Chapter 1

Chapter 1 (Basic semiconductor theory)

1.1 Charge carriers in solids:

(Ref: p.3-10, Electronic principles (Devices & circuits) by M.L. Anand, S.Chand & Company Ltd, 1st Edition)

All matter is made up of atoms and each atom consists of a nucleus (having in it protons and neutrons) and
one or more electrons. The protons are positively charged particles, the neutrons carry no charge and the
electrons are negatively charged particles, revolving round the nucleus.

The structure of atoms decides the behaviour of the substance. The structure of all the atoms in a substance is
same. Different substances have different atomic structures and hence they have different physical and
chemical properties. Based on the atomic structure materials can be classified as conducting, insulating and
semiconducting materials.

Here are the atomic structures of important substances.

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According to Bohr’s atomic theory,

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The valance electrons decide the behaviour of the substance. The last orbit should have 8 electrons for its
stability. As the last orbit of the most atoms is incomplete, they are unstable. To become stable, the valance
electrons are always active and want more electrons to make their number equal to 8. Therefore the valance
electrons make bonds with its neighbouring atoms. The type of bonding decides the classification of the
materials into conducting, semiconducting and insulating materials.

Note: Atoms of very few materials have 8 valance electrons and such a substance is stable, i.e. inactive or
inert. Some gases like Argon, Helium and Neon have stable atomic structure and are therefore they are inert.

Table 1: Classification of materials on the basis of atomic theory.

S.No Particulars Conducting Semiconducting Insulating
. materials materials materials
1. Resistivity Low Medium High
2. Electrons in the last orbit 1,2 or 3 4 More than 4
3. Free electrons Last orbit electrons are free May be made free Not free
4. Bonding Metallic bond Covalent bond

Table 2: Value of Resistivity of few materials.

As the semiconductors (Ge, Si, etc.) are solids, solid state technology has come to existence and has now
completely replaced the tube technology (vacuum and gas tubes).

Note:

(i) Charge of an electron = 1.602 X 10-19 C

(ii) Mass of an electron = 9 X 10-31 Kg

(iii) Charge of a proton = 1.602 X 1019 C

(iv) Mass of a proton = 1.673 X 10-27 Kg

(v) No. of electrons per coulomb =6 X 1018

The mobility of electron is greater than that of proton as it is lighter.

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1.2 Energy level:

(Ref: p.118-121, Electronic principles (Devices & circuits) by M.L. Anand, S.Chand & Company Ltd, 1st Edition)

The electrons in their permitted orbits [See Fig. 7.3 (a)] possess energies. The energies of the orbits are
represented by ‘energy level’ diagrams. The first orbit represents first energy level; the second orbit represents
the second energy level and so on [See Fig. 7.3 (b)].

Energy bands in Solids:

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stay on the way. To push an electron from valance band to conduction band, an external energy equal to the
forbidden gap must be provided to the electrons.

Classification of Solids on the basis of Energy bands theory:

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Note:

We know that electrons go on moving in their orbits; therefore each electron possesses two energies. First,
potential energy (P.E.) due to its position, (i.e., its number of orbit, an electron in the last orbit has maximum
P.E.) and second kinetic energy (K.E.) due to its motion. The total energy of an electron will be equal to the
sum of its P.E. + K.E. The unit for measuring electron energy is electron volt (eV).

One eV is the energy required to raise the potential of an electron through 1 volt.

(or)

If an electron falls through a potential of 1 V, its kinetic energy will increase by 1 eV.

1 eV = 1.6 X 10-19 Joules.

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1.3 Semiconductor:
(Ref: p.117-127, Electronic principles (Devices & circuits) by M.L. Anand, S.Chand & Company Ltd, 1st Edition)

Properties of Semiconductors:

(a) The resistivity of semiconductors is more than conductors and less than insulators.

(b) At room temperature semiconductors virtually behave as insulators, but if temperature is raised their
resistance decreases and they show conductivity. In other words, they have negative temperature coefficient of
resistance.

