Mechatronics U2 PDF
Mechatronics U2 PDF
Mechatronics U2 PDF
UNIT 1
Semi Conductor Components
Learning Objectives
• To study the atomic models, inter automic bonds, conductivity of
conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
• Semiconductors, doping, formation of P N junction diode, Zener diode,
Transistor, and the study V I characteristics and applications.
• To observe data sheets specifications of semiconductor devices and
applications.
1.0
1.0 Introduction
This chapter deals with physical phonomina involved in semi conductor
devices operation. The material in nature, they are divided into 3 categories.
they are
1. Conductors
2. Semi conductors
3. Insulaters.
The above materials are classified by based on the conduction of current.
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Conductors
The materials, which conducts electrical current through it, is known as
conductors
Examples - Cupper, Aluminium, Silver, brass, iron etc.,
The conductors possesses low resistivity, hence the resistance affected by
it is low, conducts, allows to flow more current through it.
Semiconductors
The materials, which offer high resistance at a low termperature. These
type of materials different behavior, with rise in each degree of temperature
resistance decreases. These materials have negative temperature co-efficient of
resistance, resulting semiconductors offers very high conductivity. At particularly
high temperature high conductivity offers more current to flow through it.
Example - Silicon, Germanium etc.
The semiconductors resistivity is lies 0.038 cms to 0.04 cms.
Insulators
These materials consists of high resistance hence practically no current flows
through it. No conductivity. Example Paper, Wood, Plastic etc.,
3rd Orbit
2nd Orbit
1st Orbit Nucleus
Fig. 1.1
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H
Fig. 1.3 Formation of Ammonia Molecule
Conduction Band
Forbidden Band
rgy
Band Ene
Valence Band
(b) Semiconductors
In this type of materials there is small energy gap. It posseses negative
resistance characteristics and it changes with change of temperature. Particularly
at higher temperature, the semiconductors conducts heavily. Hence these
materials used as active devices.
Conduction Band
Band Energy
Valance Band
(c) Insulators
In these type of materials forbidden energy gap is more in between
conduction and valance bands. These materials there is no current flow. Hence
the materials has very high resistance.
Examples : Wood, plastic, glass etc.,
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Conduction Band
Band Energy
Valance Band
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Fig. 1.8 N-type Intrinsic Semiconductor
-
++++++++
++++++++
-
++++++++
-
Fig. 1.9 P Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
majority carriers are electrons and minority charge carriers are holes i.e. positive
charge carriers.
+ve holes, -ve electrons
-- +-- -- -- -- --+-- --
-+ - -+- - +- - -
--------
Fig. 1.10 N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductors
N-type Semiconductors
When small amount of pentavelent or tetravelent impurity is added N-type
intrisic semiconductor a N-type extrinsic semiconductor is formed. In this it
carries majority carriers are electrons and minority charge carriers are holes.
Pentravalent impurities are Arsanic and Anti many.
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Anode Cathode
A K
Ammeter
S Switch
+ -
DC Power Supply
Fig. 1.16 PN Junction diode connected in Forward bias
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From the forward bias V.I. characteristics, the diode forward resistance is
calculated. Draw the tangent at sharp curve say the point P (x,y), which is point
of tangency.
Diode Forward Resistance rf : It is the ratio of difference of change of
anode to cathode voltage to change in difference in anode current is known as
PN junction diode forward resistance.
Diode forward resistance = Difference of Anode to Cathode voltage
Difference of Inode current.
= VAK / IA = 0.7V - OV / 2mA - omA = 0.7V / 2mA
rf = 350
Diode Reverse Bias VI Characteristics
Anode of the diode is connected to negative terminal of the dc power
suppply and cathode is connected to positive terminal of the dc power supply,
the connection is said to the diode is connected in reverse bias mode.
As soon as switch is closed, Increase the VAK insteps of OV, 5V, 10V,
15V, 20V, 25V. A small amount of current flows at high voltage in mA.
The diode reverse bias V-I characteristics is drawn in third co-quardrant,
because VAK , IA are nagative.
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A K
Ammeter
- + S Switch
DC Power Supply
Fig. 1.18 PN Junction diode reverse biased circuit Fig. 1.19 VI Characteristics
In reverse bias the diode affects reverse resistance more than 100 k., the
graphical representation as follows.
Anode Cathode
Anode Cathode
Anode Cathode
Anode Cathode
Fig. 1.25
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Fig. 1.26
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Fig. 1.28
Fig. 1.27
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Fig. 1.30
Fig. 1.29
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Fig. 1.31
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Epoxy lens/case
Wire bond
Reflective cavity
Semiconductor die
Anvil
Lead frame
Post
Flat spot
Anode Cathode
Anode Cathode
1.7 Transistor
A transistor is a three layer semiconductor, three electrodes device is known
as Transistor. The transisters are two types.
(1) P NP Transistor
(2) NPN Transistor
Collector Collector
P N
N P
Base Base
N
P
Emitter Emitter
In PNP transistor, due to majority carriers in P- type layer, the holes drift
from emitter to collector moves, consequently the equal number of free electrons
moving from emitter to collector thrugh dc power supply in the external circuit.
The number of holes drifting from emitter region to collector region is controlled
by the base bias and the transistor is used as an amplifier.
Working of a NPN Transistor
The NPN transistor emitter is connected negative terminal of the dc power
supply and the positive terminal of the dc power supply is connected to base.
Hence emitter base junctions is connected in forward bias mode. The collector
is connected to positive terminal conneted collector and negative connected to
base.
It is shown in the curve with changing VEB keeping constant VEB = OV,
10V corresponding change is IE mA is noted and the curve between those two
parameters. The emitter current mA is taken on Y-axis and VEB is taken on X-
axis approximate readings are noted.
(i) The mitter current I increases rapdily with small increase in emitter -
base voltage VEB. It means the input resistance is small.
(ii) The IE is almost independent of VCB. The IE is independent of VCB.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 171
Large Signal
Current amplification factor : It is ratio of collector current to base
current.
IC / IB
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Fig. 1.47
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Fig. 1.48
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Fig. 1.49
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Fig. 1.50
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Fig. 1.51
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Fig. 1.52
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Fig. 1.53
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Fig. 1.54
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Fig. 1.55
Fig. 1.56
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Fig. 1.57
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Drain
Gate
Gate
N Channel
P Channel
Source
Fig. 1.61
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Fig. 1.62
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Fig. 1.63
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Fig. 1.64
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Fig. 1.65
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Fig. 1.66
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Fig. 1.67
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Fig. 1.68
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Fig. 1.69
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Fig. 1.70
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Fig. 1.71
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Fig. 1.72
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Fig. 1.73
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Fig. 1.74
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Fig. 1.75
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Fig. 1.76
Fig. 1.76
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Fig. 1.77
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Fig. 1.78
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Fig. 1.79
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Fig. 1.80
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Fig. 1.81
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Fig. .182
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Fig. .183
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Fig. 1.84
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Fig. 1.85
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Summary
Materials are three types
1. Conductors : The material, which passes electrical current though it is
known as Conductors.
