steps.
 Social Treatment- - Phases, and different types of treatment
UNIT 5: Phases of Direct Social Work Practice:
 Exploration, Engagement, Assessment and Planning;
 Implementation and goal attainment;
 Termination and Evaluation
Module 3 Exploration and Engagement Phase
UNIT 6: Exploration Phase: establishing rapport,
Assessment: Definition, Multidimensionality of assessment- various
components of assessment
UNIT 7: Client-Worker Relationship: Definition, use and characteristics.
Transference and Counter–Transference and their use in diagnosis and
treatment.
UNIT 8: Interviewing- concept, techniques for social case work practice
Maintaining psychological contact with the clients: Verbal and nonverbal skills
in social case work
UNIT 9: Goal Setting : purpose, types, guidelines for selecting and defining
goals
UNIT 10: Formulation of Contract: concept, rationale
Module 4 Social Case Work Intervention
UNIT 11: Social Case Work Models: Problem Solving, psychosocial,
UNIT 12: Task centred, Solution focused, System theory
UNIT 13: Crisis intervention, Cognitive restructuring
UNIT 14: Planning and developing an action plan based on the models of social
case work
UNIT 15: Developing and supplementing resources, utilizing and enhancing
 support systems
UNIT 16: Termination: Types, when to terminate, steps
Consolidating gains and planning maintenance strategies, relapse prevention,

UNIT 17: Evaluation: Outcomes, process, satisfaction

Module 5 Recording Social Case Work, Use of Supervision

UNIT 18: Recording: use, structure and content, Methods of recording:
Verbatim, narrative, condensed, analytical and summary records
UNIT 10: UNIT 19: Supervision and development of personal and professional self,
Reflective practice in social case work
Module 6 Scope of Social Case Work
UNIT 20: Scope of social case work in different settings - family and child
welfare settings, medical &psychiatry settings,
UNIT 21: Correctional settings, industrial settings,
UNIT 22: Community Development settings, school setting,
Social Case Work
Definition:
1. Mary Richmond: Social Case Work means, “those processes which develop personality through adjustment
consciously affected, individual by individual, between men and their social environment.
2. Perlman: Social Case Work is a process which is used by certain human welfare agencies to help individuals
to cope more effectively with their problems in social functioning.
3. Hollis: Social Case Work is a method employed by social workers to help individuals find a solution to
problems of social adjustment which they are unable to handle in a satisfactory way by their own efforts.
4. Gordon Hamilton: In social case work the client is stimulated to participate in the study of his situation, to
share plans, to make an active effort to solve his problems, using his own resources and whatever
community resources are available and appropriate.

Objectives:
1. To understand and solve the internal problems of the individual.
2. To strengthen the client’s ego power
3. Remediation and Prevention of problems in social functioning,
4. Development of resources to enhance social functioning.

Historical developments of Case Work in West and India

In West
Case work has gone through several discernible stages. They are
a) The Exploratory and Disciplinary Stage:
Josephine Shaw Lowell, founder of the New York Charity Organization Society, and many other social workers believed
that the unworthy poor should be provided financial assistance. These workers were motivated by desires to
i) Deal kindly but firmly with individuals in need, primarily the self respecting and working poor, the public
agencies to deal with others by repressive methods.
ii) Reduce duplication in relief administration as between agencies.
iii) Conduct careful inquiries into the extent of personal needs.
iv) Help people with certain types of personal problems contributing to poverty such as sickness and to deny
help to others, who were lazy, intemperate and extravagant.
v) Give their time and effort without remuneration to the alleviation of suffering and to the diminution of
extravagant relief administration.

b) The Sociological Stage:

In 1901, Mary Richmond presented a chart showing the environment forces influencing the family and argues for the
analysis of social situation before providing any help. She wrote a very valuable book “ Social Diagnosis” in 1917 which
reflects sociological point of view of social case work. In 1922, she published another book “What is Social Case Work, in
which she defined the social case work .
c) The Psycho-social Stage:
World War I was a major turning point in the practice of the social case work. The Psychiatric Wave forced the social
case work away from its appropriated concern with social issues towards an inappropriate pre-occupation with mental
phenomena. Influence of Freudian concept spread and the social work became a psycho-dynamic case work. Valuable
contribution were made by Towle, Bibring, Turner, Austin ,Bandler, Parad, Hollis Smalley, Garrett, etc.
The other contributors are Miss Robinson, Who wrote a book “A Changing Psychology in Social Case Work. Taft who
wrote a book” A Functional Approach to Family Case Work.

In this phase, the following contribution was made to the philosophy and practice of social Case work:,
 1. Interest in the cause of human distress conceived of as deriving from the social situation or physical
environment.
2. Interest in the family as the social unit having most importance in the development of human adjustment but
with little appreciation of the nature of psychological interactions within the family.
3. Efforts to find the most scientific way of doing things and the development of a methodology for social
diagnosis.
4. Belief that most people will make adjustments to like if their environment was favourable. It is unfavourable,
the social worker has the function of removing or of having removed the disrupting condition
5. Interest in the effect of social environment upon human personality but without much understanding of
causation and mechanism of behaviour.
6. Belief in the values of friendly contracts and their effects upon personality with little awareness of what in the
net period was so energetically studied-psychological relationships and dynamics of interaction

Synthetic of Integrated Stages:

The Milford Conference in 1925 appointed a committee under the Chairmanship of Porter Lee to define the nature of
generic social work. Milford Conference accepted the report of the Committee which recommended. “Social case work
deals with the human being whose capacity to organize his own normal activities may be impaired by one or more
deviations from accepted standards or normal social life. The use of norms is essential because without use of norms
purposeful activity is difficult. Social history of the client is significant for the particularization of the care. The purposed
of social case work is to assist the individual to develop his capacity to organized his own normal social activities.

Since the publication of the Milford Conference Report 1929, a number of books on social case work theory and practice
have been published, Lowry edited Reading in Social Case Work: 1920-1938 in 1939. Hallis brought out Social Case Work
in practice in 1939. Hamilton published, Theory and practice of Social Case Work in 1940.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL CASE WORK:

 Ancient times – individuals in every society have been helped by others to solve their problems.
 Late 19th and early 20th century – it took professional shape
 1869 – Origin of Charity Organization Society in London.
 The main aim of the society was to find out ways and means of helping the poor and needy and thus to organize
used ‘volunteers’, called ‘friendly visitors’.
 They visited the homes of the poor for the purpose of assessing their need, for rendering material assistance
and for giving them guidance and advice.
 These friendly visitors were subsequently called ‘paid agents’.
 These paid helpers gradually developed systematic procedures in performing their tasks; they collected data,
helped them after assessing and also maintained records (personal data, type of help rendered).
 Case work gradually developed into a professional method.
 1877 – Organized efforts were taken by the American Charity Organization Society in U.S.A., similar to that
in London.
 The ‘paid agents’ received training in investigation, diagnosis and treatment for which the New York School of
Philanthropy was established towards the end of the 19 th century.
 1895 – End of 19th century in England, a concept called ‘Almoners’ (outside visitors) was introduced. Sir Charles
Loch appointed Almoners to help hospitals to serve patients effectively. Almoners were similar to friendly
visitors and paid agents.
 1898 – The first School of Social Work was established in New York.
 1911 – Case work had emerged in USA as an accepted formal technique. Since the early social workers handled
cases of families in need, they were called caseworkers in USA.
 1914 – 1917 – The first training programme for casework started at this time, based more on the medical model
– Summer training – started by many schools of social work – recognized by professionals.
  1917 – Mary Richmond wrote her first book called ‘ Social Diagnosis’ which set forth a methodology of helping
clients through systematic ways of assessing their problems and handling them. The book also introduced the
principle of individualization and client’s right to self-determination.
 Impact of I World War – The First World War made a wide impact on social case work. Psychiatry in this period
became more important. The contribution of Freud and his followers influenced the method employed by the
caseworkers in dealing with the individuals. CGC movement and treatment, prevention of mental problems and
delinquency strengthened the psychological orientation of this approach.
 1920s - Various definitions of case work under the influence of Freudian theory (internal factors – individual
responsible for his problems).caseworkers realized that ore responsibilities should be given to individuals to
make decisions of their life. Professionals also began to move into other fields like prisons, schools, etc.
 1930 – Economic depression – Case workers had to consider the economic factors which were causing distress
to clients, leading to emotional distress and breakdown. Focus shifted from individual to modification and
manipulation of the client’s environment to enable him to adapt to his situations satisfactorily.
 After World War II, with the problems of morale, leadership, propaganda, separation, communication, etc.,
social workers found social sciences more useful. There was increase in personal problems on the part of clients
due to financial crises.
 1950s – This was an era of private practice. Professional agencies started growing in this field. Case work started
going into the community. Richmond(1922), Hamilton (1951) and Pearlman (1957) also emphasized on the
problems of social functioning.
 1960s – Lot of importance was given to research and social action. Heredity vs. environment – casework method
adopted new techniques and principles.

Social Case work in India: -

 Indian culture and religions advocate the need to help the poor and needy. There is also a tradition of
knowledgeable individuals providing advice and support to others, for example Krishna gave advice and
support to Arjun at the beginning of the Mahabharat war. The Hindu Shastras also emphasized on
giving which may be in the form of wealth, knowledge and wisdom. In Buddhism help should be given
to relatives and friends. In Islam alms was given by the fortunate to the State and used for welfare of
needy. Christian missionaries in India also started activities which aimed at helping the poor. But these
efforts were paternalistic in nature and did not aim at making the individual independent.
 Further, the relationship in these instances was not professional. Thus there exists an important
difference between modern professional casework and traditional helping of needy individuals.
 Education of social workers in India started with the training of volunteers engaged in charity and relief
activities. In 1911 N.M. Joshi had established Social Service League in Mumbai. This league conducted
training programme for volunteers who are at the service of people suffering from famines, epidemics,
floods and such other disasters and also who conducted welfare programmes among the poor and the
destitute.
 The first professional social workers who did casework in the Indian settings were trained in the
American School of Social Work. In 1936 Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work, now
known as Tata Institute of Social Science (TISS), was started to impart training to those who had a
University degree in the field of social service. Thus, the training for the social work was changed into a
full time career oriented educational programme. Casework as a theoretical course and as a method of
practice in the academic programme started from the year 1946. Initially social casework was practiced
in relatively few agencies and institutions but nowadays social casework is practiced in many agencies,
institutions and organisation such as hospitals, clinics, courts, industry, military organisation, family
welfare agency, child welfare agency, institution for the aged, destitute, orphans etc.
 A decade after in August 1946, the second institution of social work named National YWCA Department of Social
Work under Directorship of Ms. Nora Ventura with support of YWCA of America came into existence. Within a
year University of Delhi granted formal affiliation to become the first school of social work under university
system imparting full-fledged two years post-graduate programme of professional education in social work.
 Later in 1950, the name of YWCA Department of Social Work was changed to Delhi School of Social Work
(DSSW).

 Besides TISS and DSSW, nine out of seventeen schools of social work by the end of the decade of 1950-60 also
came into existence with the help of Christian missionaries in different parts of the country. These included
Indore School of Social Work in Indore (1951); Madras School of Social Work in Chennai (1952);Stella Maria,
Chennai (1953), Nirmala Niketan in Mumbai (1955); Rajagiri School of Social Sciences in Kerala (1955); Roshini
Nilaya School of Social Work, Mangalore (1960); and CSRD - Institute of Social Work (1960). The term ‘school'
was adopted as foreign legacy as the same was used for the special post-graduate institutions in USA and UK.
This conscious adoption of the term found reflection in names of social work institutions, professional
association of social work, popular usages and public discourses. The United States Technical Cooperation
Mission (TCM) in India which started functioning from 1956, has further developed, shaped and influenced the
social work education. This influence can be seen in course structure, syllabi, pedagogies, field work training,
and practice, Further, TCM strengthened social work education through national and regional seminar and
conferences, teachers exchange programmes, academic support to young teachers, subject experts' attachment
to institutions etc. In first phase of history of social work, it is beyond doubt that the education and training of
professional social work in India received tremendous support of Christian missionaries/ institutions and
American educationists. However, there were two institution which were established on Gandhian model
namely Kashi Vidyapeeth,Varanasi (1947) and Gujarat Vidyapeeth (1965) with a few universities opening social
work courses like - Lucknow University (1949); ISS, Agra University(1957).

LIMITATIONS OF SOCIAL CASE WORK IN INDIA:

 Borrowed the methodology from the West.
 Lack of indigenous literature.
 Lack of recognition to the field of social work.
 More focus on urban settings and silent on its relevance to the rural areas.
 It is time consuming.

Relevance of Social Case work In India:

India is beset by poverty, disease and ignorance. Several starvation deaths have been reported all over India is mainly
due to economic, social and political power being concentrated in a few hands, the benefits of developmental works are
enjoyed by few and the benefits of developmental programs have percolated to the poor to a very limited extent.
Political will and administrative capacity to remove poverty is missing. Corruption is rampant in the country, the poor
have to bribe various people including bank and state government officials for securing loan under various government
programmes and schemes.
On the Health front, clean and safe drinking water is available to only 31 percent of the rural masses. Mortality rate is
105 per 1000 live births. Malnutrition, communicable diseases are brought under control. Communal riots, casteism,
regionalism are the worst enemy of the vulnerable masses. Though India has been declared as a sovereign republic, it
continues to be ruled mainly by a nexus of politicians and big businessmen.
The radical social workers are seeking change in the existing values, societal conditions and social system

Social case in such socio-economic conditions of India can be useful because

a) There is population which needs help to solve their problems at individual level.
b) There are problems like sickness, feuds, interpersonal conflicts, etc., which can be
dealt with only at individual level
c) People need curative and rehabilitative services, though developmental services
are more need in our Indian conditions. Social caseworkers will have to
emphasize “indirect” casework services and create a congenial atmosphere for
those seeking self-actualization.
Principles of Case Work
Biestek has described 7 principles of case work.
i. Individualization: It is the recognition and understanding of each client’s unique qualities and the
different use of principles and methods in assisting each towards a better adjustment. It is based
upon the right of human beings to be individuals and to be treated not just as human being tob
individuals and to be treated not just as a human being but as this human being with his/her
personal difference.
ii. Controlled Emotional Involvement: It is the case worker’s sensitivity to the clients’ feeling, and
understanding of their meaning, and a purposeful, appropriate response to the client’s feelings.
iii. Purposeful Expression of feelings: It is the recognition of the client’s need to express his/her
feelings freely, especially his/her negative feelings. The case worker listens purposefully, neither
discouraging or condemning the expression of these feelings, sometimes even actively stimulating
and encouraging them when they are therapeutically useful as a part of the case work service.
iv. Acceptance: It is the principle of action wherein the case worker perceives and deals with the client
as he really is, including his/her strengths and weaknesses, his/her congenial and uncongenial
qualities, his/her positive and negative feelings, his/her constructive and destructive attitudes and
behaviour, maintaining all the while a sense of the client’s innate dignity and personal work.
v. Non-judgmental Attitude: It is a quality of the case work relationship, it is based on a conviction
that case work function excludes assigning guilt or innocence or degree of client responsibility for
causation of the problems or needs, but does include making evaluative judgments about the
attitudes, standards or action of the client, the attitude which involves both thought and feeling
elements, is transmitted to the client.
vi. Client Self-determination: It is the practical recognition of the right and need of clients of freedom
in making their own choices and decisions in the case work process.
vii. Confidentiality: It is the preservation of secret information concerning the client which is disclosed
in the professional relationship. It is based upon a basic right of the client. Confidentiality can be
broken under the following circumstances:
i) if required by law
ii) if the client requires additional service, they can be referred by sharing the information.

Values, Ethics and Morality

Values is a concept i.e. It gives the meaning of a larger frame work. Values are guides or criteria for selecting good and
desirable behaviors. Values can be individual values, group values and societal values.

Ethics- there is a standardized pattern of behavior i.e. there is a code of conduct. They are
Personal ethics
Professional ethics
Voluntary choice to become a professional.
Ethical dilemma ( a social worker may come across quite often)

The National Association of social workers 1996 (U.S.A) , has specified core values:

a) Service- Social workers elevate service to others above self-interest

b) Social Justice – Social workers pursue social change, particularly with and on behalf of
vulnerable and individuals and groups of people
c) Dignity and worth of the person- Social workers treat each other in a caring and respectful
fashion, mindful of the individual difference and cultural and ethnic diversity.
d) Importance of human relationship- Social Workers understand that relationship between and
among people are and important factor for change.’
 e) Integrity- Social Workers are continually aware of the visions, mission , values, ethical
principle, ethical standards and practice in a manner persistent with them.
f) Competence –Social workers continually strive to increase their professional knowledge and
skill and to apply them in practice.

NASW- Code of Ethics

a. Responsibility towards the Professional.

b. Responsibility towards client.
c. Towards colleagues
d. Towards the practice setting (agency)
e. Towards the society.

I) Responsibility towards the Professional

i) Propriety (a high standard of behavior in security. A social worker should be honest. One’s personal views should not
confuse with our profession
ii) Competence and professional development- Remain proficient. One should accept responsibility only for which one is
capable. One should not misrepresent
iii) Service- Social Worker should be service minded
iv) Integrity- Social Worker should act in accordance with high standard of professional integrity and impartiality. In
making judgments one should be impartial.
v) Scholarship of Research.

II) Responsibility towards the clients:

i) Primacy of client’s interest
ii) Rights and prerogatives of clients.
iii) Confidentiality and privacy of clients
iv) Fees

Components of Social Case Work

The nucleus of case work is a person with a problem comes to a place where a professional representative, helps him
through a process.

1.Person:
A person is a man or woman or child, anyone who finds himself in need of help in some aspect of his/her socio-
emotional living, whether the need be for tangible provisions or counsel. As the person begins to receive such help,
he/she is called a client. A person’s behavior is not effective in promoting hi/her well-being depends largely upon the
functioning of a person’s personality structure.

2. Problem:
Problem arises some obstacles or accumulation of frustration or maladjustment and sometimes all these together
threatens the adequacy of the person’s living situation or the effectiveness of his/her efforts to deal with it. Any
problem which a person faces has external and internal factors co-exist.

3. Place:
Place is a social service agency which provide human welfare service. It is setup to deal not with social problems at large
but with human beings who are experiencing such problems in the management of their own personal life. Its purpose
is to help individuals with particular social handicaps which affect good personal or family livings and with the problems
created by faculty person –to-person, person-to-group or person-to-situation relationships.
4.Process:
It is a progressive transaction between the case worker and the client. It consist of a series of problem-solving
operations carried on within a meaningful relationship.

Module 2 Overview of the phases of social case work:

 Psycho Social Study- Purpose, nature, Contents,

 Social Diagnosis- Definition, Contents, Types, and Steps.
 Social Treatment- - Phases, and different types of treatment

Social Case Work Process

There are three phases of social case work practice. They are
a. Intake
b. Social Investigation or psycho-social study.
c. Social Diagnosis
d. Social Treatment.
e. Evaluation
f. Follow-up
I. Intake:
The Client in need of help comes to the agency for professional help through case worker. A relations between
these two persons of unequal positions and power is developed. The case worker accept the client as a person who
is in a very stressful situation he respects the client’s personality and help him to resolve his problem in other works,
pick him up from a stressful situation and to regain a personal and social balance that is satisfying and enduring.

2) Social Investigation:
It is the foundation upon which the various helping process, actions and treatment techniques are built.
Purpose:
It helps to find out the social realities of the clients and their families, to identify the problem areas and to formulate
treatment, rehabilitation and after care strategies.
Nature:
To understand the individual as psycho-social entity, the analysis of his relationship with others and others related with
him is equally important.

Contents of Social Investigation:

Perlman has given the following contents of social case work study in the Beginning phase
a) Nature of the presenting problem
b) Significance of the problem
c) Cause onset and precipitation of the problem
d) Efforts made to cope with problem-solving.
e) Nature of the solution sought from the case work agency.
f) The actual nature of the agency and its problem-solving capacity in context with the client’s problem.

Techniques of Social Investigation

The two fundamental techniques are interview and observation
a) Interview: It is used to secure information about the client as well as his/her problems including his/her
relationships with other persons in social and personal environment. Through interviews, the case worker
attempts to instruct and guide both the client and the significant people in client’s life and also manipulate the
social environment for the benefit of the client.
 b) Observation: It makes possible to record the behaviour of the client as it occurs. It gives information about
pattern of communication, power and authority among family members, defective role play etc.

Tools of Social Investigation

a) Interview guide and Interview Schedule
b) Life Chart
c) Video recording of the family interaction
d) Tape recorded interview,

Format of interview guide:

i) History of the problem:
a) Major Problems
b) History of problems
c) Treatment or help taken so far.
ii) Personal History
a) Early development
b) Process of socialization
c) Coping pattern of day-to-day stress.
d) Schooling- likes, dislikes, academic achievement, extra curricular activities, model teacher’s behaviours,
significant incidents.
e) Marital History- age of marriage, willingness for marriage, types of marriage, personality of spouse, relationship
with in-laws and offspring’s
f) Habits-social habits, reading, writing, musical habits, drinking, smoking, etc.
g) Occupational habits- When and why started working, job satisfaction in every work, relationship with superiors
and colleagues, promotions, etc.
h) Income- Monthly income, level of satisfaction, spouse’s attitude towards clients income, debt, etc.

iii) Family history.

a) Family structure
b) Economic status
c) Educational history
d) Occupational history
e) Marital history
f) Moral and ethical history
g) Family Habits
h) Personality pattern
i) Interaction pattern
j) Patterns of decision-making
k) Existing role, structure in the family
l) Pattern of managing the problem
m) Social support system
n) Interaction of the family members with client

3) Analysis and Social Diagnosis : Definition, Contents, Types, and Steps

Social Diagnosis is an attempt to arrive to an exact definition about social situation and personality of the given client,
diagnosis is
a) An explanation formulated in the light of known fact.
b) An explanation made in knowledge of other possible explanation]
c) Subject to change whenever subsequent material needs of different explanation.

