Power Electronics News July 2021 Proposal Design V4

JULY
2021
Balancing of
Supercapacitors
AFRAID OF INRUSH CURRENT? VIEW POINT
SELECT EMC FERRITES BY PEAK PULSE
Supercapacitors
and Energy
Supercapacitors (SCs) have emerged as a popular solution for those situations in which high-den-
sity back-up power is required, along with high cycle life and fast charge and discharge times. They
generally operate at low voltages of about 2.7 V. To achieve higher operating voltages, it is necessary
to build up a cascade of SC cells connected in series. Due to variations in capacitance and insu-
lation resistance caused by production or aging, the voltage drop across individual capacitors may
exceed the rated voltage limit. Therefore, a balancing system is required. In this issue, an article
titled “Balancing of Supercapacitors” by René Kalbitz, product manager, Würth Elektronik eiSos
GmbH & Co. KG, will explain the effect of unequal voltage division in such series circuits. Other
topics in this issue are wide bandgap semiconductors such as GaN and SiC, Hydrogen technology,
electric vehicles and advanced solutions for power production and transfer. The success of electric
vehicles (EVs) depends heavily on the time required to charge the batteries. In charging systems,
power MOSFETs based on silicon carbide (SiC) play a fundamental role. The search for increasingly
sustainable solutions, combined with the need to contain carbon dioxide emissions by reducing the
greenhouse effect, are favoring the use of renewable energy sources. The ability to produce energy
from alternative sources allows for a significant reduction in environmental impact and polluting
emissions compared with traditional energy sources based on fossil fuels. The overall strategy to
power a climate-neutral economy includes all aspects of the energy-production system across
multiple energy carriers, infrastructures, as well as the analysis of what is needed to achieve cli-
mate neutrality by 2050. In this issue, Patrick Le Fèvre provides information about the “hydrogen
strategy for a climate-neutral Europe (COM/2020/301 final).” Europe is engaged in a process to de-
velop a climate-neutral economy in which green and blue hydrogen plays a major part. These and
REDEXPERT. Würth Elektronik’s online platform for simple
component selection and performance simulation. other topics have been discussed at PCIM and APEC.
 Pulse Designer for EMC PCB Ferrites  Ability to compare inductance/current

Yours Sincerely,
to meet inrush current requirements
based on inrush current amplitude and
and temperature rise/DC current using
interactive measurement curves WE are here for you! Maurizio Di Paolo Emilio
pulse length  Available in seven languages Join our free webinars on Editor-in-Chief, Power Electronics News
 The world’s most accurate AC loss model  Online platform based on www.we-online.com/webinars
 Filter settings for over 20 electrical and measured values
mechanical parameters  Order free samples directly
 Inductor simulation and selection for  Direct access to product datasheets
DC/DC converters  Comfortable and clear component
selection www.we-online.com/redexpert
JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 3

Contents
GaN Transistors Leveraged to Develop High-Density SiC Power Modules Meet
High Performance Affordable DC/DC Formula E Challenges 63
VIEW POINT DESIGN
Converters 62
Supercapacitors and Energy 3 Is Innovation of Silicon Transistors Saving Stand-by Power in the Smart
Still Possible? The Case for

PCIM & APEC 2021 Home 63
COVER STORY - DESIGN
STMicroelectronics Live Coverage of APEC 2021 63
Balancing of Supercapacitors 6 Superjunction MDmesh 45
Live Coverage of PCIM 2021 63
DESIGN SEMICONDUCTORS
Advanced Solutions for Power SiC MOSFETs Replace IGBTs in EV
Production and Transfer 13 Bidirectional Chargers 54
SEMICONDUCTORS VIDEO & PODCAST
A 1:5 CW Converter using GaN FET Smart Energy for the Future of the
Switches with N-Phase and Split-Phase Planet – Podcast 61
Clocking 19
Hydrogen: The Key to The Energy of the
ENERGY
Future 61
European Green Deal: Green Hydrogen
Wide bandgap Semiconductors for
Becomes a Reality 26
Greener Future – Podcast 61
ENERGY
Driving Wide-Band Gap Switches
Verifying, Calibrating, and Certifying Successfully 61
DC Current Meters for EV Charging and
NEWS
Microgrid Applications to a Very High
Accuracy 31 TOLG for Improved TCoB Robustness
and TOLT for Improved Thermal
AUTOMOTIVE
Performance 62
The Trends and Technologies Shaping
the Automotive Industry 35 Expanded SL Series Programmable DC
Power Supplies to 10 kW in 1U with 18
SEMICONDUCTORS New Models 62
GaN Enables Next-Generation
An Alternative to Lead-Acid Battery
High-Frequency Circuits 40 Backup Systems 62
4 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 5

q
V1,2 =
COVER STORY - DESIGN C1,2
Cover Story - Design
q
q
V
V1,2 =
= q
1,2 C
C1,2 V1,2 =
THE IMBALANCEqOF SUPERCAPACITORS 1,2 CONNECTED Vg1,2 IN SERIES
C
V1,2 = V1 =
A capacitor can be modelled C1,2 by a parallel connection q of an R-C element and C an insulation resistor.
V1,2 = V �=1q+1�
For the moment, we can neglect the insulation resistance C and consider a series C
q V
Vgg1,2
1,2 2
C1,2 connection of two
V1,2 =
capacitors with capacitances V =
C1 and C2. TheV11quantity
= C of energy in such a=caseVis
Vg the charge q on the
C C
�� +1� 1 V
V2 = C1
1
g
capacitor, i.e., onVits=internal
V 1,2
g C
1
+1� C
1 q interfaces. With theChelp 2
2
of the charge conservation �� 2 +1�
CC2
+1� law
V1,2�= C1 V
q V
C2C+1�
g 1
1,2 V1V=1,2 = V Vgg V1 = V
g
V =
V22 = � C +1�C 1C C1 g
Vg 1,2
V = � +1�
V1 = Vgeach capacitor � C 2
�C2 +1�
2 +1� 2
C22
is the voltage drop across
V2 = � C1 +1� C11 � +1�
C2V V Vg =VC11+V2
C
� 2 +1� g g Vg
V1 = C1 V2 = Vg V =
C C 2 C2
�C 1V+1� g V1 = and �C2 +1� � +1�
V2 = 2 V
V gg =V
=V� 11+V
+V +1�2 C1
C C21 2 Vg =V V1g +V2
� 2 +1� V = - ∆V
with C V 1
VV g =V11+V 2
g 2
2 = Vg
C VV
� 2 +1� 2= g =V V +V Vg =V1 +V2
C1 VCgg2 2
1
Vg
V =
V1 = C
1 � -+1�
∆V
- ∆V
Vg =V +V 2
2 1 V 1 = - ∆V
Vg greater
as the total voltage. InVthe 1
g 2
following, we can consider the case where V C1 is2
= + ∆V than C2. In this
V1 = - ∆V 2
2
case, the voltage drop 2 across each capacitor is Vg Vg
Vg =V1 +V2 V1 = - ∆V V = - ∆V
Vg =V V
V2gg1 +V2 1
2
Vg V
V22 = =and +
+ ∆V ∆V V g
V1 = - ∆V 2
2 V2 =V +C∆V
V2g g2 1 -C2
V2 = Vg+ ∆V ∆V=∓ ⋅ � �
V = 2 - ∆V VVg 2V C1 +C2
with 1 g
2 VV2 = g+ ∆V
V2 = + ∆V
1= V
V 2 - C∆V-C
Vg ∆V=∓ g2 C1
g
∆V=∓ 2 ⋅⋅ ��C +C ��
1 -C22 V2 g C1 -C2
V2 = + ∆V 2 C 1 +C 2 ∆V=∓ ⋅ � �
Vg2 C1 -C2 1 2 2Vg C1∆t +C2
∆V=∓ Vg⋅ � � V1 = -I1
To set the voltageV of = 2each +C capacitor
∆V
1 +C 2 to Vr = V1 V= Vg V2,Cthe 1 -C charge on Capacitor
2 V2 C1 1Cmust
1 2 be increased
-C
2 g⋅ � g
2
and on Capacitor 2 decreased. Using the definition
∆V=∓ V2 =2 +Cof ∆V �
electric ∆V=∓(I = ⋅dq/dt),
current � �
+C 2 C1 +C2the voltage can
Balancing of
Vg C1 -C2 V
V2gg 1∆t ∆t 2
be written as ∆V=∓ ⋅� � V11 =
V = 2 -I -I1 V g ∆t
2Vg C1∆t +C2 2 1C C11 V1 = -I1
V2g C∆t
V1 =Vg -I1C1 -C2 V2 = +I2 1
Supercapacitors
∆V=∓ 2 ⋅ � C1 � Vgg C ∆t
Vand -C 2
Vg ∆t C2
2 C1 +C2 ∆V=∓ V1 = ⋅-I� 1 1 2 � V = -I
Vg ∆t V
V22gg C1C+C ∆t
∆t
1 2
1
2 1 C1
V = +I V ∆t
V1 = -I1 as the electricVcurrent
The current I1,2 is interpreted 2 = 2 +I
2 2
2 C must flow forVa =
that time
g
+I
span Δt to balance this
V2g C∆t
1 2 C 2
2 2
2∆V C2 2
By René Kalbitz, Product Manager, Würth Elektronik eiSos GmbH & Co. KG system. The constant Vg+I2 ∆trequired to balance a voltage difference IΔV
V2 = current 1,2 =in a givenC1,2 time period Δt is
V1 = 2 -I1 C2 VVgg ∆t ∆t Vg∆t ∆t
2 C1 VV21= = 2 +I -I12 V2 = +I2
Supercapacitors (SCs) generally operate at low voltages of about 2.7 V. To achieve higher operating Vg ∆t ∆V CC12
2∆V 2
∆V
C2
V2 = +I2 II1,2
1,2 == ∆t C C1,2
1,2
2∆V C2 ∆t I1,2 =% C1,2 V
100
voltages, it is necessary to build up a cascade of SC cells connected in series. Due to variations ∆t � ⋅ � g ⋅ C
I1,2 =Vg C1,2 ∆t t loss = ln � �
in capacitance and insulation resistance caused by production or aging, the voltage drop across BALANCINGV2STRATEGIES = ∆t +I2 Vg∆V ∆t 100 % - 50%
∆V
Iloss stack
individual capacitors may exceed the rated voltage limit. Therefore, a balancing system is required The literature categorizes 2 balancingC2 I21,2
V100
strategies ==according+IC21,2 to I1,2 = C
100 %
%
2 ∆t C⋅2� V Vggvarious characteristics ∆t 1,2 such as:
∆V tt loss = ln � � ⋅ C 100
� % V
C1,2 loss = ln �100 � ⋅ �I = ln ⋅ C�stack
stack �
g
to prevent accelerated aging of the capacitor cell. I1,2 =
100 %∆t Vg 100 % % -- 50% 50% t loss Iloss 100 % - 50%
� ⋅ � -1 ⋅ Cstack �
▶ tEnergy-dissipative behavior
loss 1 1 Iloss
loss = ln � ∆V �⋅� ⋅ Cstack � Cstack = � + �
100I %= - 50%C Iloss 100 %∆V Vg 100 %C1 C2 Vg
In the following, the effect of unequal voltage division in such series circuits will be explained in ▶ Balancing speed 1,2
∆t 1,2t loss = ln � I1,2 = C � ⋅t� = ⋅ C�stack �
ln �⋅� ⋅C �
principle. For a better understanding, balancing strategies are discussed for using a series connec- ▶ Type of technology 100 % - 50% 1
∆t 1,2 I-1
1
loss
-1
100 % - 50% I-1loss stack
100 %used Vg 1 1 loss 1 1
t loss = ln � �⋅� C
⋅ Cstack � =
Cstack = ��C + + C ��
tion of two capacitors. ▶ Pricing 100 % - 50% I
-1
stack
C 1 C 2 C stack = � + �
1 1 loss 1 2 C1 C2
C 100 = �% + � Vg
t loss = ln � stack C1 �C⋅2� ⋅ Cstack �100 %1 1 -1Vg 1 1 -1
100 % - 50% t loss Iloss
= ln � Cstack = � +� ⋅ �� ⋅ Cstack �
6 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 100 % - 50% C1 C2 JULY Iloss 2021C|stack =� + �
C1 C2
www.powerelectronicsnews.com 7
1 1 -1
Cstack = � + �
∆V=∓ ⋅� �
2 C1 +C2
Vg ∆t
V1 = -I1
Vg C
2 ∆t1
V1 = -I1
Cover Story - Design 2 C1 Cover Story - Design
Vg ∆t
+I2 V2 =
Therefore, when choosing the right balancing strategy, it is important to know all the parameters The total power dissipation (calculated fromV 2effective
C
∆t2 leakage current, Iloss) after 12 hours is
g
and constraints of the specific application to make the right choice. Here, we distinguish between V = +I
2.8 mA × 5.4 V ≈ 15 mW. For low-power applications
2
2 orCbackup
2
2
solutions, this compensation speed
active balancing and passive balancing. can be sufficiently fast and the power dissipation is acceptable. For standalone battery-powered
∆V
applications, the resistance should be increased
I1,2 = to C
reduce
1,2 losses. To be on the safe side, it is also
∆t
∆V
Active balancing involves the use of actively controlled switches or amplifier systems. Passive advisable to reduce the operating voltage to avoid overvoltage.
I1,2 = C1,2
balancing involves the use of shunts or voltage-dependent resistors to reduce the effects of over- ∆t
voltage. Compared with passive balancing, active balancing is fast and usually energy-efficient but The half-life of the self-discharge is estimated
100 with
% Vg
t loss = ln � �⋅� ⋅ Cstack �
also relatively costly. Passive balancing, on the other hand, is relatively slow and often results in 100100
% -%50% IV
loss
g
increased charge loss but is less expensive. t loss = ln � �⋅� ⋅C �
100 % - 50% Iloss stack
MEASUREMENTS 1
Cstack = � + �
1 -1
A series connection of two SCs from Würth Elektronik was tested: with C11 C12 -1
Cstack = � + �
C1 C2 5.4 V
▶ Capacitor 1: C1 = 10 F Therefore, the following results in this example: t loss ≈0,7⋅ ⋅ 6 F ≈ 133 minutes
2.8 mA
▶ Capacitor 2: C2 = 15 F
ZENER DIODE BZX79-
This corresponds to deviations from a theoretical capacitor with a nominal capacitance of Cr = 12.5 F. B2V7 *
Vr2
tb= 3 ⋅ � ⋅ Cr �
We used the voltage regulator di- f⋅Pr
For charging, we used a charging voltage of Vg = 5.4 V and a maximum charging current of Ic = 2 A. odes BZX79-B2V7 from NXP Sem-
iconductors. The results, shown in
5.4 V7.3 V
In the interest of reliable circuit design, we would like to emphasize that a combination of SCs with Figure 3, show complete equaliza- t *b = 3 ⋅ �
t loss ≈0,7⋅ ⋅ 6 F ≈ ⋅12.5
133 minutes
F� =70 minutes
different nominal capacitances is not advisable. This combination was chosen for experimental tion after about 80 minutes. With
2.8 mA
0.1⋅0.5 W
purposes only. the datasheet value of total power 5.4 V
dissipation 5.4
of 500 t loss ≈0,7⋅ ⋅ 6 F ≈ 133 minutes
V mW, the meas- * t
2.8
* mA
V 2
r
Vg
The self-discharge behavior of each circuit over a 24-hour period was also investigated. For this t ≈0,7⋅
ured value 2.8roughly ⋅ 6 F ≈ 133 minutes t = 3 ⋅ �= 0.7 ⋅⋅C� � ⋅Cstack �
loss
mA fits the theoreti- b loss
Figure 2: Measured self-dischargef⋅Pr of therf⋅Iequalizing
loss circuit with
purpose, we disconnected the entire balancing circuit from the primary power source after the cal approximation of resistors
capacitors were fully charged and balanced. 5.4 V Vr2
t loss ≈0,7⋅ ⋅ 6 F ≈ 133 minutes t *b = 3 ⋅ � ⋅C �
2.8
*
mA Vr2 * 7.3 V 5,4 V f⋅Pr r
tb= 3 ⋅ � ⋅C � t *b = 3 ⋅ �t loss ≈0,7⋅ 10⋅20µA
⋅12.5 F�⋅ =70
6 F ≈minutes
1900 minutes
1-KΩ RESISTOR f⋅Pr r 0.1⋅0.5 W
For passive balancing, we used a re-
Vr2 7.3 V
sistor with 1 kΩ (1%) and rated for t *b = 3dissipation
The total power ⋅� ⋅ Cr �(effective leakage current,
bt * = 3Iloss
⋅ �) after 12 hours is F�
⋅12.5 5 mA × minutes
=70 5.4 V ≈ 27 mW.
0.6 W. The resistor was chosen to
7.3 V f⋅P r 0.1⋅0.5 WVg defines: I (1 V) = 20 μA.)
t *bAt=lower
3 ⋅ � voltages, the
⋅12.5power dissipation
F� =70 minutesis even lower.t *loss
(The datasheet
= 0.7 ⋅� ⋅C � loss
0.1⋅0.5 W f⋅Iloss stack
favor a short balancing time rath-
er than low power dissipation. The We can estimate
7.3 V that the datasheet value Iloss (1 V) = 20* μA is aboutVg10× higher in our case.
measured voltages V1 and V2 and the t *bWith
= 3 ⋅f�= 10, the theoretical
⋅12.5 F� =70 minutes
half-life of the self-discharge 5,4t lossthe
for = 0.7 ⋅ � ⋅Cstack � balanced with
0.1⋅0.5
* W Vg *
V seriesf⋅Iconnection,
loss
resulting voltage difference V1 – V2, a Zenertdiode,
loss = 0.7
can⋅ �be estimated
⋅C �
f⋅Iloss stack with
t loss ≈0,7⋅
10⋅20µA
⋅ 6 F ≈ 1900 minutes
shown in Figure 1, indicates com-
plete balancing after about 600 Vg 5,4 V
t *loss = 0.7 ⋅ � ⋅Cstack � t *loss ≈0,7⋅ ⋅ 6 F ≈ 1900 minutes
minutes. V1 and V2 asymptotically Figure 1: Time-dependent cell voltages 5,4 V f⋅Iloss 10⋅20µA
t *loss ≈0,7⋅ ⋅ 6 F ≈ 1900 minutes
approach Vr. 10⋅20µA
5,4 V
t *loss ≈0,7⋅ ⋅ 6 F ≈ 1900 minutes
8 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 10⋅20µA JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 9
Cover Story - Design Cover Story - Design
The results of the self-discharge The total power dissipation after 12