2. Semiconductors : The materials, which conducts electricity partially at
lower temperatures, with rise in every degree temperature conductivity
increases in Semiconductors.
3. Insulaters : The materials, which does not conduct eletric current is known
as insulaters.
4. Intrinsic Semiconductors are two types, P-type intrinsic semiconductor,
N-type intrisic semiconductors.
5. Intrinsic Semiconductors : The pure form of semiconductor is known as
intrinsic semiconductors.
6. P-type Intrinsic semiconductor : It carries only holes, no electrons is
known as P-type intrinsic semiconductors.
7. N-type Intrinsic Semiconductor : It carries only electrons, no holes is
known as N-type intrinsic semiconductors.
8. Doping : The process of adding impurities to pure form of semiconductors
is known as dopoing.
9. P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor : It carries majority carriers are holes,
minority charge carriers are electrons is known as P-type intrinsic
semiconductors.
10. N type extrinsic semiconductor : It carries majority carrieres are
electrons and minority carriers are holes is known as N-type extrinsic
semiconfuctors.
11. PN Junction Diode : A piece of P - type material , a piece of N-type
material joined at higher temperature 5000oC and electrodes are connected to
each layer is known as PN junction doide.
12. Transistor : Three layers, three electronodes device is a transistor. The
terminals are base, collector and emitter. Two types (a) PNP Transistor b)
NPN transistor.
Application : - Used as switch and amplifiers.
13. = IC / IE, =IC / IB, b = /1- - Relation
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 213
Learning Objectives
• Definitions of AC , DC power supply.
• Block diagram of DC power supply.
• Study of half wave rectifier with filter and applicaiton.
• Definitions of RMS , average, ripple factor and efficiency of half wave
rectifier.
• Study of full wave rectifier with filter and applicaitons.
• Study of bridge rectifier with filter and its applications.
• Study of comparisions of rectifiers circuits.
• Study of filters, Capacitor Inductor Filter, Capacitor Inductor Capacitor
filter.
• Definition of voltage regulations, Series and Shunt regulator by using
zener diode and its applicaitons.
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2.0 Introduction
Every electronic circuit is used DC power supply. The DC power supply is
obtained from converting AC supply into DC supply. The process of conversion
of AC supply into DC power supply is known as Convertors. The AC supply
is used for electroplating, electro typing, electro metal refining, arc lamp, battery
charging, electromagnetic, valve or transistorized electronic equipments. The
main blocks of DC power supply are a step down transformer, a rectifier circuit,
a filter circuit and regulator.
2.1 DC Power Supply
AC power is converted into dc power is known as converters. Every
electronic circuit consist of 30% circuit is dc power supply circuit with different
current /voltage / power ratings as per the requirement and specifications of the
customer needs and specific applicaitons. The dc power supply consist of the
following blocks. They are as follows.
AC Stepdown L
Rectifi-
Mains Trans- Filters Regula- O
ers
230V / 50HZ former tors A
D
Fig. 2.01
The flux induces in the secondary winding of the transformer from first turn,
continuous process links to second turn and entire turns of secondary winding.
As above Faraday’s laws of electromagneic induction emf and current induces
which is an a.c. power. The voltage ratings are 24V, 20V, 18V, 12V, 9V, 6V,
4.5V, 3V, 1.5V with different current ratings 1A, 500mA, 300mA, 250mA,
200 mA, 150 mA, 100mA etc.
(iii) Rectifiers
It is the circuit in which the a.c. sine wave rectifies as pulsating positive half
cycles are rectified and it depends upon rectifier circuits. The rectifiers are three
types, they are
1. Half Wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier.
3. Bridge rectifier
above rectifiers are discussed in separate is rectifier circuits.
(iv) Filters
A filter circuit is one which converts / filters the pulsating positive half cycles
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into dc voltage. The dc voltage obtined is output is with ripple. Now the types
of filter circuits are
1. Capacitor Input filter
2. Capacitor, Inductor filter or LC -type filter.
3. Capacitor, Inductor, Capacitor filter or T-type filters II- type filters.
(v) Regulator
The regulater is one in which it gives output constant dc voltage.
Defination : It is ratio of difference of no load voltage tothe load voltage to
no load voltage is known as voltage regulator. The types of voltage regulaters
are
(a) Zener regulaters (series and shunt type)
(b) IC regulaters.
(vii) Load
It is an electronic system in which it takes a dc power in generally known as
load. The loads are three types.
(a) Resistive load
(b) Capacitive load
(c) Inductive load.
b,c are used in communication networks.
The half wave rectifier conducts only positive half cycles of ac sine wave
because forward biased. Whenever a negative half cycle receives the diodes
goes to reverse bias mode hence there is no conduction.
The electrolyte capacitor 1000 mF/ 25V filters the half of the wave gaves
dc voltage with 120% ripple.
This type rectifiers are used in atomic power units.
Input voltage to the rectifier
Vi = Vm Sin = Vm Sin2 ft
Im = Vm / Rs + Rl.
Irms = Im / 2 rms value of half wave.
Average value or dc value half wave rectifier
Idc = Im /
Irms Irms2 - I2dc
Ripple factor = = = Irms
Idc 2 -1
Idc Idc
Im/2 2
2
= -1 = -1 - 1.21
Im/ 2
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 221
even
1/2
Current flows when D1
conducts
AC cycles
Input
odd
1/2 Current flows when D2
cycles conducts
AC
Input
230V
50HZ
Full wave
Rectifier 1 1.11 1.57 3.14 48% 81.2
C.T
FW Bridge
1 1.11 1.57 1.57 48% 81.2
Rectifier
2.7 Filters
Defination : It is the circuit in which it converts the pulsating the positive half
cycles into dc voltage is known as filter circuit. The filter circuits are follows.
(i) Inductor fulter - L type filter
(ii) Condenser Inductor input filter - CL input filter
(iii) Inductor Condenser filter - LCL or CLC , filter T-type and P - type
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(iii) LC Filter
For heavy current loads an LC filter is used. It also gives better regulation
at high load current. Followed C shunted capacitor provides high output voltage
and reduced ripple.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 225
Summary
The vocational EET student note that any electronic circuit consists of mainly
depends on dc power. how it is generated. The main types conversion from ac
to dc power circuit is known as converters. The converter circuits are mainly
two types. they are
(1) Series regulated power supplies (SRPS)
(2) Switched mode power supplies - (SMPS)
To generated higher power SRPS is costly and more weight, but SMPS is
light weight low cast. Hence in consumer eletronics smps is used.
Powre Supply : It is the electornic circuit which converts a.c. supply into
d.c supply.
Rectifier : Rectifiers are three types (a) Half wave rectifier (b) Full wave
rectifier (3) bridge rectifier.
