CLASS NOTES HISTORY

GRADE 10
CHAPTER – 1
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Introduction
• In 1848 – Frederic Sorrieu (French artist) – represented his dream of a world known
as UTOPIA VISION which will be made up of ‘democratic and social republics’.
• He prepared a four series work and in the first print he showed the people of Europe and
America (men, women - all ages, all social groups) marching in a line offering homage to
statue of liberty.

Sorrieu’s Utopia Vision (A vision of society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to exist)-
• According to his vision he saw that the people of world are grouped as distinct nations.
• These nations will be identified through their flags and national costumes.
• Leading the procession was United States and Switzerland followed by France,
Germany, Austria etc.
• From the heaven Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene (this was the symbol of
fraternity).
Note: France people were holding Tri colour flag and Germans were holding Black, red and gold
flag.

Significance of statue of Liberty/ why people paid homage to statue of liberty?

• Statue of liberty represented the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist
institutions i.e. monarchy.
• Statue of liberty is a female figure holding torch of enlightenment in one hand and the
charter of the rights of man in another hand.

Beginning of Nationalism in Europe-

• Nationalism is considered as a force which brought changes in political and mental world
of Europe.
• The end result of these changes was the emergence of nation states and end of monarchy.
• A nation state is one where majority of its citizens develop a sense of common identity
and shared history or descent.
• According to Ernst Renan – He criticized who believed that a nation state is formed by
common language, race, religion or territory. It believed in plebiscite. According to him a
nation is a culmination of long past of endeavors, sacrifice and devotion. He wrote a
famous essay “what is a nation?’

Note: Plebiscite means direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or
reject a proposal.
PART – 1 – The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation.

• The idea of nationalism in Europe was spread through French Revolution in 1789.
• French revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to a body of French
citizens i.e. national assembly.
• The revolution proclaimed it was the people who would constitute nation and shape its
destiny.

Sense of Collective identity amongst the French people-

The following measures and practices helped in developing the sense of collective identity
amongst French people:-

1) The idea of La Patrie (the fatherland) and Citoyen (citizens) – the use of these words
helped in emphasizing the notion of united community which enjoyed equal rights under a
constitution.
2) New French flag - was adopted. This flag was tri colour and was chosen to replace the former
royal standard i.e. monarchy.
3) Estate General was elected – by the body of active citizens and was renamed as national
assembly. King and his ministers were controlled by national assembly.
4) New Hymns were composed, oaths were taken and martyrs commemorated in the name
of nation.
5) Centralized administrative system was adopted. It formulated uniform laws for all citizens
within its territory.
6) Internal custom duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and
measurements was adopted.
7) Regional dialects were discouraged and French became the common language of the nation.

Spread of French Revolution-

• Revolutionaries believed that it is the duty of French nation to liberate other people of
Europe and help them in becoming nation.
• As the news of the vents of French revolution spread in other parts of the world the
educated middle class started forming their Jacobins clubs.
• Because of these revolutions in different countries French armies got an opportunity to
enter into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy and Napoleon started to introduce his
reforms which he had already implemented in France.

NAPOLEONIC CODE / CIVIL CODE OF 1804

Napoleon occupied France in 1804, though he destroyed democracy but he introduced various
revolutionary administrative principles. This code was also implemented in the regions under
Napoleon control other than France.
 In FRANCE
a) The civil code marked the end of privileges that were given by birth.
b) It established equality before law and secured right to property.
c) He simplified the measurement and weight system in France

In Other Regions – Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy and Germany

a) The civil code simplified administrative divisions.

b) It abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from manorial dues and serfdom.
c) In towns guild restrictions were removed.
d) Transport and communication system was improved. This helped the businessmen, small scale
producers of goods, peasants, artisans etc.
e) Uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, common national currency adopted under
civil code proved to be beneficial for businessmen and small scale producers as it facilitated the
movement of goods and exchange of goods became easier.