measurement as shown in Figure 4 hours is 50 mA × 5.4 V ≈ 270 mW.
indicate that tloss* = 1,900 minutes Most of the power is dissipated
approximately corresponds to the through the amplifier supply termi-
actual half-life of the self-discharge. nals. This relatively high power con-
sumption shows the main drawback
MOSFET ALD910022 of this type of strategy. Although it
(TEST BOARD SABMB2) is fast, it also has a high permanent
The MOSFET-based equalization circuit Figure 3: Time-dependent cell voltages Figure 7: Time-dependent cell voltages power consumption.
was implemented using the SABMB2
test board for the ALD910022 MOSFET The results of the self-discharge
from Advanced Linear Devices. The re- measurement in Figure 8 show
sults in Figure 5 show complete equali- a self-discharge half-life of
zation after about 300 minutes. The to- tloss = 5 minutes.
tal power dissipation after 12 hours was
1.5 mA × 5.4 V ≈ 8 mW, about as low as Although the circuit always ensures a
for the Zener diode. balanced charge, the losses through
the supply channels are significant.
Figure 4: Measured self-discharge of the equalization circuit with Figure 8: Measured self-discharge of the equalization circuit with the
The results of the self-discharge meas-
Zener diodes OPA2677
urement in Figure 6 show that after 24 BALANCING BOARD
hours, the cell voltage has dropped to LTC3128
approximately 4 V. At this rate, tloss is The DC1887A evaluation board uses
on the order of several days. the LTC3128 buck-boost charge and
balance circuit from Analog Devic-
AMPLIFIER OPA2677 es. This charges the SCs with a pre-
For active balancing, we used set voltage of 4.2 V. The board op-
the OPA2677 amplifier (Texas In- erates at a supply voltage of 5.5 V.
struments). The advantage of the The measurement results, which are
OPA2677 is the relatively high out- shown in Figure 9, show complete
Figure 5: Time-dependent cell voltages Figure 9: Time-dependent cell voltages
put current of 500 mA, which ena- balancing after 1.5 minutes.
bles fast balancing. The measured
cell voltages in Figure 7 show imme- The total power dissipation after 12
diate balancing within the charging hours is 0.1 mA × 5.4 V ≈ 0.5 mW.
time, which is about 3 minutes for
this measurement. The damping re- SUMMARY
sistance at the output should not be Balancing with the resistor is the
less than 0.4 Ω to prevent oscillation slowest balancing strategy, but it
of the output voltage. The resistance has the advantage of low power
of 1 Ω provides an optimum between consumption, lowest cost, and sim-
Figure 6: Measured self-discharge of the equalization circuit with Figure 10: Measured self-discharge of the equalization circuit with the
fast equalization and damping. plest circuit design.
MOSFET LTC3128

Cover Story - Design DESIGN
The balancing speed of the Z-diode is moderate. It offers the advantage of relatively low power
consumption, low cost, and simplest circuit design.
The MOSFET circuit also has relatively low power dissipation. The compensation speed of the given
example is moderate.
Although the op-amp provides fast balancing compared with the other strategies, it exhibits the
highest power dissipation.
The balancing evaluation board provided the fastest balancing and moderate power dissipation. It
is overall a convenient but somewhat expensive solution. An overview of the summarized results
is given in the following table:
Balancing type Power loss (mW) Balancing time (min) Relative costs
Advanced Solutions for
Power Production and
Resistor 1 kΩ 15 600 Low
Z-diode BZX79-B2V7 27 70 Low
MOSFET ALD910022 8 300 Moderate Transfer

Amplifier OPA2677 270 3 High By Stefano Lovati, technical writer, EEWeb
Evaluation board DC1887A 42 1.5 Moderate to high Electronic applications involving the production and transfer of energy are of fundamental impor-
tance today. The search for increasingly sustainable solutions, combined with the need to contain
In the end, it is the responsibility of each developer to choose and adapt the best solution for their carbon dioxide emissions by reducing the greenhouse effect, are favoring the use of renewable
situation. energy sources. The ability to produce energy from alternative sources such as sun, wind, wave
motion, and biomass allows for a significant reduction in environmental impact and polluting
emissions compared with traditional energy sources based on fossil fuels. Solar energy, for exam-
ple, can help developing countries or small mountain and rural communities to equip themselves
with efficient, economical, and virtually zero environmental impact plants to produce electricity.
Photovoltaic (PV) panels have undergone a rapid and significant evolution in recent years, offering
users increasingly efficient and reliable solutions that require reduced maintenance and are able to
produce energy even in conditions of low solar radiation. At the same time, the simplicity of instal-
For More Information lation has grown, favored by the introduction of flexible panels capable of adapting to surfaces of
various types. PV systems are normally combined with special units for storing the electricity pro-
duced, made with storage batteries more or less evolved according to the available budget. These
▶ A more detailed version this article with all experimental details, figures and
batteries accumulate energy during the day and then make it available for lighting and powering
references is available on the homepage of Würth Elektronik via the following different loads during the night. Not only that, they can detect blackouts, automatically becoming
link www.we-online.com/ANP090. the primary energy source in the event of a power failure. Unlike generators, storage batteries can
deliver energy without the use of fuel and in a silent way.