RMS Value : It is the value is taken some of the square root of squares of
the voltages or currents divided number of parts average value in RMS value
D.C. Value : It is average value of a.d.c quantity for half wave rectifier
average value = maximum value / .
Ripple Factor : It is the ratio of a.c. content presenting d.c. output to d.c.
output multiplied by 100 is known as Ripple factor.
Efficiency : It is the ratio of output power to input power. For half wave, full
wave rectifiers the efficiences are 40.6%, 81.2% respectively.
Filter : By using an electrolytic capacitor the pulsating half waves are
convered into d.c. voltage.
Voltage Regulator : It is the ratio of difference of no load voltage to load
voltage to no voltage nultiplied by 100. Generally for small power applicaitons
zener diode using as voltage regulator.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Define (dc) power supply or converter ?
2. Mention the types of rectifier circuits.
3. How many diodes are used in HW, FW, BR ?
4. Write average values of HW, FW rectifiers.
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Learning Objectives
• Definition of transistor biasing
• Study of types of transistor biasing, - base emmitter biasing,
Collector feedback resistor biasing, Voltage divider biasing.
• Definition of stabilization
• Comparision of amplifier circuits.
• CC , CB and CE
• Study of transistor output to VI characteristics drawing load line,
operating point, fixing - cut of region, saturation region, and active region
identification.
3.0 Introduction
A properly biased transistor raises the strength of a weak signal to strengthen
signal and thus acts as an amplifier. Almost all electronic equipments must include
means for amplification of electrical signals. For instance radio receivers amplify
very weak signals sometimes a few millionth of a volt at antenna until they are
strong enough to fill a room with sound. The transducers are used in the medical
and scientific investigations generate signals in the microvolt ( V) and milli volt
(mV) range. These signals must be amplified thousands and million times before
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IB reaches base of the transistor the base junction voltage VBE exceeds 0-
7V comes the input junction into conduction region. Ic flows through the collector
to emitter junction comes into conduction region and exceeds VCE =0.3V. The
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 233
transistor fulfill biasing conditions i.e. VBE=0.7,VCE=0.3V and zero signal collector
current. In this biasing mode the transistor works as an amplifier.
3.2 Stabilization
In small signal amplifier the transistor fulfilled biasing condition i.e. VBE=0.7V
VCE=0.3V and zero signal collector. supply ratings should be remaining constant.
Keeping constant supply ratings, junction temperature plays important role. The
variation IB,IC,VBE,VCE. influences change of temperatures. The large signal
current gain < variation takes place. In this context transistor parameters are to
be keeping in our mind. And V-I output characteristics.
In small signal amplifier operating point Q, Q signal swing varies from Q1 to
Q2.At Q1 operating allows low voltage more current At Q2 low current, more
voltage. In this context value changes 10% same as value. Silicon transistor
operates -65oc to 120oc. Generating transistor operates -65oc to 65oc. at
particular higher temperatures reverse saturation junction current flows in between
two layers of the transistor.
Stabilization
It is the point in which a small variations at input and output ratings, small
change in temperature, gains also varies but operating swing should not exceed.
Transistor acts as amplifier.
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The transistor output V-I characteristics are divided into three regions. They
are
(1) Cut-off region
(2) Active region
(3) Saturation region
In cut-off region the transistor acts as off-switch. Base to emitter, collector
to emitter Junctions acts as reverse bias mode.
In active region Base to emitter Junction is in forward biasing and collector
to emitter junction acts as reverse bias mode. In this mode the transistor works
as an amplifier.
In saturation region both junction are forward biased, a high saturation
current reaches a small amount VCE voltages.
3.3 Classification of Amplifier
According to frequency, mode of operation, type and methods of coupling,
R,C. coupled ,Transformer coupled and directly coupled.
Classification of Amplifier
Various type of amplifier circuit can be classified on the following four bases.
1.On The Base of Frequency:
(i) A.F Amplifier
(ii) R.F Amplifier
(iii) I.F Amplifier
(iv) VideoAmplifier
2. On the base of ability (mode of operation)
(i) Class ‘A’Amplifier
(ii) Class ‘B’Amplifier
(iii) Class ‘AB’Amplifier
(iv) Class ‘C’Amplifier
3. On the base of coupling
(i) RC Coupled Amplifier
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 235
In the R-C coupling the signal is performed by employing two resistors and
a capacitor that is why it is called R-C coupling. This method is most economical
and amplifies a wide frequency. The resistor Rc is the load resistor which acts as
collector load resistor for the first transistor. The ac component of first transistor
reaches to the base of second transistor through coupling capacitor Cc. The
capacitive reactance of the coupling capacitor should be lesser than the load
resistance, otherwise, the ac component of the signal will also pass through the
load resistor. The coupling capacitor also prevents the d.c. voltage to reach the
base of the second transistor and does not allow the later to become over loaded.
DIAGRAM:
The fig shows the frequency response of a typical R-C coupled Amplifier. It
is clear that the voltage drops at low (<50Hz) and high (>20KHz) frequencies
whereas it is uniform over mid - frequency range (50Hz to 20KHz).
At low frequencies (<50Hz), the reactance of coupling capacitor Cc is quite
high and hence very small part of a signal will pass from one stage to the next
stage.
At high frequencies (>20KHz), the reactance of Cc is very small and it
behaves as a short circuit. This increase the loading effect of next stage and
serves to reduce the voltage gain.
At mid frequencies (50Hz to 20KHz), the voltage gain of the Amplifier is
constant. The effect of coupling capacitor in this frequency range is such so as to
maintain a uniform voltage gain.
Applications:They are widely used as voltage amplifier i.e. in the initial stages
of public address system. It is cheap and provides excellent audio fidelity over a
wide range of frequency.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 237
Frequency
Fig. 3.8 Frequency response
Applications
Transformer coupling is mostly employed for impedance matching. In general,
the last stage of a multistage amplifier is the power stage. Here, a concentrated
effort is made to transfer maximum power to the output device e.g. a loud speaker.
For maximum power transfer, the impedance of power source should be equal
to that of load. Transformer coupled amplifier is used for power amplification.
Direct Coupled Amplifier
The latest method of coupling is direct coupling. Its circuit is very simple as
shown in the fig. In this method, the collector of the first transistor is directly
connected to the base of the second transistor. Hence, D.C. will be present on
the base too.
The advantage of direct coupling are – no distortion and uniform response
over a wide frequency range. These circuits are used for very low frequency
amplification purposes.
Applications
The transformer coupled amplifiers are used for amplifying extremely low
frequencies (as low as a fraction of a Hertz).
Frequency response of the amplifier:
Fig shows the frequency response of a typical R- C coupled amplifier. It is
clear that voltage gain drops at off low (<50Hz) and high (>20KHz) frequencies
where as it is uniform over mid frequency range (50Hz to 20KHz). This behavior
of the amplifier is briefly explained below:
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Applications
The R-C coupled amplifier excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of
frequency. Therefore, they are widely used as voltage amplifier e.g. in the initial
stages of public address system. If other type of coupling (e.g. transformer
coupling) is employed in the initial stages, this results in frequency distortion
which may be amplifier in next stages. However, because of poor impedance
matching, R-C coupling is rarely used in the final stages.
