Final Project
Final Project
Final Project
This focuses on detecting, classifying and locating faults on electric power transmission
lines. Fault detection, fault classification and fault location have been achieved by using
artificial neural networks. A model of a power transmission line with the various
parameters is modelled and simulated in Simulink MATLAB, the model is pre-processed
and data is obtained. The data is the voltage and current values of the 3 phases. This data
is then used as inputs to the neural network, it is feed into the input layer of the ANN.The
ANN trains the data so as to give desired outputs. The desired output of Fault detection is
1 or 0 i.e where the fault has occurred or not, for fault classification it shows the various
type of faults in the various phases A,B ,C and G for ground. Feed forward networks have
been employed along with back propagation algorithm for each of the three phases in the
Fault location process. Analysis on neural networks with varying number of hidden
layers and neurons per hidden layer has been provided to validate the choice of the neural
networks in each step. Simulation results have been provided to demonstrate that artificial
neural network based methods are efficient in locating faults on transmission lines and
achieve satisfactory performances.
.
CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the past several decades, there has been a rapid growth in the power grid all over the world
which eventually led to the installation of a huge number of new transmission and distribution
lines. Moreover, the use of electricity in all sectors and industries has increased the need for
reliable and uninterrupted supply of electric power to the end users who are very sensitive to
power outages [1]. One of the most important factors that hinder the continuous supply of
electricity and power is a fault in the power system [2]. Any abnormal flow of current in a power
system’s components is called a fault in the power system. These faults cannot be completely
avoided since a portion of these faults also occur due to natural reasons which are way beyond the
control of mankind. Hence, it is very important to have a well- coordinated protection system that
detects any kind of abnormal flow of current in the power system, identifies the type of fault and
then accurately locates the position of the fault in the power system. The faults are usually taken
care of by devices that detect the occurrence of a fault and eventually isolate the faulted section
Hence some of the important challenges for the incessant supply of power are detection,
classification and location of faults [3]. Faults can be of various types namely transient, persistent,
symmetric or asymmetric faults and the fault detection process for each of these faults is distinctly
unique in the sense, there is no one universal fault location technique for all these kinds of
faults. The High Voltage Transmission Lines are more prone to the occurrence of a fault than
the local distribution lines because of their long distance through various geographical terrains
and exposure to environmental conditions. The reason for the occurrence of a fault on a
transmission line can be due to several reasons such as a momentary tree contact, a bird or an
animal contact [1] or due to other natural reasons such as thunderstorms or lightning.
The automatic location of faults can greatly enhance the systems reliability because the faster we
restore power, the more money and valuable time we save. Fault location techniques can be
based methods
From quite a few years, intelligent based methods are being used in the process of
fault detection and location. Three major artificial intelligence based techniques that
have been widely used in the power and automation industry are [6]:
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) have been used extensively in this project for fault
location on electric power transmission lines. These ANN based methods do not require a
knowledge base for the location of faults unlike the other artificial intelligence based methods
1
The automatic location of faults can greatly enhance the systems reliability
because the faster we restore power, the more money and valuable time we save. Fault
based methods
From quite a few years, intelligent based methods are being used in the process of
fault detection and location. Three major artificial intelligence based techniques that
have been widely used in the power and automation industry are [6]:
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) have been used extensively in this project for fault location
on electric power transmission lines. These ANN based methods do not require a knowledge
base for the location of faults unlike the other artificial intelligence based methods
2
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
More often, there has been outages in power supply systems caused by faults in the transmission lines
resulting to discontinuity of power to consumers. These faults are caused by various reasons. In most
cases under the current methods of fault detection and power restoration it takes a long period of time
before power is restored to consumers thus negatively affecting activities which depend on power
supply. This has always resulted to severe effects on commerce, industry and domestic set-ups and in
everyday activities especially when the outage has affected a wide area.