Content of the diagnosis:

1. The nature of the problem brought and the goals sought by the client in their relationship
2. The nature of the erson who bears the problem (his social and psychological situation and
functioning) and who seeks (or needs) help with his problem in relation to
3. The nature and purpose of the agency and the kind of help it can offer and / or make available.
Steps in Diagnosis
a) The social case worker begins to focus on problematic behaviour: The worker begins with the survey of both
functional and dysfunctional behaviours in client’s environment, thereby evaluating client’s personal strength as
well as his/her environment
b) A case worker specifies the target behaviour
c) Baseline data are collected to specify those events that appears to be currently controlling the problematic
behaviour.
d) The colleted information is summarized to establish objectives for treatment.
e) Selecting priorities for treatment is the final step of the diagnosis.

Perlman has described 3 types of diagnosis that is to be carried out in social case work process.
a) Dynamic Diagnosis: It gives an understanding of the current problem of the client and the forces currently
operating within the client within social environment and between his/her environment.
b) Clinical Diagnosis: Here the case worker attempts to classify the client by the nature of his/her sickness or
problem. It describes both the nature of the problem and its relation to the client and helping means and goals.
c) Etiological Diagnosis. It is concerned with the explanation of the beginnings and life history of the problems of
the client.

Data for Diagnosis:

Data for diagnosis can be collected by 3 methods:
a)Interviews: Interview guides are used for collecting information
b)Checklist and inventories: Survey schedule questionnaire on client’s perception on himself, family functioning, marital
functioning etc.
c) Direct Observation: Observation in those situation in which the behaviour actually occurs at place of work.

3. Social Treatment. Phases, and different types of treatment

According to Hamiltom, “Treatment is the sum total of all activities and services directed towards helping an individual
with their problem.
Objectives:
a) To prevent social breakdown
b) To conserve client’s strength
c) To restore social functioning.
d) To provide happy existence to the client.
e) To compensate psychological damage.
f) To increase capacity for self – direction
g) To increase the social contribution of the client.

Social Treatment Process:

a) Initial Phase
b) Motivation and Role Induction
c) Primary contact
d) Diagnosis and a\Assessment
e) Establishing treatment goals
f) Developing treatment plan
g) Preparation of actual treatment
h) Application of treatment methods
i) Monitoring and Evaluation
j) Planning, Follow-up and termination o therapeutic relationship.

a) Initial phase: The main task of social case worker in initial phase is to examine how the problem was brought to
his/her attention. The case worker would focus on aspects of problem that seem fit to case work treatment. He/
she also provide psychological support and help to the client.
b) Motivation and Role Induction: The objective is to build and develop therapeutic relationship between himself
and the client. Worker’s empathy, warmth and genuineness feelings are highly motivating forces for the client
 to take part in the treatment process . This phase helps to minimize premature termination and gives
motivation for continuing the treatment.
c) Primary Contact: The objective of this phase is to develop preliminary contract with the client which may be
oral or writing. The case worker thus making psychological contract, sets the state to more formal assessment.
d) Diagnosis and Assessment: During this phase, the case worker provides detailed information about the
problem, situation and establish the treatment goal, strategy of treatment and selection of specific procedures
of treatment. The case worker assess the client’s ego strength, skill, capabilities and capacities of the client in
relation to the problem. The case workers assesses whether the client needs advice, counsel, behaviour
modification , crisis intervention or consultancy services, resource location and reference.
e) Establishing Treatment goals: The social case worker establishes the goals for the solution of the problem.
They are:
i) Prevention of breakdown
ii) Ego Strengthening
iii) Restoration of Social functioning
iv) Creation of opportunities for growth and development
v) Self-direction experience
vi) Social participation experience
vii) Change in environment.
f) Developing Treatment Plan: Treatment planning involves 3 major dimensions;
i) Formulating a Strategy
ii) Selection of specific treatment procedures.
iii) Developing a method for evaluating the impact of the treatment program.
g) Preparation for Actual Treatment: It includes the following steps:-
i) Collecting all possible information
ii) Formation of action system
iii) Preparation of mediator, if needed.
Iv) Change of significant elements in client’s environment to get desired result.
v) Attempt to make a new behaviour acceptable to the client.
h) Application of treatment method: The treatment methods include:-
i) Administration of practical services
ii) Indirect treatment includes environmental manipulation.
iii) Direct Treatment it includes counseling, therapeutic interviewing, clarification, interpretation and
insight, psychological support.
i) Monitoring and evaluation:
Monitoring provides important feedbacks to the case worker and the client whether established goals
have been achieved, any modification is needed in the program. Evaluation helps to find out the
effectiveness and inner strength gained by the client during the case work process.
j) Planning, Follow-up, and Treatment of the therapeutic relationship
It is neither wise nor necessary for the termination to be brought to an abrupt end.. The frequency and
the amount of contact should be gradually decreased. The follow-up should be planned on a
progressively diminishing basis so that, termination to the program will be smooth and gradual.

Treatment Includes:
a. Support- The social worker gives a total support to the client to improve the client’s weak personality.
The Case workers tries to make good and strong relationship with the client. At the same time the client
is willing to share the problem. The client’s personality is respected and treat as a normal human being.
b. Clarification: It consist of giving the client information about the environment or people in the
environment, which the client does not possess and without which the client cannot see clearly what
steps ought to be taken.
c. Interpretation: The social case worker interprets the factors of the problem, related facts, attitudes of
client and unconscious feelings in relation to the reality situation.
d. Insight:- the case worker helps the client to an awareness of strong projection of the inner needs and subjective
responses upon the out world. Insight development is always accompanied by some degree of clarification and
psychological support.
 e. Counselling :- It is a personal help directed towards the solution of a problem which a person finds that they
cannot solve themselves and on which seeks the help of a skilled person whose knowledge , experience and
general orientation can be brought into plan to solve the problem
f. Therapeutic Interviewing: - It is used where intra-psychic conflict is projected to the environment or behaviour
disorders are acted out. The purpose is aimed at personality growth in the direction of maturing, competence
and self-actualization.
g. Environment modification:- Case worker should make the clients environment suitable for the personal growth
of the client. Counselling is provided the family members of client to make a better environment for the client
and to overcome from the problems.

Termination
Social workers should assess a client's ongoing treatment needs prior to initiating termination. The
NASW Social Work Dictionarydefines termination as: "The conclusion of the social worker –client intervention
process; a systematic procedure for disengaging the working relationship. It occurs when goals are reached,
when the specified time for working has ended, or when the client is no longer interested in continuing.
Termination often includes evaluating the progress toward goal achievement, working through resistance,
denial, and flight into illness. The termination phase also includes discussions about how to anticipate and
resolve future problems and how to find additional resources to call on as future needs indicate.1"
There are many reasons why therapy ends. A client may terminate at any time for any reason. Ideally,
termination occurs once the client and therapist agree that the treatment goals have been met or sufficient
progress has been made and/or the client improves and no longer needs clinical services.  However, there are
many valid reasons that are discussed below as to why the therapist-client relationship may end the treatment
before it is completed. Some of those reasons include:
 Client has mental health needs that are beyond the social worker's area of expertise. For example, the
client requires a different level of treatment (e.g., inpatient or crisis intervention) or more specialized
treatment (e.g., trauma or substance abuse) than the social worker provides in the practice setting
 Therapist is unable or unwilling, for appropriate reasons, to continue to provide care (e.g., therapist is
retiring/closing practice or client threatened therapist with violence)
 Conflict of interest is identified after treatment begins
 Client fails to make adequate progress toward treatment goals or fails to comply with treatment
recommendations
 Client fails to participate in therapy (e.g., non-compliance, no shows, or cancellations)
 Lack of communication/contact from the client
It is recommended that therapists have a final session with their clients to review the overall progress
before ending therapy, but sometimes this cannot happen, e.g., when the client stops communicating
with the therapist. It is suggested that therapists create a policy for their practice so that cases are
routinely closed after a certain amount of time without any contact from a client, for example: "If I do
not have contact or communication from you for a period of _______ days, I will assume that you no
longer intend to remain active in this therapeutic relationship and your case will be closed. You can
return to therapy in the future if you decide to continue treatment." One way to establish that timeframe
is to think about how long you want to be the therapist of record without seeing a client.
 Non-payment of agreed upon fees:
Before a social worker terminates for non-payment, the following criteria should be met:
1. The financial contractual arrangements have been made clear to the client, preferably in writing.
2. The client does not pose an imminent danger to self or others.
3. The clinical and other consequences of the non-payment (i.e., disruption of
treatment/interruption of services) have been discussed with the client. NASW Code of Ethics,
1.16c
Certain circumstances may support a delay of the termination. For instance, it is not recommended that a
therapist end treatment with a client who is in crisis at the time termination is being considered. A social worker
has a responsibility to see that clinical services are made available when a client is in crisis. Postponing
termination is preferred, if possible, until steps are in place to handle the crisis. 
Abandonment
Abandonment is a specific form of malpractice that can occur in the context of a mental health professional's
termination of services. Abandonment, also referred to as "premature termination,' occurs when a social worker
is unavailable or precipitously discontinues service to a client who is in need.
In a malpractice case based on abandonment, the client alleges that the therapist was providing treatment and
then unilaterally terminated treatment improperly. The client must show that he was directly harmed by the
abandonment and that the harm resulted in a compensable injury.  The client's dissatisfaction with the outcome
is not sufficient to establish the therapist's negligence. The client must also show that the termination was not
his fault, e.g., that he kept his appointments, complied with treatment recommendations, and paid his bills.2
It is critical to be able to establish both the reason for termination and the manner in which it is carried out.
After beginning a therapeutic relationship with a client, a social worker must not terminate therapy abruptly
without referring the client to another mental health practitioner. If the social worker does not properly
terminate the client-therapist relationship, the social worker exposes himself to allegations of abandonment
which could lead to a lawsuit, a complaint to the state licensing board, or a request for professional review by
the NASW Ethics Committee.3 Proper termination that has been documented is a defense to abandonment
allegations, and it supports good client care.
Termination of Services
(a) Social workers should terminate services to clients and professional relationships with them when such
services and relationships are no longer required or no longer serve the clients' needs or interests.
(b) Social workers should take reasonable steps to avoid abandoning clients who are still in need of services.
Social workers should withdraw services precipitously only under unusual circumstances, giving careful
consideration to all factors in the situation and taking care to minimize possible adverse effects. Social workers
should assist in making appropriate arrangements for continuation of services when necessary.
(c) Social workers in fee-for-service settings may terminate services to clients who are not paying an overdue
balance if the financial contractual arrangements have been made clear to the client, if the client does not pose
an imminent danger to self or others, and if the clinical and other consequences of the current nonpayment have
been addressed and discussed with the client.
(d) Social workers should not terminate services to pursue a social, financial, or sexual relationship with a
client.
(e) Social workers who anticipate the termination or interruption of services to clients should notify clients
promptly and seek the transfer, referral, or continuation of services in relation to the clients' needs and
preferences.
(f) Social workers who are leaving an employment setting should inform clients of appropriate options for the
continuation of services and of the benefits and risks of the options.
Tips for Termination
 Prepare for termination from the beginning. Termination should be discussed early so both parties can
have a number of sessions to discuss ending therapy.
 If continued treatment is needed, provide referrals to several mental health professionals, with addresses
and phone numbers. Three referrals is the "rule of thumb" minimum. If possible and with the client's
consent, assist in the transition to other health care providers.
 Conduct the final session face -to-face, if possible. Avoid ending with a text, in an email or with a
voicemail message.
 Make sure the client understands when, why and how therapy will be terminated.
 Document discussions about termination.
 Formalize the termination with a personalized termination letter (not a form letter).
What to include in a termination letter?
It is good practice for a social worker to draft a termination of treatment letter to every client once treatment has
ended, regardless of the reason, to formally end the therapeutic relationship. This provides clarity to the client,
and it helps avoid any implication that the social worker has an ongoing therapeutic responsibility.  The
termination letter would be in the form of a business letter and include:
 Client's name
 Date treatment began
 Effective date of termination
 State the reason(s) for the termination. (e.g., treatment goals have been met, client's needs are beyond
the scope of social's workers practice or area of expertise, non-compliance with treatment
recommendations, therapist is retiring/closing practice)
 Summary of treatment, including whether you feel further treatment is recommended

If continued treatment is needed, provide three referrals to mental health professionals, with contact

information
 Present the letter in person during a session or send it with delivery tracking and confirmation service
and/or certified return receipt
 Retain a copy of the letter and delivery documentation in the client's file
 Mark the letter "confidential"
 Don't mention confidential therapeutic treatment information
Follow-up
The follow-up should be planned on a progressively diminishing basis, first, perhaps after 2 weeks, than a
month, then three months, six months and a year following the termination of the formal programme to access the
effective implementation of the treatment techniques and to prevent relapse.

Phases of Direct Social Work Practice:

 Exploration, Engagement, Assessment and Planning;
 Implementation and goal attainment;
Termination and Evaluation
Social Case work is an ongoing process of exploration (Study) assessment (diagnosis) formulation of goals and treatment
planning and intervention to treatment and termination.
According to Mary Richmond, the case worker must secure all the facts through interview, observation and logical
reasoning to reveal the clients personality and his situation for appropriate intervention. An exhaustive collection of the
facts about the client and his situation is called ”the study”.

Exploration phase lays sown the ground work for the subsequent intervention and strategies aimed at resolving clients
problem and promoting problem solving skill. The first phase include:
1) Exploring clients problem by eliciting comprehensive data the persons problem and
environmental factors including forces impinging on the referral for contact.
2) Establishing rapport and enhancing motivation
3) Formulating a multidimensional assessment of the problem, identifying systems that plays a
significant role in difficulties, and identifying relevant resources that can be tapped or must be
developed.
4) Mutually negotiating goals to be accompanied in remedying or alleviating the problem and
formulating a contract
5) Making referrals.

Exploratory phases is divided into 3 major subdivision

a) Intake: It is defined a the skillful probing into the clients problem by mopping up all the relevant areas of the
person in problem situation
The major areas of probing are
a) the state of the problem(mild,, moderate and chronic)
b) Cause of the problem as seen by the client
c) Does the request of the client relate directly to his need or problem.
d) Client’s adjustment to their social functioning, job, family etc.
e) State of his physical and mental health.
f) Client’s appearance including dress, grooming etc.
g) Material and financial position
h) Nature of defense mechanism
i) Level of motivation to get rid of his problem
j) Whether the case need to be referred or not.

b) Maintaining psychological contact with the client .: This phase includes 2 performance variables
i. Stimulus response congruence: stimulus is from the client, response is from the social worker. Social
workers response must be such that client feels that his message is accurately received. For this case
 workers attitude, attentiveness and receptivity is very important, because then only client feels safe in
revealing his story. Case workers comments and question stimulate the thinking of the client about the
problem.
ii. Content relevant: The client must feel that the content of the social workers is relevant and subjective.
Client feels supported by the social workers attitude, his confidence rises as he sees that the case worker
has a more systematic way of tackling his problem by the relief of sharing his burden.

c) Exploring the problem:

The most important part of the beginning or exploratory phase is exploring the problem. It consists of 3 steps
i) Selecting topics of exploration: The nature, significance of the problem, its cases, feelings and reactions, clients
effort to solve the problem. The relationship of clients problem with individual family members
 Brief history of the criminal background if any
 Peer group relationship
 Clients life goals
 Approach to counseling
 Motivation to solve the problem

Exploring topics in depth

A major fact of focusing involves centering discussion on relevant topics to assure that exploration moves from
generality and superficiality to more depth and meaningful. It is facilitated through open ended responses by seeking
concreteness, empathetic responses and selectively attending to certain specific.

Maintaining focus and keeping on the topic.

It is essential because:
a) It help to fruitfully use the limited time of the social worker and the client when they are together.
b) Client has limited perspective of their problem. The experience and guidance of the practitioner help them to
focus on the problem in depth until desired changes occurs. It refocuses the attention from the dysfunctional
elements that distracts the client.

Engagement (Study)
During the engagement stage, the social worker should focus on building trust and rapport with the client, so
that mutually-agreed upon goals can be determined. In engagement, the social worker is actively involved with
the client, listening to her/his perspectives on problems, reasons for seeking treatment, and desired outcomes of
therapy.

* In the study phase, the client is engaged in presenting the problem.

* The key is engagement.
* Client makes the important decision whether to enter treatment.
*Emphasis on the interaction is on the here-and –now and on the problem not as might be perceived by the worker, but
as experienced at the moment by the client.
* Data gathering and history taking concentrate on relevance
*Contacts during the initial phase may be among the most dynamic of the entire process.
*Client is likely to feel most helpless and vulnerable and most available to the helping process.
*Sympathetic listening, demonstration of acceptance, reassurance, demonstration of confidence in ability, and judicious
stroking are powerful tools of the social worker and can be highly therapeutic.

Assessment:
During the assessment stage, the focus shifts to information gathering. In assessment, social workers should
collect key data about the client through interviews and other assessment techniques and instruments and
collateral contacts. This information will assist both the client and the social worker in defining problems and
possible solutions. During assessment, social workers must remember to operate from a strengths-based
perspective, with careful attention to seeking information about client’s skills, capacities, resources, and other
strengths.

 It includes initial impressions that are confirmed, modified or rejected in the light of additional information
 It includes judgment about the strength and limitations of the individual in coping with the situation
 Treatment planning and treatment itself are guided by assessment.
 There is mutual agreement of the worker and the client in assessment.
 Goals must be congruent with the client’s need and the availability of services. These goals are respected,
supported and reinforced.

Planning: The planning stage is focused on goal development, based on a mutual understanding of the client’s
problems, lifestyle, and environment. During this stage, the social worker and client work together to develop
an action-plan that is suited to the client’s unique circumstances. This action-plan should include specific
objectives and tasks that work toward accomplishing the stated goals, with a clear timeline for action, and
expectations of who will do what.

Interventions:
Intervention is the stage when the client and social worker mobilize resources to implement the action-plan,
both complying with their agreed-upon expectations. During this stage, the social worker should monitor client
progress, and the client should bring to the social worker’s attention any challenges, obstacles, or threats to
carrying out the action-plan. Plans and timelines can be adjusted as needed to ensure that the intervention is
working for the client.

 Intervention or treatment begins with the first contact

 The study process is treatment when it helps the client to clarify the problem and to make changes from this
understanding.
 The relationship is the mainspring of social work intervention.
 Warmth, caring and congruence have been identified as essential qualities.
 Skills include interviewing, recording, letter writing, referrals to other agencies and services and helping the
client to use personal and other resources.
 Efforts, support and strengthen the client’s ego through emotional catharsis, reassurance, clarification of the
problem and sympathetic listening.

Basic Principles of Intervention:

 Right to determine own course of action within the limits of their capacity to make sound choices
 Acceptance of client as is, implying acceptance in their capacity to change.
 Relate to strengths rather than pathology.
 Seeks to understand the person and to help plan for constructive change
 Knowledge about the client’s family and its situation is used responsibly.
 Professional responsibility for the welfare of the total family.
 Responsible not only to the client but to oneself, the agency, the community and the profession
 Innovations of professional activities must be consistent with case work goals.

Termination:
The ultimate goal of any therapeutic intervention is that a time will come when the client is able to maintain progress
on their own. Termination is thus the last stage of the generalist practice model. During this stage, the client reflects
on her/his accomplishments, and client and social worker work together to identify resources and supports in place
to help the client should problems re-emerge.
*The ending or limiting of a process that was commenced when the agency agreed to enter into the intervention process
aimed at delivering a service to a client with a problem.

 A time when the client can look back with satisfaction on what has been accomplished.
 Signals that the worker has confidence in the clients’ ability to learn to cope with situation and grow.
Multi-Systems Approach:

 One of the newer approaches to social work

 Affirms that interrelationships of the individual to an interlocking network of systems each influencing the
other.
 Takes into consideration the importance of the systems impacting and being impacted by each other.

Negotiating Goals and Formulating a contract:

Activities involved in negotiating goals

i) Determine clients readiness to negotiate goals.: When the worker has fully understood the problem, the worker can
ask the opinion of the client, if he/she is ready to negotiate goals. If then is readiness, then the worker can move into
next step.

ii) Explaining the Purpose of Goals: Explanation will increase clients receptivity process and foster their participation. If
client appears confused, the worker should clarify further functioning of goals. If client responds positively, the worker
can advance to next step.

iii) Mutually select appropriate goals: The worker should ask the client to identify goals they would like to achieve. If
the client have difficulty , the worker can prompt them by referring to the problem. The worker can also suggest
changes in goals, relating to the problem. The worker facilitate the clients by giving feed back regarding their effort and
encouraging then to think of others. With little encouragement most of the clients identify key goals. Sometimes client
may overlook or omit certain goals. The worker has the responsibility to bring them to client’s notice and explain the
reason for offering them.

iv) Define goals explicitly: If the worker is successful in previous step then this task may require little attentions. By
defining the goal explicitly, on are determining the extend of change desired by the clients. Before settling upon a goal,
it is important to ascertain their feasibility and to assess the benefit and risk associated with them. A practitioner has
obligation to assure that client weigh possible risk, associated with attaining goals.

v) Assist clients to make a choice about committing themselves to specific goals: After discussing the benefits and
merits of specific goals, next step is to consider their consequence and to reach a decision about making a commitment
to strive to attain goals.
Occasionally clients manifest market ambivalence which indicates needs to explore their reservation. When the client
encounter irrational fear one should focus on them. The worker should assist the client to realize that the goal is an
important dynamics in problems and that it is unfortunate to avoid due to unrealistic fear. When client manifest
controlled ambivalence, it is best to suggest that they may take additional time to ponder a decision. The worker should
express willingness to work with them further.

vi) Rank Goals according to clients: After client have settled in , on goals and have committed themselves to working
towards them, the final step 0f goal negotiating is to assign priorities to the goal. Compared with other step , aspect of
goal negotiating it assures maximal responsibility and participation in process by clients thereby enhancing motivation
to work on goal attainment. With larger system, it is desirable to have list of goals for both individuals and the system
and the rank the goal for each person and system. In ranking goals for system, one may need to assist members to
negotiate ranking with difference exist.
Setting unreasonably high goals by practitioners only leads the client towards disappointment, frustration, erosion of
confidence in their own capacities. In instances where goals were set in advance without consulting the clients, poor
outcome was observed due to the fact that practitioner and client were working towards different ends.