Design Design
Of equal importance to energy production is the transfer of energy, especially if this can take place As shown in Figure 1, the flexible film enables roll-to-roll manufacturing of capacitors using a range
wirelessly, without requiring the use of bulky and often annoying electrical cables. The wireless of dielectrics and storage materials. This capacitor technology, employed for storing energy, offers:
electricity transfer technique, based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, has returned to
the fore in recent times thanks to two applications that have become priority. The first, relating to ▶ Ultra-low–cost manufacturing
the consumer electronics sector, concerns the charging of battery-powered mobile devices (typi- ▶ Exceptional energy density
cally smartphones), which can be recharged simply by placing them on a suitable source capable ▶ Multiple shapes and sizes with voltage and capacitance flexibility
of transferring electricity by conduction. The second main application concerns the recharging of ▶ Enhanced operating lifetime compared with wet electrolytic capacitors
batteries in electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, carried out by means of devices that can be placed
on the floor below the car or even integrated into the road surface. In addition to not requiring the The phases of the flexible solar film manufacturing process are outlined in Figure 1.
connection of electrical cables, this solution proves to be very effective from a safety point of view,
as it does not expose the user to the potential risk of contact with the high powers involved.
In this article, two highly innovative applications will be presented, relating to the exploitation of solar
energy as a source of electricity and the transfer of wireless energy in various types of contexts.
FLEXIBLE SOLAR PV
Power Roll, based in Sunderland (U.K.), has developed an innovative model of solar film capable of
generating and storing energy. Lightweight and flexible, the solar film can adapt to any type of sur-
face, producing electricity at a cost up to 20× lower than traditional PV panels. The new technology
is based on a flexible film patterned with thousands of microgrooves. Each microgroove is a few
microns thick, smaller than a human hair. Figure 1: Manufacturing steps of a flexible solar PV
The advantages offered by this solution are: “Our technology has several advantages over flexible solar technology,” said Neil Spann, managing
director at Power Roll. “It is extremely easy to produce. There are fewer steps in a manufacturing
▶ Low cost: $0.03/W for the finished product process. If you look at flexible photovoltaics, we can say that it is much more expensive. So in real-
▶ Low weight: 0.3 kg/m 2
ity, the main advantage of our technology is cost-effectiveness. In terms of efficiency, our efficiency
▶ Easy installation and reduction of maintenance times is good. But we don’t aim to make the highest-performing solar panel in the world. There are some
▶ Sustainability, due to the use of fully recyclable materials and absence of rare earths technologies that push the devices upward. We are looking for a compromise, a good level of per-
▶ Adaptability: The same technique can be used either on the roofs of buildings or for pow- formance. So our current cell performance is 11%, which is somehow comparable to other flexible
ering small IoT sensors solar panels like organic photovoltaics. But we plan to increase it up to 20%. And thanks to the
▶ High power density: 500 W/kg possibility of customization, there is a wide range of applications.”
By applying different active materials to Power Roll microgroove technology, it is possible to cre-
ate energy storage solutions with a range of discharge times. Today’s solar technologies are either
too expensive to deploy or their rigidity and weight make them unsuitable for the job. Power Roll’s
low-cost, flexible, and lightweight solar film enables the use of renewables in brand-new applica-
tions. In partnership with The Energy Resources Institute (TERI), Power Roll is installing an inno-
vative solar mini-grid system to generate and store energy in rural villages located in Mukteshwar,
in the Himalayas. The system comprises lightweight, portable solar PV to generate energy and an
energy-storage capability to enable energy use at night. Each system has been designed to meet

Design Design
the bespoke needs of each village. Applications include powering water pumps to support irrigation, “Vehicles today contain over 200 connectors that provide power and communication to critical
lights to help young people study at night, and power to run phones, enabling access to national features and systems,” he added. “As the electrification of vehicles continues to progress, we will
and international knowledge and support networks. Through this project, Power Roll is also exper- see vehicles become more feature-rich and increasingly dependent on software. A new approach to
imenting novel approaches to mounting the solar film using wire-tensioning systems, which allow connectivity will become essential. We also are seeing a massive increase in the amount of copper
the solar film to be quickly and easily moved to where it is most needed. The project is scheduled within vehicles. While mostly related to batteries and propulsion, it is also used to direct energy
to run through to the end of 2021 and Power Roll will report on the outcomes in March 2022. throughout the vehicle.
WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER “Instead of using wireless power to charge a phone or tablet, we are developing wireless solutions
PowerSphyr, a company with headquarters in Danville, California, aims to revolutionize power de- to reduce the complexity of wire harnesses and connectors,” said Wright. “Whether it is powering
livery to electronic devices via its intelligent wireless power technology. PowerSphyr offers the seat motors, heated seats, or side mirrors and speakers, a wireless approach solves many challeng-
following solutions to fit any application: es the industry has faced for years. PowerSphyr offers solutions from low power to 450 W, and we
are working every year to push our technology further for our customers in the automotive and in-
▶ Magnetic resonance, a solution that offers high power delivery and spatial freedom. It is dustrial space. Our primary technology is a proprietary form of magnetic resonance, which delivers
safe for nearby metals, offers an excellent thermal management, and supports multiple power at 6.78 or 13.56 MHz, depending on the application. I cannot stress enough the importance of
devices simultaneously. phenomenal electromagnetics design. Our new solutions provide both power and communication
▶ Qi, the simplest and lowest-cost solution. It features limited spatial freedom, power deliv- seamlessly.”
ery, and thermal management (metals become very hot). Moreover, this solution requires a
precise alignment between transmitter and receiver. Regarding the industrial sector, PowerSphyr seamlessly supports the three primary standards for
▶ Capacitive, a solution suitable for industrial applications in which very high power is de- wireless charging (magnetic resonant, magnetic inductive, and AirFuel RF), able to meet middle
manded.
▶ RF energy harvesting, a great solution for sensors and IoT applications. It has excellent
spatial freedom (up to 40 feet), can be used to harvest existing frequencies, and supports
FCC regulatory limits.
PowerSphyr’s SkyCurrent family of wireless power transmission and receiving solutions enables
fast, easy-to-use, and secure wireless charging across a wide range of products and modules. Each
product includes a fully developed reference design. Key markets of SkyCurrent products include
automotive, consumer, and industrial. PowerSphyr designs wireless power products and modules
for the automotive industry that eliminate the need for cables or precise coil alignment, enabling
fast, easy-to-use, and secure charging ecosystems with elegant industrial design and flexible form
factors. Figure 2 shows an automotive application that includes wirelessly powered sensors for
control and monitoring (lights, airbags, temperature, doors, etc.) and wireless charging for occu-
pants’ devices supporting magnetic resonant, Qi, and RF solutions.
Figure 2: Automotive application including wireless powered sensors and wireless chargers
“One of our goals is to reduce complexity by rethinking how the automotive cockpit is powered to high power demand of industrial tools and machinery. For the consumer industry, PowerSphyr
— wirelessly,” said Will Wright, CEO of PowerSphyr. “This means removing connectors and replac- offers SkyCurrent III (shown in Figure 3), the ultimate wireless charging platform delivering its
ing traditional methods with future-proof wireless solutions. Many companies have focused on dual-mode wireless charging pad and a suite of “fast charging” battery cases.
wireless power to charge mobile devices in the cabin, but there is a substantial opportunity to
streamline manufacturing, improve safety, improve reliability, and reduce cost inside vehicles with
PowerSphyr’s new generation of wireless power technology.

Design SEMICONDUCTORS
A 1:5 CW Converter
using GaN FET
Switches with N-Phase
and Split-Phase Clocking
By Maurizio Di Paolo Emilio, Editor-in-Chief of Power Electronics News and
EEWeb
To achieve high power densities, hybrid inductor-capacitor switching converters are used. These
hybrid inductor-capacitor switches prevent transient inrush currents, which usually cause loss in
the output of conventional switched capacitor converters [2-5]. Many different converter topologies
Figure 3: Phones charging on the SkyCurrent III device

can easily be hybridized and help benefit from the soft-charged action. However, Cockcroft-Walton
in Figure 1 is a preferred topology, as it offers less switch and capacitor voltage stress [6].
For More Information This article will discuss three contributions. It will initially analyze the N-phase switching and
split-phase switching [6-7]
schemes by presenting a comparison between them and highlighting
their advantages. For small loads, the N-phase scheme is more efficient, whereas split-phase is
▶ Power Roll suitable for heavier loads. Secondly, CW converter is demonstrated with application of split-phase
clocking [7,9]. Thirdly, a demonstration using gallium nitride FETs is made resulting in extremely large
▶ PowerSphyr power density i.e. 483.3 kW/liter. This is accompanied by the application of gate-driver integrated
circuits and high-density isolated level shift [9-11]. Please find here the original article.

Semiconductors Semiconductors
In this article, both the shows sinusoidal transitions of voltage that are smooth and have no abrupt sharing of charge
N-phase and split-phase (Figure 3). To obtain a load of 160 ohms, an input voltage of 18 V is used with N = 5 CW converters [1].
switching techniques will be A voltage stress at S5, S6, and S9 can be seen by the switches in red. This shows that an increased
discussed. It will also focus load may increase the internal voltage ripple, producing reverse body diode turn-on [1]. If the diode
on discrete prototype and is greater in forward direction or voltages are lower, reduced efficiency may be caused by this con-
measured results. duction loss due to heavy diode loading.
THEORY OF Figure 1: Cockcroft-Walton converter circuit
OPERATION Split-phase switching

The split-phase clocking scheme has an ability to achieve less ripple in output voltage with higher
N-phase switching output powers. This is an active switching approach using diode-based charge pumps, which are
For an N = 5 circuit applying N-phase clocking scheme to 1:n hybrid-LC CW converter, a diagram of loaded inductively [1]. It is dependent on zero-current switching and timing-sensitive Zero-current
phase progression is shown in Figure 2 [1]. Zero current switching; hence, it implies extra sensing circuitry in
switching is experienced by each switch as a single comparison with the N-phase switching.
active voltage loop passes through the inductor. To
monitor the N-phases, a simplified circuit is used by A 1:5 CW converter is used to demonstrate the split-
placing the current-sensing hardware in series with phase operation in Figure 4. To initialize the major
the inductor. This reduces quiescent current draw in phase, its sub-phases have to be initialized, and these
comparison with split-phase switching, where multi- are done by meeting the ZVS conditions. These condi-
ple sensors are used. This N-phase switching circuit tions let switch S6 initiate Phase 1 and S5 and S9 in-
itiate Phase 2. To engage Phase 1b, VC3 = VC4. Similarly,
to engage Phase 2c, VC2 = VC3. A smooth, abrupt-free
transfer is indicated by smooth voltage transitions on
Figure 2: Different phases of 1:5 CW converter Figure 4: Different phases of 1:5 CW converter
using N-phase switching device Figure 3: N-phase switching waveforms using split-phase switching Figure 5: Split-phase switching waveforms

fly capacitors. Switch voltage stress is indicated in Figure 5, with ZVS indicated in green for S5 and
S9 switches in Phase 2 and S6 in Phase 1.
Comparison
N-phase shows better switching activity with 13 switches per period, in comparison with split-
phase, which shows cycles in only nine switches, as represented in Figures 2 and 4 . However,
[1]
N-phase is 60% slower compared with split-phase when operated at resonance for the same com-
ponents. N-phase with reduced switching losses is therefore efficient for light loads. In commer-
cial applications, this effect is further increased as hardware requirements for sensing are further
reduced. Split-phase, however, shows better efficiency at heavier loads.
Body diode turn-on effect is different from the N-phase scheme and contributes to a reduction of
its efficiency in heavy-load applications [1]. For less than 2-V reverse biases, in split-phase switching,
forward voltage is increased in intrinsic body diode with the use of gallium nitride instead of silicon [1].
Figure 8: Measured waveform of N-phase CW Figure 9: Measured waveform of split-phase CW
Identical hardware may be used for both the N-phase and split-phase switching, which leads us to
the idea of forming a circuit with both of these. Such a circuit appears to be more beneficial than Design of prototype
either of them used separately. This can help maximize efficiency across the entire switching range Gallium nitride FETs were used to form a 1:5 CW prototype, as represented in Figure 6.
. The identical phases in the phase
[1]
A 0.8-mm PCB was used to assemble it, making up a volume of 393 mm3 [1]. The VIN used was 20 V
progression of both the switches can with a maximum offset voltage of 100 V, and the gate-driver circuit and power stage are represent-
act as points of merging and can be ed in Figure 7, while the Zener diode of 5.6 V is used as a regulator for high-speed voltage [1].
used in converting the circuit from
one switching scheme to another [1].
Dynamic off-time modulation or

Pulse-frequency modulation may fur-
ther be implied to increase light-load
efficiency in both the switches [1].
Figure 6: Prototype
Figure 10: Measured efficiency with output power Figure 11: Measured light-load efficiency with output
power
Results
In Figures 8 and 9, it can easily be observed how N-phase and split-phase switching models may
be used together in a circuit [1]. Figures 10 and 11 show that, with similar hardware, the split-phase
would give high power output while N-phase would give 30% reduced loss at lighter loads, and
hence, this combination can be a preferred style of operation [1].
Figure 7: Circuit for power stage and gate-driver bootstrapping