Reaction of People to French / Napoleon Rule:-

• Initially in places like Holland, Switzerland, Brussels, Milan etc French armies were
welcomed as harbingers of liberty.
• But later people started opposing as they realized that new administrative arrangements
and political freedom will not come hand in hand.
• People were not happy with increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription
(recruitment) into French armies.
PART – 2 The Making Of Nationalism in Europe

Intro-
In mid 18th century nation there were no nation states in Europe. There were kingdoms, duchies,
aristocracy, monarchy etc.
Within the territories there was diversity in population, who speaks different languages, follow
different cultures.
Example: The Habsburg Empire –
a) It ruled over Austria and Hungary. Here aristocracy class predominantly spoke German
whereas others spoke Italian.
b) In Hungary half population spoke Magyar while other half spoke different variety of dialects.
c) Apart from this there was diverse group of peasant community living within the kingdom and
there was no national unity.

2.1 The Aristocracy and the new Middle class-

Three main types of category of social structure of European society-

1) Aristocracy (features)
• They were the dominant class.
• They owned estate in countryside and also town houses.
• They spoke French.
• Their families were connected by the ties of marriage.
• They were very powerful but their population was less.

2) Peasants (features)
• Their population was high.
• They were tenants, small owners of land, landless laborers, serfs etc.
• They were mainly poor.

3) Industrial workers/ Working class (features)

• This social group was formed after industrialization.
• This includes working class and middle class – businessmen, professionals, industrialists
etc.
• It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that the idea of national unity and
abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity. They promoted the idea of
Liberalism. Their strong demand was constitutionalism and national unification.

2.2 What did Liberal Nationalism stand for?

Liberalism – is derived from a Latin word liber, meaning free.

For the new middle class liberalism stood for – Political and Economic Liberalism.
1. POLITICAL LIBERALISM stood for
a) Freedom for individual and equality for all before law.
b) The concept of government by consent, a constitution and representative government through
parliament.
c) End of Monarchy, autocracy, clerical privileges.
d) Inviolability of private property.
Note: Though middle class talked about political liberalism but they did not promote universal
suffrage. Example – even in France voting rights were given to only active citizens’ i.e men
above 25 years and who pay taxes but women and passive citizens were not given right to vote.
Napoleonic code also limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of minor.

2. ECONOMIC LIBERALISM
a) According to new commercial classes/ middle classes the great economic barriers were-
• States imposed restrictions on the movement of goods, capital and people.
• Each confederation had its own system of measurement and weights, this involved time
consuming calculations if goods were sent from one place to another.
• As confederations also had different currencies therefore high custom duty was asked at
different places resulted in price rise of the goods.
Therefore middle classes demanded economic liberalism which stood for -
i) Freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and
capital.
b) The system of different currencies, different weights etc imposed a great barrier in economic
exchange. Therefore middle class demanded to simplify all this by forming a unified economic
territory which will allow free movement of people, goods and capital.
c) In 1934, a custom union or Zollverein was formed by Prussia which was joined by German
states.
d) Zollverein brought economic nationalism by :-
i) It removed tariff barriers between member states.
ii) It reduced the number of currencies from 30 to 2.
iii) It created a network of railways which helped in movement of goods and people from one
place to another this helped in strengthening the economic nationalism.

Note:- Elle is the unit of measurement for textile used by European nations.

Related Questions: -
Q1. What was the meaning of liberalism in early 19th century in Europe?
Q2. What was the strong demand of the emerging middle classes in Europe during 19th century?
Q3. How did a wave of economic nationalism strengthen the wider nationalist sentiments
growing in Europe? Explain.
Q4. Explain the conditions that were viewed as obstacles to the economic exchange and growth
by the new commercial classes/ middle classes during 19th century in Europe.
Q5. Explain the ideas of liberal nationalists in the economic sphere.