Purpose and Goals

a. Ensure that practitioner and clients are in agreement about goals to be achieved.
b. Provide direction and continuity to the helping process and prevent needless wandering.
c. Facilitating the development and selection of appropriate strategeries and interventions
d. Assist practitioners and clients in monitoring their progress.
e. Serve as outcome criteria in evaluating the effectiveness specific interventions and of the helping
process.

Types of goals:

Discrete Goals- It consist of one-time actions that resolve problems Eg. A major decision (deciding whether to accepted
an unborn infant or place it for adoption.

Ongoing goals- it involves actions that are continuous and repetitive and progress towards such goals is therefore
incremental.
Eg. Asserting one’s rights, controlling anger, setting limits with anger.

Goals with individuals generally involve changes in

a) cognitive functioning
b) Emotional functioning
c) Behavioral changes.

When the client is a couple or gamily, goals can either be share goals (marital partners listening to one another without
interruption) or reciprocal goals.

Shared goals: The members are committed to change their behaviours in the same way.
With reciprocal goals, members of a system seek to solve interactional problems by exchanging different behaviours. Eg.
A couple where the husband and wife complain their intentions have decreased may agree to a shared goal of their
verbal exchanges and further agree to reciprocal individual sub goals that include attentive listening and interaction
from both sides.

Reciprocal goals is where each person agrees to modify personal behaviour contingent upon corresponding changes by
the other.

Guidelines for selecting and defining goals

1) Goals must relate to the desired end results sought by clients. In negotiating goals, social worker should have no
hidden agenda and should accord the client final authority in selecting appropriate goals. However, social workers has a
prominent role in guiding the client for selecting the goals and also a responsibility to share ones expertise in this
regard.

2) Goals should be defined in explicit and measurable terms: Each client should be able to specify what one will be
doing differently or what changes will take place in him/her.
a) Clearly stated goals should specify bothe overt and covert changes to be accomplished and should be measurable.
b) Another aspect of defining a goal explicitly involves specifying essential behavioural changes of all persons in the
target system with respect to share or reciprocal goals.
c) A final aspect of defining goals explicitly into specify the degree or extent of change desired by clients.
3. Goals must be feasible: One should not formulate goals that are overtly ambitious or unrealistic. Selecting
unachievable goals sets clients up for a failure. It may produce discouragement or disillusionment.

4. Goals should commensurate with the knowledge and skill of the practitioner: The social worker should not
undertake intervention for which he lacks competence. Practioners are obligated to explain their limitation with regard
for the goals. The social worker should be confident that undertaking the goal will help him to solve the problem or help
the clients risk.

5. Whenever possible goals should be stated in positive terms that emphasize growth

6, Avoid agreeing to have major reservations.

Instances, sometimes neither ethical nor wise to enter into agreement to pursue certain goals. In such cases it is
generally wise to refer them to another professional person who is comfortable in working towards such goals.
7.Goals must be consistent with the functions of the agency.

8. If the agency cannot meet client’s needs, through its goals, then the client must be referred to another agency.

Formulating a Contract: Practioners formulate various types of contract

a) Written contract:
Specify each of the items listed and provide space for entering details
Client and practitioner sign a contract giving it a legal ouch though it has no legal binding.
Written contract will emphasize the commitment both the clients and practitioners make and minimizes the possibility
of misunderstanding.

Elements for formulating a contract:

1) Goals to be accomplished
2) Role of the participants
3) Forms of interventions or techniques to be employed.
4) Time frame and frequency and length of session
5) Means of monitoring progress
6) Stipulations for renegotiating the contract
7) Housekeeping item.

Clarify the roles

It is always important to clarify the roles of clients and practioners as well as the nature of problem-solving process.
Unsophisticated clients, especially those from low socio-economic levels, often expect a lot from the practioner, this
may impair the helping process. Dissatisfaction (according to research) arise when there is a clash of perspective and
expectations between clients and social workers. Dropout rate of the client can be lowered during the intake process by
concentrating on eliciting clients conceptions and expectations of the helping process and by clarifying gap between
expectations and what realistically could be offered.

a) Determine the client’s expectations:

b) Some clients convey expectations without prompting from a practitioner. For eg;- after reciting the problems
created by her son , the mother declares, we were hoping you could talk to him.

It is important not to probe expectations until you have established rapport, because the client’s request often turns out
to be a most intimate revelation. If client have not spontaneously revealed then requests, it can be elicited by raising a
question. This requires appropriate timing and skill.

b) Briefly explain the nature of the helping process and define your relationship as partners seeking a solution to
their difficulties.
 It includes elements:
i) Acknowledging and emphasizing with the clients unrealistic expectations
ii) Expressing helpful incident
iii) Explaining why the client’s unrealistic expectation cannot be fulfilled.
iv) Clarifying the helpful process and defining a working partnership that places responsibility on the client for
actively participating and ultimately making choices in how to solve the problem

II) Aspects of Role

a) Content of session is of less significance when compared to method used to solve the problem
b) Keeping appointments (discussing it emphasized clients responsibilities and prepares them to cope
constructively with obstacles).
c) Difficulties inherent in the process of making change.
I) help them to make alternatives
ii) Develop their strength and exercise their capabilities
iii) Emphasize that the role of practitioners is to assist the client to form an
the incremental growth.
d) Encourage them to learn, to recognize and accredit their own strength and growth independently.
e) Clarify to the client that you will assist them in anticipating obstacles, they’ll encounter and will formulate
strategies to surmount these obstacles.

III) Interventions or Techniques to be employed:

Irrespective of when the worker consider implementing interview, it is vital to discuss them with the clients, to present a
brief overview of the intervention, to elicit client’s reaction and to give their consent.( these we should bear in mind that
contracting is an on-going process)

IV) Time frame, Frequency and Length of Sessions

Time-frame
There are basically 2 types of time-duration
a) Time-limited services (Planned short term service)- it involves a specified maximum not of session.
b) Open ended service – it does not specify the limits.
c) The studies mad on them have included that time limited interventions are equally effective as open ended
interventions.

Advantages of Time Limited Service:

1) The Time Limited Service is cost effective. Results equal to open ended service can be achieved at much lesser
cost.
2) More clients can be served under Time Limited service. The problem of waiting list can be reduced.
3) Time Limited service forester optimism of clients (when practitioners express confidence that improvements are
possible in a short time]
4) Time Limited Service facilitates the process of termination by introducing it during the preliminary
contracting phase. By knowing the duration of the service in advance, the client has opportunity to
work through reactions to terminating.

Frequency of sessions
From Various studies, it is concluded that relatively intense schedules. Produce the most favourable results.
But sometimes, the client may request more frequent session and social workers has to express his/her
recommendation. Most clients go by the opinion of the practitioner. Though, it is a good to ask the opinion of
client, the final decision should be that of the social worker.

Length of Sessions:
There is no solid guidelines regarding the length of session. A 50 minute sessions is the prevailing norm but
more time is frequently allotted to intake session and to regular family and group sessions. As some children
and adolescent have difficult in tolerating 50 minute session, shorter but more common session are common
variations.

Means of Monitoring Progress

Advantages of Monitoring.
1) It takes an action oriented mind set that is conducive to change (maintaining the expectancy of
change thus enhances motivation of client)
2) Systematic monitoring provides feedback about the efficacy of the interventions and the clients
views and attitudes concerning their experience.

The former enables the social work to make decisions about whether to continue with the some interventions
or continue to different . If baseline data is not available, the social work can ask the client to rate their
progress on a scale of 1 to 10( 1 representative no progress, 10 representative complete achievement of given
goal.). Comparing the rating at each meeting will give rough estimate of clients progress

Frequency of Monitoring:
Some clients prefer few minutes every session whereas others may prefer to discuss progress less frequently.
The social worker should be flexile but not allow more than 3 session between discussions of progress.

Stipulation of Renegotiating the Contract

As contracting is a ling process, it is important to clarify for clients that conditions in the contract are subject
to renegotiation at any time. As circumstances change and new facts emerge. The contract should be
constantly updated.(The social worker should specify to the client that modifications in the contract can be
made at any time.)

House keeping item

It includes establishing a beginning date, clarifying provisions for canceling or changing schedule dates,
firming up financial arrangements. If any appointment is cancelled or changes, the client should provide
advance notice ( atleast 24 hours before) so that the time can be rescheduled for others. Usually it is desirable
to change clients for appointments, they fail to keep, If the client fail to pay the feeds according to contract,
the social worker should explore the matter with him promptly.

Termination and Evaluation

Termination: It is the final stage of helping process. It is a time to consider , the positive changes that have
been made and how these can be consolidated and built upon after treatment is over . Features of
Termination
1) Requires persistence on workers part, to promote a therapeutic climate that fosters openness
and honest between the client and the worker.
2) Requires some acknowledgement by clients ( related to their feelings towards workers)
3) Requires accuracy and carefulness
4) It is difficult for Workers.

Task Embodied in Termination:

a) Determining when to implement termination
b) Mutually resolving emotional reactions experienced during the process of separation
c) Evaluating services provided and the extend to which goals were accomplished.
 d) Planning to maintain goals and to achieve growth. The client should maintain goals and achieving
growth.

Types of Termination”
a) Premature unilateral termination by client- It generally indicate dissatisfaction by client and negative
out comes. Defaults of the voluntary clients, simply failing to appear for appointments and refusing to
return to discuss the matter further. Clients also terminate contract with the practitioner because of
circumstances beyond control like illness or death.
b) Planned termination by temporal constraints associated with an agency’s function.- It is related to
agency function that involves services according to fixed time intervals.Termination must be planned
accordingly, but the clients problem may not have been adequately resolved by the endings of a fixed
time. Eg. The school settings service are generally discontinued at the conclusion of an academic year
c) Planned termination associated with time limited service.- Time limit is negotiated in advance ie.
Knowing the ending time almost from the beginning. This limits degree of emotional attachment,
dependency and also the degree of loss experience by client due to termination
d) Planned termination involving open-ended service.-It first of all determines when to terminate.
It is appropriate to introduce termination when the client has reached the point of diminishing returns.
e) Termination by departure of a practitioner
Departure precipitated by reassignment or changing of employment occur.
Difficult for both client and practitioner - clients need emotional assistance.

Process:

A technique that is useful with an assertive client, may produce an opposite effect with a depressed client An
important aspect of ethical practices is to seek constantly to upgrade one’s effectiveness by obtaining and
applying systematic feed back about clients perceptions of the practitioner’s implementation of interventions.
These feedback are highly informative, confidence building or perhaps humbling. Even group members often
identify certain aspect of group process or behaviours by other members that were helpful factors the
practitioners may have overlooked. So as we expand our knowledge of non specific factor, we can knowingly
incorporate them into practice thereby enhancing our therapeutic effectiveness.

Client –Case Worker Relationship:

Characteristic:
Perlman has described the following characteristics of case worker-client relationship:
a) Vital relationships between people rise out of shared and emotionally charged situations.
b) All growth-producing relationships, of which the case work relationship is one, contain elements of
acceptance and expectation, support and stimulation.
c) The identifying mark of a professional relationship is its conscious purposiveness growing out of the
knowledge of what must go into achieving the goal.
d) The case work relationship begins as the client share some part of his/her problem and as the case
worker demonstrates that the feels with the client at the same time that he/her\\she has professional
competence to being to dealing with the problem
e) The case worker relationship may have several therapeutic values.
f) Relationship needs and difficulties from outside the case work situation my intrude into and
complicate the case worker relationship and may have to be dealt with.
g) The case worker, too, has relationship reactions and part of his/her professional skill in the
management of them.

Purpose or Use of Relationship

 a) Better Solutions of client’s problem
b) Exploitation of means for solving problem
c) Stating reality and emotional problems
d) Solution of the personal problem
e) Development of personality.
The conscious, purposive and deliberate efforts to develop a helping relationship contains elements of:

(1) Purpose and concern for the client system;

(2) Expectations;
(3) Empathy and clear communication;
(4) Genuineness and acceptance; and
(5) Authority.

1. Purpose and Concern:

The purpose and concern for the client involves the worker’s care for everything that happens to the client in such a
way that the client feels and realises the worker’s concern for him. According to Fromm (1956), it consists of “sense of
responsibility, care, respect, knowledge of other human beings and the wish to further their lives”. It means that we
involve ourselves deeply in the affairs of client without getting obsessed by it.
Keith-Lucas (1972) observes that concern implies serving the interest of the client. Concern for other includes meanings
expressed in concepts like understanding, warmth, unconditional respect, and liking etc., which is communicated
through punctuality, taking consent before making home/ school visits, observing cultural norms for showing respects,
attentive listening, questioning and commenting as and when desirable for helping the client.
Our knowledge, skills and experience are to be used to foster movement in the client towards the desired and
consciously determined purpose. It is this purpose that improves the social functioning within the orbit of social work
profession and guides the relationship with the client. The purpose of establishing relationship is known to and accepted
by both worker and client. Relationship is established around this purpose.

2. Expectations:
Persons frequently tend to anticipate what gains, losses or experiences will accrue to them out of a particular event or
contact with a person. We all experience how expectations of the future affect our behaviour in the present, and which,
in turn, influences our future behaviour and our sense of security and well-being.
Expectations are major determinants of behaviour. How client’s expectancies are confirmed or disconfirmed will affect
his relationship with the worker and their interaction within it. This warrants clarification about the expectations in
precise terms each has from the other.
In general, three types of expectations are always found in the client-worker relationship. One is, how the worker feels
about the client’s ability and desire to change, and his own ability to effect change in the client’s situation. To be
effective, the worker must be convinced of the “power of the push” towards self-development, i.e., the client can
change given appropriate help and support.
The second is, what are the expectations of the client from the worker? Client cannot be effectively helped unless his
expectations are met by the workers’ behaviour. In other words, the expectations of the worker and that of the client
should be in accord as to what will be going on between them in the transactions between them.
The more discrepancy between what the clients expects and what happens in the client-worker transactions, the lesser
are the chances for the client to continue in the relationship. The third expectation is of positive results following the
interaction with the worker.
This involves faith of the client in the efficacy of the treatment process and the worker’s professional competence and
helpfulness. The worker must confirm or work out these expectations to seek deeper involvement and continuance of
the client in the helping process.
3. Empathy:

Perlman (1979) explains this as “feeling with and into another person, being able to get into his shoes”. Thus, one tries
to know what the client feels and experiences without getting lost in the process. Rogers (1966) explains empathy as
“the perceiving of the internal frame of reference of another with accuracy, and with the emotional components which
pertain thereto, as if one were the other person but without ever losing the ‘as if condition”.
Empathy communicates that the worker understands the depth of the feeling of the client and that he is with him. It
requires an imaginative capacity. Comments like the following communicate empathy: “I understand that you are
upset”. “I can understand how perturbed you are because of…”, “It must be difficult for you to…” Empathy does not
mean the loss of objectivity. It can be learned and developed so that the therapist can understand the world of the
client “as he sees it”.
The helper can be effective in communicating empathic understanding when he:

(1) Concentrates with intensity upon the helpee’s expressions, both verbal and non-verbal;
(2) Concentrates on responses that are interchangeable with the helper;
(3) Formulates his responses in language that is most attuned to the helpee;
(4) Responds in a feeling tone similar to that communicated by the helpee;
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(5) Is most responsive (interacts with the helpee);
(6) Having established an interchangeable base of communication, moves tentatively towards expanding and clarifying
the helpee’s experiences at higher levels;
(7) Concentrates upon what is not being expressed by the helpee (the deepest level of empathy involves filling in what is
missing rather than simply dealing with what is present); and
(8) Employs the helpee’s behaviour as the best guideline to assess the effectiveness of his response.
Communication plays a very vital role in establishing relationship and is most important of all.

4. Genuineness and Acceptance:

To be genuine and congruent, the worker relies on his moment to moment felt experiences in his relationship with the
client. Genuineness should reflect from the worker’s behaviour and permeate his all interactions with the client. A
genuine and congruent relationship consists of a consistent and honest openness and behaviour matching with the
verbalised intentions and values of social work.

The worker should be consistent in his communications and behaviour towards the client. If he says that he is honest,
he must accept it when he commits mistakes. Similarly, his claim to help the client must get expressed in his efforts.
Congruence implies workers being what he feels inside. The Indian scriptures emphasise this when they exhort men to
be consistent in their thinking, talking and acting upon.

If we are genuinely interested in the client’s welfare, it is bound to show up in our behaviour. It means, then, that we
must try to translate our inner feelings into behaviour if it does not show up properly. To be genuine and congruent,
one must understand oneself in terms of one’s capabilities, attitudes, prejudices, personal values, temperament, etc.
Knowledge of agency and its policies, procedures, role, commitment to the client’s welfare will facilitate being genuine.
Rogers (1954) has emphasised this as one of the most important factors (others being empathy and positive regards) for
effecting change m clients.

Acceptance, as usually understood, is to accept (like) the person but not all his actions. This notion of acceptance leaves
enough scope for criticism of the client’s certain actions though out of goodwill only. Gandhiji has also said the same
thing when he asks to “hate the sin and not the sinner”.

Some authors explain this in terms of receiving what the clients offer of themselves with a respect for their capacity and
worth, belief in their capacity to grow and change, and with awareness that their behaviour can be understood as a
means to cope with the situations.

Acceptance is to express one’s goodwill towards the client in spite of his weaknesses or unhealthy behaviour.
Acceptance implies that the worker considers the client as a person with feelings, thoughts and experiences unique to
him.

It emphasises the worker’s faith in the capacity of the clients for self-determination and self-direction. Acceptance
assumes that people behave and act as they ought to because of the particular nature of the situation in which they are.
They are what they ought to be because of their environment, capacities and other endowments. Acceptance is
communicated through expressing concern and respect to the client.

5. Authority:
Social workers have always been concerned with the use of authority as a tool to help clients who need protective kind
of services and whose ego functioning is poor. Authority is the power delegated to the practitioners by society (client
and agency) because of his status and expertise in the field.

Power denotes the inherent ability or the admitted right to rule, govern or determine. Authority refers to the power
because of rank or office to give commands, enforce obedience and make a decision. Herein, the worker (practitioner)
occupying a certain position in the agency is perceived as having power to influence the client to move towards the
desired goal of change and growth.

Authority, thus, gets vested in the worker because of his status in the agency (social or bureaucratic authority) and
because of his knowledge and experience (psychological or professional authority). The client considers the worker a”;
competent to help him, direct his activities and guide him in solution of his problems, thus, experience security in his
relationship with the worker.

This sense of security in the client will vary with the level of expertise of the worker and the personal state (level of
anxiety, self-confidence, resourcefulness) of the client. Authority is always present in the worker-client relationship and
the worker cannot be divested of the authority and power as he is the provider/supplier of the services the client needs.

This also means, therefore, that worker-client relationship cannot be on equal terms. Power emanating from authority
becomes apparent when the worker gives appointment, includes other members of the family in the treatment process,
explains him the dynamics of various situations and questions his late arrival etc.

Weber, as described by Haralambos and Heald (1980), has described three types of authority as under:

(i) Traditional,

(ii) Charismatic, and

(iii) Legal authority.

i. Traditional:

It is based on the belief in the rightness of customs and traditions. This perpetuates the social order and it is available to
individuals and groups who inherit it from their predecessors like priests, father in the Indian family, etc.

ii. Charismatic:

This is derived from the submission (devotion) felt by the subjects to a certain man because of his special or exceptional
qualities. Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Christ, Gandhiji, etc., were in this category of persons exhibiting charisma and thereby
exerted charismatic authority on the masses.

iii. Legal Authority:

It emanates from the legal provisions, e.g., acts, rules, legal procedures etc. These are rational and embody the society’s
wider approval. In casework, formal (legal) authority operates only in cases of probation, aftercare, home services, etc.
In such settings, the caseworker derives authority mainly from the agency. Informal (traditional and charismatic)
authority grows out of respect for the caseworkers in the relationship.

Authority can be used:

(i) To persuade the client to use casework services;
(ii) To instil confidence and build up self-esteem, and minimise guilt and anxiety in the clients. This is done by lawfully
siding with the client, explaining the legal position and lending due support to him;
(iii) In crisis situations like suicide, violence, etc., to aid the victims;
(iv) For setting limits in order to relieve the client from internal or external pressures because of which he is unable to
decide the nature of action he should take in the particular situation; and
(v) To inculcate appropriate values in the client so that he could substitute his socially undesirable values by the
desirable ones for better life. This is achieved easily when the caseworker is in position to exert more influence
(authority) on the client.
In other words, effective use of authority can:
(i) Serve as a starting point in getting the client engaged in the helping process,
(ii) Help in dealing with resistance,
(iii) Give to the client the satisfaction of identifying with a strong/adequate person,
(iv) Create trust and rapport quickly,
(v) Help in protection of clients like immature persons, children, the aged, etc.,
(vi) Help in handling the crisis situations in the individual’s life,
(vii) Help in removing/minimising guilt and anxiety, and
(viii) Give a sense of security to the client because of which he may respond better to casework treatment. Techniques
used in such situations are advice, limit setting, coercion, reaching-out, direct intervention etc.
On the other hand, authority if not property used, can cause resistance in client, poor rapport and mutual mistrust, etc.
hitting at the very root of the helping process. Indian masses are found to be more responsive to an approach based on
use of authority probably because of its history of feudalistic pattern of society.