3.5 Comparision of CB,CE, and CC Amplifiers
S. No Characteristics CB CE CC
1. Voltage Gain 100-200 300-600 <1
2. Current Gain <1 20-100 20-100
3. Power Gain Medium High 100
4. Input Impedance Very Low Low Very High
5. Output Impedance Very High Medium Very Low
6. Phase Inversion 00 1800 00
7 Applications HF AF For Impedance matching
Methods of Transistor Biasing
The following are the most commonly used methods of obtaining transistor
biasing from one source of supply i.e. Vcc
(i) Base resistor method
(ii) Biasing with feedback resistor
(iii ) Voltage divider bias.
Stabilization
The collector current in a transistor changes rapidly when
(i) The temperature changes
(ii )The transistor is replaced by another of the same type.
This is due to the inherent variations of transistor parameters.
When the temperature changes or the transistor is replaced, the operating
point Ic and VCE also changes. However, the faithful amplification , it is essential
that operating point remains fixed.
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Learning Objectives
• Study defination of Voltage,Power amplifiers.
• Study the differences between Voltage and Power amplifiers.
• Study the types of Power amplifiers-Class A,Class B,Class C,
Class B push pull .
• Study the Power amplifiers applications.
• Study the different ICs used in Power amplifiers.
4.0 Introduction
The circuit in which raises the strength of a weak signal is kown as amplifier.
Almost all electronic equipment must include means for amplifying electrical
signals. For instance, radio receivers amplify very weak signals. A practical
amplifier always consists of a number of stages that amplify a weak signal until
sufficient power is available, to operate to loudspeaker or other output devices.
The first few stages in the multistage amplifier have the function only voltage
amplification. However the last stage is designed to provide maximum power.
Therefore the final stage is power amplifier.
In some applications, feedback technique is used to alter some of the
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properties like gain, bandwidth, input and output impedances of the amplifer.
The amplifier which employs the feedback technique is known as feedback
amplifiers. An opreational amplifier is basically a direct coupled high gain amplifer
with feedback available in form of integrated circuit.
The object of this chapter is to study the different types of power amplifiers,
feedback amplifier and different applications of operational amplifier.
Definition of Power Amplifier:
A transistor amplifier in which raises the power level of the signals that
have audio frequency range is known as transistor power amplifier. In general
the last stage of multistage amplifier is the power stage. A power amplifier differs
from the voltage amplifier. A transistor that is suitable for power amplification is
generally called as power transistor.
Difference between Voltage and Power Amplifier
A voltage amplifier is designed to have maximum voltage amplification.
However, there is no importance of power amplification. On the other hand
power amplifier is designed to achieve maximum power output.
4.1 Voltage Amplifier
An electronic circuit whose function is to accept an input voltage and
produce a magnified, voltage as an output voltage. The voltage gain of the
amplifier is the amplitude ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.
Voltage amplifiers are distinguished from other categories of amplifiers whose
ability to amplify voltages, or lack thereof, is of secondary importance. Amplifiers
in other categories usually are designed to deliver to power gain or to isolate
one part of a circuit from another. Power amplifiers may or may not have voltage
gain, while buffers and emitter followers generally produce power gain without
a corresponding voltage gain.
To obtain high gain, cascades ofsingle amplifier circuits are used, usually
with a coupling network, actually a simple filter, inserted between the stages of
amplification. One such filter is a high-pass network formed by a coupling
capacitor, the output resistances of the driving stage, and the input resistance of
the driven stage. Since dc voltages are blocked by the capacitor, this ac coupling
permits independently setting dc bias voltages for each amplifier stage in the
cascade. The coupling network also rejects signal with ac frequency components
below a cutoff. The capacitor must be sufficiently large not to attenuate any of
the frequencies that are to be amplified. If dc is to be amplified, a direct-coupled
amplifier is required., and the design is some what more complicated since dc
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When the applied input signal is a siusoidal sigal the base current varies
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sinusoidally and causes the transistor to amplify these sinusoidal variations. Thus
the amplified output signals are also inthe form of sine wave forms as shown in
Fig. 4.2.
The power output of this circuit is
P = VCIC = I2C RC ....................(1)
Where VC and IC are the rms values of output voltage and current
respectively.
The magnitudes of VC and IC may be found graphically from Fig. 4.2. In the
Fig. 4.2 Im and Vm represent the peak sinusoidal output current and voltage
swings respectively.
Then 1C = Im/ 2 = ((Imax - I min) / 22) ..............................(2)
Vc =Vm / 2 = ((Vmax - Vmin)/ 22) ..............................(3)
P =VcIc= (Vmax - Vmin) (Imax - Imin) /8
Collector Dissipation and Conversion Efficiency:
Collector Dissipation: In a power amplifier, it is of significance to know,
that what fraction of the total d.c power is effectively converted into a.c output
power. In this analysis, we assume the load impedance to be pure resistor. The
average power input from the d.c. supply is VCC IC.
The power absorbed by the output circuit is I2C Rl + IC VC where IC and
VC are the rms values of output current and voltage respectively. R1 is the static
load resistance. The average power dissipated in the transistor is PD. Then, by
using law of conservation of energy.
Vcc Ic = I2c R1 + IcVc + PD .......................................(4)
But Vcc = Vc + Ic Rc .....................................(5)
Where VC is d.c. collector voltage. By submitting the value of VCC from
Eqn (5 ) into Eqn (4 ).
PD = VcIc - VcIc .......................................(6)
The PD is the power is dissipated in the active device. If the input signal is
zero, then a.c. power output VcIc also zero. Therefore, in accordance with Eqn.
(6), the collector dissipation PD is maximum and has value equal to VcIc. Thus
the device is cooler when delivering power to a load tha with zero signal condition.
250 Electronics Engineering Technician
Working:
The operating point is so selected that the transistor works only in the linear
portion of its characteristics. The input signal varies with the base current. This
produces a variation in the collector current. As the collector current in the
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 251
primary of the output transformer varies, with the induced voltage in the secondary
of the output transformer varies
4.8 Class-B, Push - pull Amplifier Efficiency
It is the ratio of power output to power input power of the class B pushpull
amplifier is known as efficiecy.
Efficiency = Po / Pdc = / 4 x Vem / Vec x IC / IC x 100
But for practical purpose = 3.14*100 / 4= 75.50 ~ 75%
4.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Push-Pull Amplifier
Advantages:
1. Even harmoics are absent in the output.
2. The problem of core saturation and non-linear distortions will not appear
because of cancellation of d.c. components of collector current.
3. The output is double as that offered by a single ended stage.
4. The effect of ripple voltage of the power supply due to inadequate
filtering are balanced out because of flow of ripple current in opposite direction
in the primary of the output transformer.