CONCLUSION
This article has demonstrated the application of the N-phase and split-phase hybrid inductor
capacitor switches. The results have proved that the split-phase switching method in Cockcroft
Walton topology allows a high charge density and is effective with heavy-load applications, while
the N-phase scheme is highly efficient for light-load applications. It shows the success and use-
fulness of these two schemes while highlighting the benefits obtained by using these switching
schemes in a combined manner.
For More Information
▶ [6] N.M. Ellis, and R. Amirtharajah. “A Resonant Cockcroft-Walton Switched-

▶ [1] A Resonant 1:5 Cockcroft-Walton Converter Utilizing GaN FET Switches Capacitor Converter Achieving Full ZCS and >10kW/inch3 Power Density” In
with N-Phase and SplitPhase Clocking Nathan Ellis and Rajeevan IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE),2019.
Amirtharajah Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University
of California, Davis 2064 Kemper Hall, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616 ▶ [7] Y. Lei, R. May, and R.C.N. Pilawa-Podgurski. "Split-Phase control: Achieving
complete soft-charging operation of a Dickson switchedcapacitor converter."
▶ [2] T.A. Meynard, and H. Foch. "Multi-level conversion: high voltage choppers IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, v. 31, no.1 (2015):770-782.
and voltage-source inverters." In PESC'92 Record. 23rd Annual IEEE Power
Electronics Specialists Conference, pp. 397-403, 1992. ▶ [8] GS. Seo, R. Das, and HP. Le. "A 95%-Efficient 48V-to-1V/10A VRM Hybrid
Converter Using Interleaved Dual Inductors." In IEEE Energy Conversion
▶ [3] Y.P.B. Yeung, K.W.E. Cheng, S.L. Ho, K. K. Law, and D. Sutanto. "Unified Congress and Exposition (ECCE), pp. 3825-3830, 2018.
analysis of switched-capacitor resonant converters." IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, v. 51, no. 4 (2004): 864-873. ▶ [9] G. Schrom, P. Hazucha, F. Paillet, D.J. Rennie, S.T. Moon, D.S. Gardner, T.
Kamik et al. "A 100MHz eight-phase buck converter delivering 12A in 25mm2
▶ [4] B. Mahdavikhah, P. Jain, and A. Prodic. "Digitally controlled multi-phase using air-core inductors." In Twenty-Second Annual IEEE Applied Power
buck-converter with merged capacitive attenuator." In Twenty-Seventh Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), pp. 727-730, 2007.
Annual IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), pp.
1083-1087, 2012. ▶ [10] Tsuneo Murata (2016, Oct 12th). “Murata introduces DC-DC converter
with world’s highest power density” Retrieved
▶ [5] J.T. Stauth, M.D. Seeman, and K. Kesarwani. "Resonant switchedcapacitor
converters for sub-module distributed photovoltaic power management." IEEE ▶ [11] R.C.N. Podgurski (2017, July 13th). “Extreme Power Density Converters”
Transactions on Power Electronics, v. 28, no. 3 (2012): 1189-1198. Retrieved

ENERGY Energy
Like Jules Verne, we have all dreamt about “green hydrogen,” but the reality today is that in prac-
tice, it’s more a case of “brown and grey” rather than “blue and green” hydrogen. Hydrogen produc-
tion is almost entirely fueled from fossil sources, and more than 70% of global production comes
from steam reformation of natural gas. In this process, the methane reacts with steam, causing
a reaction by which hydrogen and carbon dioxide are produced. As a consequence, the worldwide
production of hydrogen is responsible for CO2 emissions of about 830 million tons per year, equiv-
alent to the CO2 emissions of the United Kingdom and Indonesia combined.
That has been the situation for more than a century, but things are changing and Europe is engaged in
a process to develop a climate-neutral economy in which green and blue hydrogen plays a major part.
POWERING A CLIMATE-NEUTRAL ECONOMY

Part of the so-called “European Green Deal,” the EU has laid out a strategy that will contribute
to transform the European Union into a fair and prosperous society in which there will be no net
emission of greenhouse gases by 2050.
In line with the Paris Agreement and the United Nations 2030 Agenda for sustainable development,
on July 8, 2020, the European Commission issued a document (COM/2020/299 final) describing the
strategy for a clean energy system integration.
Taking into consideration all aspects of the various energy sectors, the strategy aims to reduce and
eliminate CO2 emissions but also to diversify Europe’s sources of energy, making better, more effi-
European Green cient use of the energy produced within the EU.
Deal: Green Hydrogen

This will require a fundamental transformation of the European energy system, which today com-
prises fossil fuel (solid, petroleum, gas) (72.4%), nuclear energy (12.9%), renewable (14.6%), and
Becomes a Reality
other (0.1%).
The overall strategy to power a climate-neutral economy includes all aspects of the energy
By Patrick Le Fèvre, chief marketing and communication officer, PRBX -production system across multiple energy carriers, infrastructures, and consumption sectors, as
well as the analysis of what is needed to achieve climate neutrality by 2050.
For many of us, hydrogen has always been an interesting point of discussion, and we all remember
the visionary author Jules Verne, who in 1874 wrote in the book “The Mysterious Island,” “Water will In this strategy, hydrogen has been considered an important part of the ecosystem and addressed
one day be employed as fuel, that hydrogen and oxygen which constitute it, used singly or together, in a specific sub-project: “A hydrogen strategy for a climate-neutral Europe (COM/2020/301 final).”
will furnish an inexhaustible source of heat and light, of an intensity of which coal is not capable.” Making the production of hydrogen cleaner and optimizing its utilization for transportation, energy
storage, and many other areas have been addressed in this sub-project.
Close to 150 years ago, Jules Verne set out a prescient vision that has inspired governments and
entrepreneurs. But despite much hope and hype, hydrogen has always been considered as an an- THE EUROPEAN HYDROGEN STRATEGY
ecdotal source of energy and mainly used as feedstock for industrial and agricultural applications Clearly too broad a subject to cover all aspects that it involves, in summary, the EU hydrogen strat-
(e.g., fertilizer, fuel refining, plastic, metallurgy). egy is aiming to use renewable hydrogen in industrial processes and heavy-duty road and rail trans-

Energy Energy
port, in synthetic fuel production from renewable electricity in aviation and maritime transport, or
in biomass in those sectors where it has biggest added value.
Hydrogen ‘in colors’

To begin, hydrogen is not a raw fuel, and its production requires a certain chemical reaction that
can result in significant CO2 emissions. It is important to differentiate the different methods of
production and their environmental impact. To make it easier to understand that relationship, a
de facto definition has been used within the industry, and four main categories have been defined
(Figure 1). The long-term goal is to use only green hydrogen, though in the short and midterm, blue
hydrogen is needed to support the deployment of hydrogen in Europe, implying efficient carbon
capture and storage technology to reduce greenhouse emissions.
Making green hydrogen a reality

As shown in Figure 2, the EU strategy to develop renewable hydrogen is based on three phases with Figure 2: The three phases of the European Union renewable hydrogen strategy for a climate-neutral economy (Source:
reasonable targets and goals. By 2050, the renewable hydrogen technologies are expected to have PRBX/EU)
reached maturity and de- Due to the massive use of coal, the iron and steel industry is responsible for about 4% of anthro-
ployed on a large scale to pogenic CO2 emissions in Europe and 9% worldwide. Replacing coal with hydrogen generated from
contribute to decarbon- renewable energy would make it possible to largely decarbonize this industry. The project H2FU-
ize sectors in which other TURE developed best practices to use the excess electricity from renewable sources to produce
alternatives are not feasi- hydrogen from electrolysis. The hydrogen can be stored and used for fuel cells to deliver power
ble or of prohibitive cost. when needed. The project has focused particularly on deploying a large-scale electrolysis system
To reach this goal and to operated for steel manufacturing. One outcome from this project is the demonstration of the in-
produce renewable hy- creasing power of electrolyzers, highlighting their suitability for energy-intensive heavy industries.
drogen in volume will re-
quire a great amount of Pilot case
investment and strong Engaged in a process to reduce its carbon footprint, Austrian steel manufacturer Voestalpine set
cooperation between the a goal to reduce its CO2 emissions by 80%. A large part of this reduction required them to change
different sectors, from their way of working when manufacturing steel. The company research team investigated the prac-
research to end user. ticality of using a hybrid technology to bridge the gap between the existing coke-/coal-based blast
furnace route and electric arc furnaces powered by green electricity partly generated using green
While the strategy was hydrogen. It was obvious that hydrogen would make the deal and here started one of the European
released in 2020, the flagship projects for hydrogen.
research and initiative
Figure 1: Definition of the hydrogen color classifications in relation to their
environmental impact (Source: PRBX) started much earlier, Under Horizon 2020, after receiving EU agreement and a funding of €12 million, on Jan. 1, the H2FU-
and a number of projects TURE project began. As defined in the project, under the coordination of Verbund (energy supplier),
have benefited from the €80 billion funding from the EU Research and Innovation program, Horizon Voestalpine (steel manufacturer), and Siemens (proton exchange membrane, or PEM, electrolyzer
2020. From 2014 to 2020, under this program, an impressive number of projects have been con- manufacturer), the goal was to install and demonstrate the ability of a 6-MW electrolysis power
ducted. More information can be found on the Horizon 2020 website, but we would like to share system to deliver hydrogen to the Voestalpine Linz plant. The project also included competences
one example of a project contributing to make the steel and heavy industry cleaner. from Austrian Power Grid and research partners K1-MET and Energieonderzoek Centrum Nederland
(ECN).

Energy ENERGY
Connecting such an installa-

tion to the grid presented many
challenges. One important step
has been to test PEM electrol-
ysis technology on an industrial
scale (6 MW) and to simulate
rapid load changes in electric-
ity generated from renewable
energy sources and from elec-
tric arc furnace steelmaking
(grid balancing). This has been
successfully completed, and in
November 2019, the kickoff of
the largest green hydrogen fa-
Figure 3: Siemens’s 6-MW proton exchange membrane electrolyzers
(Source: PRBX/Voestalpine) cility took place (Figure 3).
With a capacity of 6 MW and a production of 1,200 m3 of green hydrogen per hour, H2FUTURE Verifying, Calibrating,
and Certifying DC
has proven the ability of that technology, contributing to the European goal of becoming climate
-neutral by 2050. H2FUTURE is one of many projects initiated under Horizon 2020, setting the foun-
Current Meters for

dations for hydrogen to become an intrinsic part of the European Union’s integrated energy system.
The EU hydrogen strategy Phase ONE is just the beginning of a long journey of technical innovations
to make Jules Verne’s vision a reality.
EV Charging and Microgrid

Applications to a Very High
Accuracy
▶ Powerbox (PRBX) By Loic Moreau, vice president of marketing, Danisense, and Patrick Fuchs,
business development manager, Zes Zimmer
▶ EU Green Deal
A 2020 report by Deloitte forecasts total EV sales growing from 2.5 million in 2020 to 11.2 million in
2025, then reaching 31.1 million by 2030, representing a compound annual growth rate of 29% over
▶ EU Hydrogen
the decade. This means that EVs would secure nearly one-third of the total market share for new
car sales. This will require a huge investment in charging stations, and consumers will demand that
▶ EU Horizon 2020
the accuracy and reliability of the DC measurement — which will regulate the amount they have
to pay — is tightly regulated and controlled. Zes Zimmer, a leading German power instrumentation
▶ H2FUTURE company, is working in partnership with Danish current-sense transducer company Danisense to
deliver precision DC metering solutions.