Transference:
Transference is the tendency of every human being to relate to emotions and attitude that have developed during a
person’s growth to those people in his /her immediate environment. The term “transference” was introduced in social
work by “Jessie Tatt in 1924, A Client transfers to a real person’s feelings, attitudes and fantasy which came from his/her
unconscious mind and which are remaining of his/her infant experiences and conflicts.

Types of Transference:
Positive Transference: If the parents of the client have been friendly and helpful, even thought unsuccessfully but with
the child’s (client) interest at heart, he/she will transfer a desire for help, friendship, guidance, emotional support and
interest. It is known as positive transference. If the transference is positive help can be given more quickly and easily..
Negative Transference: If during client’s early development, the parents had not shown interest in him/her and were
indifferent, then the client will transfer feeling of unfriendliness, suspicion and distrust. This is known as negative
transference. When transference is negative, part of the work of the case worker is to help the client understand the
origin of the negative feeling and work towards making them more positive.

Uses of Transference:
1.Understanding the transference: It is essential for a case worker or it helps him/her to understand the behaviour of
the client and to recognized its significance in its developmental process.
2) Utilization the Transference: It depends upon the understanding of social case worker about the phenomena. It help
to establish a relationship between case worker and the client which allows for the utilization of techniques like
suggestions, advices counseling and education.
3) Interpreting the Transference: It involves confronting the individual’s with the awareness that his/her behavior is
repetition of a specific unconscious infantile constellation and need the preparation of the individual by the careful
analysis of his/her unconscious defenses.

Uses of Transference in Diagnosis:

Transference diminishes the resistances to some extent and thus helps the client to talk more freely and friendly It gives
clues by which the social case worker infers the nature of the underlying difficulties. It also gives insight into the client’s
personality and helps in identifying the weakness a, strength and ego functioning. This helps the case worker to prepare
the treatment plan for the client.

Uses of transference in Treatment

1. The client feels relaxed.
2. The client starts abandoning resistances
3. The client perceives the problem situation more realistically
4. The case worker, when he does not responds neurotically, helps the client to see and bear the reality.
5. The mature ego strengths of the worker serve to reinforce the weak ego strengths of the client.
 6. Identification of his ego power and capacity for reality testing and problem solving.

Counter Transference:

Relationship is a two-way process. The social case worker has also unconscious tendency to transfer out the client. As in
the case of transference, the counter transference feelings are both positive and negative ,. They are unconscious but
operated with force. Therefore it is the job of the case worker to recognize his/her feelings and must control them.
Key Concepts of Counter Transference:
Therapist’s reaction to client’s transference, which is often linked to past issues or conflicts in therapist’s own life.
Self-awareness is key: Being aware of own feelings can often lead to insight into the client’s behavior/thoughts feelings.
The therapist’s feelings are a mirror of what the client is feeling or something the client may have experienced in the
past. The client may be showing the therapist a glimpse of how the patient was treated as a child, or may be unaware of
the depths of depression the client is in as the therapist acts as the mirror for the client. This can be especially helpful
with borderline personality disordered clients.
Counter transference is not isolated to psychotherapy, but extends to other therapeutic practioners as well, and can
occur in one’s own personal life.
Acknowledging the counter transference during supervision or through feedback from peers is also helpful in managing
counter transference.

Tools for exploration and Assessment :

Interviewing: According to P.V. Young, Interview maybe regarded as a systematic method by which a person enter more
or less imaginatively with the life of comparative strangers.

Purpose of Interview
a) To obtain knowledge about a situation
b) To Understand other person
c) To be understood by other person
d) To study verbal behaviour of the client.

Kinds of Interview:
a) Structured Interview: In this type of interview, the interviewer is asked to get answers for certain questions
only. He/she cannot add anything from his/her side or change the language.
b) Unstructured Interview: In this type of interview, no direct questions are asked to the client concerning the
problem. The interviewer tells the topic to the client and the client narrates the incidents of his/her life, his/her
feelings and reactions pointing to the incidents.
c) Focused interview: This type of interview is meant to know about the social and psychological effects of mass
communication in the subjects. A mass communication may be a film or a radio broadcast. In this type of
interview, the client is shown a film or made to listen a radio broadcast which somehow relates to the problem
of that person. The broadcast provokes the inner motivation or feelings and emotions thereby bringing the
truth.
d) Repetitive Interview: The questions may be repeated again and again for certain clarification, there is some
gradual influences, some psychological process on the subject relating to the problem.

Techniques of Interviews:
a) A choice of an interview(place, time, plan)
b) Questions should be indirect, interesting, short, non-personal and the answers should not be yes or no. But they
should be best descriptions.
c) Stressful questions would be accessed.
d) Interview should be in client’s own language.
e) Any client should be encouraged at every stage in order to win his confidence
f) The case worker should absorb and not reaction of the client
g) Discussion should be free and frank and the client should get a feeling that the information will be confidential/
 h) Client’s personality should be respected and his/her view pints are appreciated.
i) Interview should be recorded without the knowledge of the client.

Preparation of Interview
a) Understanding the problem
b) Interview guide
c) Selection of case
d) Use of panel
e) Information about interviews
f) Prior appointment

Procedure of Interview
a) Establishing contact with the client
b) Securing the rapport with the client
c) Starting the interview from basic to complex level
d) Recall of previous matters.
e) Probe questions to get a deeper insight of the problem
f) Encourage the client to be comfortable
g) Guiding the interview in the right perspective.
h) Closing the interview and fixing the appointment for the next interview
i) Recording the interview without the knowledge of the client.
j) Preparation of Report.

Important Treatment Process

Ventilation process: The process of ventilation (Catharsis) is the process of helping the client to air his/her feeling freely
and to provide him/her with an atmosphere which make free expression of feelings easier. It frees the individual from
fears and guilt to feel and brings to line the hidden attitudes. Ventilation is used sometimes by the client to see attention
and sympathy from the worker or a gratification from talking feely about self. The case worker should be conscious in all
such situations and direct the intervies accordingly.

Home visits:
The importance of family has been well recognized by the personnel in social work specially in the field of mental
health. Study of emotional, social and physical aspect of family life is necessary to plan the treatment effectively. It is
very important to gather sufficient details of information so as to reduce bias and make our predictions more
accurately, this can be done effectively and easily through home visits.
Principles of Home visiting:
a) Family support should enhance he ability of families to work toward their own goals and deal effectively with
their own problems.
b) Home-based interventions should be individualized, ased upon an assessment of the social psychological,
cultural, educational, economic and physical or health characteristics of the family.
c) A home visitor must be responsive to the immediate needs of the families as well as to their long-term goals.
d) A helping relation should be collaboration between the home visitor and the family members.

Skills in Home Visit:

a) The home visitor must be a patient listener
b) The home visitor must be sensitive to verbal and non-verbal communication from the family about its desires
and goals.
c) The home visitor should have the capacity to respond to the client’s feeling and experiences as if they were his
own.
d) The home visitor must be able to see a person with worth and dignity, commitment, understanding, non-
judgmental attitude and warmth.

Techniques:
a) Modeling: It is demonstration with the client a specific behaviour. It is a technique particularly advantageous when
the client cannot seem to visualize carrying out a particular action or cannot think how to begin an activity. It is also
useful when a client seems to lack the skills necessary for an action., Modeling such situation could include showing how
one might respond in different situations.

b) Role Playing: In role playing , home visitor acts out one real life role and the client acts out another in order to help
the client gain skill and confidence to deal with difficult situations.

c) Use of examples: It is a common daily event for people during their interactions with others and is often used when
one is explaining, describing or teaching something to a second person. Home visitor should use the examples that may
be relevant and fit with realistic experience in the clients life.

Referral
Sometimes before termination, cases are referred to another case workers. In the same or another agency for some
important reason. This process of helping the client to become ware of other services and use them is known as
referral . Referral is done for various reasons:
a) when a different type of worker of therapy is required to achieve the finally formulated goals of treatment.
b) When the case worker and the client find it difficult to move or assume new responsibilities.
c) Referral involve preparation of a referral note which gives a very brief summary of the problem and efforts
undertaken to solve the problem along with psychosocial diagnosis.

Empathy
Perlman (1979) explains empathy as “feeling with an into another person be able to get into his shoes. Empathy
communicates that world understands the depth of feelings of the client that he/ she is with him”.
The case worker can be effective in communicating empathic understanding when he:-
a) concentrates with intensity upon the client expression with verbal and non-verbal.
b) Concentrate on responses that are inter-changeable with the help.
c) Formulates his/her responses in language that is most familiar to the client.

Collateral Contact
It is a source of information knowledgeable about a household’s situation. The collateral contact typically either
corroborates or supports information provided by household members. Collateral contacts are often used in child
custody cases to obtain information about a child, parent or other person responsible for the child. In these cases, the
collateral contact often has knowledge of the family situation without having personal involvement in the situation.
Collateral contacts provide a third-party validation of the house hold circumstances and help ensure correct eligibility
and payment determinations are made by the courts. Courts often use collateral contacts to support or impeach a
client’s statement or when evidence of certain eligibility criteria does not exist.
Examples of collateral contacts include employers, past or present landlords, neighbours, school officials, day care
providers and other persons outside the house hold.

MODULE :4
Psychosocial model . It is proposed by Gordon Hamilton, Florence Hollis and Lucile Austin
This incorporates psycho-analytical concepts and principles of uses of ego psychology with concepts from other
behavioral sciences and understands behavior in terms of cause and effect.
a. Personality develops in a series of stages.
 b. Describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan
c. Main element of Erikson's psychosocial stage - ego identity
d. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self develop through social interaction
e. Ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences
f. Sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions
g. Each stage is becoming competent in an area of life
h. Feel a sense of mastery - ego strength or ego quality
i. People experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development

 Trust vs. Mistrust - Infancy (birth to 18 months)

 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - Early Childhood (2 to 3 years)
 Initiative vs. Guilt - Preschool (3 to 5 years)
 Industry vs. Inferiority - School Age (6 to 11 years)
 Identity vs. Confusion - Adolescence (12 to 18 years)
 Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years)
 Intimacy vs. Isolation - Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)
 Integrity vs. Despair - Maturity(65 to death)
 
Crisis Intervention Approach
Crisis- Upset in a steady state”, an emotional reaction on the part of an individual to a threatening life event.
To be in a state of crisis means that there is a temporary disturbance in one’s equilibrium characterized by
immobilization of problem solving abilities and other aspects of daily functioning. Emotional reactions can
result in a high level of anxiety, feelings of depression and mourning, shame, guilt, anger, hostility and
confusion.
Crisis theory is known to have developed out of work in a public health setting and orientation with a truly
interdisciplinary approach involving medicine, social work, psychology and psychiatry. The theory is based on
the idea that there is no such thing as a PROBLEM FREE state and life is a series of recurring developmental
crisis. It is for actively influencing the psycho-social functioning of individuals and groups, during a period of
acute disequilibrium. It involves crisis-oriented, time-limited work, usually 2 to 6 weeks in duration. To be
really effective, crisis intervention should be available within 24 to 72 hours after application or referral for
assistance.
Intake procedures, waiting lists and the separation of the processes of study, diagnosis and treatment are not
necessarily observed in this intervention. This involves a warm, emphatic reaching out and what is called a
search and find approach. Participation is always voluntary and the client should be committed to the change
process.
It is being used in: Admission and emergency wards of hospitals, telephone/hotlines, walk in centers, children
and women’s desks crisis centers for women and children, Drug rehabilitation centers, Emergency services of
public welfare agencies.
Goals in doing crisis intervention:
a) Relief of symptoms
b) Restoration to the optimal pre-crisis level of functioning,
c) Understanding of the relevant precipitating events that contributed to the state of disequilibrium,
d) Identification of remedial measures that can be taken by the client and the family or that are available
through community resources.
e) Recognition of the connection between the current stress and past life experiences and conflicts.
f) Initiation of new models of perceiving, thinking and feeling and
g) Development of new adaptive and coping responses that can be useful beyond the immediate crisis situation.
Solution focused model.
It is built on several assumptions and principles:
 Real change and the resolution of problems can occur in a relatively short period of time.
 Clients do not resist proposed changes that make sense and provide relief from distress.
 It is not necessary to understand the cause of a problem in order to resolve it
 There are many ways of viewing a situation and many right ways of dealing with a troublesome
concern.
 Clients are the true experts on their situations and are in the best position to know what will and will not
solve their problems.
 Clients will have ideas, strength, and resources that can be identified and mobilized by the social worker
to help resolve client problems.
This approach does not seek to analyses and understand the client’s problem. Rather, the social worker strives
to help the client clarify what he or she really wants to change and to then identify what he or she is already
doing to effect those changes. In other words, it facilitates change by assisting the client to amplify those
behaviors and actions that are already helping to address the presenting problem. Emphasis is place on helping
the client envision ways to expand on those the actions that are making a positive difference, no matter how
small the immediate impact. The social worker uses various questioning techniques to help the client recognize
that he or she already has some control over the troublesome situation and already has some good ideas on how
to resolve it.
Because this approach accepts the c client’s definition of the problem and vies on how to change it, it is
inherently more culturally sensitive than approaches that place the social worker in the position of identifying,
diagnosing, and treating the client’s problem. It can be adapted for use with court ordered non voluntary clients
and those with substance abuse problems.

Task Centered Model:

It is designed to help clients to specify and perform important tasks and activities which are necessary to change
their situation. It developed out of work with typical social work clients who are experiencing a wide variety of
problems and challenges. This approach is especially useful with clients who are attempting to a mange
problems caused by a lack of resources and works well with non-voluntary clients.
A specific action or step toward change is termed a task. The tasks to be worked on can take any forms:
a) Making a decision within a certain time frame
b) Securing a needed resource
c) Learning a skill
d) Communicating with other person.
Large task are broken down into several smaller ones so they are more manageable and so the client will
experience progress and maintain motivation. Priority setting is used to limit the number of task to only two or
three per week. The use of unambiguous and understandable plan of action and time lines or time limits
enhance client motivation and help the client stay focused on what needs to be done. The model is largely
empirical, stressing the close monitoring and measurement of task completion.
The model’s emphasis on taking action and the completions of task should not be interpreted as a lack of
concern about clients’ feelings or inner conflicts. However, this approach rests on the belief that people are
more likely to change as a result of action than from simply discussing their thoughts and feelings.

Cognitive restructuring (CR) is a psychotherapeutic process of learning to identify and dispute irrational or

maladaptive thoughts known as cognitive distortions, such as all-or-nothing thinking (splitting), magical
thinking, over-generalization, magnification, and emotional reasoning, which are commonly associated with
many mental health disorders. CR employs many strategies, such as Socratic questioning, thought recording,
and guided imagery, and is used in many types of therapies, including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
and rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT). A number of studies demonstrate considerable efficacy in
using CR-based therapies.

Cognitive restructuring involves four steps

 1. Identification of problematic cognitions known as "automatic thoughts" (ATs) which are dysfunctional
or negative views of the self, world, or future based upon already existing beliefs about oneself, the
world, or the future
2. Identification of the cognitive distortions in the ATs
3. Rational disputation of ATs with the Socratic method
4. Development of a rational rebuttal to the ATs
There are six types of automatic thoughts

1. Self-evaluated thoughts
2. Thoughts about the evaluations of others
3. Evaluative thoughts about the other person with whom they are interacting
4. Thoughts about coping strategies and behavioral plans
5. Thoughts of avoidance
6. Any other thoughts that were not categorized

Clinical applications
Cognitive restructuring has been used to help individuals experiencing a variety of psychiatric conditions,
including depression, substance abuse disorders, anxiety disorders collectively, bulimia, social
phobia borderline personality disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and problem gambling
When utilizing cognitive restructuring in rational emotive therapy (RET), the emphasis is on two central
notions: (1) thoughts affect human emotion as well as behavior and (2) irrational beliefs are mainly responsible
for a wide range of disorders. RET also classifies four types of irrational beliefs: dire necessity, feeling awful,
cannot stand something, and self-condemnation. It is described as cognitive-emotional retraining.The rationale
used in cognitive restructuring attempts to strengthen the client's belief that (1) "self-talk" can influence
performance, and (2) in particular self-defeating thoughts or negative self-statements can cause emotional
distress and interfere with performance, a process that then repeats again in a cycle. Mood repair strategies are
implemented in cognitive restructuring in hopes of contributing to a cessation of the negative cycle.[19]
When utilizing cognitive restructuring in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), it is combined with
psychoeducation, monitoring, in vivo experience, imaginal exposure, behavioral activation, and homework
assignments to achieve remission.[20] The cognitive behavioral approach is said to consist of three core
techniques: cognitive restructuring, training in coping skills, and problem solving.[18]
Applications within therapy
There are many methods used in cognitive restructuring, which usually involve identifying and labelling
distorted thoughts, such as "all or none thinking, disqualifying the positive, mental filtering, jumping to
conclusions, catastrophizing, emotional reasoning, should statements, and personalization." The following lists
methods commonly used in cognitive restructuring:

 Socratic questioning
 Thought recording
 Identifying cognitive errors
 Examining the evidence (pro-con analysis or cost-benefits analysis)
 Understanding idiosyncratic meaning/semantic techniques
 Labelling distortions
 Decatastrophizing
 Reattribution
 Cognitive rehearsal
 Guided imagery
 Listing rational alternatives

Systems Theory of Social Work

Systems theory is the interdisciplinary study of complex systems. Social work is the professional
field concerned with applying social science insights toward improving standards of living for
individuals and communities. Systems theory is valuable to social workers in that it can assist them
as they identify, define and address problems in social systems.
Systems Theory
Systems theory covers a broad range of theoretical and methodological practices across many
disciplines. Generally, systems theory is concerned with the structure of complex systems, with a
special emphasis about how parts relate to each other and to the whole system. In the social
sciences, this usually means understanding how individuals relate to each other and to their society
as a whole, and the effects that social pressures have on individuals.
Social Work
Social workers can hold a variety of different roles. These roles range from policy advisors to
mental health professionals. Social workers can take on the role of a direct counselor, serve as
court liaisons or find further resources for clients. In addition to roles relating more directly to
clients, social workers also take on the role of maintaining case records and documents for each
case. What binds these roles together is a core concern for improving social conditions for
individuals and promoting social justice.
Applied Systems Theory
Social workers employ systems theory in order to understand the dynamic interrelations between
individuals, families, institutions and societies. Generally, they want to identify how a system
functions and what aspects of that system have a negative impact on people. Further, social workers
look to understand how they can cause positive change through the social work system and
community. Systems theory looks at the factors that influence behavior including: family, friends,
school, social class, and life atmosphere. Social workers applying this theory look to fix or improve
the parts of the individual's system that don't work. They also focus on the positive attributes of
their patient's lives that do have positive effects on behavior and the overall life system.
Individuals and Families
On the micro level of social work, workers use systems theory to understand the dynamics,
relationships and roles within families, and how these things affect individuals therein. For
instance, they want to know that parents and children are taking up their proper responsibilities,
that parents are providing for the safety of their children and that these roles are stable and
beneficial to everyone involved. Social workers help parents by working with them one-on-one,
doing regular checks on progress, offering additional resources, referring them to other
professionals as needed and by acting as court liaisons when needed.

Problems-solving Model:
Identified with the pork of Perlman(1957), this model involves
a) Identification of the problem by the person
b) Assessment of subjective aspects of person-in-situation and centrality of the
person with the problem
c) Search for solutions decision-making
d) Action
The process is to free the person for investment in task related to the solution of the problem, involve the
client’s ego in efforts to deal with the problem and to mobilize personal and social forces and resources for
satisfactory role performance.

