Government First Grade College- K R Puram, Bengaluru-560036

Department of Physics- Post-Graduation studies

Lab Manual
P106 (a) and (b): General Physics Lab-I and II
1. Evaluation of Errors and Data Analysis using least square fit method
Aim: Determine the error propagation
a) In the calculation of ‘g’ by timing the fall of an object.
b) In calculations of unknown resistance of a resistor using Ohm’s law.
c) From the I-V characteristics of the ohmic device, Find the best fitting curve
using the method of Least-square fit.

Objectives:

i. To learn to the error propagation in the measurement of ‘g’ when doing

calculations.
ii. To understand and apply Ohm’s law to a resistor and understand the I - V
characteristics of an Ohmic device.
iii. To plot the regression curve (best-fit) and analyse the standard deviation.

Principle: Progress in many branches of sciences depends on how accurately a

theory can predict the outcome of experiments. The validity of a theory can be
tested by comparing measured quantities with its prediction. But agreement
between theory and measurement is almost never exact due to the reasonable
uncertainties in measurement. Often, theory predicts a quantity that is not
directly measured but depends on a calculation. The measured quantities that
contribute to the calculation all have different uncertainties due to random errors
that can be estimated using few simple rules.
a. Adding and Subtracting: (Adding in Quadrature)
If the two measurements and their errors are x ± Δx and y ± Δy, Then the
error in Δ(x+y) = √ ¿ ¿ ………..(1)
b. Multiplying and Dividing: Instead of using the absolute error, Δx, one adds
the relative errors, Δx/x, in quadrature. Mostly relative error is referred to as
the percentage error. The relative error of a product of two numbers is got by
adding the relative errors of the numbers.
If the two measurements and their errors are x ± Δx and y ± Δy, then the
 relative errors in their product is,
∆ xy
xy
=
√( x )( )
∆x 2 ∆y 2
+
y
; the absolute error is

√( )( )
2 2
∆x ∆y
given by, ∆ (xy)=xy ∙ + ……..(2)
x y
c. Exponents: If a number is taken to a power, then the rule is to multiply the
relative error in the number by the power. If a number is of the form x a, then
a
∆( x ) ∆x
the relative error is, =a ∙ ………….(3)
x a
x
d. The error of other functions: The possible error of x = cos θ when, θ = 21° ± 2°
is, x = cos 21° = 0.9335. The simplest method in finding the error, Δx , is to
substitute for the minimum and maximum values: Δ(cos θ) = | cos 23° –
cos19° = | 0.9205 – 0.9455 | = 0.0125
Hence, x = 0.934 ± 0.012
e. The Least square fit method is a mathematical procedure for finding the best-
fitting curve to a given set of points by minimizing the sum of the squares of
the offsets ("the residuals") of the points from the curve.

Procedure:

i. To learn to the error propagation in the measurement of ‘g’ when doing

calculations.
 Fix a certain height say (0.75 m), measure the error associated in measuring
height and record them. Drop a ping-pong ball from this fixed known height
and measure the time taken for the ball to hit the ground. Repeat the
procedure at least 30 times. Tabulate the reading of time (s) in table 1.
Calculate the mean time⟨ t ⟩ and the standard deviation σ (t).
 The mean value of ⟨ t ⟩ from table 1 to be calculated using the eqn.
N
⟨ x ⟩= 1 ∑ x i…………..(4) , where (x is variable)
N i=1
 Estimate the standard deviation in the measurement of time ‘t’ using the eqn.