Due to this, a good fault detection system which provides an effective, reliable and fast way of restoring
power supply is essential to maintain a continuous power supply. This is the reason behind this project
which aims to come up with a system that ensures continuous power supply to consumers and also in
case of a fault in the transmission line it can quickly detect the fault and locate it and so power can be
restored to consumers within a short period of time
1.3 MOTIVATION
The prime motive behind this project was the significant impact a very accurate fault locator
could make if employed in a power transmission, in terms of the amount of money and time that
can be saved especially in commerce and industrialization. The main goal of Fault Location is to
locate a fault in the power system with the highest practically achievable accuracy. When the
physical dimensions and the size of the transmission lines are considered, the accuracy with
which the designed fault locator locates faults in the power system becomes very important.
One of the important aspects that this project concentrates on is the analysis of the transmission
line’s phase voltages and currents during various fault conditions and how they can be effectively
utilized in the design of an efficient fault locator. The main objective of this project is to study
and successfully design a fault locator that can detect, classify and locate faults in power
transmission lines. This project drew its initial motivation from [8] which demonstrates a
method that could be used for location of faults in transmission lines using neural fuzzy logic.
However, when extensively studied, it can be noted that a fault locator with satisfactorily high
accuracy can be easily achieved with the help of artificial neural networks by the use of a large
3
1.4RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
1.4.1 General Objective
To develop a system that detects, classifies and locates faults in a transmission line to ensure continuity of power
supply.
1.4.2 Specific objective
2. To classify the fault into one of the different categories based on the phases that are faulted.
4. To develop a system that trains ANN to detect, classify and give location of faults in a
transmission system
Due to the intensifying rise in the demand for electrical energy in virtually every sector of the economy,
the need for power is becoming falsified and therefore its continuous supply is mandatory. One of the
challenges faced in power systems is power outages and blackouts caused by various reasons which
have adverse effects on operation of industries and commerce. This project is driven by the motive to
offer a robust solution to this problem and enabling restoration within the shortest time and thus
ensuring continuous power supply and immediate restoration in case of fault occurrence.
The emphasis in this project is on the factors that limit the functionality of PSR (Power System
Restoration) techniques used currently and brings more illustration of how ANN can offer a solution to
ANN has proven to be the outstanding intelligent algorithm. Its feature of the backward propagation
algorithm which permits the adjustment of network hidden layers of neurons under supervised network
training makes it a significant part of artificial intelligence hence it is the best for intelligent fault
4
1.6 Significance of the research
With respect to the objectives of this project, it will benefit the power distributing company for instance Kenya
Power and Lighting Company or Kenya Electricity Transmission Company Limited (KETRACO) in detecting,
classifying and getting the precise location of faults. Hence enable them to restore power within a short period of
time therefore saving time and ensure continuous supply of power to consumers. This will curb the social
economic effects associated with blackouts and power outages. In general, it enhances effective fault location
The second chapter deals with the several problems that hinder the protection of a typical
transmission line system. The various kinds of faults and the protection techniques that are
currently available and employed are briefly discussed. Some important results from the research
on the existing transmission line protection techniques are also provided in this chapter.
The third chapter introduces the concept behind artificial intelligence and neural networks. A few
The fourth chapter deals with the actual implementation and development of the neural networks
and their architectures proposed for the three different parts of the fault location process namely
fault detection, classification and fault location. An overview of the training and testing processes
employed with neural networks in this work has been outlined in this chapter.
5
The fifth chapter presents series of simulation results that have been obtained using MATLAB,
emphasize the efficiency and accuracy factors of the proposed fault locator. Several neural
networks with varying configurations have been trained, tested and their performances have
The sixth chapter concludes the entire work and the project. It discusses the results obtained in the
previous chapters. Moreover, the scope for future work and possible extensions to this work has
6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter talks about, the different techniques that are currently being used for power
restoration in transmission lines and also about the various artificial intelligence based methods
that are being researched upon in the field of fault location in power transmission lines.
One of the most important components of a power protection system is the relay which is a device
that trips the circuit breakers in occurrence of faults. Relays in general can be classified into the
Directional Relays: These relays respond to the phase angle difference between
Differential Relays: These relays respond to the magnitude of the algebraic sum
Magnitude Relays: These relays respond to the magnitude of the input quantity.
Distance Relays: These relays respond to the ratio of two input phasor signals.