Energy Energy
EV charging stations are pro- mits the accuracy of the intervals and thus the energy counted to be simply verified. Zes Zimmer’s
liferating as the uptake in EVs LMG600 power analyzers allow the GUI to be customized to mimic a specific application. This GUI
progresses. In Germany, there can be fed with values from the built-in Script Editor and displays only those parameters that are
are many charging stations in relevant to the application. An example is shown in Figure 2.
cities and towns and increas-
ingly also at workplaces. There On its own, the LMG600 series provides accurate DC measurement across a current input range of
are already charging stations 500 μA to 32 Arms. To extend this current input range, Zes Zimmer is partnering with Danisense.
available that can provide up to Based on the zero-flux principle, Danisense current transducers deliver a measurement accuracy
350 kW. Customers need to be down to 1 ppm, and the combination of Zes Zimmer LMG600 power analyzer and Danisense DS600
able to rely on the accuracy of results in a highly accurate yet simple-to-use calibration test system.
the measurement of the DC en-
ergy transferred because there There are many differ-
is a direct link between the en- ent types of current
Figure 1: Measurement setup with a Zes Zimmer LMG641 power analyzer ergy consumed and the billing. -measurement technologies,
from basic shunt and Hall-ef-
At the beginning of 2020, Zes Zimmer, one of the technical leaders in the field of power analysis, fect devices to more complex
was approached by German standards organization VDE, which was working to ensure the proper systems. The determining
verification, calibration, and certification of DC meters used in EV charging stations. Zes Zimmer factor is usually the accuracy
already provides instrumentation that accurately measures up to 32 A, but for larger installations required, and simple devices
ranging into hundreds of kilowatts, the requirement is to measure much greater currents, in the cannot deliver at high accu-
region of a few hundred amps. This requires the use of external current sensors. racies. Danisense proprietary
Figure 3: Closed-loop compensated technology with fixed excitation
fluxgate is a closed-loop–
frequency and second-harmonic zero-flux detection
Figure 1 shows the measurement setup with a Zes Zimmer LMG641 power analyzer and an external compensated technology with
DS600 current-sense transducer from Danisense. To calibrate the DC meter, the energy supply is fixed excitation frequency and second-harmonic zero-flux detection (Figure 3). It combines com-
generated by a precision PSU and fed both into the energy meter and the reference power analyzer, plex magnetic performance with advanced signal processing, and by using second harmonics, sig-
in parallel. In addition, the energy meter’s pulse output is connected to the LMG600’s external cy- nals can be extracted to provide a measurement of the current in the conductors and its DC
cle input, allowing the analyzer to synchronize its measuring cycle for voltage, current, power, and current value to extremely high levels, very repeatably. Furthermore, Danisense employs a dual
energy to the meter’s pulses. -balanced fluxgate structure, which deploys two magnetic cores in opposition, similar in concept to
Because the external cycle in- a Wheatstone bridge. This provides natural compensation, eliminating the effect of any drift due to
put is sampled with more than environmental conditions such as temperature. This is important if a DC current of a few hundred
5 MHz, the pulses will be cap- amps is driven for some while the sensor heats up. Therefore, temperature stability is essential.
tured reliably and precisely.
Zes Zimmer supplies a cable with in-built intelligence to facilitate simple setup of Danisense current
Once the pulse intervals are transducers, such as the DS600 shown in Figure 4 and marketed by Zes Zimmer as Plug’n’Measure
synchronized to the measur- PCT600, which enables automatic identification of the sensor type connected and configuration
ing cycle of the power ana- of the LMG600 current input. Every important parameter, such as the precise scaling factor, delay
lyzer, their length can be re- compensation variable, last calibration date, and sensor type, will be read and used automatically
corded. In combination with by the power analyzer. Moreover, the sensors are actively powered via the LMG600, so separate
the use of a highly stable and power supplies are not required. Danisense offers a range of products that enable the current
accurate DC source, this per- measurement to be extended up to 2,000 Arms (3,000 A peak or DC) and even higher.
Figure 2: GUI example

Energy AUTOMOTIVE
Zes Zimmer power analyzers in combination with the Danisense sensors are being used in the field
by institutions like the VDE to test the accuracy of the DC meters installed at EV charging stations
to standards such as Eichrecht conformity resp. E-VDE-AR-E 2418-3-100. They are also being used
by manufacturers of DC meters to do pre-compliance tests before they send them off for inde-
pendent certification to ensure that they will get a positive result. So the fact that no additional
equipment is required and all the setup is simplified and matched through the partnership between
Zes Zimmer and Danisense is very useful.
DC MICROGRID
Another application that calls for a similar approach is 1,500-V DC microgrids. In applications in
which power is being generated by wind or solar power, for example, why convert to AC? Why not
use the DC power directly? It is predicted that the house of the future will run on DC, resulting in
significant efficiency benefits. This could be especially valuable if a vehicle is being charged in the
garage overnight. This leads to a system called a DC microgrid. The high-voltage AC grid will still
exist, but alongside it, a DC box connects to the DC generators, mostly renewable energy genera-
tors, and consumer products. Again, testing, calibration, and certification of such systems will call The Trends and
Technologies Shaping
for highly accurate, stable DC current measurement.
the Automotive
It is vital to build customer trust and confidence that DC meters used in EV charging stations and
other energy systems are highly accurate and regularly calibrated. The combination of Zes Zimmer
power analyzers and Danisense current-sense transducers provides a precise, stable measurement
that is repeatable and simple to facilitate. This is why renowned institutions such as VDE are using
this approach. Industry
By Dr. Phil Lessner, senior vice president & chief technology officer, Kemet
(part of the Yageo Group)
The sun is setting on internal combustion engines (ICE). Many policymakers are now putting into
law restrictions on the sale of new vehicles powered only by ICE. These restrictions generate a lot
of activity around hybrid systems, which combine ICE with some form of electrical assistance. In
a mild-hybrid vehicle, the battery used can typically be charged by energy from the ICE. These so-
called self-charging hybrids help consumers move over to electric vehicles while avoiding the issue
For More Information of finding an electrical outlet to recharge the battery.
The balance between how much power comes from the battery and how much comes from the ICE
▶ Danisense
determines just how “mild” the hybrid is. Larger batteries coupled to more powerful motors push
the needle further toward the all-electric end of the scale. Full-battery EVs (BEVs) have no ICE and
▶ This article includes extracts from a Zes Zimmer Applications note, which can
rely entirely on the electrical grid for energy. There are other issues associated with this, such as
be read in full here. building up the public charging infrastructure needed to support the all-electric user experience.
But for BEVs, there is no alternative to plugging in.

Automotive Automotive
Other forms of alternative energy sources are being developed. One of the most promising is using GOING WIRELESS IN AUTOMOTIVE
hydrogen in fuel cells, which converts the energy stored in the hydrogen to electrical energy. This Energy storage isn’t the only area of innovation within the automotive industry. Vehicles are becom-
use will lead to fuel-cell EVs (FCEVs). While the energy is stored differently in BEVs and FCEVs, both ing more connected, both with the general infrastructure and their on-board systems. In general,
produce electrical energy used to power a motor. Yet another technology being developed involves the amount of data generated by a vehicle is increasing exponentially. Wireless technology avoids
using supercapacitors to store electrical energy. A supercapacitor is similar to a battery in that it the proportional increase in wiring required to support that connectivity.
can be charged and discharged repeatedly, but internally, the differences are significant. Super-
capacitors can be charged and discharged quickly, which means they are capable of higher power Wires are costly, heavy, and bulky. On the other hand, wireless connections are effectively weight-
delivery than batteries, but the total energy stored is less. less, but they do require careful design, and the antenna is one of the most critical aspects of the
system. As vehicle manufacturers adopt more wireless connectivity types, at frequencies ranging
Each of these technologies has its limitations. Batteries take time to recharge, fuel cells are slow from low megahertz to high gigahertz, antenna design and location are becoming more crucial.
to release their energy, and supercapacitors have low energy storage capacity. But they all generate These design considerations will be more important as 5G connectivity finds its way into the ve-
electricity, the essential “fuel” needed by EVs. Perhaps in the near future, the term “hybrid” may hicle, to provide mission-critical connectivity such as V2X and autonomous driving. The data in-
evolve to describe vehicles that combine all three technologies to deliver the right user experience. frastructure needed to support full autonomy will rely heavily on wireless technologies, including
Wi-Fi and 5G.
Range and rapid recharging are cited as reasons why consumers are reluctant to make a move to full
electric. The automotive industry and the public sector must overcome that reluctance, without a Going wireless presents challenges, not least because vehicles are still predominantly made using
doubt. By using batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors together, each technology has the potential large pressed-metal panels. It would be hard to replace metal entirely, but it is happening. Both glass
to deliver energy when and where it is needed. For example, range concerns could be addressed by and plastic are used more in automotive design and manufacture. Most types of glass and many
fuel-cell technology combined with fast-charging supercapacitors to provide good acceleration. plastics are transparent to radio waves. This transparency is excellent news for engineers developing
electronic systems that use wireless connectivity. It also allows vehicle designers to explore new
There are no known examples of this potential new hybrid class today. Still, it is one direction the concepts. Entire glass roofs are becoming more common, for example. This design feature provides
industry could pursue in the future and is grounded in technology that currently exists. the option to mount antennas in the roof space that have clear access to the glass aperture.
Figure 1: Going wireless in automotive Figure 2: Think automotive.

Automotive Automotive
As the need for wireless connectivity increases, it may promote a new era of design that utilizes SUPPORTING AUTOMOTIVE INNOVATIONS
glass and plastic more. Of course, this also needs to be balanced with the need to design more There are several underlying technologies now supporting this level of innovation in the automotive
affordable, maintainable, and recyclable vehicles. industry. Wireless connectivity and antenna design are one. Wide-bandgap (WBG) semiconductor
switches are another. These automotive innovations are where technologies such as silicon carbide
In general terms, EVs are mechanically simpler than ICE-powered vehicles. This simplicity means and gallium nitride make a real impact.
they could be designed to last longer, be more easily serviced and maintained, and be highly re-
cyclable. However, the electronic systems in EVs will be more diverse and, in the case of autono- WBG semiconductors generally offer higher efficiencies than regular silicon devices. The use of
my, more complex. The balance between power consumption, between the motive force and the WBG semiconductors has several implications on the way power systems are designed. The central
electronic systems, will evolve, and this may also have implications on the types of energy storage systems impacted include battery management systems and on-board and off-board chargers.
systems employed. Power inverters are used to turn DC from a battery (or equivalent) into AC to drive the motors. The
efficiency of these systems has a direct impact on range. Developers can achieve higher efficiency
THINK AUTONOMOUS, THINK UP by operating the power devices at higher switching frequencies. These frequencies have design
Another major trend shaping the future of vehicle design, ownership, and utilization is autonomy. implications on the passive and magnetic components used in the switching circuits; in general,
There is a growing correlation between ownership and autonomy; many believe that the first fully they are smaller — both in size and value. The switching devices themselves are also reducing in
autonomous vehicles will be taxis and ride-sharing schemes. The economics support this theory; size because they can operate at higher temperatures. The result is overall more compact systems.
an autonomous EV will be expensive to buy but cheap to run, so to see a return, the owner will
need a high utilization rate. As a supplier to the automotive, defense, and aerospace industries, the Yageo Group has a lot of
experience in helping OEMs develop reliable solutions to all of the challenges outlined above. Many
Most privately owned vehicles spend the majority of their time parked somewhere. It means the of those challenges are real today, even though some of the scenarios proposed are speculative.
per-mile cost is high. Taxis and other service vehicles, on the other hand, spend most of their time The direction in which the automotive industry moves needs the right enabling technology right
being operated. Usage drives the cost per mile down and, if that cost has a markup, as is the case now, which is where suppliers like the Yageo Group make a real and positive difference.
with a taxi, it moves into a positive return on investment.
One exciting area of research here is the autonomous flying electric taxi. It may sound like science
fiction, but it is happening. There are good reasons why it makes sense, not least because many
journeys are short and within congested cities. Flying through cityscapes would reduce the con-
gestion at the road level. Several pilot projects are already in operation, and millions of research
dollars have been spent making it a reality. In terms of autonomous operation, moving into the third
dimension makes a lot of sense. There are no roads, buildings, or pedestrians in the sky, even at
low altitudes. The sky gives autonomous vehicles a lot of freedom, with the only obstacles being
other flying vehicles.
Moving into the third dimension will elevate the need for reliable wireless connectivity. Wire- For More Information
less technology is, by default, omnidirectional. Modern systems are more discriminative, using
phased-array antennas and multiple in, multiple out to direct the RF energy and maximize the
▶ Kemet
available bandwidth. Range may also be a consideration. Land-based transceivers in an urban area
may never be very far from a 5G base station or equivalent, but air-based vehicles will be more
▶ Automotive Electronics Reliability Testing Starts and Ends with the Mission
distributed and dispersed. With fewer obstacles, the wireless signal should propagate further and
suffer from less interference and multipath distortion. Air-based vehicles will also influence the Profile
way the systems are designed.