Short Term Task Centered Case Work, Preventive Case Work Intervention and Mental Health
Consultation
Introduction
 Social work is a profession that has a wide scope spreading across multiple areas and indeed ever
expanding as long as man remains a social animal. Case work, according to Queen, is the art of adjusting
personal relationships. Through multiple techniques what a case worker aims at is the same. The art of
adjusting personal relationships can be done in multiple ways. Here, through this assignment we aim at
locating a few models viz. Short term case work, preventive case work and mental health consultation.
I. Short Term Task Centred Casework 
 Short term case work is a planned short-term approach of $#%sessions in which a sharp focus and
continuity are maintained. It follows a problem-solving model. The client must show a willingness to
work on a specific problem and the problem must be manageable to the worker and client.
Theory behind the Model
 Short term task oriented casework's theoretical base draws heavily from the ego analytic model in which
the person's capacity to function can be built upon by helping him /her use problem-solving skills, and by
keeping the person goal-directed and focused. Psychological and external obstacles that interfere with
carrying out the intervention plan require additional problem-solving tasks for the worker, client and
significant others. It shares many common tenets with crisis theory and intervention. Peoples'
motivation and capacity to deal with their own life problems are increased by being an active participant
in short-term therapeutic process. 
Therapeutic Goals
 The goals are directed at problem resolution. By identifying the target problem and working with the
client to set realistic goals and strategies (tasks to reach these goals, the client is more likely to attain his
goal and to feel increased self-efficacy. 
Techniques, Methods And/or Tools used In The Therapeutic process
Steps include
1. Identify the target problem/issue to focus upon. Highlight the goal the client wants to work
toward. 
2. Classify the type of problem the client is experiencing.
a) interpersonal conflict-with specific persons who are frequently interacting with each other 
b) dissatisfaction in social relations# general social difficulty that occurs with many persons
c) role performance problem e.g. parent, student, worker 
d) problem of social transition# life or role change adjustment problem
e) reactive emotional distress# having difficult feelings in reaction to specific event
f) decision-making problem- specific decision is pressing and client feels stuck -(or
overwhelmed
g) inadequate resources# lack of tangible resources or insufficient environmental supports
III. Develop an intervention plan which includes the worker and clients tasks in chronological order. This
could involve brainstorming possible intervention strategies/tasks with the client. 
Follow the steps suggested in the Task Implementation Sequence
a) Enhance the client/s commitment to carry out a tasks for each task.  Consider the advantages and
risks of each task. To increase client commitment, employ rewards to better if relationship based e.g. self-
reward and make sure to reward small changes.  
b) Plan the details of carrying out each task# who will do what, where and when. Make sure the
individual knows how to carry out the task. If not, this is an obstacle that can be overcome. See next step.
 c) Analyse and resolve obstacles to carrying out each task to draw out any apprehension (pay attention
to non-verbal), misconceptions or fears that might keep the client from task accomplishment. Discuss
these and try to help the client overcome anxiety. If anxiety is high, you may need to use relaxation
training, modelling, rehearsal, cognitive restructuring or even abandon the task. Certainly do not start
with a difficult task. Ask the client how ready they feel to carry out the task.
d) Have clients rehearse or practice new or insufficiently learned behaviours.
e) Summarize the plan, including any steps to cope with anticipated obstacles, and show interest in
hearing about their experience with the tasks next session.
This conveys an expectation that sessions are action-oriented. 
IV. Implement the intervention plan each week review the client/s progress with carrying out his(her
tasks and make sure to carry out Your 2worker/ tasks or ensure that other helpers are following
through as agreed.
f) Obstacles arise, try to understand and resolve them. 5. Evaluate the task accomplishments and make
sure the client can take credit for his/her achievements. This is empowering and shows them that goals
were attained through their efforts. 5&. 6e#contract to work on another target problem /goal or
terminate. Review accomplishments and remind the client of the new behaviours, skills, resources they
obtained that helped in this situation and could be helpful in the future. The caseworker may also foresee
the anticipating problems that could occur in the immediate future and ways that they could deal with
them for anticipatory guidance.
Usefulness and Limitations of Short Term Task Centred Case Work 
 Short term casework can be useful with any size client system as long as their problems can be
identified, prioritized and adapted into achievable goals. It does not stress client strengths although
building upon the client's resources and skills is an important dimension of the intervention plan. It
would be more difficult to apply effectively with particular cultures that believe 70ate8 must be accepted.
It would also be difficult to apply in multiple client systems in which shared and reciprocal goals need to
be negotiated.
II. Preventive Case Work Intervention
 Preventive casework involves intervening early and as soon as possible to tackle problems emerging for
children, Young people and their families or with a population most at risk of developing problems. The
word prevention comes from the Latin word “praevenire” which is a combination of “venire’ which
means to come and :prae' which means before. Thus prevention means to stop something or to avoid
something before it comes. According to 9ofquist, Prevention is an active process of creating conditions
and personal attributes that favour the well-being of people.
Prevention can be of three types
 Primary- which targets at everyone including community conditions and on troubled people
 Secondarily it which targets at risk individuals, people in crisis and high risk groups
 Tertiary which targets troubled people, patients and clients. &n Social Work, preventive services
are seen as the programs, efforts and clinical services formulated so as to help the client avoid the
future problem. The social worker carries out the program in three stages viz, planning,
implementation and evaluation.
Researchers suggest that it's best to intervene as early as possible in a child's life to prevent problems.
1arl intervention and prevention has become a euphemism for parenting support or at the very least
seeking to address parent or environmental problems that impact on effective parenting, such as
substance misuse, mental health, debt and housing. & to focuses on areas such as children’s centre
services, services for children with disabilities, youth offending services etc. 1Early intervention and
prevention theoretically encompasses the full spectrum from universal prevention programs for all
children and young people to much targeted programs aiming to divert children from the care system or
other very specialist services. Indeed, care and its attendant services can be viewed as an important
preventative service, aiming as it does to prevent any future deterioration of child and adult well-being.
III. Mental Health Consultation
 According to Gerald Caplan, Mental health Consultation is a process of interaction between two
professional persons , the consultant, who is a specialist, and the consultee, who invokes the consultant's
help in regard to a current work problem with which he or she? Is having difficult and which he or she?
has decided is within the other's area of specialized competence.
Characteristics of Mental Health Consultation
 Consultation is initiated by either the consultee or the consultant.
Relationship characterized by authentic communication.  Consultees may be professionals or
nonprofessional’s. Provides direct services to consultees. It assists them to develop coping skills that
ultimately make them independent of the consultant. & s triadic in that it provides indirect services to
third parties clients.  Types of problems considered are work related when the concept of work is
broadly conceived. Consultant's role varies with consultee's needs. Focus of consultant may be internal
or external. All communication between consultant and consultee is confidential.
Generic Model of Consultation
Stage One: A 1ntrA initial meeting, define desired but come A Contracting physical, psychological 1ntr
into the System
Stage Two: A diagnosis, gathering information, defining the problem. Setting goals, generating possible
interventions
Stage Three/ Intervention: A Choosing the right intervention, formulate a plan, implement the plan, and
evaluate the plan
Stage Four: Disengagement
Evaluating the Consultation Process, Planning for Post Consultation
‐A Reducing Involvement/ Follow-Up
‐A Termination
Models of Mental Health Consultation
1. Client Centered Case Consultation (Expert / Specialist Consultation)
Consultant functions as a specialist who assesses the client, arrives at diagnosis, and makes
recommendations concerning how the consultee might modify his or her dealing with the client. A
Consultee: Mental Health professional, Teacher, Medical, Clergy, parent, Adult Child
Target : Efforts are directed to the Case, client, student, child, parent, employee, etc.

2. Consultee Centered Case Consultation

(Supervision/Coaching – Mental Health Consultation)
Consultation is concerned with difficulties a consultee encounters with a particular client for whom he or
she has responsibility the difficulties spring from shortcomings in the consultee's professional
functioning.
Consultee : Mental Health professional, Teacher, Medical, Clergy, parent, Adult Child.
Target : Efforts are directed to the consultee to address lack of Knowledge, lack of Skill, lack of
Confidence lack of objectivity
3.Program Centered Administrative Consultation
(Expert/Specialists)
Consultant is called in to stud a problem and provide a set of recommendations for dealing with the
problem.
Consultee : Administrator, Manager, Supervisor, Team Leader, etc.
Target : Efforts are directed to the administrative functioning of the organisation or to a larger systemic
context or community consultation.
4. Consultee Centered Administrative Consultation
(Process/OD Consultant)
Goal is to improve the professional functioning of one or more members of an administrative, executive,
or managerial staff /team. Consultant moves freely throughout the organisation, takes active role in
identifying organisational problems and recommending and /or initiating activities to address
the problems. A Consultee: Senior Leadership and (or Brgani"ation)
Target: Efforts are directed at improved organisational functioning through leadership competence
improvements. The process mental health consultation is one of great importance in the present scenario
as in India currently a good number of children are exhibiting challenging behaviour and often the end
up in expulsion from schools. Engaging children of such uncouth behaviour is a challenge to both the
instructors and parents. The concept of mental health consultation is much helpful in this regard. 0or
instance, a child can gradually develop into a good personality through sessions based on strength
perspective. Thus can prove to be helpful in
 Helping the staff to work with the challenging children and their parents
 Helping parents to nurture their children
  Helping the staff and parents to work together to help children@ beyond the realm of their
problem and to develop them appropriately. The importance is not just confined to this aspect but
is wide covering areas of mental illness, learning disabilities, personality malfunctions, defense
mechanism etc.
MODULE: 5
RECORDING AS AN IMPORTANT METHOD TO LEARN SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
Recording is an extremely important method to learn social work practice. In fact, the very purpose of field work, the
heart of social work training, is defeated without recording of the interactions during fieldwork. Recording helps in
learning, as one, while recording gets an opportunity to reflect back upon his interaction and locate the wrongs
committed by him.
It helps him to organize and interweave his information, observations, thinking and verbal interactions with the client in
a meaningful whole. He, in this process, develops conceptual clarity, and absorbs the knowledge received from
supervisors and literature. While recording his interactions, he starts appreciating his role better.

Apart from this recording serves administrative and research purpose also. Anyone can work on these records to see
how different approaches used are helpful to serve the clientele and what modifications are required in the approaches
to achieve the desire results. Records serve teaching purposes also as they can be used to discuss methods, skills,
techniques, etc., in practice

Records are also used to evaluate appropriateness of the process used and the work done. It provides an opportunity to
offer constructive criticism to the student/worker to take care of his deficiencies, and improve his performance.
Recording, by itself, a provides an opportunity to the case worker to develop insight into his own personality and social
functioning leading to a desirable change in him or her.

Types:

The following classification of recording.

(a) Process (b) Summary (c) Verbatim (d) Non-Verbatim
a) Process Recording
Process recording is a form of recording used frequently by the caseworker. In this type, the process of interview is
reported and is a rather detailed description of what transpired with considerable paraphrasing. It preserves a sequence
in which the various matters were discussed. It includes not only what both the worker and the client said but also
significant reaction of the client and changes in mood and response. In this the interview and observation go hand-in-
hand. It may be verbatim or non-verbatim reproduction.

b)Summary Recording
Summary is a good device for organising and analysing facts. Summary points into meaning and relative importance of
material gathered. A careful summary made at appropriate intervals reduces bulk, clarifies direction and saves the
workers, time. Summary is commonly assumed to be a review or recapitulation of material that has already appeared in
the record. It may be either topically arranged or may appear as condensed chronological narrative. Mrs. Sheffield has
defined summary in social casework recording as “A digest of significant facts in the client’s history which has previously
been recorded”. Summary could be a diagnostic summary, periodic summary or closing summary.
The closing summary is a summary made at the time the case is closed. To be most effective it should be written by the
worker who was responsible for the case at the time of closing.
The periodic summary is simply the summary of material previously recorded and is made at more or less regular
intervals or at the end of more or less definite episodes in the family history.
c)Verbatim Recording
It is reproduction of factual data in the individual’s own words. It is commonly used in casework because of its accuracy
and objectivity. However, it should not become a mechanical reproduction of information because casework as an art
requires an intelligent selection and rearrangement of material. As a part of training of the worker, verbatim recording
may be of value in developing objectivity.
Limitations of verbatim reporting recorded by social case work. If an interview is held, a social worker trying to get
information from a reluctant client by the tricks and devices of cross examination, the record will reflect little or nothing
the personality the client... in such a situation a verbatim report of the interview would only show up the barrenness of
the case worker’s technique and would probably throw no more light upon the client than the brief summary now
contained in records. Two possible limitations upon effectiveness of the verbatim method are described here. In the first
place there must be selection.
The verbatim record need be no longer than art present. Selection of significant statements introduces exactly the
element of possible error which their interpretation in a third person recital involves, namely, the recorder is using his
judgment with respect to the entire material. The second criticism relates specifically to the clement of vividness
contained by introducing real evidence. This falls into two parts: the first relates to the accuracy of the memory of the
case worker, and the second to the sound of his judgment. The second difficulty, however, is one which verbatim
reporting shares with narrative reporting, and any correction of it would apply equally to each method.

d) Non-verbatim /narrative recording

Narrative recording has been and still is a predominant style of recording. It is the style found in newspapers and
magazines. It is the way we speak of the day’s events, it is the way we write letters, and it is the ways we keep diaries.
Narrative form of recording is preferred for reporting acts of practical helpfulness, events and most collateral visits or
conferences. It may be used for the contents of the interview in all instances except when the process itself and use of
relationship have special significance.

PURPOSE OF SOCIAL WORK RECORDING

1. Documentation of social work activity, which indicates-
*The nature of social work involvement with a client/problem.
*Progress in achieving social work goals.
*Outcome of social work intervention

2. Organizing Worker’s thoughts

* Structured presentation of factual data helps in in-depth diagnostic assessment and treatment planning
*It also helps to avoid memory lapses.

3. A Therapeutic Tool: Sharing the record at an appropriate time-

*Helps clients to have better perception of problem
*Helps clients to know the progress
*Helps clients to behave with responsibility.

4. Continuity of service
*As social worker is part of the agency, others should be able to deal with the case if the need arises.
*Cases may also be transferred from one to another.
*Cases may be opened and closed several times.
*Records help save time, effort and precision.

5. Reimbursement of cost of service/Eligibility requirement.

*Funding sources require records to reimburse costs.
*Records help in audit of social work service.
*Certain records may be required to establish eligibility of clients.

6. Quality Control
* To facilitate peer-review (records selected at random by others)
*Case presentations for best diagnosis and treatment plan.

7.Generation of Statistics /Research

*Helps in identifying the nature of demands/types of services.
*Indicates patterns of results achieved.

8. Supervisory Review
*Helps supervisory staff in monitoring the kind and quality of services given
*Records reflects the workload and efficiency of staff.
*Helps supervisory staff to take decisions regarding transfer of cases, training etc.

9. Interdisciplinary Communication
*Facilitates referral of cases to Specialists from other disciplines in the team

10. Teaching Tool

*Recording helps in self-assessment and self-learning.
*Well-recorded cases/reports serve as teaching aids.

11. Matters pertaining to litigation

Records help to prove matters in courts, if necessary.

12...Evaluation of service/project.

Qualities of Good Records

b. A case record should be readable and visible.
c. The case record should have clarity, accuracy and objectivity
d. A certain level of uniformity of standardization is desirable in case records as between agencies.

Principles of Case Record

a. The content of records be kept confidential
b. Records should not be discussed with outsiders
c. Reaction of the client or group should be recorded
d. Records should be based on the needs of the situation

Social Case Work records includes

a. Work done in the field
b. Discussion with the agency personnel
c. Guidance given by the supervisor.

Difference between Personal Self and Professional Self

Modality Personal Self Professional Self

a)Time Not time Bounding According to the nature of the problem the
time or period of the case work process
varies
b)Duration No duration in personal self , it is open Depends on the nature of the problem. It is
ended close ended

c) Place No restriction , it can be anywhere The place may be institution / agency

d)Purpose Mutual satisfaction of range of social and Problem solving purpose

 emotional means

e)Focus and Role Building u mutual relationship Focuses on the helper (professional) and the
way the professional helps the needy.

Module :6
Scope of Social Case Work in Children in Conflict with Law and correctional settings
 Children in Conflict with Law
 “The term 'children in conflict with the law' refers any person below the age of 18 who has come
in contact with the justice system as a result of committing a crime or being suspected of
committing a crime.”
Most children in conflict with the law have committed petty crimes. Some children are coerced into crime
by adults who use them as they know they cannot be tried as adults.
 More than 1 million children worldwide are detained by law officials.
There are various reasons why children end up committing crimes.
 About 64% of cases in 2004 were children who had no education or only education up to primary
level.
 Juveniles usually come from poor families earning less than Rs. 25,000 a year (72.3%).
Case Work is practiced in the institutions
 Case Work has also entered the field of criminology and in some places is practiced in connection
with juvenile welfare board, adult courts, probation, parole and aftercare work. Case Work
treatment in institutional settings relies as heavily upon efforts toward role adaptation
Case Work in children’s homes
 Children who are destitute, orphans runaways, vulnerable to violence, abuse or moral danger are
generally placed in children’s homes. Most of these Homes operate under the provisions of
Juvenile Justice Act and therefore provide custodial care to children for specific time period.
 Social case worker is expected to help each inmate adjust to the life within the home and achieve
psychosocial development. As the children have often gone through traumatic experiences before
they are placed in homes, it is very important for them to come to terms with their life, talk about
it and get over the pain and the sense of betrayal. The worker is expected to provide pastoral care,
liaison with schools where children go for education help, children develop positive relationships
within the institution and prepare for life after their stay in the home is over.
 In child welfare
 Case worker has an important role to play in child welfare. One of the important roles that child
welfare agencies are supposed to play is foster care and adoption services. The case worker has a
good idea about the behaviour that child is going to manifest in foster home and hence the case
worker tires to match the attributes of the child with that of the family environment.
 Similar is the role of case worker in the adoption services. The case worker sees to it that role
demands of a family do not exceed the child’s capacities for role-adaptation. In the child welfare,
the primary concern of the case worker is to keep the child in his home with his/her parents as far
as possible. Otherwise the next possible thing that a case worker tries is to provide an
environment where the child’s growth and development will occur in the desired direction.

SCOPE OF SOCIAL CASE WORK IN FAMILY WITH ALCOHOLISM

 DEFINITION OF FAMILY
 Family with alcoholism
 Alcoholism is the one of the main problem in our society as well as in family.
 The impact of alcohol problems can reach into every area of life , the physical and
psychological health, finances, employment, social life and relationships.
 Problematic alcohol use can have a particular impact on the family, its structures and
functions.
PROBLEMS OF ALCOHOLISM IN FAMILIES
 Alcoholism affects the entire family, especially the physical and psychological health of the
children.
 Children of problem drinking parents have higher levels of a range of problems than children of
non-problem drinkers.
 The partner or spouse of the addict or alcoholic often doubts themselves.

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLISM IN FAMILY

 Physiological problems
 Psychological problems
 Behavioral problems
 Alcohol affects each member of the family.

Role of social worker in family

 Social case worker plays an important role in family settings.
 Understanding the family background in all aspects, know about the strength and weakness of the
family.
Roles
 Identifies the family strength
 Provide additional support
 Creating concrete changes in family functioning
 Empathetic support
 Teacher or trainer
 Consultant
 Enabler
 Advocator
 mediator

Scope of case work in medical settings;
 Medical social work, a powerful weapon to realize comprehensive and qualitative health care is
used only in a few limited fields and less used.
 It needs boosting up and revitalization, particularly among the medical students, doctors and
health planners.
 Definition
 It is the application and adoption of the method and philosophy of social work in the field of
health and medical care.
History and background
 Year 1905: Boston medical institutions appointed MSW (medical social worker) for the first time
 In India, Tata Institute of social sciences had taken up the lead medial social work.
 Nature and Scope
 Medical social work is based on the assumption of the individual’s dignity
 Guided and inspired by basic values social work
 Nature& Scope

According to medical social work--

 health refers to that state or condition, in which an individual is capable to utilize all the
capacities of his social living.
 Nature and scope

Medical social work considers human health with a broad perspective.

 The treatment is not the final solution for illness in medical social work.
 Disease and diseased person are different from each other.
Nature and Scope
Medical social work deals with
 the prevention of disease,
 after care of the patients and
 social rehabilitation of patients, --and not just limited to the treatment of disease.
 A medical social worker could...
 Assist parents in finding special education services for a preschooler with developmental delays
 Run support groups for patients and their families who are coping with a new cancer diagnosis.
 Help the family of a seriously injured patient understand the medical and emotional consequences
of the injury.
 Evaluate what kind of in-home help a recently discharged patient will need, and help make the
arrangements.
Uses
1. To discover the social and psychological background of a patient
2. To make the patient free from his psychological tensions
3. To discover the psychosocial factors of the illness
 Working concept
 Medical social work deals with the those problems of the patient which are related to the physical
and psychological environment
 It is oriented towards the assistance of those people, who during their treatment, face social,
physical ,economic and psychological problems.
Working methods
 Case study method,
 Direct method of assistance
 Indirect method of assistance
 Case study method
 By, case study method, MSW collects information with regard to the specific needs of the patient
and works towards their fulfillment in accordance with the available means
 Direct assistance
• Social group work-
Medical social worker tries at strengthening the social relations of the patient and works towards the
development of a healthy social environment
 Indirect methods of assistance
1. Community organization
2. Social administration
3. Social insurance and social security
4. Social action
5. Social work research
 Indirect assistance
1. Community organization = organization of community resources with regard to health problem
by MSW
2. Social administration= MSW guides the public opinion for enactment of new social legislations or
any amendment in prevailing legislations
3. Social security& insurance= enabling the patient to utilize the facilities under social security and
insurance by MSW
 Indirect assistance
4)Social action= MSW participates in the movements of social action at the national (national health
programme involvement) and international levels( world health days)
5)Social work research= MSW inspires surveys and investigations regarding the social ,economic and
psychological problems of the patient

SOCIAL CASE WORK IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT SETTINGS

Communities can be defined as including by geographical boundary area, as an administrative area
covered by a service, as a social network or as a group of people with shared characteristics.
 Social workers in the field of community development can be found in many areas of practice and a
variety of settings.
Social worker can practice the role of a Case worker, group worker and community organizer in
community setting.
 Community development workers help communities to bring about social change and improve
the quality of life in their local area. They work with individuals, families and whole communities to
empower them to:
 Identify their assets, needs, opportunities, rights and responsibilities;
 Plan what they want to achieve and take appropriate action;
 develop activities and services to generate aspiration and confidence.
 The majority of roles within the community sector are casework based, with the primary focus being
to change the individual or family to better integrate into society.
 Casework being about fixing individuals, and community development being about fixing society.
 Casework and community development work can be approached from a conservative framework
encouraging individuals to fit current societal expectations.

 Casework is a vital part of community building process in many ways.