2.3 A new Conservatism after 1815

• After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 the European government again got inclined
towards conservatism and establishment of traditional institutions i.e. monarchy, church,
social hierarchies, private property etc.
• They also believed that changes initiated by Napoleon can be incorporated along with
monarchy to make state more powerful and effective.
• New conservatism believed in –
• A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism
and serfdom to strengthen autocratic monarchy.
• Conservative regime was autocratic and did not tolerate criticism and dissent. They tried
to control the activities that questioned the existence of autocratic rule. They also
imposed censorship laws to control media (newspapers, plays, songs etc) which
propagate the ideas of liberty and freedom.

Note: The liberal nationalists who were not happy with new conservatism criticized the restrain
on freedom of press.

The Treaty of Vienna - 1815

• In 1815 after the defeat of Napoleon, representatives of European powers like Prussia,
Britain, Russia and Austria draw up a settlement for Europe.
• This meeting/congress was hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. The
delegates framed the treaty of Vienna and the main objective was to restore monarchy,
undo the changes brought by Napoleon wars in Europe and create a new conservative
order in Europe.
• The Bourbon dynasty which was deposed during French Revolution was restored to
power. The territories acquired by Napoleon which became a part of France were taken
away. A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French
expansion in future.
• Thus the kingdom of Netherland was given Belgium to be added to its northern part and
Genoa was added to its south. Prussia was given important territories to its western
frontiers. Austria was given control of northern Italy.
• German had 39 confederations as made by Napoleon. In east Russia was given a part of
Poland and Prussia was given part of Saxony.
2.4 The Revolutionaries: GIUSEPPE MAZZINI
 • Revolutionaries were the ones who were not happy with the new conservatism. Many
secret societies were formed to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
• Most of the revolutionaries saw the creation of nation states as necessary part of this
struggle for freedom.
• One such individual was the Italian revolutionary GIUSEPPE MAZZINI

GIUSEPPE MAZZINI
• Born in Genoa in 1807, he was a member of secret society of Carbonari. He attempted a
revolution in Liguria in 1831 and because of this he was sent to exile.
• He founded two underground societies - Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in
Berne.
• Mazzini believed that god had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind so
there should be end of monarchy in Italy and it has to be forged into a single unified
republic. This unification will be basis of Italian liberty.
• Following his ideas many secret societies were formed in France, Poland, Germany and
Switzerland.
• Mazzini’s vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives. Metternich
described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.
PART – 3 The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

Introduction:-
As the conservative regime tried to consolidate their power the liberals and nationalists mainly
the educated middle class tried to increase their revolution in many regions of Europe.

The First Upheaval – I) July Revolution 1830

A) IN FRANCE
• In July 1830 a revolution was initiated in France.
• The Bourbon kings who were restored after the treaty of Vienna in 1815 were now again
overthrown by liberal revolutionaries.
• Constitutional monarchy was established with Louis Philippe at its head.
Metternich quoted “When French sneezes the entire Europe catches cold.”

B) IN BELGIUM
• July revolution in France sparked uprising in Brussels (Belgium).
• This led to their breaking away from kingdom of the Netherlands.

II) GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1921-1932)

• Greece was a part of Ottoman Empire. The growth of nationalism in Europe sparked off a
struggle for independence in Greece in 1821.
• Nationalists in Greece got support from Greeks living in exile and also from many
western countries.
• Poets and artists believed that Greece culture is more associated with European
civilization and they mobilized (influenced) people to struggle against a Muslim Empire.
• English poet Lord Byron organized funds for war but he died of fever in 1824. Finally
with the signing of TREATY OF CONSTANTINOPLE in 1832 Greece was recognized
as an independent nation.

3.1 Romantic Imagination and Feeling

• Romanticism – a cultural movement which developed nationalist sentiment by the use of

poetry, stories, music, folklore etc.
• Romantic artists and poets criticized the glorification of reason and science and focused
on emotions, intuitions and mystical feelings.
• German Philosopher JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER stated that true German culture
was to be discovered among common people (das volk) through folk songs, folk poetry
and folk dances for the process of nation building.