SEMICONDUCTORS Semiconductors
Gallium nitride (GaN)3 is a “wide bandgap” material because it offers an electron bandgap that is 3×
larger than silicon, which means GaN can handle 10× stronger electric fields and deliver high power
with dramatically smaller chips. With much smaller transistors and shorter current paths, ultra-low
resistance (RDS(on) and capacitance (QGD, COSS, zero Trr) are achieved, enabling up to 100× faster switching
speeds. To deliver actual performance to match GaN’s promise, GaN power ICs4 monolithically integrate
GaN power (FET) and drive to control and protect the GaN power switch at high speeds.
Three new topologies are presented: 50-W pulsed ACF, 300-W CrCM totem-pole PFC, and 1-kW
half-bridge LLC.
PULSED ACF: ELECTROLYTIC BULK-CAPACITOR ELIMINATION

Bulk capacitor reduction — or complete removal — has been an elusive topology for many years,
with little to no success. Bulk capacitor rating (µF) is determined by the required output power, AC
line voltage, and AC line frequency. The rating is a balancing act between charging the capacitor
each AC line cycle and discharging it to provide the necessary output power, all while maintaining a
minimum DC hold-up voltage level (~400 V) necessary for providing a constant DC output voltage.
Increasing the switching frequency of the power conversion stage itself has no effect on the size of
the bulk capacitor, so it does not benefit from the same frequency-to-size reduction that we get
with magnetics. Even if the switching frequency is increased high enough such that the magnetics
shrink down to PCB-based “air cores,” the bulk capacitor voltage must still be replenished by the
AC line voltage at the ultra-low AC line frequency (50/60 Hz) so the rating — and physical size —
remains unchanged.
However, if we change the output requirements of the converter from, say, a tightly regulated DC
voltage to a rectified AC voltage, then we can change the rules of the game. With a pulsed output,
we can have a rectified AC bulk capacitor voltage, which allows for the bulk capacitor capaci-
GaN Enables Next- tance value to be greatly reduced and the DC bus voltage can follow the rectified AC line voltage
directly. For smartphone fast chargers, a pulsed current is acceptable, especially if the phone’s
Generation High-
battery-charging algorithms are slightly modified to accept the pulsed voltage waveform.
Frequency Circuits
By Tom Ribarich, senior director of strategic marketing, Navitas Semiconductor
The key to improved power density is increased switching frequency to minimize passive compo-
nents, such as transformers, EMI filters, bulk capacitors, and output capacitors, while simultane-
ously maintaining or improving efficiency. High-speed topologies such as the active-clamp flyback
(ACF) have been proposed by academics since 19961 but were frustrated by silicon’s poor switching
Figure 1: How high frequency drives smaller passive components, 50-W fast-charger example: ~100-kHz traditional
(QGD, Trr, COSS) performance,2 not to mention complexity and system cost.
bobbin (22 mm high) (left) and ~500-kHz planar transformer (8 mm) (right)

To achieve the new pulsed output voltage requirement, the ACF topology can efficiently convert
the rectified AC bus voltage into a pulsed DC output voltage. Traditional QR flyback is simple and
low-cost but “hard switches” during high-line conditions. Resonant LLC topologies deliver ZVS op-
eration over the entire load range but depend on a limited-range DC bus voltage. The ACF topology
offers the best of both worlds by enabling ZVS operation over the entire line and wide load and
voltage range. Compared with the traditional QR flyback, the ACF topology includes an additional
high-side switch and capacitor to slew the switched-node voltage (VSW) to the opposite rail during
the deadtime and achieve ZVS. Megahertz ACF using GaN power ICs was demonstrated academ-
ically in 20165 and available for industry since the 2018 introduction of TI’s UCC2878x ACF PWM
controller. GaN enables high-frequency ACF operation and results in a dramatic size reduction of
the transformer; for example, from a 22-mm–high RM10 bobbin-based transformer at 50 kHz to an
8-mm–thin EI25 planar transformer at 500 kHz, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 3: 400-V input DOSA quarter-brick DC/DC converters: best-in-class Si-based, 275 kHz, 150 W (left) and GaN-
Size reduction by increased frequency and pulsed operation (bulk capacitor elimination) led to the based 830 kHz reaching 1 kW (density power) (right)
introduction of Oppo’s ultra-thin 50-W “Cookie” GaN-power-IC–based fast charger in 2020. This
was a perfect example of combining GaN with some novel system partitioning to reduce the con- In conventional PFC circuits with a standard AC rectifier, at any point in time, two diodes of the
verter size and profile and ultimately creating a new and unique out-of-the-box user experience. input bridge are always conducting and generate >50% of the total PFC circuit losses. Many bridge-
less PFC circuits have been investigated over the past few decades in attempts to eliminate the
HIGH-FREQUENCY PFC, WITHOUT THE BRIDGE input bridge rectifier and boost system efficiency, but few have made it out of the lab and into
Conventional PFC topologies for mid-power (100 to 500 W) applications include an input bridge the mainstream market, mainly due to higher complexity and cost. These topologies include clas-
rectifier followed by a traditional boost converter. As the boost switch is turned on and off at a sic bridgeless, semi-bridgeless, bidirectional bridgeless, and bridgeless totem pole. Each of these
given switching frequency, the switch on and off times are controlled such that the AC line input topologies has their own set of pros and cons, but none of them are the perfect solution. While
current follows the same shape and phase as the AC line voltage and the DC bus output voltage microcontroller-based designs have been implemented for multi-kilowatt datacenter SMPS, stand-
is maintained at a constant level. During 90-VAC input and full-load conditions, this circuit can by losses have been too high to meet consumer market requirements like DoE Level IV and Euro
reach efficiencies of about 96%. The boost converter itself can be made very efficient, but the AC CoC Tier 2.
input-bridge losses are very high, causing severe thermal extremes and poor overall efficiency.
With the emergence of new controllers in 2021, the high-frequency CrCM bridgeless totem pole
Enter the “bridgeless totem-pole” PFC topology. is emerging as a popular topology due to low EMI, plus simplified voltage and current sensing by
the controller. Switching speeds can be increased up to 10×, from fixed-frequency 50-kHz CCM to
200–500 kHz for CrCM totem-pole operation, and GaN’s low output capacitance (COSS) delivers a
cool, high-efficiency result.
HIGH-FREQUENCY DC/DC: 6× THE POWER WITH GaN

For fixed-output voltage converters in the 100- to 3,000-W power range, the downstream DC/DC
converter choice is typically an LLC resonant stage with ~400-VDC input. The 400-V bus can come
from an upstream PFC stage within an encased AC/DC SMPS or can be the main distribution rail in
an HVDC installation.
The LLC topology has several benefits that include ZVS operation, high efficiency, and high-power
density, and the ZVS operation makes this converter an ideal platform for increasing the switching
Figure 2: 300-W CrCM totem-pole PFC schematic and efficiency data

Semiconductors DESIGN
frequency and reducing the size of the magnetics using a high-speed powertrain.
In the industry-standard (DOSA) quarter-brick form factor, best-in-class silicon-based designs

reach 150 W. By using GaN power ICs and increasing the DC/DC switching frequency 3× from
275 kHz to 830 kHz, the power rating can be increased up to 6× to 1 kW.
HIGH-SPEED GaN ENABLES HIGH-FREQUENCY APPLICATIONS

These are only a few of the vast opportunities in power electronics to be revolutionized by GaN
power ICs. As operating frequencies are increased and magnetic sizes decreased, the entire eco-
Is Innovation of Silicon
system will continue to evolve, including upgraded magnetic materials, new planar transformer
designs, smaller capacitor technologies, new circuit topologies, and improved thermal materials.
The results are higher efficiencies, improved robustness, new power-adapter form factors, and,
ultimately, lower costs.
Transistors Still
Possible? The Case for
STMicroelectronics
Superjunction MDmesh
▶ 1. R. Watson, F. C. Lee and G. C. Hua. “Utilization of an active-clamp circuit to By Filippo Di Giovanni, strategic marketing, innovation and key programs
achieve soft switching in flyback converters,” in IEEE Transactions on Power manager at ST Microelectronics
Electronics, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 162–169, Jan. 1996, doi: 10.1109/63.484429. Since solid-state transistors replaced vacuum tubes, the semiconductor industry has undergone
amazing breakthrough advances that have changed our world. Without many of these improve-
▶ 2. D. Kinzer. Navitas. “Welcome to the Post-Silicon World: Wide Bandgap ments, we would not be able to work remotely and stay connected, even during forced seclusion,
Powers Ahead”. Keynote PCIM 2016. nor could we enjoy all the other marvels that technology offers.
One example: the extraordinary gain in processing power that has been possible thanks to engi-
▶ 3. Gallium nitride (GaN) overview.
neers’ continuous efforts to squeeze more and more transistors per unit area onto silicon chips.
Identified as Moore’s Law, it is the observation that transistor density can be doubled every 18
▶ 4. D. Kinzer and S. Oliver. “Monolithic HV GaN Power ICs: Performance and
months or so, and it has directed the development of microprocessor generations in the semicon-
application,” in IEEE Power Electronics Magazine, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 14-21, Sept. ductor industry for more than 50 years. Now, we’re reaching atomic and physical limits that require
2016, doi: 10.1109/MPEL.2016.2585474. new techniques, such as the vertical stacking of layers.
▶ 5. S. Oliver, T. Ribarich. “State-of-the-Art Mobile Charging: Topologies, At the same time, we are also in the midst of another revolution with the development of
wide-bandgap semiconductors such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN). The new
Technologies and Performance”. APEC 2017, Industrial Session IS05.
materials feature unique physical properties that allow for efficiency improvements, higher power
density, and safer performance under more severe thermal conditions.

Design Design
STMicroelectronics is already producing STPOWER SiC MOSFETs in high volume, helping to propel drain with opposite polari-
the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and sparking an era of massive electrification. It is also con- ty, and therefore, the slope
ceivable that this leads eventually to autonomous driving for a sustainable mobility. reverses to negative. From B
to the substrate, the polarity
Another revolution involving high-voltage (that is, above 200 V) silicon power transistors happened gets even more negative (n–),
at the turn of the century, when superjunction MOSFETs emerged. Up until the end of the 1990s, and therefore, the slope in-
designers had to accept the “axiom” that for a planar transistor, the figure of merit (defined as creases. The green area in the
on-resistance multiplied by the chip area) is proportional to the breakdown voltage (BV) raised to graph represents the voltage
2.5. This axiom implied that the only solution to reach lower values of on-resistance by a given that can be sustained in the
voltage was to increase the die area. This made the use of devices with small-outline packages off state. In the superjunction
increasingly difficult. Superjunction technology came to the rescue for high-voltage MOSFETs by diagram shown on the right,
Figure 1: Planar (left) and superjunction MDmesh (right) MOSFETs
making the above relationship close to linear. ST dubbed the technology MDmesh and made it part the addition of the p-type re-
of the STPOWER sub-brand. gion pillar changes the electric field distribution. In fact, from C to A, the electric field distribution
stays constant (body and pillar have the same polarity), and then the slope is reversed as in the
THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERJUNCTION TRANSISTORS planar structure due to the drain and substrate. As a result, the area below the electric field is larg-
The working mechanism of a superjunction transistor makes use of one of Maxwell’s equations, er, so the voltage V2 is sustained. Here, the pillar has performed its magic. Now, at a given voltage,
simplified for a one-dimensional case — say, the vertical axis, y. It states that the slope of the we can reduce drain resistivity and can decrease on-resistance.
electric field along that axis is equal to the charge density r divided by permittivity e. In symbols,
dE/dy = r/e. The other equation relates the voltage V to the component of the electric field E along y; TECHNOLOGY EVOLUTION
that is, E = –dV/dy. Said differently, the voltage V is the integral of E, or in geometric terms, the area Since their first appearance, MDmesh transistors have relentlessly been improved and refined, and
under the E curve as a function of y. We can see how it works by comparing the vertical structure of a large spectrum of power-conversion applications are still benefiting from their use. The process
a standard planar MOSFET versus its superjunction counterpart of similar size. The superjunction is techniques for creating the vertical pillars have been greatly optimized for better manufacturing
essentially an extension of the p-body of the basic transistor inside the vertical drain through the yields and device ruggedness. Depending on the target circuit topology and application, different
realization of a p-type pillar. dedicated product series are now available. This technological versatility and flexibility allow sys-
tem designers to choose from a variety of options. The general-purpose M2 series has the best
In a planar structure (see Figure 1, left) starting from the surface along the y-axis, we encounter cost/performance in the 400- to 650-V range, and there are the application-specific variants sep-
the p-body, and therefore, the slope is positive until we reach Point A. From A to B, we have the arately addressing PFC, soft-switching LLC, and bridge topologies, with voltage capability extending
to 1,700 V.
Figure 2: Compressor inverter’s efficiency curves of fast-diode MDmesh MOSFET vs. IGBT in a DPAK package. Test
condition: 0.23 Nm (load), 220 V/50 Hz (input voltage)