It is an opportunity to respect and affirm the individuals for their unique experiences, perspectives,
needs, wants, abilities and struggles, and support them to cope with the problem.
It is an opportunity to assist disadvantaged individuals to access the most resources from society.
Casework is an opportunity to discuss structural issues that are inherent in the individual experience,
and offer opportunities for individuals to challenge these structural causes.
LIMITATIONS OF CASE WORK PRACTICE IN COMMUNITY SETTING
 Integrating work with individuals, the community and societal issues are challenging.
 The number of case work sessions will be less in macro case work practice.
 In community setting, its case workers duty to find clients
 It’s very challenging to practice case work in macro setting.

PREVENTIVE CASE WORK AND INTERVENTIONS

 Specific roles of case worker
 Prevention; Definition and Concept
 Actions aimed at eradicating, eliminating or minimizing the impact of disease and disability, or if
none of these are feasible, retarding the progress of the disease and disability.
 The concept of prevention is best defined in the context of levels, traditionally called primary,
secondary and tertiary prevention.
 Determinants of Prevention
Successful prevention depends upon:
 a knowledge of causation,
 dynamics of transmission,
 identification of risk factors and risk groups,
 availability of prophylactic or early detection and treatment measures,
 an organization for applying these measures to appropriate persons or groups, and
 continuous evaluation of and development of procedures applied
NOW THESE DAYS
 SUBSTANCE ABUSE
 CHILD ABUSE
 CRIME
 DELINQUENCY
 HOMELESSNESS
 AIDS
 BREAK DOWN OF FAMILES
 Preventable causes of disease or problems.
BEGINS
  Biological factors and Behavioral Factors
 Environmental factors
 Immunologic factors
 Nutritional factors
 Genetic factors
 Services, Social factors, and Spiritual factors
 Levels of prevention
Primary Prevention, Secondary Prevention and Tertiary Prevention

PRIMARY PREVENTION
Primary prevention indicates action taken prior to the onset of a problem to intercept its cause or to
modify its course before a person is involved.
 It is the elimination of the noxious agent at its source
Secondary Prevention
 It involves treatment
 Interventions happen after an illness or serious risk factors have already been diagnosed
TERTIARY PREVENTION
 It is defined as “all the measures available to reduce or limit impairments and disabilities, and to
promote the patients’ adjustment to irremediable conditions
 It seeks to reduce the duration of mental illness and reduce the stresses they create for the family
and community.
 Intervention that should be accomplished in the stage of tertiary prevention are disability
limitation, and rehabilitation
 Prevention In Treatment Abuse
 Social case worker should concerned about the right of the client to “refuse treatment”
 It should be considered first
 Gang Violence And Homicide Prevention
 Primary prevention:- public education on the seriousness and ramification of violence,
contributing factors, high-risk groups
 Secondary prevention:-identification of persons showing early signs of behavioral problem that
are related to such violence
 Tertiary prevention:- problems of greatest concerns those of inter personal conflict and nonfatal
violence which appear to have a high risk for homicide
 Educational Prevention Models
 Peer dynamics ( school based program sponsored by Nebraska Commission on Drugs) to avoid
the drug related issue among the children and find the high risk groups
 Boston youth program instituted some program in curriculum for anger management

Casework in psychiatric setting -

Psychiatry is a medical specialty devoted to the study, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mental
disorders. This include various affective , behavioral , cognitive and perceptual abnormalities.
Term coined by Johann Christian Regial in 1808. social case work practice in psychiatric setting in India
Involves psychological approaches viz , psychoanalysis, psychodynamic, cognitive, behavioral etc.
Common skills and responsibilities:
 advocate individual clients or community
 broker
 Professional helping relationships
 Improve problem-solving, coping and development capacities
 Engage and communicate with diverse population and groups
 Services to support change in individual as well as their environment
What case worker does in clinical and psychiatric setting?
 Assessment, diagnosis and treatment
 Services to individual, couples, families and groups
 Utilization of psychotherapeutic theories and tools
  Referrals
 Assist clients in adjusting to lifestyle change
 Social case worker in acute psychiatric hospitals
 Complete intake and admission screenings
 Psychosocial assessment
 Treatment plan
 Ensure continuity of care
 Individual treatment, family therapy, group therapy, parental and marriage counseling
 Overview of Functions
 Client eligibility
 Bio psychosocial assessment
 Assessing support systems
 Developing and implementing future plans
 Direct therapeutic services
 Crisis management
 Multidisciplinary treatment team
 Specific roles of case worker
 Prevention..
 Treatment
 REHABILITATION
In mental health field a social case worker not only has to perform the core functions but often has to
incorporate other roles to adequately meet the needs of someone affected by mental illness.
Case worker needs to manage the psychiatric condition of the person by assessing the mental stability of
the illness, monitoring the medication regime, providing psychosocial rehabilitation

SCOPE OF CASE WORK IN DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

• Family Social work:-
 The primary purpose of family social work is to help families learn to function more completely
while meeting the developmental and emotional needs of all members.
 Family social work is not the same as family therapy.
 Case work method is effectively used to deal with family settings.
• A family case worker has the roles of :
Domestic Violence
 Domestic violence is a serious issue many families faces.
 Domestic violence can go beyond actual physical violence.
• It involves :
o emotional abuse
o destruction of property
o isolation from friends
o isolation from family or other support
o control over money, personal items, food , transportation, etc…
 Children and woman suffers as a result of domestic violence.
 Domestic violence is widely recognized as a pattern of controlling and cruel behavior.
 Child welfare and domestic violence service providers have begun to work together
towards the common goals ensuring safety and preserving families.
 Case Work practice is a step for achieving these goals.
 Domestic violence can have a devastating effect in the lives of the child and adult.
• Case Work Practice with the Families:-
 One of the main dilemma of working with families experiencing domestic violence and child
maltreatment is how to keep children safe without penalizing the non offending parents.
 To strengthening families and maintain family continuity. That includes:
 engaging families in decision making
 partnerships with community services providers and the court.
• Domestic Violence Issues:
• Effects of Domestic Violence:-
  Domestic violence situations can potentially result in serious harm, injury or even death of one
involved.
 Domestic violence usually does not occurs suddenly or in isolated context without warning signs.
• Counselling for Couples and Domestic Violence :-
 It is important to know that couple’s counselling is generally not appropriate when
violence is present in a relationship .
 Violent partners does not fully understand the unacceptable nature of their behavior.
 Counselling sessions encourages open communication.
 A case worker’s first job is the assessment; where the case worker study about the major
problem.
 While dealing case worker should motivate the victim to over come the issue.
 Should support the victim.
 Make them to come back to the earlier stage of life.
 Motivate them to behave normally.
 Make them to do their responsibility.
 Make them psychologically and physically balanced.
 Direct them not to use any irritating words.
• Therapy for Survivors of Domestic Violence:-
 Can be a powerful tool.
 Victims suffers sever trauma , which results in:
• Therapy allows clients to gain a healthy perspective on the trauma thus decreased the negative
symptoms associated with it.
• Theoretical Perspective:-
 Empowerment Approach:
 Upholds clients self determination.
 Mainly focus on strength perspective.
 An empowerment approach central to feminist theory.
“People have strengths , that they are experts in their own experience and that relationships of
collaboration rather than hierarchical power, assist in identifying and building those strength.”
• Ecological Perspective and the Liberation Health Model:-
 In ecological perspective where assessment is multi-systematic.
 Focusing less on the client’s emotional issues than on family dynamics, culture, economic
and social barriers and supports and legal and policy issues.
• Trauma Theory :-
 It is crucial that safety be established with a client before getting into details of traumatic
history.
 The victims of domestic violence may under went through various types of physical as well
psychological abuse.
 They need more care, support and also enabling them to overcome the situation.
 It is the duty of case worker to motivate them.
There are five core concepts of motivational interactions.
• Major Function of Case Work :-
 Restoration
 Remediation
 Prevention

Scope of social case work in Industrial settings

Casework Process
 Study
 In the study phase, the client is engaged in presenting the problem.
 The key is engagement.
 Client makes the important decision of whether to enter treatment.
  Sympathetic listening, demonstration of acceptance, reassurance, demonstration of
confidence in ability, and judicious stroking are powerful tools of the social worker
and can be highly therapeutic.
 Assessment:
◦ Provides a differential approach to treatment based on individual differences and
needs.
◦ An individual’s strengths need to be identified and utilized as part of the change
process.
◦ Assessment is fluid and dynamic.
◦ Assessment begins with a statement of the problem by the client.
◦ Results in an understanding of the problem.
 Intervention:
 Intervention or treatment begins with the first contact.
 The study process is treatment when it helps the client to clarify the problem and to
make changes from this understanding.
 The relationship is the mainspring of social work intervention.
 Warmth, caring, and congruence have been identified as essential qualities
 Termination:
◦ The ending or limiting of a process that was commenced when the agency agreed to
enter into the intervention process aimed at delivering a service to a client with a
problem.
◦ A time when the client can look back with satisfaction on what has been accomplished.
◦ Signals that the worker has confidence in the client’s ability to learn to cope with
situations and grow.
 Industrial Social Work
 Industrial social work is a systematic way of helping individuals and groups towards better
adaptation of group situations
 Industrial social work is one of the area in which the social worker extend their skill and
expertness in helping personnel managers in the industry directly and organizational
development indirectly, by intervening the employee management.
 Industrial social work can go a long way in improving the social climate and quality of  human
relations in an organisation.
 Scope of social case work in Industrial settings
• Social casework can be effectively used in situations of individual problems, such as
 alcoholism,
 depression,
 drug abuse,
 anxiety,
 marital and family difficulties,
 stress
 Anger
 Violence
 Absenteeism
 Further in induction, grievance situations, transfer cases, leave needs, problems due to job loss,
retirement, etc., it can find much use.
 The primary method of social work can be effectively applied at two levels:
 1)Difficulties and problems arising due to adjustment to family life due to any psychological,
economic and cultural factors.
 2)Difficulties arising out of adjustment to work life due to environment, personality problems,
organization structure and programs, etc.
The responsibility of the social worker fall mainly in the category of non statutory services such as:

1) Family individual and group, counselling and home visit in relation to adjustment of the work
orientation, personality and other problems at preventive level.
 2) Active participation in corporate social responsibility activities and community development
initiatives of the industry.
3) Employee management and effective intervention of labour management problems.
4) Industrial counselling.
5) Case work interventions.
6) Health and educational help, which would involve referral to other agencies.
7) Coordination of welfare services with other welfare agencies.
8) Workers education.
9) Family planning and Family life education.
10) Workers recreation management.
 Qualities of Industrial Social worker
The knowledge and personality traits deemed essential in a social worker in the industry are:
* Maturity
* Warm and genuine interest in people adjustability
* Good communication skills in dealing with people at different levels
* Resourcefulness
* Sound physical health
* Effective intervention skills
* Knowledge of industrial psychology
* Knowledge of labour laws
* Expertness in corporate-community interaction
* Expertness in industrial counselling

Pre marital Counselling

Pre marital counselling and marriage counselling is process of identifying ,discussing and managing the
challenges of the couples
Premarital counseling process helps youngsters master life skills, develop self esteem and gain
confidence in them by realizing their potentialities, strengths and weaknesses to face various challenges
in their life.
Pre-marital counselling aims to prepare couples for married life.  This entails better understanding of
partners, expectations and an understanding of the basic requirements for marriage
Understand partners expectations, values, beliefs
Enhance preparedness for married life
Clarify about the myths, apprehensions and questions regarding intimacy
Pre-Marital counselling is usually attended by both the partners who are getting married. But it can also
be done even if one of them wants to attend the sessions
The couple get an opportunity to assess their own expectations and assumptions regarding marriage and
their partner. 
To get to know each others’ beliefs and values, set reasonable expectations on one another and be better
prepared for the marriage.  Any doubts and apprehensions regarding sexual intimacy are addressed.
These outcomes of pre-marital counseling contribute to success in their marital life.
Building and maintaining rapport
Assessment
Education
Skills training
Wedding planning
 The foundation for the counseling relationship
 Basic Components
◦ Warmth
◦ Empathy
◦ Genuineness
◦ Respect
◦ Effective listening
Must be maintained throughout the counseling process
 Tell the clients a little about yourself and your experiences with marriage.
  Listen to them tell about their own experiences and ideas.
 Sharing information about relatively innocuous things (e.g. school and work background, hobbies,
etc.) opens the door for discussing more personal things
Personal History
Interview
Written questionnaire
Family History
Interview
Family History Analysis (FHA)
Genogram
 Providing specific training when it would be easier or more effective than having the couple do it
on their own.
◦ Providing examples and guidance
◦ Structured practice
◦ Objective feedback
 Common areas
◦ Communication skills
◦ Emotion management
◦ Conflict management
◦ General social skills
 Should be honest
 Should be as accurate as possible
 Should not make judgments that you are not capable or qualified to make
◦ Identify potential problem areas, but not whether actual problems will arise, or
severity.
◦ Predict chances of success or failure, but not the specific success or failure of that
couple.
 The decision to marry or not is up to the couple, not you. A pastor may have the choice not to
perform the ceremony, but cannot ethically block the wedding.
 Identify strengths as well as weaknesses.
 Be gentle and empathetic.
 No one can predict the future. Negative indicators may increase risk, but they will not guarantee a
failure/divorce.
 Beware of black or white thinking. Negative indicators may reflect a need for more work, more
time, specific changes. They do not necessarily mean a wedding should not take place.
 The couple is responsible for deciding whether to marry or not. A recommendation against
marriage is not the same as a prohibition.

 Psycho analytic approach

 System theory
 Communication theory
 Behavior modification
 Increased role flexibility by each partner
 Resolution of presented problem
 An equitable balance of power
 Open a and honest communication
 Increased self esteem
 Individual counselling
 Concurrent therapy with same therapist
 Collaborative therapy
 Conjoint counselling
 Couple team approach
Scope of social case work in different setting – abused child
• Child abuse- the shocking numbers
• In 2007 the Indian Government published the results of one of the world's largest and most
sophisticated studies on child abuse, carried out in conjunction with Unicef and Save the Children.
This detailed research on over 12,000 children produced some shocking conclusions:
– Two thirds of children are victims of physical abuse. The majority are beaten in school, and
over half have to work seven days a week.
– Over 50% have faced some kind of sexual abuse, and over 20% of them severe abuse.
– Half of children also face emotional abuse.
– Child ABUSE TODAY...
Between 2001 and2011 there have been 48,000 cases of child sexual abuse.
– The Indian media is now calling these numbers an epidemic.
– Kerala 2,101 cases- State wise statistics of child rape (2001-2011)
• According to UNICEF, across the world, more than 150 million girls and 70 million boys have
witnessed forced sexual intercourse or other forms of violence involving physical contact. 
• Child abuse
• Child abuse consists of
– any act of commission or omission that endangers or impairs a child’s physical or
emotional health and development.
• Child abuse includes
– any damage done to a child which cannot be reasonably explained and
– which is often represented by an injury or series of injuries appearing to be non-accidental
in nature.
• Forms of child abuse
• several types of child abuse- emotional effect on the child
• Their world is an unpredictable, frightening place with no rules.
• a child feel unsafe, uncared for, and alone. 
• Signs and consequences of abuse
Sexual Abuse
 children often do not variably tell that they have been sexually abused
 mainly fear of the consequences, retaliation or uncertainty about whether or not they will
be believed.
 effects and consequences of child sexual abuse may be:
– Sexual acting-out.
– Inability to trust or love others.
– Aggressive, disruptive and sometimes illegal behavior.
– Self destructive behavior.
– Suicidal thoughts.
– Passive or withdrawn behavior.
– Anxiety and fears.
– School problems or failure.
– Feelings of sadness or other symptoms of depression.
Physical abuse
– Avoids physical contact with others.
– Apprehensive when other children cry.
– Wears clothing to purposely conceal injury, i.e. long sleeves.
– Gives inconsistent versions about occurrence of injuries, burns, etc.
– Seems frightened by parents.
– Often late or absent from school.
– Comes early to school, seems reluctant to go home afterwards.
– Has difficulty getting along with others.
– Little respect for others.
– Overly compliant, withdrawn, gives in readily and allows others to do for  him/her
without protest.
– Plays aggressively, often hurting peers.
 – Complains of pain upon movement or contact.
• Social case work
• Social case work is “ social treatment of a maladjusted individual involving an attempt to
understand his personality, behaviour, and social relationships, to assist him in working out a
better social and personal adjustment” Taft (1920)
Objective of social case work
• To understand and solve the internal problems of the the individual.
• To strengthen his ego power
• Remediation of problems in social functioning
• Prevention of problems in social functioning
• Development of resources to enhance social functioning
• Responsibility of case worker
• understand the various contexts in which the abused child/client exists;
• assess clients within their environments and identify dysfunctional behaviors, emotions, and
cognition; and,
• provide interventions that address identified problems and assist adaptation and a return to
healthy functioning
• Child Welfare Caseworkers
• Typically, child welfare caseworkers are required to obtain sufficient information about children
in their caseload
– to be able to determine the level of risk to the child and the child’s treatment needs, offer
opinions to the court,
– and develop and administer therapeutic and reunification plans.
– To accomplish these tasks, caseworkers must rely on information provided by a broad spectrum
of sources familiar with the maltreated child.
– These sources may include foster parents, caretakers who are relatives of the child, home
visiting agencies, or law enforcement agencies, etc
• Case 3 children with numerous facial injuries. The children -their development was well behind where it
should be.
Their mother hadn’t taken the children to any of their health or dental appointments and there seemed to be a
general lack of stimulation in the home. All of the three children had untreated head lice and the seven year
old boy was providing meals for his younger siblings.other children at just four and seven seemed to display
quite aggressive behaviour towards each other and towards their mother. The children appeared to seek
emotional warmth from strangers and professionals and the seven year old child was still soiling and wetting
his bed. He was observed unsupervised out in the street late at night.
• All three children were present during fights between their mother, step father and other acquaintances
of the family. The four year old girl during one visit disclosed that her step father had hurt her.
Between the children’s mother and step father there was excessive alcohol use and domestic violence.
On occasions when the mother observed with facial injuries, she was not able to provide an explanation
as to how they happened. The stepfather had a long history of violence for which he had served
custodial sentences, one of which was for 14 years
• What the case worker did? (role of case worker)
• informed the family of the consequences of their actions so that they could make informed choices
• spent quality time with the children both within the home and outside of the home giving them a
chance to be listened to and heard
• Build trust in the case worker
• spent time alone with each child during visits to establish their wishes and feelings about every
situation as they arose
• sessions were undertaken with a variety of family member’s to assess the likelihood of a wider
family support package being put into place to enable the children to remain in the care of the
mother or to identify an appropriate family placement.
• Role of case worker
The case worker has an important role in helping a child recover from the effects of abuse and neglect.
The case workerserves a number of functions, including:
– offers the child an opportunity to verbalize and explore many of the issuesor concerns
typical of victims of abuse and neglect.
 – helping the child address issues related to abuse and neglect,
– serving as a model for appropriate adult/child relationships,
– working to improve family relationships, and
– supporting positive and productive peer relationships and support systems
• Role of social case worker
• School social worker-Children's school programs regarding "good touch...bad touch" can provide
children with a forum in which to role-play and learn to avoid potentially harmful scenarios
• Psychological problems- trust building-reassurance and unconditional support.
• establish rapport and develop a trusting relationship that will help the childaddress the thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors that are generated by abuse and neglect.
• to be listened to and heard
• parenting
• Crisis intervention
• criticisms
• Individual social workers have become the subject of much criticism.
• Inquiry reports published after child's death or other situations of concern have identified
individual and institutional culpability and repeatedly stated the importance of inter-agency work
and good record keeping.
• Children who have been removed from their families where the suffered abuse only to be further
abused in residential or foster placement which were provided as safe environment.

social work profession in India is one of the youngest human service professions. It has developed with the support of its
western counterparts in terms of its
teaching and training pedagogies. Professional social work in India owes its origin to a short-term training course on
social service organised by the social service league at Bombay for men and women who were willing to volunteer for
social service. Social Work education got its formal recognition in India way back in 1936 from Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate
School of Social Work under the leadership of Sir Clifford Manshardt which is now known as Tata Institute of Social
Sciences (TISS), Mumbai. A decade after in August 1946, the second institution of social work named National YWCA
Department of Social Work under Directorship of Ms. Nora Ventura with support of YWCA of America came into
existence. Within a year University of Delhi granted formal affiliation to become the first school of social work under
university system imparting full-fledged two years post-graduate programme of professional education in socialwork.
Later in 1950, the name of YWCA Department of Social Work was changed to Delhi School of Social Work (DSSW).

Besides TISS and DSSW, nine out of seventeen schools of social work by the end of the decade of 1950-60 also came into
existence with the help of Christian missionaries in different parts of the country. These included Indore School of Social
Work in Indore (1951); Madras School of Social Work in Chennai (1952);Stella Maria, Chennai (1953), Nirmala Niketan in
Mumbai (1955); Rajagiri School of Social Sciences in Kerala (1955); Roshini Nilaya School of Social Work, Mangalore
(1960); and CSRD - Institute of Social Work (1960). The term'school' was adopted as foreign legacy as the same was used
for the special post-graduate institutions in USA and UK. This conscious adoption of the term found reflection in names
of social work institutions, professional association of socialwork, popular usages and public discourses. The United
States TechnicalCooperation Mission (TCM) in India which started functioning from 1956, has further developed, shaped
and influenced the social work education. This influence can be seen in course structure, syllabi, pedagogies, field work
training,and practice, Further, TCM strengthened social work education through national and regional seminar and
conferences, teachers exchange programmes, academic support to young teachers, subject experts' attachment to
institutions etc. In first phase of history of social work, it is beyond doubt that the education and training of professional
social work in India received tremendous support of Christian missionaries/ institutions and American educationists.
However, there were two institution which were established on Gandhian model namely Kashi Vidyapeeth,Varanasi
(1947) and Gujarat Vidyapeeth (1965) with a few universities openingsocial work courses like - Lucknow University
(1949); ISS, Agra University(1957).