Disadvantages:
1. Two transistors have to be used.
2. It requires two equal and oppsite voltages at the input. Therefore push
pull circuit requires, the use of driver stage, to furnish these signals.
3. If the parameter of the two transistors are not the same, there will be
unequal amplification of two halves of the signal.
4. The circuit gives more distortion.
5. Transformer used are bulky and expensive.
4.10 Class-B, Push-Pull Amplifier
By complementary symmetry is meant a princple of assembling push-pull
class amplifier without using centre-tapped transformers. Fig 4.4 shows the
transistor push-pull amplifier using complementary symmetry. It employs one
npn and pnp transistors and requires no centre tapped transformers.
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Working:
During the positive half cycle of the input signal, transistor T1 (the npn
transistor) conducts current while T2 (the pnp transistor) is cutoff. During the
negative half cycle of the signal, transistor T2 conducts while T1 is cut off. In this
way, npn transistor amplifies the positive half cycle of the signal while the pnp
transistor amplifies the negative half cycle of the signal. Here output transformer
is used for impedace matching.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Complementary-Symmetry Push-Pull
Amplifier
Advantages:
1. This circuit does not require transformers. This saves weight and cost.
2. Equal and opposite input signal voltages are not required.
Disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to get a pair of transistor, that have similar characteritics.
2. Two separate collector power supplies are needed.
3. Power supply float with respect to the ground i.e., neither side of the
power supply is grounded.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 253
Summary
AF amplifier: these are used in audio frequency (20Hz to 20KHz) range.
RF amplifier: these are used in RF frequency(20KHz to 30MHz) range.
Voltage amplifier: it is an amplifier which gives only voltage amplification.
Power amplifier: It is an amplifier, which gives power amplification.
Power Amplifier:
1) Class-A power amplifier.
2) Class-B power amplifier.
3) Class-B push-pull power amplifier.
4) Class-C power amplifier.
5) Power amplifier and voltage amplifiers are used for amplification purpose
in commuication networks.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Define voltage amplifier?
2. Define power amplifier?
3. Mention the types of coupling components used in between the amplifier
stages.
4. Draw the Class-A, Class-B, Class-B push- pull amplifier wave forms.
5. Mention max efficiency of Class-A, Class-B push-pull amplifier.
6. Write application of Class-A amplifier.
7. Write applications of Class-B push-pull amplifier?
8. Mention the IC numbers used in power amplifiers.
OJT/Practical Questions
• Study the Voltage/Power amplifiers types.
• Study the Class-A,Class-B,Class-C,Class-B push-pull amplifiers input/
output wave forms,efficienies and applications.
• Study the ICs numbers used for Voltage/Power amplifiers.
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UNIT 5
Feedback Amplifier & Oscillators
5.1
Learning Objectives
• Study definations of positive /negative feedback.
• Study the camparions of positive and negative feedback.
• Study the block diagram and working of negative feedback types of
negative feedback.
• Study the conditions to get oscillations,block diagram of positive
feedback,derivation over all gain of an oscillator.
• Study of types of oscillators working,expressions of frequency of RC
Phase shift, Collector tuned,Heartly,Collpits oscillators.
• Study of comparisions of RC and LC oscillators.
• Study of crystal oscillators working advantages.
• Study of applications of oscillators.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 257
Xo = AXs / 1 + A
The gain of feedback amplifier is
Af = Xo / Xs = A / 1+A
Here, Af is less than A giving in reduction in gain. If positive feedback employs,
in deominator is - (minus) ad therefore gain increase.
Fig. 5.1 Block Diagram of Simplified Single loop Negative Feedback amplifier
It is clear from the above equation that, a negative feedback reduces the
distortion by factor 1 + A.
5.3 Types of Nagative Feedback Amplifiers
The feedback amplifiers can be classified according to mixing and sampling
employed to it as follows:
1. Voltage series feedback amplifier
2. Current series feedback amplifier
3. Current shunt feedback amplifier
4. Voltage shunt feedback amplifier
1. Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier: This uses output voltage sampling
and series mixing.
2. Current Series Feedback Amplifier: This uses output current sampling
and series mixing.
3. Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier: This uses output current sampling
and shunt mixing.
4. Voltage Shunt Feedbac Amplifier: This uses output voltage sampling and
shunt mixing.
5.4 Conditions of an oscillators - Barkhausen Criteron
Oscillations produced by adequate positive feedback in an amplifier is called
a feedback oscillator. Fig. 5.02 gives the block diagram of feedback oscillator.
An amplifier is an essential part of an oscillator. Oscillations may be produced
by adequate positive feedback in an amplifier.
to the tank circuit in correct phase to aid the oscillations i.e., it provides positive
feed back. In oscillator is to satisfy Barkhausen criteria has to get sustained
oscillations.
5.5 Classification of Oscillators
The oscillators can be classified in the following ways.
1. According to the generated waveform.
(a) Sine wave oscillators.
(b) Relaxation or non-sinusoidal oscillators.
2. According to the fundemental mechanism involved
(a) Feedback oscillators.
(b) Negative resistance oscillators.
3. According to the associated circuit components
(a) RC oscillators
(b) LC oscillators
(c) Cyrstal oscillators
4. According to the frequency range:
(a) Audio frequency (AF) oscillators
(b) Radio frequency (RF) oscillators
(c) VHF or microwave oscillators.
5.5.1 | A| > 1
When the total phase shift around a loop is 00 or 3600 and |A >1, then the
output oscillates but the oscillations are of growing type. The amplitude of
oscillations goes on increasing as shown in Fig. 5.3
5.5.2 | A = 1|
As stated by Barkhausen criterion, when total phase shift around a loop is
0 or 3600 ensuring positive feedback and | A| = 1 then the oscillations are
0
5.5.3 |A < 1|
When total phase shift around a loop is 00 or 3600 but | A< 1| then the
oscillations are of decaying type i.e. such oscillation amplitude decreases
exponentially and the oscillations finally cease. Thus circuit works as an amplifier
without oscillations. The decaying oscillations are shown in Fig 5.5.
Classification of Oscillators
As type of tank circuit employ to the amplifier circuit in positive feedback
the following oscillators.
1. RC Phase Shift Oscillator
2. Collector Tuned Oscillator
3. Hartley Oscillator
4. Collpitt’s Oscillator
5.6 RC Phase Shift Oscillator
Fig.5.06 shows the circuit of a phase shift oscillator. It consists of a
conventional single transistor amplifier and a RC Phase shift network. The phase
shoft network consists of three sections R1 C1, R2 C2 and R3 C3. At some
particular frequency f0, the phase shift of each section is 600, so that the total
phase-shift produced by the RC network is (3 x 60) = 1800. The frequency
of oscillations is given by
fo = ( 1 ) / ( 2 RC 6)
where R1 = R2 = R3 = R
C1 = C2 = C3 = C
Fig. 5.7
Circuit Operation:
When switch S is closed. Collector current starts increasing and charges
the capacitor C1. When this capacitor is fully charged, it discharges through Coil
L1, setting up oscillations of frequency.
f = ( 1 ) / (2 L1C1)
These oscillations induce some voltage in coil L2 by mutual induction. The
frequency of voltage of coil L2 is the same as that of tank circuit but its magnitude
depends upon the number of turns of L2 and coupling between L1 and L2. The
voltage acaross L2 is applied between base and emitter and appears in the
amplified form in the collector circuit, thus overcoming the losses occurring in
the tank circuit. The number of turns of L2 and coupling between L1 and L2 are
so adjusted that oscillations across L2 are amplified to a level just sufficient to
supply losses to the tank circuit.