Among the various relays that are used for the protection of power lines distance relays are the
most relevant to fault locators. Usually a pair of these distance relays is used for the protection
7
2.2 POWER SYSTEM RESTORATION TECHNIQUES
These are the systems which are currently in place for detecting faults in transmission lines and
restoring power after faults have been identified and the faulty section isolated.
In this restoration technique, computer programs are responsible for the PSR plan development and
implementation. The PSR techniques based on this principle acquire system data from the supervisory
control and data acquisition system (SCADA) and the energy management system (EMS). Under a
wide area disturbance, a PSR program installed in the EMS system will use the acquired system data to
develop a restoration plan for the transmission system. After developing the restoration plan, a
switching sequence program, which is also a part of the EMS, will be responsible for the transmission
of control signals through SCADA to circuit breakers and switches to implement the plan. In this
In this technique, the PSR plan development and implementation is performed by the system operator.
The PSR techniques that use this principle also acquire system data from the local SCADA/EMS.
Following a wide area disturbance, the system operator uses power system data provided by the
SCADA/EMS to develop a PSR plan. The system operator can use the PSR procedures and power
system analysis programs as aids to develop the restoration plan. The system operator will also use the
local SCADA/EMS to transmit control commands to circuit breakers and switches in order to
In this technique, a computer program installed at the EMS will propose a PSR plan after the
occurrence of a blackout. The system operator is responsible for the implementation of the PSR plan.
The PSR systems that apply this technique also use power system data obtained from local
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SCADA/EMS. When the power system is undergoing a wide area disturbance, the PSR program
installed in the EMS will use the system data to develop a restoration plan. With this restoration plan,
the system operator can send controlling signals through local SCADA/EMS to circuit breakers and
2. The rule-based techniques can take several minutes to find the plan in large transmission
systems, because the number of rules is proportional to the size of the system.
In the case of Impedance based methods, the operation of the distance relay greatly relies
on the fault resistance and is not successful in cases with very high fault resistance [16].
Impedance based methods can be classified into single-ended methods and two-ended methods
depending upon the number of terminals at which the voltage and current data are collected.
The basic logic behind a single-ended impedance based fault locator is to calculate the location of
the fault from the apparent impedance seen looking into the line from one end. The various
impedance based methods available in literature are discussed in the upcoming subsections below.
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2.3.1.1 SIMPLE REACTANCE METHOD
The measured voltage and current values at the terminal are used to calculate the
impedance of the line to the fault position as shown in equation (1). Once the line
impedance per unit length has been determined, the fault distance can be calculated
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑥. 𝑍𝐿 . 𝐼𝐴 + ƒ (1)
IA is the current flowing out of the terminal A, Vf is the fault voltage and
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑥. 𝑍𝐿 . 𝐼𝐴 + 𝑅ƒ . 𝐼ƒ (2)
Where If is the fault current and Rf is the fault resistance as shown in Fig 2.1.
(𝑉𝐴 /𝐼𝐴 ) 𝑅ƒ
𝑥= Z𝐿 − Z(𝐼𝐴 /𝐼ƒ )
(3)
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2.3.1.2 TAKAGI METHOD
The Takagi method [25] is a very simple yet innovative single-ended impedance based
Fault location technique and is illustrated by Fig 2.2. It requires both the pre-fault and
fault data and enhances the simple reactance method by minimizing the effect of fault
𝑉𝐴 − Z𝐶 𝐼𝐴 tanh 𝛾𝑥
The Fault Resistance is given by 𝑅ƒ =
" (4)
7
( 𝐴 tanh 𝛾𝑥− 𝐼" )ƒ𝗌 j𝜃
𝑍𝐶 𝐴
the superposition current which is the difference between the fault current and the pre-
fault current.
"*
And 𝑥 = (𝑉𝐴. )
is the
*
distance to the fault from terminal A. (5)
(Z𝐿𝐼𝐴. 𝐼𝐴 ) "
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2.3.2 TRAVELLING WAVE BASED METHODS
Travelling wave based methods have been widely used [27-29] for the purpose of fault location
and are usually based on the correlation between the forward and backward waves travelling
along the transmission line as shown in Fig 2.3. The basic idea is to successively identify the fault
The time taken by the high frequency components for propagation is used for the location of fault.