√
N
1
∑
2
σ ( t )= ( x −⟨ x ⟩ ) ………..(5)
N −1 i=1
where ‘N’ is the number of trials made in measuring the time of fall of
the object for a constant distance and x is the variable that is measured (x
2
= t). Substitute the average of ( x− ⟨ x ⟩ ) in eqn. (5) for the estimation of
standard deviation in ‘t’.
 Calculate the value of acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ from the mean value of
2h
‘t’, ⟨ g ⟩= 2 ………………..(6)
t
 Estimate the propagation of error in measuring ‘g’ using eqns. (1 to 3).
Observation:

 The fixed height from where the ball is dropped h=¿ ……… m
1
 The error in the measurement of height ∆ h=±…….. m ( ×Least count of the
2
measuring apparatus)
 Ignoring air resistance, the time of fall of the object is calculated with a digital
1
stop watch of error ∆ t = ………. s ( × of 0.1 s ¿
10
 The average value or the true value of ‘g’ =……….. m s−2

Table.1. Record of time (s) of fall of the object.

2
Table.2. Estimation of mean of the factor ( x− ⟨ x ⟩ ) .

x x− ⟨ x ⟩ 2
( x− ⟨ x ⟩ )

.
 Express the result computed for ‘g’ along with the standard deviation and
|E− A|
calculate the percentage error using the relation, % Error = ……(7)
A
Where, E- is the experimental value and A- is the true value or the average
value (9.8 m s−2) .

Procedure:

ii. To estimate the error propagation in the measurement of ‘R’ during the when
doing calculations.
 Make the circuit connections as shown in Fig.1.
 Set the battery potential to 0.5V and measure the voltage across current
through the resistor using a digital multi-meter and a digital milli-ammeter
and record the values in table 3.
 Repeat the above procedure for different values of battery potential in the
intervals of 0.2V. Measure the voltage across the current through the given
resistor for at least 10 intervals and tabulate in table 3.
V
 Calculate the resistance of the unknown resistor using Ohm’s law, R= ….(8)
I
 Calculate the mean resistance ⟨ R ⟩ using eqn. (4) and Find the error
propagation in calculation of unknown resistance of the given resistor using

√( )( )
2 2
∆R ∆V ∆I
eqn. (2) as, = + ………..(9)
R V I
 Compare the experimental value of ‘R’ with its theoretical value using colour-
code.
 Plot a graph of V vs I resulting in a st.line hence determine for the slope and
y-intercept using regression or least square fit method.
 Figure 1. Circuit diagram for determination of ‘R’

Table3. V- I measurement

Trial No voltage∈V Current ∈mA

Observation:

 Error in digital multi meter for voltage measurement ∆ v=¿ ±……… V

 Error in digital milli ammeter for current measurement ∆ I =¿ ±……… mA
 Error in the calculation of resistance of the given resistor, ∆ R=±……….Ω
2. Statistics of counting of background radiation (Using GM detector)

Aim: Verify the statistical counts of the cosmic ray background obey Poisson
distribution.

Apparatus: GM Counting system with GM tube, PC based software/scientific

calculator.

Principle: The GM detector registers pulses even when not exposed to radioactive
sources. These pulses are caused by natural and man-made radioactive isotopes
found in our environment and also due to cosmic radiation. The background
radiation varies with time and depends on the local environment like, the building
material, shielding, weather conditions etc. Hence the background count rate
(counts/second) should be recorded before and after carrying out measurements in
nuclear statistical experiments.

Theory: Statistics of cosmic background counts are random. The probability of

occurrence p(k ) for the outcome counts k = 0,1,2…. is small. Such statistical events
can be fitted best by Poisson’s distribution, when p ( k ) ≪1 and the number of trials
‘N’ is large.
Consider a large number of trials say 300, record the background counts, x i (i=1,2…
N

300). Let the counts k = 0,1,2….n are found N k times. Such that,∑ x i= r
the mean
i=1 ∑ Nkk
k=1
N
1 N
value of ‘x’ is given as, x mean= ∑
N i=1
x i=∑ k k ………..(1) which implies that,
k=1 N
Nk
N lim ∞ =p ( k )∨ lim lim ¿ N p ( k ) ¿ approaches the frequency N k of obtaining k =¿
→ N N →∞ , p→0
0,1,2…..the Poisson distribution is described by the probability distribution as,
⟨ x ⟩k e−⟨ x ⟩ ……….(2)
p ( k )=
k!
The variance ie. Square of the standard deviation is given by,
 k 2
∞ ∞
⟨ x ⟩ e−⟨ x ⟩
σ =∑ p ( k )( k−m ) =¿ ∑
2 2
th ( k −m ) =m ¿ ……………(3)
k=1 k=1 k!
Thus the standard deviation of Poisson distribution obeys σ th= √ m.
Based on the statistical trials recorded in the experiment, the standard deviation is