Role of language in developing nationalist sentiments-

• Language too played an important role like usage of vernacular language helped modern
nationalist to address large masses that were illiterate.
• Example: - Karol Kurpinski – celebrated the national struggle through his operas and
music and he used folk dances (like polonaise and mazurka) as nationalist symbols.
Case Study: Poland (language was used as a weapon against Russian dominance)
During the end of 18th century, Poland was partitioned by Great powers – Prussia, Russia and
Austria. Even after losing its independence, national feelings were kept alive through music and
language.
Russian language was imposed everywhere on Polish people and as a resistance the members of
clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon. They used Polish (language) at Church
gatherings and for all religious instructions. As a result large numbers of priests were put in jail
or were sent to Serbia by Russian authorities as punishment for refusing to preach in Russian
language.

3.2 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

I) 1830s Year of Hardship in Europe

• There was enormous increase in population of Europe.

• Unemployment increased due to shortage of jobs.
• Lot of people migrated from rural areas to urban areas resulted in overcrowded cities and
creation of slums in cities.
• Small producers faced stiff competition from import of goods from England which were
made by machines and were comparatively cheap..
• Peasants were forced to pay feudal dues and obligations by aristocracy.
• Widespread pauperism spread in cities and towns because rise of food prices.

1848:
• In 1848 because of the food shortages, unemployment, the people of Paris came out on
roads to protest. The monarch Louis Philippe was forced to flee resulted in formation of
National Assembly.
• National assembly (a republic government) granted-
a) Suffrage to all adult male above 21 years and
b) Right to work (national workshops were established to provide employment).

Case Study: Silesia Weavers

In 1845 – Weavers in Silesia led a revolt against contractors who gave them raw material to
make finished goods but reduced their payment drastically. The contractors took advantage as
there was desperate need for jobs. As a result large crowd of weavers protested near mansion of
their contractor demanding higher wages. Soon it turned violent resulted in killing of 11 weavers.

3.3 1848: Revolution of the Liberals

• In 1848 In France republic government was established based on universal male suffrage.
In other parts of Europe like Germany, Italy, Poland etc liberal men and women started
demanding for constitutionalism and National unification.
• They took advantage of growing unrest in people and demanded creation of nation state
on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of press and freedom of association.
 Case study: Germany
• 1848 – In Germany large number of political associations whose members were
mainly middle class professionals, businessmen etc. decided to vote for an all German
National Assembly.
• On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take
their places in Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul. They drafted a
constitution for German nation to be headed by monarch subject to parliament.
• When the crown was offered on these terms to king Friedrich Wilhelm IV (king of
Prussia) he rejected it. This led to a small revolution.
• The troops were called in and the assembly was disbanded.

Role of women during liberal movement in Germany

• Extending political rights to women was a controversial issue within liberal movements.
• Large number of women participated in liberal movements.
• They formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and took part in
political meetings and demonstrations.
• They were denied suffrage rights during assembly elections. They were mere observer
during convened of Frankfurt parliament.

Conclusion:

All the liberal movements during 1848 were suppressed by conservatives but monarchs realized
that they have to provide certain grants to liberal nationalists.
a) Serfdoms and bonded labour were abolished in Habsburg and Russia.
b) Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

Other important points:

1) Delacroix was a famous romantic French painter who depicted a scene where 20000 Greeks
were killed by Turks on the island of Chios. In his painting he showed sufferings of women and
children to appeal to the emotions of spectators.
2) Grimm Brothers (Jacob and Wilhelm) collected folktales. They wrote fairytales for children.
They saw French dominance as a threat to German culture.
3) Louise Otto-Peters founded women’s journal and a feminist political association.