In Fig 2.3, a single phase lossless transmission line of length ‘l’ is considered with a travelling
wave velocity of υ, capacitance and inductance per unit length L’ and C’ and a characteristic
impedance of Zc. Assuming the occurrence of a fault at a distance of ‘x’ from the terminal A, the
and (9).
6𝑒 6i (8)
6𝑥 = −𝐿′ 6𝑡
6i 6𝑒
= −𝐶′ (9)
6𝑥 6𝑡
i (𝑥, 𝑡 ) = 1
𝑒ƒ (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 ) − 1
𝑒𝑟 (𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡 ) (11)
Z𝐶 Z𝐶
The times taken for the waves to travel from the fault to the discontinuity τA and τB are to be
determined using GPS technology. Once this is done, the fault location (x) can be readily
determined by the following equation (12)
𝑙−𝑐(𝑐𝐴− 𝑐𝐵)
𝑥= 2
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CHAPTER THREE: NEURAL NETWORKS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN
An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) can be described as a set of elementary neurons that are
usually connected in biologically inspired architectures and organized in several layers [39]. The
structure of a feed-forward ANN, also called as the perceptron is shown in figure below .There
are Ni numbers of neurons in each ith layer and the inputs to these neurons are connected to the
previous layer neurons. The input layer is fed with the excitation signals. Simply put, an
elementary neuron is like a processor that produces an output by performing a simple non-linear
operation on its inputs [40]. A weight is attached to each and every neuron and training an ANN
is the process of adjusting different weights tailored to the training set. An Artificial Neural
Network learns to produce a response based on the inputs given by adjusting the node weights.
Hence we need a set of data referred to as the training data set, which is used to train the neural
network.
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Introduction to design
Artificial neural networks (ANN) are an interconnected group of artificial neurons that uses a
mathematical model or computational model for information processing based on a connectionist
approach to the computation. Application of a pattern recognition technique could be useful in
discriminating between power system healthy and faulty states, in distinguishing which of the phases of
a three-phase power system is faulty and further locating the fault distance. Artificial Neural Networks
(ANNs) are powerful in pattern recognition and classification. Consequently, various ANN-based
algorithms have been investigated and implemented in power systems in recent years [ [11]]. ANNs
possess excellent features such as generalization capability, noise immunity, robustness and fault
tolerance. Therefore, the decision made by an ANN-based relay will not be seriously affected by
variations in system parameters.
ANN-based techniques have been used in power system protection and promising results are obtained
as a basic relaying tool & as an alternative to existing schemes [ [12]. In this project, we present an
extension to fault location methods reported in. MATLAB software to be used for offline simulation of
the various power system network conditions. A feedforward neural network based on the supervised
back-propagation learning algorithm is used to implement the faulted phase detector and fault locators.
The neural network based faulted phase detector and fault locators are trained and tested with a number
of simulation cases by considering various fault conditions fault types and fault locations, for a selected
power system network model.
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CHAPTER FOUR: FAULT LOCATION IN POWER TRANSMISSION LINES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
As discussed in the previous chapters, artificial neural networks have been used for the protection
of power transmission lines. The excellent pattern recognition and classification abilities of neural
networks have been utilized in this project to address the issue of transmission line fault location.
In this chapter, a complete neural-network based approach has been outlined in detail for the
location of faults on transmission lines in a power system. To achieve the same, the original
problem has been dealt with in three different stages namely fault detection, fault classification
A 132 kV transmission line system has been used to develop and implement the proposed system
using ANNs. Fig 4.1 shows a one-line diagram of the system that has been used throughout the
project. The system consists of two transformers of 45MVA each located on either ends of the
transmission line along with a three phase fault simulator used to simulate faults at various
positions on the transmission line. The line has been modeled using distributed parameters so that
16
This power system was simulated using the SimPowerSystems toolbox in Simulink by The Math
Works. A snapshot of the model used for obtaining the training and test data sets is shown in
figure 4.2 below. The three phase V-I measurement block is used to measure the voltage and
current samples at the terminal A. The transmission line (line 1 and line 2 together) is 300 km
long and the three-phase fault simulator is used to simulate various types of faults at varying
The values of the three-phase voltages and currents are measured and modified accordingly and
are ultimately fed into the neural network as inputs. The SimPowerSystems toolbox has been used
to generate the entire set of training data for the neural network in both fault and non-fault cases.