PROBLEM SOLVING MODEL

The problem solving diagnosis has two major focuses:
i. One is the beginning and continues appraisal and reappraisal of the person‟s motivation, capacity and
opportunity to put him into working on the problem at hand.
ii. ii. The second one is the finding and assessment of what factors and forces deter or thwart his motivation or his
capacity or his opportunity.
In short, the diagnosis in the problem solving model focus:
1) What the person wants and how much he wants it (motivation) in relation to the problem to
be worked out.
2) Upon what capacities the person had (or has not) or can develop (or can‟t) by which to cope
with the problem – to – be worked;
3) Upon what means there are (or are not) in the aids and services, the caseworker has on top –
by which the problem to be worked or can be affected. Simultaneously it seeks to discern
why, for what reason, the persons motivation and capacity opportunity is inadequate to
enable him to cope.

Child welfare social workers protect vulnerable youth and help disadvantaged families in meeting the needs of
their children. Some of their core responsibilities include responding to cases of child abuse and neglect;
removing children from home settings that are dangerous or which do not meet certain standards; working
with children and their families on a reunification plan in collaboration with child dependency courts;
supporting parents in meeting the needs of their children (through resource connections and navigation services,
therapy and advising, andother services); and arranging for the short and long-term care of children whose
families are unable to take care of them.
Due to the complexity and emotionally charged nature of their work (separating families by necessity,
sometimes permanently, and balancing the at times conflicting interests of the child, his/her parents, and the
child dependency court), child welfare social workers may find their daily responsibilities to be challenging and
at times draining. However, despite the demands and difficulties of their work, child welfare social workers
often find their ability to provide compassionate support to parents while protecting children in need to be
rewarding
due to its profound impact, both on an individual and a larger societal level.
While child welfare social workers can work entry level agency positions after receiving their BSW, many
places of employment prefer individuals who wish to progress to higher level or more involved roles to have a
Master’s Degree in Social Work (MSW) from a CSWE-accredited institution. Social workers who are
interested in getting training at the graduate level for child welfare social work positions should explore state-
funded scholarships for MSW students focusing on child welfare. During their MSW program, students
interested in child welfare
should seek internships in relevant settings (such as a family welfare agency), and also take courses in clinical
social work methods, family dynamics, child development, poverty, and/or disadvantaged populations.

11.2.1 Settings and Fields of Practice

The various settings and fields of practice include:
 State statutory child protection agencies
 Specialist family support and counselling services
 Foster care
 Residential care
 Children’s commissions
 Forensic and correctional services
 Hospital and community health
 Joint investigation response teams
 Child wellbeing units
 Adoption agencies
 Management and governance

11.2.2 Types of Child Welfare Social Workers

Child welfare social workers typically work for Child Protective Services and/or child welfare agencies at the
county and state levels. There are often several different types of child welfare social workers on a given team
that collaborate to identifyand respond to cases of child abuse and neglect. Some of these social workers
are “front-end” social workers (also known as emergency response social workers). They go out to investigate
incidents of child abuse and neglect at the site (often the child’s home), and will also return to these sites to
remove children from abusive or insufficient care.

In contrast, “back-end” social workers (also known as continuing services social workers) work with children
and their families after the child has been removed from his/her original home, in order to address the barriers
that the parents (or caretakers) are experiencing to provide their child( children) with a minimum standard of
care at home. Back-end social workers interact with child dependency courts to arrange for alternative living
situations (foster families, adoption, and/or living with family members) for children whose parents are unable
to properly
care for them, and also set goals, benchmarks, and deadlines for parents to meet before their children can be
returned to them. Back-end social workers also work with foster families, adoptive parents, and community
organizations and resources to try and create and maintain a support system for vulnerable children.
Due to limited resources and staffing, some child welfare social workers may move between emergency/first
response duties and continuing services, or fulfill both types of responsibilities simultaneously, depending on
their availability and the needs of the agency.
A. Emergency First Responder (“Front-End”) Social Workers
First responder social workers, as their title indicates, are often the first individuals to respond to cases of child
abuse and/or neglect. Child welfare agencies will often receive notifications from concerned members of the
public about households with children who may not be receiving sufficient care. Upon receiving these
notifications, first responder social workers go to households to investigate these allegations of abuse or
neglect, and to evaluate the situation of the child (children) in question relative to a minimum standard of child
care. If child maltreatment is discovered, emergency first responder social workers typically open a child
welfare case, contact Child Protective Services to have a child removed and placed in the care of the Child
Dependency Court, and document the evidence of maltreatment in reports for the Courts and for back-end
social workers who take on the case after the child’s removal from his/her home.
Sasha Chelsea McGowan, MSW, who works as a Continuing Services Social Worker in Contra Costa County,
explained the general standards for adequate parental care in the context of child welfare services. “In the child
welfare field, we are focused on one thing–minimum sufficient level of care,” she explained. “This is the
community based (and judicially supported) standard of care that we require families to provide for their
children in regards to their physical, emotional, and developmental needs.”
Ms. McGowan explained how “minimum sufficient” is distinct from “ideal” ensure that children are reasonably
safe, provided for in all essential areas (food, hygiene, schooling, medical and dental care, emotional well-
being, etc.). In addition, the definition of minimum sufficient level of care can differ from community to
community, as different counties will have different regulations around child care and neglect, expectations for
school attendance, etc.
“To determine if a family is meeting this minimum standard [of care], we ask three questions,” she said. “Is the
family providing for their child’s basic needs? Is the parent’s parenting practice, such as with physical
discipline, within our community standard or outside of it? Does the parent’s behavior fall within reasonable
limits, as judged by that same community?” If the response to these questions is no, then first responder social
workers typically begin the process of opening a case and seeking to remove the abused or neglected children
from their
parents’ care.

B. Continuing Services (“Back-End”) Social Worker

Once a child is placed in the care of the Child Dependency Court, back-end social workers take over the case.
Ms. McGowan told OnlineMSWPrograms.com, “[Continuing services social workers continue] to investigate
to clarify the allegations of maltreatment and develop a case plan composed of services and behavioural change
necessary to return a child to the care of a parent.” Types of behavioural changes that social workers might
include in a family’s case plan could include parents’ cessation of physical and/or verbal abuse; elimination of
substance abuse behaviors; addressing of physical, medical/dental, emotional, or academic neglect, and proper
supervision behaviors.
After the development of a case plan that incorporates behavioral changes for the parents and ways to support
the parents in making these changes, continuing services social workers monitor the family’s case and provide
emotional support, advising, and resource connections throughout the process. Services and support that
continuing services social workers might recruit to assist children and their parents include counselling and
psychotherapy; guidance on how to apply for health care benefits, food stamps, etc.; and connections to
supportive groups within the community (substance abuse therapy groups, educational resources, etc.).
Continuing services social workers also report on the family’s progress to the Dependency Court, and update
families on the status of their case in relation to the Court.

Damoun Bozorgzadarbab, MSW, who worked as a Family Services Social Worker and an Emergency
Response Children Social Worker at LA County Child Protective Services, explained that, while social workers
are invested in parents’ progress, and in the reunification of the original family, their first and foremost priority
is the safety of children. “The roles and responsibilities of child welfare social workers is first to keep children
safe, then to assure their well-being and do both of those things while making sure they have a chance at
permanent families,”
she said. “So while child welfare social workers link parents to all the providers. who help address their issues
to mitigate safety and risk (therapists, day care providers, substance use treatment programs…) they are also
reporting to the courts on the progress of the parents.” If, after a period of time, parents are unable to meet the
standards outlined in the case plan, continuing services social workers also start working on a plan for long-
term foster care or adoption. Due to the many responsibilities that back-end social workers have upon the
opening of a child welfare case (i.e. in-depth investigation of child maltreatment allegations, development of
case plan with behavioral changes for parents, continued monitoring of parents’ progress, and development of a
long-term foster
care or adoption plan if necessary), some child welfare agencies have different units of back-end social workers
that focus on a specific area of continuing services. Ms. McGowan noted, “[There] are specialized units that
address the needs of children who are not able to reunite with their family of origin. In continuing services,
I work with children younger than the age of 16 who were not able to reunify with their parents, and at age 16
they transfer to ‘Transitions to Permanency’ where a social worker with special training will work with them on
skills for independence and transitioning to adulthood.”
11.2.3 What Child Welfare Social Workers Do
As mentioned previously, child welfare social workers’ specific responsibilities depend on whether they are
working front-end or back-end roles at their agency. However, in general, the core responsibilities of child
welfare social workers are:
1. Investigative Work (in Collaboration with CPS and Dependency Court)
Both first responder and continuing services social workers investigate instances of child maltreatment and
evaluate children’s situations against an established minimum standard. The minimum sufficient level of care
(MSLC) is typically determined through a combination of state, federal, and community standards, as well as
each family’s unique circumstances. Specific items that child welfare social workers look at include whether
children are safe; provided for in terms of food, clothing, and shelter; are able to attend school; are not being
subjected to physical, emotional/verbal, or sexual abuse; and are not suffering from neglect. When investigating
cases of child maltreatment, child welfare social workers collaborate with Child Protective Services and the
Juvenile Dependency Court, which is a specialized court that handles solely child welfare cases. “Child welfare
has its own court system, the juvenile dependency court,” Katie Krause, MSW, who works for Contra Costa
County Children and Family Services in California, told OnlineMSWPrograms.com. “This is completely
separate from criminal court. Social workers in all units will interact with dependency court judges as we
frequently write reports. Social workers can be called to testify when parents contest the allegations or judge’s
decision. Each party (parents, kids, social worker) is represented by an attorney in court. Our attorneys are
called county counsel
2. Case Plan Development
Once a child maltreatment has been confirmed, child welfare social workers collaborate with Child Protective
Services, behavioral therapists, case managers, agency staff, school administrators and teachers, and other
relevant members of the community to develop an individualized case plan for the child and his/her parents.
The case plan mainly focuses on the changes that parents need to make in order to regain custody of their
children, and can have several different elements. “A case plan could include things such as: anger anagement,
domestic violence support group and education, counselling, couple’s counselling, family counselling,
parenting classes, drug testing, and in patient or outpatient drug programs,” Ms. Krause noted. “I refer parents
to all of these services. I [also] really try to explain to families what is going on as best as I can since the
attorneys don’t really do that. I try to encourage them and draw on their strengths rather than only seeing the
problems. I like to see the big picture and really get to know the family.”
Case plans usually have certain deadlines for behavioral changes that parents must meet, and these deadlines
can be stringent. “A huge barrier for our families is the court timelines. If your child is under three years old,
parents have only six months to address the issues leading to CPS involvement before we move towards
an alternative permanency option for the child such as adoption–this is also why we concurrently plan, and
place infants primarily with family members or potentially adoptive parents,” Ms. McGowan explained. “This
is based on the negative outcomes of children spending years in foster care without consistent caregivers in
early childhood. With children over three, parents have twelve months.”
3. Counselling and Psychotherapy
Child welfare social workers can provide emotional counselling and, in some cases, targeted but often short-
term psychotherapy to children and their parents. The separation of a family is a traumatic experience for both
child and parent, and child welfare social workers help both parties manage the difficult emotions around the
separation, and to move forward towards a plan of action for reunification. For children in foster homes or
adopted children who experience mental, emotional, and behavioral issues as a result of their separation from
their family, child welfare social workers can offer emotional support and therapy. They might also try to
help parents address the mental and emotional reasons behind the behavioural problems that lead to the
maltreatment of their child (ex. substance abuse, neglect, domestic abuse, etc.).
“Every child that comes into contact with our system is assessed for therapy and additional mental health
services,” Ms. Krause noted. “Almost all of the children who are removed from their parents participate in
some sort of therapy.
4. Coordination of Support Services for Child and Parents
In addition to providing individualized advising and therapy to children and their parents, child welfare social
workers communicate with other parties that are concerned about and/or involved in a child’s well-being,
including but not limited to school administrators and teachers, behavioral therapists, doctors and nurses, and
staff at community centers. The afore-mentioned service providers meet periodically with the family
and independent of the family in order to create, evaluate, and modify the reunification plan. Below is a more
detailed description of some of the collaborative services, programs, and meetings that child welfare social
workers participate in with other human service providers.
 Wraparound Services (WRAP): Wraparound services are defined as community based, individualized, and
comprehensive mental, emotional, behavioural , and social services and support for people in need, such as
vulnerable children and their parents. Wraparound services encompass an individual’s social, emotional, health,
academic, and (where relevant) occupational needs, and recruit multiple providers from within the community
(teachers, behavioral therapists, social workers, medical professionals, etc.).
 Child and Family Team (CFT) Meetings: CFT meetings are between children, parents, and human service
providers, during which both parents and their children set goals for making the necessary changes to
successfully reunify, and providers work with the family to construct a plan for meeting these goals. Providers
also offer resources and support to assist the family in meeting their goals by established deadlines.
 Individualized Education Programs (IEPs): IEPs are developed primarily by school personnel (such as
teachers, counsellors, and school social workers) in response to the needs of specific children who are not
performing well at school for mental, emotional, behavioral, familial, and/or social reasons. Child welfare
social workers may participate in the development or maintenance of these plans in cases when child abuse or
neglect are factors in a child not meeting certain academic standards.
 Team Decision Meetings (TDMs): These meetings are held between different social service providers before
every key decision in a child’s case (placing a child in a foster home or with an adopted family, reuniting
children with their families, etc.). During these meetings, providers develop an appropriate course of action
given the family’s circumstances and progress (if applicable), evaluate the benefits and risks of this course of
action, and update one another on the progress of a family.
5. Resource Connections and Navigation Services
While child welfare social workers can provide mental health counselling and mental, emotional, academic,
and social needs. Furthermore, though they work closely with families in need, child welfare social workers’
interactions with their clients is necessarily limited, and thus part of their job is creating as comprehensive
a support system as possible for children and parents by coordinating services from various community
resources.
Examples of such resources include but are not limited to afterschool programs and tutoring, parent support
groups, centers that provide subsidized food and clothing, individual counselling, community health clinics,
emotional regulation and stress reduction groups, and substance abuse support groups.
11.2.4 Scope of Social Work Practice in Child Protection
Social workers draw on a broad range of theories, knowledge, research and skills to ensure comprehensive and
holistic analysis of the client’s situation. Social workers’ assessments range from targeted and brief specific-
needs analyses through to comprehensive holistic psychosocial and risk assessments of the full range of social
and psychological needs, strengths and stressors. These assessments underpin targeted and needs-based
interventions to address the social and emotional issues that are impacting on the individual’s health,
development and wellbeing.
The scope of social work practice in child protection includes:
 Attending to the physical, emotional, educational needs and spiritual wellbeing of children who enter the
child protection system
 Early identification of vulnerability, risk reduction and strengthening supportive and protective factors
 Risk assessment in relation to child abuse and neglect, cumulative harm, family violence and intimate partner
violence. Risk assessment also includes the ability to assess child protection reports received from the
community and weighing the evidence from other agencies such as the police and health Teams
 Comprehensive psychosocial assessments that are strengths-based and child focused. Such assessments
include comprehensive family assessments that consider the child’s needs and the whole care environment of
the child with an aim of making recommendations, therapeutic needs assessments, parenting capacity
assessments, carer assessments and to inform interventions
 Crisis intervention in addressing the needs of families at risk of having their children placed in care
 Establishing client-social worker collaborative relationships in which the statutory role of the social worker
is clearly explained
 Therapeutically informed interventions that acknowledge the complexities of trauma, grief and loss
expressed often as fear, anger or sadness
 Facilitating networks for the child and family based on high level knowledge about social systems and
community networks, including the facilitation of kinship networks
 Socio-legal and ethical decision making within complex legal frameworks in which the best interest of the
child is paramount
 Planning for long-term stability (in some jurisdictions, permanency planning), which has at its centre the
need of the child for ongoing continuity and belonging, as well as timely planning and decision making,
culturally appropriate placements and collaborative decision making
 Family intervention and support, which includes family therapy and family case conferencing and decision
making
 Child-focused/therapeutic interventions that are used in working with highly traumatised children
 Leadership in case management and in the collaboration of services both within and external to the child
protection system
 Advocacy in relation to the rights of children, their families and carers
 Supporting foster carers to meet the practical and therapeutic care needs of children and delivering residential
care services
 Advocating for after care supports for 18-25-year-old young people
 Developing policy, engaging in research and publishing peer reviewed Significant numbers of social
workers practise in child well-being and protection settings in a range of roles including direct case work,
management and policy. No other professional discipline is so immersed in the areas of knowledge that are
essential for quality relationship-based child protection practice. As a result, social workers are recognised
throughout the world as the core professional group in child protection policy, management and practice. Social
workers offer a unique and valuable contribution in providing appropriate and targeted child-centred
services as well as facilitating referral pathways that ensure the linking of services, access and equity.
Social workers contribute at an organisational level by:
1. Within State Child Protection systems
 Promoting the safety, stability and development of children by providing professional assessments and
interventions that safeguard children at risk of abuse
 Reducing the number of children entering into care unnecessarily Facilitating the timely return of children to
their families of origin with appropriate interventions to address concerns and to assist parents to care
appropriately for their children
 Facilitating timely plans for children who cannot return safely to their families of origin
 Providing ongoing support to children and their carers so as to safeguard children’s rights
 Facilitating the wellbeing and stability of placement
 Facilitating the collaboration of the wide variety of agencies concerned with child protection.
 Within specialist family support and counselling services
 Providing professional assessments and interventions
 Strengthening families and their extended network to enable children to remain safely at home
 Facilitating the timely return of children to their families of origin with appropriate support
 Addressing the ongoing effects of trauma among children who have been abused or neglected.
2. Within foster care agencies
 Providing professional assessments of prospective foster carers so as to ensure a high standard of foster
carers
 Providing ongoing high-level support and advice for children and foster carers to increase stability of
placements Within residential settings
 Ensuring a high standard of management and specialist advice so that children are safe, their rights are
respected and their individual needs are addressed Within children’s commissions
 Advocating for children in the care of the state both individually and at a systemic level ensuring that the
voice of the child is heard Within systems reducing the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in care
 Considering holistic interventions and alternatives and working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
services
3. Within diverse multicultural communities
 By encouraging an openness to different world views and developing skills in culturally sensitive
interventions including listening to and working with community elders
4. Within the courts
 Providing assessment and supporting documentation and oral evidence for children’s court orders for
statutory intervention, during interim, restoration
5. Within non-child protection specific agencies
 Ensuring child-focused models of care are integrated and part of adult services where there may be children
at risk, such as drug health, mental health and emergency services
6. Across agencies
 Promoting the exchange of information between agencies to ensure the safety
and wellbeing of children and efficient collaboration of services
7. Within management and governance
 Ensuring systems that place the needs of children and their safety first
 Designing and implementing services, developing practice advice for child protection staff
 Evaluating programs to improve efficacy and conducting research to increase the evidence base for practice.
Social workers offer a unique role within the social services with their holistic approach to assessment and their
commitment to human rights and advocacy within a multidisciplinary and multi-agency environment. They
make valuable contributions in providing appropriate and targeted services to children and their families when
there are concerns about a child’s wellbeing or safety, mindful of trauma-informed frameworks and
intergenerational links. Importantly social workers help reduce the incidence of abuse and neglect, support
families to raise their children to their full potential. They also assist families to relate in more positive
ways and children to thrive in their parental care wherever possible. Social workers help reduce the effects of
trauma, contribute to child-centred planning and the increased stability of placements. Accordingly, social work
should have a significant role in the child protection system.
11.2.6 Geriatric Care of Aged and the Terminally-ill
A geriatric social worker is a professional social worker with expertise working with adults aged 65 and over.
Often, these are social workers that have graduate level education and field experience in geriatrics,
gerontology, aging, or social work with older adults.
Geriatric social workers help find solutions for older adults and families that address the personal, social, and
environmental challenges that come with aging. Geriatric social workers’ main priority is maintaining and
enhancing the quality of life of their older adult clients. This may include developing an understanding not
only the physical complications of aging, but mental health, cultural barriers, and organizational challenges
faced by the older adult.
Aging-savvy social workers serve as “navigators” through the complicated healthcare and social service
systems. They help families by gathering information about the array of services available to them,
coordinating care across various health systems, facilitating family support, and providing direct counselling
services. According to the Consortium of New York Geriatric Education Centers, “Gerontological social work
interventions are directed at enhancing dignity, selfdetermination, personal fulfillment, quality of life, optimal
functioning, and ensuring the least restrictive living environment possible.”
11.2.7 Geriatric Social Worker’s Role with Elderly Client
Here are just a few ways social workers help:
 Clinical interventions – They may provide therapy for an elderly client who feels lonely or who is suffering
depression or anxiety. Geriatric social workers encourage their clients to pursue stimulating activities, helping
to arrange group outings. They can help clients cope with aging by recording “life stories” and help people say
their goodbyes through writing letters, phone calls, videos, etc.
 Service interventions – Many social workers act as a link between their clients and the numerous public and
private programs designed for the aging. Social workers help
 Clients apply for appropriate services. They help sort out any problems in the delivery of these services.
 Advocacy – A geriatric social worker can provide an older adult with an Advance Directive form and explain
how to correctly complete it. They are also a frontline defense for stopping elder abuse: a geriatric social
worker is mandated by law to report to any suspected elder abuse to Adult Protective Services.
In addition to the above-mentioned help, social workers also perform various functions in geriatric care. These
are as follows:
 For families in a caregiving situation, geriatric social workers are an invaluable resource. Social workers also
offer direct assistance for families, such as providing family-support services, suggesting useful technologies,
and facilitating the coordination of medical care.
 Many geriatric social workers also offer counselling services, which often deal with end-of-life issues,
bereavement, and other concerns common to senior citizens. They can help guide families through the
transition from the home environment to long term care, assist with filing necessary paperwork, and help with
access to end-of-life care planning (living wills, advance directives, DNR orders).
 To help older adults remain at home as long as possible, many geriatric social workers work within the home
health care setting.
 These types of social workers often coordinate discharge planning from hospital to home and conduct home
visits to ensure the client is safe, healthy, and thriving in their environment.
 They may help assess when home care is or is not appropriate for the client, help locate in-home assistance
services, transportation services, Meals on Wheels, and recommend in-home care tracking technology.
 Geriatric social workers are trained to recognize normal and abnormal aging patterns. They can suggest when
an elderly client needs to see a doctor and can arrange for a visit.
 With the help of geriatric social workers, some older adults may be able to live in their own home when they
would otherwise need nursing home care

EXTRA READING

Social case work process :- There are there phases of social case work process :
 Intake and psycho-social study,
social diagnosis
treatment
and termination.