(c) Semiconductors can also be made as conductors by adding in them some quantity of external materials.
The external materials are called ‘impurities’, which impart ‘free electrons’ to the semiconductors. This
process is called ‘doping’.

Inter-atomic bonding in semiconductors:

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Table 3, gives the value of forbidden gap in various materials.

Table 3: Forbidden gap in various materials

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From the table it is clear that Silicon, Germanium and Gallium Arsenide (Ga-As) can be easily used as
semiconductors. Carbon has a very high forbidden gap, hence it is an insulator. Tin has the least gap and
behaves as conductor.

Effect of Temperature on Semiconductors:

Valance band to the conduction band crossing forbidden gap. An electron leaving the valence band leaves
behind and empty space which can accept an electron. This empty space is called a ‘hole’ (See Fig. 7.13) and
is regarded as an equivalent positive charge.

If such a crystal is connected with a battery, free electrons will constitute small current (See Fig. 7.14) called
electron current.

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Intrinsic Semiconductors:

(i) Movement of electrons: A free electron jumps from valance to conduction band due to its thermal energy
(Fig. 7.15a). Whenever it meets other free electron in the way, it changes its path. Its motion can be compared
very well to a gas molecule in a gas container.

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Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductors:

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1.4 Modification of carrier densities:

(Ref: p.128-131, Electronic principles (Devices & circuits) by M.L. Anand, S.Chand & Company Ltd, 1st Edition)
Extrinsic semiconductors:

Intrinsic semiconductors are of little use except for making Light dependent Resistors (LDR). If a suitable
amount of external material (called impurity) is added to a pure semiconductor, we can impart to it some
conductivity. This is very important and all solid state devices are made of such artificially made
semiconductor materials.

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If an N-type material is connected with a battery, the current conduction will be due to free electrons. This is
called N-type conductivity. The conduction is just as in Copper, Aluminium and other metals (See Fig. 7.18).

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If a P-type material is connected with a battery the current conduction will be due to holes. This called p-type
conductivity. Fig. 7.21 represents current conduction, note that in the material holes are moving, but
conduction in external circuit is through electrons. Fig. 7.22 shows energy band diagram of a p-type material.

Note: One impurity atom generates one free electron (or hole), then why not many impurity atoms be added to
get more free electrons (or holes). This concept is wrong, as uncalculated number of impurity atoms are added
to the semiconductor, the mixture will exhibit properties of the impurity metal rather than that of the
semiconductor and such a mixture will be useless.

Effect of temperature on Semiconductors:

A pure or intrinsic semiconductor behaves more or less as an insulator at room temperature. The ‘carrier
concentration’, i.e., density of electrons/holes in an intrinsic material at room temperature is about 2 X 10 19
per m3. If we raise its temperature, carrier concentration is increased, and thus conductivity of intrinsic
semiconductor increases with the rise of temperature.

Whereas an extrinsic semiconductor behaves as very good conductor even at room temperature, due to extra
electrons (or holes) donated by impurity atoms. If the temperature of an extrinsic semiconductor is raised
there is no increase in the majority charge carriers as the impurity has already donated its all electrons (or
holes). However due to thermal energy supplied, concentration of minority carriers increases and at a
temperature called ‘critical temperature’ (80 0C for Ge and 2000C for Si), the extrinsic semiconductor behaves
more or less as an intrinsic semiconductor.

Majority and Minority carriers:

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1.5 The P-N Junction:

(Ref: p.132-134, Electronic principles (Devices & circuits) by M.L. Anand, S.Chand & Company Ltd, 1st Edition)
The P and N-type materials taken separately are of no practical use. But P-N junction has
vital importance in the field of electronics, as all semiconductors have one or more P-N junctions.

P-N junction theory:

Suppose a P-type material has just kept touching an N-type material and the so formed junction has
not been connected to any external voltage (called biasing), the following phenomenon occur.

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Fabrication of P-N junction (semiconductor Diode):

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