three-phase faults
A transmission line is developed and simulated using Simulink in MATLAB. The simulated
models has different parameters which are then used to generate the data. The data generated are
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the current and voltage values of the model. The generated data is then trained using ANN.The
main goal of this chapter is to design, develop, test and implement a complete system for the
fault diagnosis as shown in figure below. Initially, the entire data that is collected is subdivided
into two sets namely the training and the testing data sets.
The first step in the process is fault detection. Once we know that a fault has occurred on the
transmission line, the next step is to classify the fault into the different categories based on the
Then, the third step is to pin-point the position of the fault on the transmission line. The goal of
this project is to propose an integrated method to perform each of these tasks using artificial
neural networks. A back-propagation based neural network has been used for the purpose of fault
detection and another similar one for the purpose of fault classification. For each of the different
kinds of faults, separate neural networks have been employed for the purpose of fault location.
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Figure 4.3 Flowchart depicting the outline of the proposed scheme
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4.4. DATA PRE-PROCESSING
A reduction in the size of the neural network improves the performance of the same and this can
be achieved by performing feature extraction. By doing this, all of the important and relevant
information present in the waveforms of the voltage and current signals can be used effectively.
Voltage and current waveforms have been generated and were sampled at a frequency of 50
Hertz. The voltage and current samples of all the three phases are noted along with the
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From the model there is a set of six inputs each time (3 for the phase voltages and 3 for the phase
currents) to all the neural networks discussed in this work [43]. For the sake of illustration,
the Table 4.1 shows the voltage and current values that are scaled with respect to their pre-fault
values and used as a part of the training set. In Table 4.1, V a, Vb and Vc are the post fault
voltage and current sample values and Va(pf), Vb(pf) and Vc(pf) are the corresponding pre-fault
values as illustrated earlier. The given table depicts the values for all the various types of faults
and also during the no fault case. The fault has been simulated on a 300 km long transmission line
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Table 4.1 Sample of Inputs to the neural network for various fault cases.
Input Vector
Case Fault
No: Type
Va/Va(pf) Vb/Vb(pf) Vc/Vc(pf) Ia/Ia(pf) Ib/Ib(pf) Ic/Ic(pf)
A to
1 0.6204 0.9719 1.0425 1.6840 0.5056 0.8775
Ground
B to
2 0.6573 0.7351 0.8289 0.4024 27.6875 1.7453
Ground
C to
3 1.2580 0.9141 0.7924 1.4994 -1.5179 -4.7497
Ground
A to B to
7 -0.1276 0.5841 0.9042 2.9694 30.4194 1.4733
Ground
B to C to
8 0.9359 0.5145 0.3833 0.9257 35.3006 -6.7506
Ground
C to A to
9 0.9864 0.9147 0.8350 0.6229 -1.2876 -5.0284
Ground
A to B to
10 0.3135 0.4373 0.4991 1.8649 35.9958 -6.5793
C
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4.5.OVERVIEW OF THE TRAINING PROCESS
Training is the process by which the neural network learns from the inputs and updates its weights
accordingly. In order to train the neural network we need a set of data called the training data set
which is a set of input output pairs fed into the neural network. Thereby, we teach the neural
network what the output should be, when that particular input is fed into it. The ANN slowly
learns the training set and slowly develops an ability to generalize upon this data and will
eventually be able to produce an output when a new data is provided to it. During the training
process, the neural network’s weights are updated with the prime goal of minimizing the
performance function.
As already mentioned currents and voltages values of the transmission lines were used as the
inputs of the neural network in this project, all the voltages and currents fed into the neural
network are scaled with respect to the corresponding voltage and current values before the
occurrence of the fault. The outputs, depending upon the purpose of the neural network might be
the fault condition, the type of fault or the location of the fault on the transmission line.
The next important step to be performed before the application of neural networks is to test the
trained neural network. Testing the artificial neural network is very important in order to make
sure the trained network can generalize well and produce desired outputs when new data is
presented to it.