Design Design
On top of that, lifetime-killing techniques such as platinum-ion implantation are being used to en-
hance the performance of the integral body diode for reduced reverse-recovery time trr, as well as
reverse-recovery charge Qrr plus improved dV/dt (DM series). These features are ideal in bridge and
high-power phase-shift circuits. A fast-diode version can even compete with IGBTs in low-power
motor drives, which eliminates the need for a co-packaged diode. In terms of efficiency, a typical
example is represented by a 150-W inverter for a refrigerator compressor, as shown in Figure 2.
It’s no surprise that the ubiquitous MDmesh transistors have been produced in the billions!
In Figure 3, by comparing the features achieved with the latest M6 series optimized for resonant Figure 5: MDmesh in smartphone adaptor
converters, we see how diligent ST designers have been with respect to improving the early M2
version. APPLICATION AREAS
ST’s MDmesh transistors are used in numerous applications, and this allows us to show their mer-
its in a small but representative selection.
One of the highest-volume

applications is smartphone
adaptors. Figure 5 shows a
120-W version.
Figure 3: From M2 to M6 — improving gate charge, threshold voltage, and output capacitance
Figure 6 shows how a “tai-
In the graphs in Figure 3, from left to right, we see that lower gate charge, increased threshold lored” M5 series can improve
voltage, and linear-versus-voltage output capacitance translate into higher switching frequency, efficiency in a 1.5-kW PFC at Figure 6: How M5 series (in blue) can improve PFC efficiency at higher power
reduced commutation losses, and higher efficiency at lighter loads. higher power with respect to
the “basic” M2 series. The two MOSFETs used exhibit similar on-resistance (37- and 39-mΩ on-re-
The underlaying superjunction technique coupled with the most advanced process steps has sistance for M5 and M2, respectively) and voltage-blocking capability (650 V).
yielded a high-performance high-voltage MOSFET with special focus on key switching parame-
ters such as dI/dt and dV/dt, Another interesting example is shown in Figure 7: a 3-kW half-bridge LLC circuit for an automotive
as the safe-operating diagram OBC comparing the latest DM6 (STWA75N65DM6) versus the best competition at Vin = 380–420 V,
in Figure 4 proves. Thanks to Vout = 48 V, switching frequency f = 250 Hz to 140 kHz.
such improvements, the DM6
MDmesh series fits well in
solar inverters, charging sta-
tions, and EV on-board charg-
ers (OBCs) to name just a few
applications.
Figure 4: dI/dt vs. dV/dt safe operating areas Figure 7: 3-kW full-bridge LLC — off-energy and delta efficiency vs. Pout

Design Design
Figure 8 illustrates the split of losses, showing that the key to reaching the lowest level of losses Furthermore, the solder layer contains voids of different size that may not only deteriorate the
and highest efficiency is through an optimal mix of conduction and switching losses. thermal connection between the chip and the lead frame but can also generate “hotspots”; that
is, microscopic volumes reaching very high local temperatures. Another effect to consider is the
temperature dependence of MOSFET parameters such as on-resistance that increases, whereas
the threshold voltage decreases as temperature goes up. While the former trend has a stabilizing
effect, the latter can be harmful, especially during on/off transitions.
To overcome such issues, a new process known as isothermal diffusion soldering is being devel-
oped, which associates the features of standard soldering to diffusion bonding.
This is obtained essentially by a reaction between a material possessing low melting point (e.g., Sn-
Cu solder paste) and one exhibiting high melting point (e.g., Cu from substrate) through IMP growth
Figure 8: Analysis of the various sources of losses in a 3-kW full-bridge LLC converter
at the interfaces.
Fast-growing 5G technologies also benefit from the MDmesh innovation. With 5G systems’ high
level of cell densification and ever-decreasing size of base stations (from microcells to picocells), In contrast to conventional soldering, the joint is formed by isothermal solidification during the
MDmesh is the perfect match to equip the repeaters’ power supplies due to its efficiency, very soldering process itself, not only after cooling.
high-volume production capability, competitiveness, and performance.
This advantage of the formation of phases with very high melting points also relates to superior
In order for 5G systems to operate above 98% efficiency, PFC and DC/DC converter stages need to mechanical robustness. As junction temperatures reach 200°C in power packages, the diffusion
be 99% efficient individually. A solution for the PFC can be a three-channel interleaved bridgeless soldering technology improves the chip-to-substrate interconnect, ensuring operating tempera-
totem-pole in triangular current mode (TCM) operation with MCU digital control. The TCM system tures do not exceed the joining process temperatures that would lead to pre-mature failure.
enables the converter to operate at zero-voltage switching to reduce switching losses significantly.
Overall, the results are a flat efficiency curve and a good value of efficiency at low load on top of a The soldering process’s improved thermal performance removes some of the negatives of the soft
size reduction of inductors, EMI filters, and output capacitor. solder, and this translates into better electrical behavior as well. It therefore weds perfectly with
new packaging concepts such as the TO lead-less (TO-LL), which, among surface-mount device
MDmesh transistors pave the way for the rollout of 5G wireless systems. (SMD) packages, has the best ratio of board space area to thermal resistance. It is also equipped
with a Kelvin pin that makes turn-off even more efficient and therefore can address hard-switch
DIFFUSION SOLDERING AND PACKAGING topologies with M6 or bridge circuits, with the MD6 series delivering even lower on-resistance.
Another interesting innovation being incorporated into MDmesh’s next iterations is the diffusion
soldering process.
In a standard soldering process (soft soldering), the build-up of an intermetallic phase (IMP) is the
basis for bond formation. It consists of thin intermetallic layers at the interface and unreacted sol-
der material in between. Failure mechanism analyses of standard soft solder joints after thermal
cycling reveals fatigue crack growth within the unreacted solder volume.
Two important properties of all intermetallic compounds are the hardness and embrittlement,
which is a decrease of ductility. The latter can notoriously cause a device’s failure during thermo-
mechanical stress, thereby worsening electronic equipment reliability.
Figure 9: TO-LL vs. more SMD packages

Design Design
To complete this packaging overview, the innovative ACEPACK SMIT (Surface Mounted Isolated
Top-side cooling) “discrete” power module is shown in Figure 9. This molded, lead-frame package
contains a direct bonded copper (DBC) substrate and can house separate chips for realizing various
topologies. The ACEPACK SMIT has an impressively low thermal resistance, 0.2°C/W, and the back-
side ceramic ensures an insulation voltage of 3,400 VRMS minimum (UL-recognized).
Figure 13: MDmesh milestones — toward trench
cific on-resistance versus breakdown voltage of the successive MDmesh versions benchmarked to
Figure 10: ACEPACK SMIT package
standard technology and to its theoretical physical limit: M9 and K6 are now in full production. For
the sake of clarity, K5 and K6 represent the very high-voltage (from 800 V to 1,700 V) technology
subsets.
In order to appreciate the efforts devoted to the many iterations of MDmesh developed to address
the requirements of distinct applications, have a look at the succession of images in Figure 13, from
the first-generation MOSFET to the latest TrenchFET.
And what’s the next big step? After the introduction of MD6, the aim is to apply the benefits of the
trench structure to the super junction. This feat will enable another step forward for the MDmesh
and extend it to future breakthrough technologies like SiC. This WBG technology is expected to
enjoy, with due adaptation and optimization, the performance improvements implemented and
debugged extensively on existing silicon technologies. The journey never ceases to surprise!
Figure 11: ACEPACK SMIT internal configuration flexibility
WHAT COMES NEXT

After more than 20 years, ST-
POWER MDmesh technolo- For More Information
gy keeps evolving and, along
with ST’s most innovative
WBG semiconductors, contin- ▶ STMicroelectronics
ues to offer the widest range
of power transistors in the ▶ Wide-bandgap semiconductors
market. Figure 12 depicts spe-
Figure 12: Evolution of MDmesh’s specific on-resistance

SEMICONDUCTORS Semiconductors
THE SiC-BASED
TWO-LEVEL AFE
BLOCK
To handle the wide voltage
range of EV batteries and bi-
directional charge/discharge,
Wolfspeed has developed a
22-kW active front end (AFE)
and flexible DC/DC converter
that can be adapted to both
OBC charging systems and DC
fast chargers. The proposed
SiC MOSFETs
solution, based on 1,200-V SiC
MOSFETs with RDS(on) = 32 mΩ
(Figure 2), provides a very high Figure 1: OBC and fast-charging system comparison
Replace IGBTs in EV power density (4.6 kW/L) and

efficiency (>98.5%) at a lower cost.
Bidirectional Chargers Unlike other standard topologies, such as the six-switch IGBT-based design (a simple but much
less efficient and power-dense solution) and the T-type converter (a more complex and costly solu-
By Maurizio Di Paolo Emilio, Editor-in-Chief of Power Electronics News and tion), the SiC AFE offers a simple control and driver interface, supporting bidirectional operation
EEWeb with a lower part count. The C3M0032120K, a 1.2-kV 32-mΩ SiC MOSFET with Kelvin-source pack-
age, helps to reduce switching loss and crosstalk while allowing for an easy driving voltage of –3- to
The success of electric vehicles (EVs) and, more generally, of electric mobility, depends heavily 15-V Vgs. The AFE design has been optimized for the use of magnetics, achieving a high switching
on the time required to charge the batteries. Long considered one of the weak points of EVs, the frequency (45 kHz) with lower power loss on both the core and winding. The AFE design has been
charging time has progressively reduced, with advanced solutions such as fast charging that take optimized for the use of magnetics, achieving a high switching frequency (45kHz) with lower power
only a few minutes. On-board charging systems (OBCs), connected directly to the AC mains, nor- loss on both the core and winding.
mally require at least four hours for each charge. Conversely, fast-charging systems operating in
direct current can reduce the charging time to less than 30 minutes. In charging systems, power
MOSFETs based on silicon carbide (SiC) play a fundamental role. SiC is a wide-bandgap semicon-
ductor that, compared with silicon, offers advantages such as high efficiency and power density,
high reliability, and durability, reducing both the cost and size of the solution.
As shown in Figure 1, despite having different power requirements and technical specifications,
both charging systems can benefit from the use of SiC MOSFETs, which can manage the wide
voltage range (typically between 200 V and 800 V) of the batteries installed in EVs, reducing power
Figure 2: The simple two-level SiC AFE designed by Wolfspeed
losses by up to 40%, increasing power density by 50%, halving the number of active components,
and reducing the overall cost of the solution. Wolfspeed’s 1.2-kV SiC MOSFET series not only meets The AFE also uses a digital control circuit capable of supporting both three-phase and single-phase
these requirements but manages the bidirectional charge/discharge process, replacing the IGBT PWM schemes, balancing switching losses and optimizing thermal performance, efficiency, and re-
transistors used in current charging circuit topologies. liability. Furthermore, variable DC-link voltage control enables high system efficiency by varying the

Figure 3: (top) test result AC/DC waveforms for single-phase AC and (bottom) test result AC/DC waveforms for three-
phase AC
DC bus output voltage based on sensed battery voltage and ensuring the CLLC runs close to reso-
Figure 4: AFE efficiency plots for single-phase charging/discharging and three-phase charging modes
nant frequency. Figure 3 (top) shows the single-phase mode waveforms when charging (totem-pole
operation) and discharging (interleaved operation). The waveforms in Figure 3 (bottom), which have Combined with SiC AFE block, the full-bridge DC/DC design benefits from the variable DC bus volt-
a total harmonic distortion of less than 5%, refer instead to a three-phase leg AFE configuration. age provided by the AFE based upon the sensed battery voltage to be charged. This allows the CLLC
to run close to resonant frequency, achieving high system efficiency. When battery voltage becomes
Compared with a traditional solution based on an IGBT (whose maximum efficiency is 96%), the SiC low, control will switch to phase-shift mode, reducing circuit gain without running inefficiently out-
MOSFET reaches an efficiency of 98.5%, reducing power losses by up to 38%. In addition, SiC al- side of the resonant frequency range. At lower output voltages (just above 400 V), CLLC primary
lows for lower operating temperatures and therefore better thermal management. Under maximum is run as a half-bridge, further reducing system gain and maintaining the resonant converter in an
power conditions (22 kW), it was measured 89.4˚C at the case, 112.4˚C (calculated) at the junction, efficient operating zone. The half-bridge mode has some limitations in total power range but pro-
and 65˚C for the baseplate. Figure 4 shows the efficiency curves relating to the results obtained vides a strong peak efficiency of 98%, even for low-voltage batteries.
with the tests.
FULL-BRIDGE CLLC DC/DC CONVERTER WITH 1.2-KV SiC