Important terms:
Ideology – System of ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision.
Feminist – Awareness of women’s rights and interests based on the belief of social, economic
and political equality of the genders.
PART – 4 The Making of Germany and Italy

4.1 Unification of Germany

a) In 1848- Nationalist feelings widespread in the middle class Germans who tried to unite
German confederations into a nation state which will be governed by an elected parliament.
b) This liberal initiative of nation building was repressed by monarchy and military forces,
supported by large landowners (JUNKERS) of Prussia.
c) From here on Prussia took the leadership of unification process of Germany. Its chief minister
Otto Von Bismarck carried out the process of unification with the help of Prussian army and
bureaucracy.
d) They fought 3 wars over 7 years with Austria, Denmark and France- this war ended with
Prussian victory and hence they completed the process of unification.
e) In Jan 1871 – the Prussian king Kaiser William –I was proclaimed German Emperor in a
ceremony held at Versailles.

New Unified Germany under Kaiser William (Features)-

The newly formed state placed strong emphasis on
a) Modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judiciary systems.
b) Prussian measures and practices became a model for the rest of Germany.

4.2 Unification of Italy

a) During the middle of 19th century Italy was divided into 7 states where Italians were scattered
over several dynastic states. There was only 1 state i.e. SARDINIA PIEDMONT which was
ruled by an Italian princely house.
b) The northern part was under – Austrian Habsburg, center was under – Pope and Southern part
was under – Bourbon kings of Spain. Also Italian language was not common there were multiple
linguistic groups.
c) During 1830s – Giuseppe Mazzini tried to form unitary Italian republic. He also formed secret
society Young Italy for this purpose but with the failure of revolutionary uprising in 1831 and
1848 the mantle (responsibility) fell on Sardinia piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel
II to unify Italian states through war.
d) Chief Minister of Sardinia piedmont CAVOUR (led the movement to unify Italy) was very
diplomatic and with the help of France he defeated Austrian forces in 1859.
e) He was also supported by large number of volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe
Garibaldi. In 1860 they attacked on southern part of Italy over the kingdom of two sicilies and
drive out Spanish rulers. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

Note:
• Majority population of unified Italy was illiterate and was not aware of liberal nationalist
ideology.
• The illiterate peasants had never heard of word Italia and they believed that La Talia is
the name of Victor Emmanuel’s wife. The irony of this word was they thought its La talia
in place of Italia.
 • Elite classes believed Unification of Italy will bring economic development and political
dominance.

4.3 The Strange case of Britain.

In Britain the formation of nation states was not the result of any uprise but it was a result of long
drawn process.

a) There was no British nation before 18th century and the identities of people ae based on their
ethnic backgrounds like English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. These ethnic groups had their own culture
and political traditions.
b) As English nation grew in wealth and power they tried to extend their dominance. The
English Parliament was formed in 1688 that seized power from monarchy tried to form nation
state.
c) In 1707 – Act of union was signed between England and Scotland that resulted in formation of
‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ this gave rights to England to impose its dominance over
Scotland.
d) The British parliament was dominated by English who tried to suppress other ethnic groups.
The catholic clans were suppressed and also Scottish highlanders were not allowed to speak their
Gaelic language or wear their national costume and large number of people was forcibly driven
out from their homeland.
e) Ireland also suffered similarly as the English helped protestant clan of the country and helped
them to establish their dominance over Catholics. Catholics revolt against English was
suppressed and after a failed revolt under the leadership of Wolfe Tone in 1798, Ireland was
forcibly incorporated into United Kingdom in 1801.

New British Nation was formed with

Dominance of English culture, English language, British Flag (union jack), national anthem
(God Save Our Noble King).
PART – 5 Visualising the Nation

Artists in 18th and 19th century personified nation i.e. they represented a country as if it were a
person. Nations were portrayed as female figures (which do not stand for any particular woman
in real life). It gave an abstract idea of nation a concrete form. Therefore female figure became
an allegory of the nation.

During French revolution artists used female allegory to represent ideas such as liberty, justice
and republic. These ideals were represented through specific objects or symbols.

Examples:

In France :
• Red cap or broken chain - Liberty.
• Blind folded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales – Justice.
• Marianne represented idea of nation.
• Characteristics/ Visual representation of Marianne were drawn from ideals of
liberty and Republic i.e.
a) Red Cap b) tricolor c) Cockade.
• It reminded public of the national symbol of unity.
• Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps so that public relate with it.