It may be noted that the phase of feedback is correct i.e., energy supplied
to the tank circuit is in phase with the generated oscillations. A phase shift of
1800 is created between the voltages of L1 and L2 due to transformer action. A
further phase shift of 1800 takes place between base-emitter and collector circuit
due to transistor properties. As a result the energy feedback to the tank circuit is
in phase with the generated oscillations.
5.8 Hartly Oscillator
Hartly oscillator is very popular and is commonly used as a local oscillator
in radio receivers.
Fig.5.8 shows the circuit of Hartley oscillator. The tank circuit is made up
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 267
of C L1 and L2. The coil L1 is inductively coupled to coil L2, the combination
functions as auto-transformer. The self bias is provided here for biasing. the
capacitor Cb blocks the d.c. component. When the power is ON, collector
current starts rising and charges the capacitor C. When the capacitor is fully
charged, it discharges through coils L1 and L2 setting up oscillations of frequency.
f = ( 1 ) / ( 2 (L1+L2) C)
where R1 = R2 = R3 = R
C1 = C2 = C3 = C
c) Hartly Oscillator frequency (formula)
where fo = ((1) / (2CL1) where L1 = L1 + L2 + - 2M
d) Colpitt’s Oscillator frequency
fo = ((1) / 2 CTL) where CT = C1C2 / C1+C2
5.11 Comparison of LC and RC Oscillators:
S.No. Particulars LC RC
Oscillators Oscillators
1. Requirements of Yes No
Inductor / transformer
The nature shape of the quartz crystal is a hexagonal prism. The useful
crystal is obtained by cutting the nature crystal. The crystal is usually mounted in
an oscillator circuit to vibrate best at one of its resonant frequencies, usually the
fundamental frequency. The formula of the fundamental frequency of crystal is
given by.
f=k/t
where t = Thickness of crystal
k = constant that depends o its cut and other physical factors.
In order to use crystal in an electronic circuit, it is placed between two
metal plates. A crystal can be conveniently replaced by an electrical equivalent
circuit. When the crystal is not vibrating, it is equivalent to capacitance Cm
because it has two metal plates separated by a dielectric (crystal). However
when crystal is vibrating, it is equivalent to series tuned circuit RLC. Therefore,
the electrical equivalent circuit of the crystal is shown in Fig.5.10. In this figure.
Cm = Mounting capacitance
Cs = Series capacitance introduced by air gap
R-L-C : Electrical equivalent of vibrational characteristics of crystal.
Fig. 5.10
Advantages
1. It can produce highest oscillating frequencies.
2. The quality factor (Q) of the crystal is very high. The Q factor of the
crystal may be as high as 10,000 compared to about 100 of LC tank circuit.
3. They have a high order of frequency stability.
4. Low cost.
5. Simple in construction.
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Disadvantages :
1. They are fragile and consequently can only be used in low power circuits.
2. The frequency of oscillation cannot be changed appreciably.
Summary
Oscillator Circuit or Tank Circuit: A circuit which produce electrical
oscillations of any desired frequency is known as an oscillatory circuit.
Frequency of oscillations is given by f = (1) / (2LC)
Feedback Oscillator : Oscillations produced by adequate positive feedback
in an amplifier is called a feedback oscillator.
Barkhensans Condition for Sustained Oscillations:
1. A = 1
2. Phase angle of - A is zero.
Colpitt’s Oscillator : The tank circuit of this oscillator is made up of C1 C2 and
L. The frequency of oscillations is given by
f = (1) / (2LCT) where CT = (C1C2) / (C1 + C2)
Hartley Oscillator : The tank circuit of this oscillator is made up of CL1 and
L2. The frequency of oscillations is given by
f = 1 / (2(L1+L2) C)
RC Phase Shift Oscillator :
The phase shift network of this oscillator consists of three identical RC
sections. The phase shift of each session is 600. Frequency of oscillations is
given by
f = (1) / RC6)
Crystal Oscillator : It is used to get high frequency stability. This is possible by
employing crystal in a transistor oscillator.
Relaxation Oscillator : An oscillator which produces non-sinusoidal wavesl
like square, sawtooth, rectangular, triangular etc., is called a relaxation oscillator.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 273
Practical/OJT Questions
• Study the oscillators-RC phase shift,Hartely,Colpitts,Tuned collector
and Crystal oscillators.
UNIT 6
Analogic’s
Learning Objectives
• Study of different IC s used as Voltage regulators.
• Study of working of siries/shunt voltage regulators.
• Study oft the advantages of IC s regulators.
• Study of the positive/negative voltage regulator by using IC 7800
and 7900series.
• Study the operation of LM317 adjustable voltage regulator.
• Study the operation of differential amplifier.
• Study operational amplifier working and Input impedence,Open loop
gain,Slew rate, CMRR,Input offset voltage,Input offset Current and
specifications.
• Study the block diagram of IC 741 working.
• Study the operational amplifier working as summer, integrator,
diffentiator, inverter, multiplier,voltage follower,voltage to current
converter,current to voltage converter,camparitor and square wave
generator.
• Study the block diagram of IC 555 and working.
• Study the working of PLL.
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6.0 Introduction
The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a stable dc voltage for
powering other electronic circuits. A voltage regulator should be capable of
providing substantial output current. Voltage regulators are classified as:
Series regulator
Shunt regulator
Series regulator use as power transistor connected in series between the
unregulated dc input and the load. The output voltage is controlled by the
continuous voltage drop taking place across the series pass transistor. Since the
transistor conducts in the active or linear region, these regulators are also called
linear regulators. Linear regulators may have fixed or variable signal output voltage
ad could be positive or negative. The schematic, important characteristics, data
sheet, short circuit protection, current fold-back, current boosting techniques
for linear voltage regulators such as 78 XX, 79 XX series, 723 IC are discussed.
Switching regulators, on the other hand, operate the power transistor as a
high frequency on/off switch, so that the power transistor does not conduct
current continuously. This gives improved efficiency over series regulator. In the
principle of switching power supply and its advantages over linear type of voltage
regulator are discussed.
batteries output into a constant 5V voltage source. The circuit has already been
designed for you.You task will be to build and test its operation. You will also do
some experiments that will allow you to develop an understanding of how the
circuit works.