MOSFETS
Another interesting application scheme is the full-bridge CLLC DC/DC converter, in which the
1.2-kV SiC MOSFETs can be used in a single, two-level high-efficiency converter scheme (Figure 5),
reducing both part counts and system cost. The operating currents on the DC link side (900 V)
reach 22.6 ARMS, while on the battery side (800 V), they reach up to 28.5 ARMS.
Figure 5: SiC-based single two-level converter

Figure 7: DC/DC converter efficiency plots for full-bridge and half-bridge modes for charging and discharging
CONCLUSION
Wolfspeed’s 22-kW AC/DC and DC/DC converters demonstrate high performance of Gen SiC MOS-
FETs for automotive on-board chargers, fast chargers, and energy storage applications. Innovative
control methods such as variable DC bus control, combination of frequency modulation and phase
Figure 6 shows the waveforms, both for charging and discharging, relating to the full-bridge con- shift, and half-bridge/full-bridge topologies can be combined to achieve top-level efficiency and
figuration. By examining them, it is possible to observe the regularity of the commutation (low power density.
overshoot), combined with zero-voltage turn-on and low-current turn-off, which results in higher
efficiency. Wolfspeed offers many other reference designs and additional support tools, including design
schematic and layout files, BOMs, info on preferred magnetics, application notes, training pres-
entations, and some firmware upon request. Additionally, the SpeedFit simulator program helps
to quickly calculate losses and estimate junction temperature for power devices based on lab
data for common topologies ranging from simple buck and boost converters to a fully bidirectional
totem-pole PFC with a resonant DC/DC converter.
Figure 6: Charging and discharging DC/DC waveforms for full-bridge topology based on 1.2kV SiC MOSFETs
The efficiency of the DC/DC converter during charging reaches the maximum value of 98.5% and For More Information
remains above 97% until it enters the half-bridge mode (Figure 7). Note how, for lower values of
the output voltage during charging, the half-bridge mode limits both the efficiency and the output
▶ More details on Wolfspeed’s evaluation platforms for automotive applications
power. Similar curves are obtained during the discharge process.
can be obtained by visiting Richardson RFPD’s DC fast charging site.
The highest loss and temperatures were recorded with the CLLC MOSFET in the 480-VDC @ 17.28-kW
test, with a calculated power loss of 42 W, case temperature of 97.8˚C, and calculated junction ▶ Modeling of Energy Storage Devices for EVs
temperature of 116.7˚C.

Available Now at EE Times Bookstore VIDEO & PODCAST
AspenCore Guide
to Gallium Nitride
A New Era for Power Electronics
As silicon reaches its theoretical performance limits for power electronics,
industry is shifting toward wide-bandgap materials like gallium nitride
(GaN), whose properties provide clear benefits in power converters for Smart Energy for the Future of Hydrogen: The Key to The Energy
consumer and industrial electronics. This book delves into GaN technology the Planet – Podcast of the Future
and its importance for power electronics professionals engaged with its
In this podcast, Robert L. Misback and Adam Hydrogen is a very light gas. It tends to bind
implementation in power devices. Kabulski will explain the future of renewable to other atoms, thus forming more complex
energy adoption and how renewable energy is molecules. To be used as a fuel, it must be
impacting the power grid. ‘captured’ by chemical processes.
Foreword: Alex Lidow, CEO of Efficient
Power Conversion (EPC)
Market Overview: Yole Développement FOR MORE INFORMATION > FOR MORE INFORMATION >
Technology Analysis: Elena Barbarini, System Plus
Consulting; Filippo Di Giovanni, STMicroelectronics;
Alex Lidow, EPC; Chris Lee, Power Integrations; Dilder
Chowdhury, Nexperia; Stephen Oliver and Dan
Kinzer, Navitas Semiconductor; Stefano Lovati and
Davide Di Gesualdo, EEWeb; Paul Wiener, GaN Systems;
and Professor Alex Q. Huang, Tianxiang Chen, and
Ruiyang Yu, University of Texas at Austin. In addition,
there are reports from Jens Tybo Jensen, Jun Honda,
and Pawan Garg, Infineon Technologies; Max Zafrani,
EPC Space; Kasyap Patel, Wolfspeed, a Cree Company;
Andrea Vinci, Tektronix; and Gerald Deboy,
Infineon Technologies.
Wide bandgap Semiconductors Driving Wide-Band Gap Switches
Tech papers: Keysight, ON Semiconductor, Cadence,
United Monolithic Semiconductors, Transphorm, for Greener Future – Podcast Successfully
Nexperia, and CEA-Leti
In this episode, our guest is Patrick Le Fèvre, Wide bandgap switches offer significantly
senior marketer and degree-qualified engineer improved performance over traditional silicon
ONLINE BOOKSTORE: with a 35-year of experience in power elec- based switches.
www.eetimes.com/shop tronics.
FOR MORE INFORMATION > FOR MORE INFORMATION >

Edited by Maurizio Di Paolo Emilio, Nitin Dahad, EE Times
Publisher: AspenCore Media
Available in PDF and Hard Copy (Limited Edition)
NEWS PCIM & APEC 2021
TOLG for Improved TCoB Expanded SL Series

Robustness and TOLT for Programmable DC Power
Improved Thermal Performance Supplies to 10 kW in 1U with 18
Live Coverage of APEC 2021 Live Coverage of PCIM 2021
New Models
Applications such as e-scooters, e-forklifts APEC is going to be digital from 14 – 17 June PCIM Europe is going to be digital from 3 – 7
and other light electric vehicles (LEVs), as well Magna-Power expanded its SL Series program- 2021. During the “APEC digital days” exhibitors May 2021. During the “PCIM Europe digital
as power tools and battery management sys- mable DC power supply product line with the and speakers can network and exchange views days” exhibitors and speakers can network
tems, demand high current rating, ruggedness introduction of 18 new models at 10 kW rated on product innovations and research findings and exchange views on product innovations
and extended lifetime. Infineon Technologies output power, while maintaining the product with visitors and participants. and research findings with visitors and partici
addresses these requirements by offering line’s 1U (1.75” high) rack-mount form fac- -pants.
more choices to power system designers to tor. The SL Series continues to lead 1U rack-
meet diverse design needs and achieve maxi- mount programmable DC power supply power
mum performance in the smallest space. density, enabling extremely power dense rack- FOR MORE INFORMATION > FOR MORE INFORMATION >
mount integrations.
FOR MORE INFORMATION > FOR MORE INFORMATION >
An Alternative to Lead-Acid GaN Transistors Leveraged

Battery Backup Systems to Develop High Performance
Affordable DC/DC Converters
ZincFive has announced its entry into Mex-
ico with its UPStealth 2 products, designed With its new VALUE DC-DC product line,
to provide uninterruptible, reliable, and BrightLoop Converters is aiming to democra-
eco-friendly power to the country’s traffic tize access to performance and offer a range High-Density SiC Power Modules Saving Stand-by Power in the
intersections. of converters dedicated to off-highway and
Meet Formula E Challenges Smart Home
“We are excited to now be able to offer our commercial vehicles. The French player in
game-changing UPStealth 2 products to mu- power electronics is teaming up with Efficient Formula E, an electric-powered race car With IoT, connectivity becomes increasingly im-
nicipalities across Mexico,” said Jeff McAleer, Power Conversion (EPC) to deliver the upcom- championship that began in 2014 and is cur- portant as it allows mantaining proper commu-
Vice President of Sales for Transportation, ing VALUE product line. rently known as “ABB FIA Formula E Champi- nication and, as a result, standby consumption
ZincFive.
onship” after ABB sponsorship in 2018. is turning into a real challenge.
FOR MORE INFORMATION > FOR MORE INFORMATION > FOR MORE INFORMATION > FOR MORE INFORMATION >

Aspencore Media GmbH Copyright. All rights reserved.
Frankfurter Straße 211 No part of this publication may be Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) for
Batteries
63263 Neu-Isenburg / Germany reproduced in any form or by any This circuit note describes an electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) measurement system for characteriz-
means without the prior express ing lithium ion (Li-Ion) and other types of batteries. EIS is
a safe perturbation technique used to examine processes
written permission of ICC Media. occurring inside electrochemical systems.
Editorial Contact Although we make every effort to Power saving methods for LTE-M and NB-IoT
Maurizio Di Paolo Emilio present up-to-date, accurate infor- LTE-M and NB-IoT require long battery lifetime to ensure
IoT services and minimize maintenance costs in the
[email protected] mation, Power Electronics News will future. This technical white paper describes the possible
power saving methods that can be applied to LTE-M and
not be responsible for any errors or NB-IoT devices.
Barbara Della Porta
omissions or for any results obtained GaN and SiC, Devices and Technology – Download our
[email protected] eBook
from the use of such information. Improved energy efficiency and growing demand for
longer battery life are prompting the power electronics
Lori O'Toole community to take yet another hard look at the tradeoffs
The digital magazine will not be liable
[email protected] presented by wide-bandgap semiconductor technology
for any loss caused by the reliance operating at higher voltages, temperatures, and fre-
quencies.
on information obtained on this site. Can You Really Get ppm Accuracies from Op Amps?
For Reader Inquiries please contact: Commercially available ppm-accurate amplifiers are
Furthermore, Power Electronics News difficult, if not impossible, to find. This article presents
[email protected] op amp accuracy limitations and how to choose the few
does not warrant the accuracy or op amps that have a chance of 1 ppm accuracy. It will
also discuss a few application improvements to existing
completeness of the information, text, op amp limitations.
graphics in this digital magazine. The

Contact for Advertising
opinions expressed in the articles are
Laurie McElroy
those of the authors and not neces- The Power Electronics
Sales Director,
sarily the opinions of the publisher. News & Know-how
[email protected].
e-mail newsletter
informs about Products, Technologies,
Editorial Design Follow us on Applications and technical Trends
Hyperbold Studio about Power Supplies, Power Compo-
www.hyperbold.it nents, Thermal Management and more.
64 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com

Power Electronics News July 2021 Proposal Design V4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Electronics News July 2021 Proposal Design V4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Electronics News July 2021 Proposal Design V4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

JULY

 Pulse Designer for EMC PCB Ferrites  Ability to compare inductance/current

JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 3

Still Possible? The Case for

4 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 5

The results of the self-discharge The total power dissipation after 12

10 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 11

Z-diode BZX79-B2V7 27 70 Low

MOSFET ALD910022 8 300 Moderate Transfer

12 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 13

14 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 15

16 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 17

Figure 3: Phones charging on the SkyCurrent III device

18 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 19

THEORY OF Figure 1: Cockcroft-Walton converter circuit

OPERATION Split-phase switching

20 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 21

Dynamic off-time modulation or

22 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 23

For More Information

▶ [6] N.M. Ellis, and R. Amirtharajah. “A Resonant Cockcroft-Walton Switched-

24 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 25

POWERING A CLIMATE-NEUTRAL ECONOMY

Deal: Green Hydrogen

26 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 27

Hydrogen ‘in colors’

Making green hydrogen a reality

28 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 29

Connecting such an installa-

Current Meters for

EV Charging and Microgrid

30 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 31

32 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 33

34 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 35

Figure 1: Going wireless in automotive Figure 2: Think automotive.

36 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 37

38 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 39

PULSED ACF: ELECTROLYTIC BULK-CAPACITOR ELIMINATION

40 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 41

HIGH-FREQUENCY DC/DC: 6× THE POWER WITH GaN

42 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 43

In the industry-standard (DOSA) quarter-brick form factor, best-in-class silicon-based designs

HIGH-SPEED GaN ENABLES HIGH-FREQUENCY APPLICATIONS

44 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 45

46 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 47

One of the highest-volume

48 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 49

50 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 51

Figure 13: MDmesh milestones — toward trench

Figure 11: ACEPACK SMIT internal configuration flexibility

WHAT COMES NEXT

52 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 53

Replace IGBTs in EV power density (4.6 kW/L) and

54 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 55

FULL-BRIDGE CLLC DC/DC CONVERTER WITH 1.2-KV SiC

56 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 57

58 JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com JULY 2021 | www.powerelectronicsnews.com 59

FOR MORE INFORMATION > FOR MORE INFORMATION >

TOLG for Improved TCoB Expanded SL Series

FOR MORE INFORMATION > FOR MORE INFORMATION >