In Germany:
• Germania became the allegory for nation.
• Visual representation/ Characteristics of Germania:
a) Germania wears crown of oak leaves as German oak stands for heroism.

Other allegories used were:

• Broken chain – Being freed.
• Breastplate with eagle – Symbol for strength for German Empire.
• Crown of oak leaves – Heroism.
• Sword – Rediness to fight.
• Olive branch around the sword – Willingness to make peace.
• Black, red and gold tricolor – Flag of liberal nationalists banned by Dukes of German
states.
• Rays of rising sun – Beginning of new era.

Note : During that time an image of map of British empire was made with Britannia (
representing British nation.
Characteristics of Britannia:-
a) Britannia was shown triumphantly sitting over the globe.
b) The British colonies were represented through the images of tigers, elephants, Forests and
primitive people.
c) Angels were shown carrying the banner of freedon, fraternity and federation.
d) The domination of world is shown as the basis of British’s national pride.
New Term:
Allegory – When an abstract idea is expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story
has two meanings – one literal and one symbolic.

Part -6
Nationalism and Imperialism

• By the last quarter of the nineteenth century, nationalism could not retain its idealistic
liberal-democratic sentiment. It became a narrow creed with limited ends. The major
European powers manipulated the nationalist aspirations into their own imperialist
aims.

Conflict in the Balkans (1871):

• Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day

Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. The inhabitants of this region were broadly known as
the Slavs.

• A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. This was the
time when romantic nationalism spread in Balkan and also during this time
disintegration of Balkan took place which made this area very explosive.

• The Ottoman Empire tried to strengthen itself through modernization and internal
reforms. But it could not achieve much success. One by one its European subject
nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.

• The people of Balkan used history and national identity to claim their right of
independence. They wanted to get their long lost independence from Ottoman empire
but because of different Slavic nationalities (as there was lot of diversity) it became
difficult for the people to define their identities and independence, the Balkan area
became an area of intense conflict.

• The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more
territory at the cost of other.

• During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and
colonies as well as naval and military might. Each power; Russia, Germany, England,
Austro-Hungary; was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans,
 and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region
and finally culminated in the First World War. Therefore nationalism aligned with
imperialism led Europe to disaster in 1914.

• Meanwhile, many countries in the world which had been colonized by the European
powers in the nineteenth century began to oppose imperial domination. People of
different colonies developed their own variation of nationalism. The idea of ‘nation-
states’ thus became a universal phenomenon.

Important short notes :

a) Count Camillo de Cavour - was the leading figure in the movement towards
unification of Italy. He was the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia. He was neither a
revolutionary nor a democrat. He was like many other wealthy and educated members of
the Italian elite. He too was more fluent in French than in Italian. He made a tactful
diplomatic alliance with France and thus succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in
1859. Apart from regular troops, many armed volunteers under the leadership of
Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. They succeeded in winning the support of the local
peasants and drove out the Spanish rulers. Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of
united Italy in 1861. Cavour became the first Prime Minister of the unified Italy.

b) Frankfurt parliament - In German regions, there were a large number of political

associations whose members were middle class professionals, businessmen and
prosperous artisans. They came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for
an all-German National Assembly. On18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives took out
a festive procession to take part in the Frankfurt parliament which was convened in the
Church of St. Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation. This German nation
was to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of
Prussia was offered the crown on these terms. But he rejected the offer and joined other
monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.

c) Giuseppe Garibaldi - Italian freedom fighter. In 1833 he met Mazzini and joined secret society
Young Italy. He participated in uprising in piedmont but when the uprising was suppressed he
had to flee to South America, Where he lived in exile till 1848. He supported Victor Emmanuel –
II at the time of unification of Italy. He led famous expedition of the Thousand to South Italy, the
volunteers kept increasing and their numbers grew to 30,000.He led an army of volunteers to
Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unification of Italy