The voltage regulator circuit consists of 5 different components; a 9V battery,
a resistor, a diode, a transistor, and a capacitor. You may wish to review the
description of the operation of these components in the Lab Guide.The circuit
you will be building is shown in Fig. 6.1. The pin out for the transistor is shown
in Fig. 6.2 - please be very careful, interchanging the base and collector will
result in immediate destruction of the transistor.
If you are using the replacement transistor rather than the one that comes in
the robot kit, its leads come out in a different order (shown on the left in Fig. 6).
For more details on identifying the E, B, and C terminals of your transistors see
the Lab Guide. Another potential problem is that the capacitor is electrolytic -
which means that it can only stand to have voltages applied in one direction. If
voltages are applied contrary to the sign of the label on the capacitor it will be
destroyed. Note, this circuit is also shown in the Graymark Robot Assembly
Manual in Figure T2 - but it may be WRONG. The Zener diode may be
incorrectly connected with the arrow pointing toward ground. Follow the
schematic shown above in Fig.6.1 or in the schematic.
A brief description of the circuit operation is as follows. Before the 9V
battery is attached, all points on the circuit are at 0V (ground). Let us first
consider the operation of the circuit without the capacitor (C11). When the
switch is closed, a voltage is applied to the Zener diode through R14. The value
of R14 is chosen so that the Zener diode is in the reverse break-down region.
Consequently, the voltage across the diode is held constant at 5.6V. This 5.6V
also appears across the base-emitter junction of the transistor and the load
resistor in series. Since this voltage is much greater than 0.7V, the base-emitter
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diode is forward biased and current flows intothe base of the transistor. The
voltage across the resistor is therefore fixed at 5.6-0.7=4.9 V as long as the
Zener diode is in the reverse breakdown region and the base-emitter diode is
forward biased.
To see how this circuit is always able to hold the voltage across the load at
approximately 5 V, let us consider the current flows in the circuit. The current
flowing through R14 is split between the Zener diode and the base-emitter diode
of the transistor. If we denote the current flowing into the base as IB, a current
equal to (symbol)IB flows from the battery into the Collector. Since the transistor
is connected to operate in the “Forward Active” region, a current equal to
(symbol+1)IB flows out of the emitter and through the Zener diode changes so
that the base current and therefore the emitter current has the proper value to
give the required 5V across the load resistor.
the +20V output of the power supply output voltage to 0V before you connect
the +20V terminal of the power supply to the transistor collector and R14.
Measure the output capacitor voltage, VOUT,for varying values of power supply
voltage, V1N, starting at 0 volts and increasing the supply by 1 volt steps until it
reaches 9 volts. As you increase the power supply volage keep an eye on the
ammeter on your power supply. If it moves noticeably, immediately turn the
voltage back down and check your circuit.
2. One important characterization of a voltage regulator is how well it
holds the output constant in the face of changing input voltage - this is called line
regulation. Line regulation is characterized by the change in output voltage divided
by the change in input voltage. That is,
Aline = VOUT / VIN
The line regulations error for the ideal voltage regulator is 0%. With a
single 4.7K resistor as a load for the voltage regulator output, and a power
supply voltage of 9V, measure the output voltage. Change in the power supply
voltage to 8V and then measure the output voltage. What is Aline for your voltage
regulator?
3. Next, we will explore what is called the “load regulation” of your voltage
regulator. Good load regulation means that the output voltage does not change
much with changing load resistance. To characterize the load regulation of your
regulator circuit, set the power supply voltage at 9V, and see how the output
voltage varies as you draw current from (load down) the voltage regulator output.
Measure the regulator output voltage with a 4.7K resistance (which means a
load current of about 1mA) and with a load resistance of wo 4.7K resistors in
parallel (which means a load current of approximately 2mA. We formulate the
voltage regulator’s load regulation in terms of its incremental output resistance -
change in load voltage divided by the change in load current.
Rsupply = VOUT / IOUT = VOUT / 1mA
Note, an ideal voltage source would have
Rsupply = 0
What is Rsupply for your regulator?
4. After you have verified that the circuit functions properly, solder the
voltage regulator circuit onto the robot PC board. Note, do not out off the leads
of the components flush with the board. You should leave enough wire protruding
so that a clip lead can be attached for testing. Verify that the connections are
correct by examining the underside of the board. Set the +20V part of your
280 Electronics Engineering Technician
power supply to +9V and attach it to the +9V pin of the robot PC board
between R14 and the power switch SW1. Attach the power supply common to
one of the GND pins of the robot PC board. Turn SW1 on the check to see that
your voltage regulator still works by measuring the voltage of the output pin with
respect to ground. If the output voltage is not 5V, identify the problem and fix it.
If you cannot rectify the problem ask your TA for help.
6.2 Shunt voltage Regulator
Trans
78 XX, the last two numbers (XX) indicate the output voltage. thus 7815
represents a 15V regulator. There are also available 79 XX series of fixed output,
negative voltage regulators which are complements to the 78 XX series devices.
There are two extra voltage options -2 V and -5.2 V available in 79 XX series.
These regulators are available in two types of packages.
Metal Package (TO - 3 type)
Plastic Package (To - 220 type)
Data Sheet Regulator:
7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx
series of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may
have fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage
regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. the xx in 78xx
indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V
regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input
and output, pind depending upon the respective voltage levels.
Fig. 6.4
Pin Description
Unregulated
Regulated
input Vin
output Vo
Av = 1 + ( R1 / R2)
So the output voltage for the circuit is
Vo = 7.15 x (1+ R2 / R1)
6.3.1 Advantages of IC Regulators
· Available source input voltages
· Desired supply output voltage magnitudes
· Ability to step-down or step-up output voltages, or both
· DC-DC converter efficiency (POUT / PIN)
· Output voltage ripple
· Output load transient response
· Solution complexity (one IC solution, # of passive components,
controller and external FETs)
· Switching frequency (for switch-mode regulators)
Data Sheets
The circuits of Fig.6.07 have no protection. If the load demands more
current e.g. under abort circuit condition, the IC tries to provide it at a constant
output voltage getting hotter all the time. This may ultimately burn the IC.
The IC is, therefore, provided with a current limit facility. Currenet limiting
refers in the ability of a regular to prevent the load current from increasing above
a present value. The characteristic curve of a current limited power supply. The
output voltage remains constant for load current below Ilimit. As current
approaches to the limit, the output voltage drops. The current limit Ilimit is set by
connecting an external resistor Rsc between the terminals CL and CS terminals.
The CL terminal is also connected to the output terminal V0 and CS terminal to
the load.
LM341,LM78M05,LM78M12,LM78M15
LM341/LM78MXX Series 3-Terminal Positive Voltage Regulators
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 285
Fig. 6.8
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Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 287
288 Electronics Engineering Technician
Description/ordering information
The LM317 is an adjustable three-terminal positive-voltage regulator capable
of supplying more than 1.5 A over an output-voltage range of 1.25 V to 37 V. It
is exceptionally easy to use and requires only two external resistors to set the
output voltage. Furthermore, both line and load regulation are better than standard
fixed regulators.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 291
Since the feedback current is proportional to the output voltage, this circuit
is voltage shunt feedback amplifier.