There are several techniques used to test the performance of a trained network, a. One such
technique is to plot the best linear regression fit between the actual neural network’s outputs and
the desired targets [44]. Analyzing the slope of this line gives us an idea on the training process.
Ideally the slope should be 1. Also, the correlation coefficient (r), of the outputs and the targets
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measures how well the ANN’s outputs track the desired targets. The closer the value of ‘r’ is, to 1,
the better the performance of the neural network. Another technique employed to test the neural
network is to plot the confusion matrix and look at the actual number of cases that have been
classified positively by the neural network [44]. Ideally this percentage is a 100 which means
there has been no confusion in the classification process. Hence if the confusion matrix indicates
very low positive classification rates, it indicates that the neural network might not perform well.
The last and a very obvious means of testing the neural network is to present it with a whole new
set of data with known inputs and targets and calculate the percentage error in the neural
networks output. If the average percentage error in the ANN’s output is acceptable, the neural
network has passed the test and can be readily applied for future use.
The Neural Network toolbox in Simulink by The MathWorks divides the entire set of data
provided to it into three different sets namely the training set, validation set and the testing set.
The training data set as indicated above is used to train the network by computing the gradient and
updating the network weights. The validation set is provided during to the network during the
training process (just the inputs without the outputs) and the error in validation data set is
monitored throughout the training process. When the network starts over fitting the data, the
validation errors increase and when the number of validation fails increase beyond a particular
value, the training process stops to avoid further over fitting the data and the network is returned
at the minimum number of validation errors [44]. The test set is not used during the training
process but is used to test the performance of the trained network. If the test set reaches the
minimum value of MSE at a significantly different iteration than the validation set, then the neural
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CHAPTER FIVE: EXPERIMRENTAL RESULTS
FAULT DETECTION
In the first stage which is the fault detection phase, the network takes in six inputs at a time, which
are the voltages and currents for all the three phases (scaled with respect to the pre-fault values)
for ten different faults and also no-fault case. The output of the neural network is just a yes or a
no (1 or 0) depending on whether or not a fault has been detected. Several neural networks
(with varying number of hidden layers and neurons per hidden layer) that achieved satisfactory
performance were simulated using neural network tool in MATLAB and the best neural
network was chosen and has been described further in detail in this project. It was found that the
best network suitable for fault detection has one hidden layer containing 10 neurons
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Fig 5.3 shows the training process of the neural network with 6-10-5-3-1 configuration (6
neurons in the input layer, 3 hidden layers with 10, 5 and 3 neurons in them respectively
and one neuron in the output layer).This is the neuron which was chosen since it has 6
inputs (i.e. the voltages and currents for each of the three phases).
The overall MSE of the trained neural network is way below the value of 0.0001 and is
actually 6.9776 e-5 by the end of the training process. Hence among all the networks
simulated in Simulink this has been chosen as the ideal ANN for the purpose of fault
detection.
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5.1.1 TESTING THE FAULT DETECTION NEURAL NETWORK
Once the neural network was trained, its performance was tested by plotting the best
linear regression that relates the targets to the outputs as shown in Fig 5.4.
Figure 5.4 Regression fit of the outputs vs. targets for the network (6-10-5-3-1).
After the test set was fed into the neural network and the results obtained, it was noted
that the efficiency of the neural network in terms of its ability to detect the occurrence of
a fault is a 100 percent. Hence the neural network can, with utmost accuracy,
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Figure 5.6 Overview of the ANN (6-10-5-3-1) chosen for fault detection.
Figure 5.6 presents a snapshot of the trained ANN with the 6 – 10 – 5 – 3 – 1 configuration and it
is to be noted that the number of iterations required for the training process were 55. It can be seen
that the mean square error in fault detection achieved by the end of the training process was 9.43e-
5 and that the number of validation check fails were zero by the end of the training process.
The structure of the chosen neural network for fault detection is shown in Fig 5.7 with the input
layer, hidden layers and the output layer labeled. It is to be noted that there are 6 neurons in the
input layer,(the inputs are the current and voltage values of the 3 phases) 3 hidden layers with 10,
5 and 3 neurons in them respectively and one neuron in the output layer.