Intake :- Intake is an administrative procedure and not a process of social case work to take in the person with
problem for example admit him or enroll him as a client of the agency. After this phase the case worker is able to
asses the needs and problems of applicant person and how and where his needs can be best met.
Psycho-Social Study :-
Social investigation is a psycho-social process. It is the initial phase in which the worker gains his first
understanding of the kind of help his clients needs. The worker must understand what the client sees his problem
as, what he think can be cone about it, what he himself/herself tried to do about it, and what are the reasons the
client has identified for his present difficulty.
Perlman has given the following contents of the case work study in the beginning phase:
1. The nature of the problem
2. The significance of this problem
3. The causes of the problem.
4. The efforts made to cope with problem solving
5. The nature of the solutions or ends sought from the case work agency.
6. The actual nature of the agency and its problem solving means in relation the client and his problems.
Method :-
Perlman has suggested four methods for operating in the beginning phase:-
1. Relating to the client
2. Helping the client to talk about his troubles
3. Focusing and partializing
4. Helping the client to engage with the agency
Tools and Techniques in the beginning phase :-
1. Interview
2. Objective observation
3. Examination of records and documents
4. Collection of information for collateral and family sources
5. Special examination of test

Social Diagnosis (Assessment)

On the basis of the study of the problem in its past, present and future setting and the clients positive and negative
reactions and interactions, the internal pressure and environmental factors the case worker asses or diagnose the
clients problematic situation. Diagnosis is an explanation formulated in the light of known fact.
Content of the social diagnosis
The content of the case work diagnosis fall into the triangular pattern. It consist of
1. The nature of the problem brought and the goals set by the client, in their relationship to;
2. The nature of the person who bears the problem (his social and psychological situation and functioning) and who
seek (or needs) help with his problem, in relation to;
3. The nature and purpose of the agency and the kind of help it can offer and/or make available
Types of diagnosis
Perlman has described three types of diagnosis that is carried on in social case work process.
These are :
Dynamic Diagnostic;
Clinical diagnosis;
Etiological diagnosis
Dynamic Diagnosis :- Gives on understanding of the current problem of the client and forces currently operating
within the client, within social environment and between him/his environment. It is a cross sectional view of the
forces currently operating in the clients problem. The dynamic diagnosis seeks to establish what the trouble is, what
role psychological, biological, social and environmental factors are playing in the causation of the problems, what
effect it has on the individuals well being. What solution is sought and what means exist within the client his
situation and the organised services and resources by which the problem may be affected. In dynamic diagnosis
there is no attempt to dig the life history of the problem, rather reasons for the problem are traced in the current
situation.
Clinical diagnosis :- Under clinical diagnosis, the case worker attempts to classify the client by the nature of his
problem. He identifies certain forms and qualities of clients personality maladaptation and mal functioning in his
behaviour.
Etiological diagnosis :- Etiological diagnosis is concerned with the explanation of the beginning of the life history of
problems of the client, basically that problem that lies in the clients personality make up or functioning . The history
of his development or a problem encountering, problem solving human being may provide the case worker with an
understanding of what his clients suffers from and what the extent of his coping ability is likely to be.
Steps in diagnosis :-
The following steps are taken while diagnosing a problem :-
1. The worker begins with focusing on problematic bahaviours. He investigate both functional and dysfunctional
behaviours in his social milieu. He clarifies various complaints and problems in terms of excesses and deficits. He
evaluates the client’s personal strengths and his surrounding environment.
2. He targets the specified behaviour and break down complex behaviour into their component parts.
3. Baseline data are collected to specify those events that appear to be currently controlling the problematic
behaviours.
4. An analysis and interpretation is done from collected information and objectives for intervention established.
5. Selecting priorities for intervention is the final step of the diagnosis.

Intervention (Treatment)
Intervention or treatment is the next step and it’s based on the study and diagnosis which indicates whether the
problem is the result of personal or environmental factors and whether the remedy lies in the form of material or
psychological assistance. The course of action undertaken by case worker after studying and understanding the
problem has been described as treatment.
The objectives of social case work treatment
1. To prevent social breakdown;
2. To conserve clients strength;
3. To restore social functioning;
4. To provide happy experiences to the client;
5. To create opportunities for growth and development;
6. To compensate psychological damage;
7. To increase capacity for self direction;
8. To increase his social contribution.

Social case work treatment process.

The process of intervention or treatment begins with initial contact with the client. The process of treatment passes
through many phases i.e. (1) Initial phase (2) Motivation and role induction (3) Primary contract (4) Diagnosis and
assessment (5) Establishing treatment goals (6) Developing treatment plan (7) Preparation for actual treatment (8)
Treatment in practice (9) Monitoring and evaluating the effects of treatment and (10) Planning of follow up
termination of therapeutic relationship.
Application of Intervention Methods :-
In order to active goals set by the worker, conventionally the following methods of social intervention have been
mentioned
(1) Direct Method
(2) Environment Modification
(3) Administration of Practical Service
(1) Direct Method :- Direct method of intervention is used to promote specific behaviour on the part of the client.
According to Perlman it is a systematic intervention through which client can work over his problems and possible
solutions. Here, the case worker applies his influence directly on the client. The techniques of direct intervention
used where the clients needs direction because of his/her ignorance, anxiety and weakness of his/her strength.
Direct intervention is given through counseling, therapeutic interviewing, clarification and interpretation, leading to
an insight. Supportive intervention is provided through guidance, externalization of interests, re-assurance,
suggestion, persuasion and advice.
Counselling :- It is direct intervention towards the solution of a problem in which a person find that he cannot solve
the problem himself, therefore seeks the help if a skilled person whose knowledge, experience and expertise could
be used to solve the problem. It is a psychological technique in which information and clarification are used for
making the client aware of the problem.
Therapeutic Interviewing :- Therapeutic interview is used where intra-psychic conflict is present in the environment.
The purpose of such interview is that of psychotherapy which aims at personality, competence and self
actualizations. For the analysis of the unconscious, social case worker applies the techniques of free association,
dream interpretation, analysis of resistance and transference. For behaviour modification, social case worker makes
use of the techniques of positive enforcement, negative enforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment,
systematic desensitization and covert desensitization.
It is the process through which clarification about the client himself, his environment and the public with whom he is
associated is made. Clarification may consist of information given to the client so that he becomes capable of
understanding himself, his environment and his social network, which he does not posses and without which he
cannot see clearly what step he ought to take.
Psychological support :- Psychological support is useful is decreasing tension and guilt, increasing self confidence,
encouraging healthy functioning that maintains the clients equilibrium and in helping him to build up compensatory
strength and satisfaction. The case worker accepts him and his feeling and shows keep interest in him. He clarifies
the problem and encourages him to take his own decision- The social case worker helps him to strengthen clients’
ego through the techniques of guidance, reassurance, persuasion and psychological support.
(2) Environmental Modification :- Means to bring change in the social as well as physical conditions of the client so
that he may be relieved from excessive stresses and strains. The case worker suggest positive steps to client to
cope better with his problems. He plans with him emotional, professional and recreational activities. He gives
appropriate advice to member of his environment and modifies their attitude favorably.
(3) Administration of Practical Service :- According to Hamilton administration of practical service is the oldest and
best known case work method of intervention. Porter Lee was the first social worker who emphasized and classified
such resource. Administration of practical services means to help the client in such a way that he could select and
use the resources available in the community in this process social case worker helps the client for adequate
knowledge of available resource through the techniques of discussion information classification and direction.

Termination and follow up: – Here termination means ending the process of social case work intervention process.
The termination process in decided mutually by client and worker. Termination is the stage when the worker has the
confidence in the client ability to cope with the present and future situation.
Evaluation :- In social case work evaluation is the process in which worker tries to find out the effectiveness and
success of the process. It is an activity which shows whether the social case work process has active the desired
goals or not. Social case worker evaluates the connect of the program and it effectiveness inner strength gained by
the client and the success of himself in helping the client.

The Helping Process

• Phase I: Exploration, engagement, assessment, and planning
• Phase II: Implementation and goal attainment
• Phase III: Termination

• Phase I: Exploration, engagement, assessment, and planning

• Exploration of the problem
• Establishing rapport
• Multidimensional assessment
• Mutually negotiating goals
• Making referrals

Phase II: Implementation and goal attainment

• Enhancing self-efficacy
• Monitoring progress
• Barriers to goal accomplishment
• Relational reactions
• Enhancing clients’ self-awareness
• Use of self

Phase III: Termination

• Assessing that goals have been satisfactorily attained
• Helping client to develop strategies to maintain change past termination
• Successfully terminating the helping relationship
• Planning change maintenance strategies

Engagement
During the engagement stage, the social worker should focus on building trust and rapport with the client, so
that mutually-agreed upon goals can be determined. In engagement, the social worker is actively involved with
the client, listening to her/his perspectives on problems, reasons for seeking treatment, and desired outcomes of
therapy.

Assessment
During the assessment stage, the focus shifts to information gathering. In assessment, social workers should
collect key data about the client through interviews and other assessment techniques and instruments and
collateral contacts. This information will assist both the client and the social worker in defining problems and
possible solutions. During assessment, social workers must remember to operate from a strengths-based
perspective, with careful attention to seeking information about client’s skills, capacities, resources, and other
strengths.

Planning
The planning stage is focused on goal development, based on a mutual understanding of the client’s problems,
lifestyle, and environment. During this stage, the social worker and client work together to develop an action-
plan that is suited to the client’s unique circumstances. This action-plan should include specific objectives and
tasks that work toward accomplishing the stated goals, with a clear timeline for action, and expectations of who
will do what.

Intervention
Intervention is the stage when the client and social worker mobilize resources to implement the action-plan,
both complying with their agreed-upon expectations. During this stage, the social worker should monitor client
progress, and the client should bring to the social worker’s attention any challenges, obstacles, or threats to
carrying out the action-plan. Plans and timelines can be adjusted as needed to ensure that the intervention is
working for the client.
Evaluation
During the evaluation stage, the social worker and the client focus on goal attainment, continuing to monitor
progress to determine when goals are met, and/or whether new goals should be set. Clients can be directly
involved in the evaluation stage through self-monitoring, allowing them to track and reflect upon their own
progress. The social worker, at this stage, critically evaluates how an intervention is working based on client
progress. If goals are not being met, it may be necessary to return to the assessment stage to better define the
problem.
Termination
The ultimate goal of any therapeutic intervention is that a time will come when the client is able to maintain
progress on their own. Termination is thus the last stage of the generalist practice model. During this stage, the
client reflects on her/his accomplishments, and client and social worker work together to identify resources and
supports in place to help the client should problems re-emerge.

Effective communication skills are one of the most crucial components of a social worker’s job. Every day,
social workers must communicate with clients to gain information, convey critical information and make
important decisions. Without effective communication skills, a social worker may not be able to obtain or
convey that information, thereby causing detrimental effects to clients.
Listening Skills

A significant portion of a social worker’s job involves interviewing clients and other parties involved in a client’s
care. To provide the most effective services and counseling, a social worker must develop the ability to listen

carefully and pay attention to details. This may involve learning to take detailed notes so as to easily recall what

was said later. Effective listening also involves paying attention to how the social worker reacts as the client is

speaking. This means avoiding giving signs that the social worker disagrees with something a client has said,

interrupting a client, rolling eyes, doodling, multitasking, or yawning and appearing generally disinterested in what

the client is saying.

Getting Information

Often social workers have to gain information from people who are not willing to part with that information or who

may be difficult to understand. A social worker must know how to ask the right questions to get the necessary
information or to alter the language of the questions to help a client understand what was being asked. Social

workers may also benefit from knowing how to use alternate tactics for getting information, such as role playing or

word association.

Nonverbal Behaviors

A social worker’s nonverbal behaviors can go a long way when it comes to communicating. Social workers should

make eye-to-eye contact when speaking with clients and those involved with their care. Giving a smile can signal

warmth and make a social worker seem more approachable. Keeping a distance of three to five feet between the

social worker and the client can also help improve the level of comfort in the room, although a social worker also

needs to keep in mind that cultural norms for physical distance vary, so that some clients may want to be closer

than the social worker is used to.

Building Trust

Social workers must often build someone’s trust in order to effectively communicate. Communication with a client

will not be successful if the client feels the social worker does not have her best interest in mind or if the social

worker does not genuinely listen to the client. Building trust also involves not minimizing what a client has to say.

Even if the social worker does not agree with the client or wants to focus on something more important, it is often

necessary to focus on the client’s agenda rather than the social worker’s to help build trust and make the client feel

important or as though she has some say.

Handling Conflict

Often, social workers encounter conflict. Knowing how to diffuse conflict and not let it interfere with the issues that

need to be dealt with is key. Social workers should avoid threatening or warning clients, judging clients or making

inappropriate generalizations that could lead to conflict. Social workers should also refrain from raising their voices,

even if a client begins to yell first. For particularly difficult clients, a social worker may choose to bring a mediator or

other impartial party into the room during any conversations to help diffuse conflict.

Communication in social work is typified into verbal communication, non-verbal communication or

paralanguage, and written communication. A fourth which should be considered is the virtual communication
that occurs across the internet and wireless space.

Verbal communication
Verbal communication also considered as oral communication comes from word of mouth. Words are used
in expressions. They are used in telling stories and cases, investigations, interviewing, counselling,
conducting talking therapies, informing clients, conducting case assessment with colleagues and other
professionals, reporting cases, among others (Trevithick, 2005). In this context, verbal communication happens
directly and physically with a client (Media & Williams, 2014). It is therefore important that social workers pay
close attention to the words used by the client when communicating. So as to have an exact understanding of
whatsoever clients are saying in the exact way and manner they are meant by clients. Therefore, listening skill
is central to verbal communication. This is because, it takes so much attentive and coordinated listening
ability to comprehensively grasp words used and meant by clients. In turn, the social worker should be careful
of his or her own used words, paying attention to the client’s emotional state, culture, age, educational
level, and gender, among other peculiarities (Trevithick, Richards, Ruch, & Moss, 2005).
On the overall, words used in social work communication are expected to convey genuine warmth, respect
and non-judgemental attitude towards service users, except in very rare occasions (Diggins, 2004). Finally,
words are not enough in communication, as they could be framed. This has led to typifying problems handled in
social work into ‘real’ and ‘presenting’ problems. Often, words are used to convey what the client wants the
social worker to hear and Communication in Social Work not what the problem is. For instance, a child
who looks hungry and disorganized, but responds “I am hungry”, when asked how he or she is, has
only pointed the obvious (presenting problem). The factors inspiring the hunger are left in the dark by such
response. Those factors form the real problem. They could be child neglect by parents/guardians, marital
disputes at home, etc. Therefore, social workers in the context of engaging clients, must always look
beyond what words convey.

Non-verbal communication or paralanguage

The scientific study of non-verbal communication was conducted by Charles Darwin in his 1892 book, “The
expression of man and animal”. He argues that all animals show emotion while non- verbal communication is
based on set of arbitrary symbols with peculiar cultural understanding. Ekman and Friesen (1986) noted that
facial expressions could determine expressions of anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness and surprise, and for the
most, these expressions are universal. Non–verbal communication also referred to as paralanguage denotes
the process of conveying messages using gesticulations, facial cues, emotional cues, voice tones and pitch,
clinched fist, among other communicative expressions not tied to words.

Most often, paralanguage expressions are uttered subconsciously and could exceed the control of the
communicator. This is corroborated by Okoye (2013) who argued that there is a consensus among social
workers that 65% of communication during face-to-face interactions are non-verbal. The implication
is that more messages are conveyed using gesticulations, facial cues, emotional cues, voice tones and pitch,
among other communicative expressions outside words, than words themselves. Trevithick (2005) added
that non-verbal expressions also include body posture, eye contacts, proximity, and personal appearance.
Therefore, social workers are expected to pay attention to these types of communication when engaging clients.
This they do through critical observation and client-focused interaction. Social workers practicing in Nigeria
should try to understand paralanguage expressions that are common among Nigerians, and across the
numerous cultures of Nigeria. For instance, Nigerians are fond of hissing when in distress, sizing up people
with their eyes moving to and fro the heads to feet of people, holding their waists when tired and worried,
standing bent and smiling narrowly when tired over a conversation, etc. More generally, eye contacts could
reveal what a person feels inside of him or her. Also, proximity which implies the distance between you and a
client passes a message. The way and manner one is welcomed with a handshake, a pat on the back, a hug, a
peck, passes a message. Likewise, one’s body posture, including movement of the hands, and tapping of fingers
send across various meanings. Therefore, social workers should be careful of messages they express non-
verbally as professionals, while they pay rapt attention to those expressed by clients. Thus, it is recommended
that social work professionals gain mastery over their non-verbal cues, so as not to send the wrong messages to
clients. Obi-keguna, Agbawodikeizu & Uche

Written communication
Social workers are bound to receive communications in writing. Clients might decide to notify the social
worker in writing for reasons surrounding not being disposed, or the client feeling that it is the best medium of
communication he or she is comfortable with, or perhaps for official reasons. Often, when such messages are
received in that form, the social worker might be expected to reply in writing as well. For instance, social
workers could in writing notify an agency of a problem seeking their intervention. The agency accepting to
intervene might equally send a correspondence in writing. In appreciation of such gesture, the social worker is
obliged to equally write to the agency. Therefore, social workers are expected to be informed on effective
writing tips, which covers grammar, letter writing, memo writing, etc. Where necessary, they could seek
editing services to improve whatsoever they have written. Care must be taken to read written pieces word for
word, so as not to lose their meanings. It is true that some correspondences might be difficult to understand
owing to language barriers and poor grammar. In such cases, care must be taken to follow through implied
meanings. In extreme circumstances, the social worker could seek the services of a linguist.

Virtual communication
Communication has evolved through technology. Its dynamisms move with time and space. The
advancement of technology equally has led to the advancement of communication. This has brought
about the virtual space, involving social media, emails, avatars, among other internet and frequency
driven messaging platforms (Agwu, 2012). These platforms are increasingly gaining recognition in social
work (Agwu & Okoye, 2017). Platforms like Facebook, Skype, Myspace, WhatsApp, Instagram, YouTube,
and even phone calls and messaging systems, including the radio and television, are central to communication
in contemporary times. Social media platforms most importantly are becoming very dominant and used by a
good number of persons for easy communication. Thus, clients and social workers are bound to access
themselves via social media on informal and formal occasions. This has raised ethical concerns regarding
how the social worker should conduct himself/herself professionally on social media platforms. Owing to
the fact that social media communication could be helpful, and as well implicating. The social worker on the
virtual space is advised to express courtesy, and at same time be careful with his or her interaction. Hence, the
need to be firm and emphatic when the need arises.

For instance, occasions could rise, where a female client adds up a male social worker on Facebook. Not
accepting the request could be hurting to her, and accepting it could be conflicting. In such context, the male
social worker might not entirely be correct with his assumptions. It becomes necessary to talk it out with the
client, having the helping relationship that is in the process as a Communication in Social Work reference
point. If intents are made clear professionally, then both parties can go ahead and become friends on Facebook.

In fact, maintaining ethical standards on social media has been a contemporary challenge for social workers all
over the globe (Boddy & Dominelli, 2016). Dating back to 2005, Association of Social Work Boards [ASWB]
saw this coming and documented reactions to it in a document titled “standards for technology and
social work practice” (ASWB, 2005). The content of the document covers phone-call etiquettes with
clients, messaging etiquettes, among others. Finally, social workers are expected to be professional in sending
and receiving emails. A little Google search on sending and receiving emails professionally would be of help.

Forms of communication
According to Engelbrecht, L. K. (1999), there are different types of communication which a social work
practitioner uses, and should gain mastery over. They are:

Intrapersonal communication: To communicate with yourself.

Interpersonal communication: To communicate with one other (or more)person.
Small group communication: To communicate with people in a group
situation so that everyone has the opportunity to participate.
Public communication: To communicate with a group who form an audience and who are too many to enable
participation.
Written communication: To communicate in written form with familiar or unfamiliar people in a formal or
informal manner.
Electronic communication: To communicate with people by means of theelectronic media, for example, a
radio, television, computer or smart device.
Communication through the use of mediators: To communicate with people by means of an interpreter,
facilitator or any other representative Adler & Rodman (1994) and Devito (1997).

Characteristics of communication
(Engelbrecht, 1999) outlined the following as characteristics of communication:
Communication always has an effect on the people or person involved in it.
 Communication is dynamic, because it is a process that is not stagnant.
Communication is dynamic, because it is a process that is not stagnant
It evolves. 
Communication is transactional and always takes place between people or within a person.
 Communication considers context, such as, a physical context (where),
Communications considers context, such as, a physical context (where Psychological context (how), social
context (with whom) and a time context (when)