√
N
1
∑
2
evaluated using the eqn. σ exp= ( x i− ⟨ x ⟩ ) ………………(4)
N i=1
σ
It is found that Experimental ≈ √ ⟨x ⟩ for large number of trials N, indicating that the random
background count statistics may be described by using Poisson distribution.

Procedure:
1. The preset time is set to be 3000s in the GM counting system
2. After carefully connecting the GM tube with the counting system, the EHT
helipot in the counting system is varied in steps of 10 volt upto an operating
voltage of 450 volt respectively.
3. Ensuring for no radioactive source present, remove the source holder and place it
to a side.
4. By pressing the start button in the counting system, note down the cosmic ray
background counts for every 10 seconds continuously up to 3000s (300trials) and
tabulate in table 1.
5. Calculate the mean of x using eqn.1 and the standard deviation σ from eqn. 4
Nk
6. List the normalized frequencies of occurrence p Experimental ( k )= , for k =0,1,2 ,. ..
N
k −⟨ x ⟩
⟨ x⟩ e
7. The theoretical distribution pTheoretical ( k )= Tabulate both the probabilities in
k!
table 2.
8. Both the theoretical and experimental probabilities are plotted against k for a
histogram.

Table.1 Statistical background counts with time

Counts x i−⟨ x ⟩
2
Trial Time Counts (x i− ⟨ x ⟩ )
No. (s) observed 10(s) x i

Table.2 Experimental and theoretical probabilities with frequency of occurrence

N k
⟨ x ⟩ e−⟨ x ⟩
pexp ( k )= k pTh ( k ) =
k N k!
0

3. Torsional Oscillations and Rigidity modulus

Aim: Determine the rigidity modulus of the material of the given suspension wire
by setting up a Torsional pendulum and comprehend for the rigidity modulus of
Aluminum, copper and steel.

Apparatus: Retort stand with clamp(s), stop watch (0.5 second Least Count),
Aluminum, copper and steel wires, circular plate, meter scale etc.

Principle: when a body clamped to one end and stretched experiences tension in it
and When torque applied (twisted) it is said to be under torsion. When such a
suspended body is allowed to execute twisting oscillations, the oscillations are
known as Torsional oscillations. For a torsional pendulum, the period of oscillation
is T =2 π √ I /C . For a given material of the wire, couple per unit twist ‘C’ remains
unchanged. Measuring ( I /T 2 ) for the given experimental wire its rigidity modulus
can be estimated.

Formula used:
a) Moment of Inertia for a circular plate and axis of rotation passing through the
center and perpendicular to its plane.
M R2
I= kgm2………..(1), where ‘M’ is the mass of the circular plate in kg and ‘R’
2
is its radius in m.
b) To find the rigidity modulus ' n ' of the given wire.
 n=
8 πl I
4 ( )
2
r T mean
Nm-2 ……….(2) , where ‘l’ is the length of the given experimental
wire in m, ‘r’ is its radius in m.

Procedure:

1. The ends of the experimental wire are fastened using the chuck nuts.
2. The length of the experimental wire (l) b/w the chuck nuts and the radius of the
wire to be noted.
3. The experimental wire is now suspended with one of the chuck nut clamped to
the retort stand and the other to a circular plate of known mass.
4. The suspension wire acts as the axis of rotation passing through the center and
perpendicular to the plate.
5. The experimental wire is given small angular twist (amplitude) with the circular
plate and is set into torsional oscillations.
6. Record time taken for 10 oscillations and hence calculate the period of torsional
oscillation.
7. Repeat the procedure in point 6 at least thrice.