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Figure 5.7 Chosen ANN for Fault Detection (6 – 10 – 5 – 3 – 1
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FAULT CLASSIFICATION
Once a fault has been detected on the power line, the next step is to identify the type of fault. This
section presents an analysis on the fault classification phase using neural networks. The faults are
three-phase faults
And further illustrated with details of the phases as: A-G, B-G, C-G, A-B, B-C, C-A, A-B-G, B-C-G, C-
The designed network takes in sets of six inputs (the three phase voltage and current values scaled
with respect to their corresponding pre-fault values). The neural network has four outputs, each of
them corresponding to the fault condition of each of the three phases and one output for the
ground line. Hence the outputs are either a 0 or 1 denoting the absence or presence of a fault on
the corresponding line (A, B, C or G where A, B and C denote the three phases of the
transmission line and G denotes the ground). Hence the various possible permutations can
represent each of the various faults accordingly. The proposed neural network is able to
accurately distinguish between the ten possible categories of faults. The truth table representing
the faults and the ideal output for each of the faults is illustrated in Table 4
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.2.
Network Outputs
Type of
Fault
A B C G
A-G
1 0 0 1
fault
B-G
0 1 0 1
fault
C-G
0 0 1 1
Fault
A-B
1 1 0 0
Fault
B-C
0 1 1 0
Fault
C-A
1 0 1 0
Fault
A-B-G
1 1 0 1
fault
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B-C-G
0 1 1 1
Fault
C-A-G
1 0 1 1
Fault
A-B-C
1 1 1 0
Fault
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Several simulations were done in training the neural networks for fault classification and the best
was chosen .Fig 5.13 shows the training performance plot of the neural network 6-10-4 (6 neurons
in the input layer, 1 hidden layer with 10 neurons in it and four neurons in the output layer). It can
be seen that the best validation performance in terms of the Mean Square Error (MSE) by the end
Figure 5.13 Mean-square error performance of the network with configuration (6-35-4).
From the above training performance plots, it is to be noted that satisfactory training performance
has been achieved by the neural network with the 6-10-4 configuration (6 neurons in the input
layer, 10 neurons in the hidden layer and one neuron in the output layer). The overall MSE of the
trained neural network is 0.0035986 and it can be seen from Fig 5.13 that the testing and the
validation curves have similar characteristics which is an indication of efficient training. Hence
this has been chosen as the ideal ANN for the purpose of fault classification.
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5.1.1 TESTING THE FAULT CLASSIFIER NEURAL NETWORK
Once the neural network for fault classification has been trained, its performance is tested by
plotting the best linear regression that relates the targets to the outputs as shown in Fig 5.15. The
correlation coefficient in this case was found to be 0.98108 which indicates satisfactory
correlation between the targets and the outputs. The dotted line in the figure indicates the ideal
regression fit and the red solid line indicates the actual fit of the neural network. It can be seen
that both these lines track each other very closely which is an indication of very good
Figure 5.14 Regression fit of the Outputs vs. Targets of ANN with configuration (6-35-4).
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After the test set has been fed into the neural network and the results obtained, it was noted that
the efficiency of the neural network in terms of its ability to identify the type of the fault is a 100
percent. Hence the neural network can, with utmost accuracy, differentiate between the ten
Fig 5.16 provides an overview on the neural network and is a screen shot of the training window
simulated using the Artificial Neural Network Toolbox in Simulink. Important things to be noted
are that the training process converged in about 144 iterations and that the performance in terms
of mean square error achieved by the end of the training process was 6.26e-3.
Figure 5.16 Overview of the ANN with configuration (6-10-4), chosen as fault classifier.
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Fig 5.17 shows the structure of the chosen ANN for the purpose of fault classification and the
neural network has 6 neurons in the input layer, 10 neurons in the hidden layer and four neurons
in the output layer as shown. Each of the neurons in the output layer would indicate the fault
condition on each of the three phases (A, B and C) and the fourth neuron is to identify if the fault
is a ground fault. An output of 0 corresponds to no fault while an output of 1 indicates that the
phase is faulted.
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