The transfer trans resistance
Rmf = Vs / Is
Since Is = If (because IB isvery very small)
Therefore Rmf = Vs / If = 1/ B = Rf
1. Low drift.
2. Very high input resistance.
292 Electronics Engineering Technician
Supply voltage rejection ratio: The change in an op-amp’s input offset voltage
due to variations in supply voltage is called the supply voltage rejection ration
(SVRR). Some manufacturers use terms like power supply rejection ratio
(PSRR) or power supply sensitivity (PSS). These terms are expressed in
microvolts per volt or in decibels. For 741C, SVRR = 150 V/V. Obviously,
lower the value of SVRR, better the op-amp.
Large Signal Voltage Gain : An op-amp amplifies the difference voltage
between the two input terminals and, therefore, its voltage gain is defined as
Voltage gain = output voltage / differential input voltage
Sincethe amplitude of the output signal is much larger than the input signal,
the voltage gain is commonly referred as large signal voltage gain. For 741C,
typical value is 2,00,000 under test conditions, RL >+ 2 k and V0 = +- 10 V.
Output Voltage Swing: The output voltage swing indicates the value of positive
and negative saturation voltages of an op-amp, and never exceeds the supply
voltage V+ and V-. For 741C, the output voltage swing is guaranteed to be
between +13 V and -13Vfor RL > = 2 k.
Output Resistance: Output resistance R0 is the resistance measured between
the output terminal of the op-amp and the ground. It is 75 for the 741Cop-
amp.
Output Short Circuit Current: This is the current that may flow if an op-amp
gets shorted accidentally and is generally high. The op-amp must be provided
with short circuit protection. The short circuit current Isc for 741C is 25 mA This
means that the built-in short circuit protection is guaranteed to withstand 25 mA
of current.
6.9 OP - AMP Specification
The manufacturers supply data sheets for the IC’s they produce. These data
sheets provide information regarding pin diagram, absolute maximum ratings,
electrical characteristics, equivalent circuit of the devices etc.In this section,
significance of the electrical parameters supplied in a typical op-amp data sheet
is discussed.
The data sheet for a Fairchild A741 op-amp, 741 series are available in
models 741, 741A,741C and 741E. The schematic diagram and electrical
parameters for all these models are the same with only the values of the parameters
differing from one model to another. We will consider specifications for 741C
op-amp.
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Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 297
Summing Amplifier
Op-amp may be used to design a circuit whose output is the sum of several
input signals. Such a circuit is called a summing amplifier or a summer. An inverting
summer or a non-inverting summer may be obtained as disccussed now.
Invertor Summing Amplifier
A typical summing amplifier with three input voltages V1, V2 and V3, three
input resistors R1,R2 ,R4 and a feedback resistor Rf is shown in Fig.6.16. The
following analysis is carried out assuming that the op-amp is an ideal one, that is,
AOL = (symbol) and Ri = (symbol). Since the input bias current is assumed to be
zero, there is no voltage drop across the resistor Rcomp and hence the non-
inverting input terminal is at ground potential.
The voltage at node ‘a’ is zero as the non-inverting input terminal is grounded.
The nodal equation by KCL at node ‘a’ is
(V1 / R1 ) + (V2 / R2) + (V3 / R3) + (Vo / Rf ) = 0
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 299
Rt Rt Rt
or Vo = - --- V1 + --- V2 + --- V3
R1 R2 R3
Thus the output is an inverted, weighted sum of the inputs. In the special
case, when R1 = R2 = R3 = Rfwe have
V0 = -(V1 + V2 + V3)
in which case the output V0 is the inverted sum of the input signals. we may
also set
R1 = R2 = R3 = 3Rf
in which case
Vo= -(V1+V2+V3)
Thus the output is the average of the input signals (inverted). In a practical
circuit, input bias current compensating resistor Rcomp should be provided. to
find Rcomp make all inputs V1 = V2 = V3 = 0. So the effective input resistance R1
= R1 || R2 || R3. Therefore, Rcomp = R1|| Rf = R1 || R2 || R3 || Rf.
AC Voltage Follower
The circuit of a practical ac voltage follower is shown in Fig.6.17. The
circuit is used as a buffer to connect a high impedance signal source to a low
impedance load which may even be capacitive. The capacitor C1 and C2are
chosen high so that they are short circuit at all frequencies of operation. Resistors
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R1 and R2 provide a path for dc input current into the non-inverting terminal. C2
acts as a bootstrapping capacitor and connects the resistance R1 to the output
terminal for ac operation. Hence the input resistance that the source sees is
approximately R1/(1 - ACL) [from Miller’s theorem] where ACLis the gain of the
voltage follower which is close to unity (0.9997). Thus very high input impedance
can be obtained.
i1 + i2 = iL
or (vi - v1 / R) + (vo - v1 / R) = iL
or vi - v1 - 2 v1 = iLR
Therefore v1 = v1 + v0 - iLR / 2
Fig. 6.18 Voltage to current converter with (a) floating load, (b) Grounded load
Since the op-amp is used in non-inverting mode, the gain of the circuit is 1
+ R/R = 2. The output voltage is,
v0 = 2 v1 = v1 + v0 - iLR
that is, vi = iLR
or, iL = vi /R
As the input impedance of a non-inverting amplifier is very high, this circuit
has the advantage of drawing very little current time from the source. A voltage
to current converter is used for low votage dc and ac voltmeter, LED and zener
diode tester.
Current to Voltage Converter (Transresistance Amplifier)
Photocell, photodiode and photovoltaic cell give an output current that is
proportional to an incident radiant energy or light. The current through these
devices can be converted to voltage by using a current-to-voltage converter
and thereby the amount of light or radiant energy incident on the photo-device
can be measured.
302 Electronics Engineering Technician
For a square wave input, say 1V peak and 1 KHz, the output waveform
will consist of positive and negative spikes of mangitude Vsat which is
approximately 13V for +- 15V op-amp power supply.
During the time periods for which input is constant at +- 1V, the differentiated
output will be zero. However, when input transits between +- 1V levels, gets
clipped to about +- 13 V for a +- 15V op-amp power supply as shown in Fig.
6.22
304 Electronics Engineering Technician
Fig. 6.23 (a) Sine-wave input and cosine output (b) Square wave input and spike output
Integrator
If we interchange the resistor and capacitor of the differentiator, we have
the circuit of Fig. 6.23 which as we will see, is an integrator. The nodal equation
at node N is,
(vi / R1)+ Cf (dvo / dt) = 0
or, dvo / dt = -(1 / R1Cf ) vi
Integrating on both sides,
be noted that there is a negative sign in the output voltage, and therefore, this
integrator is also known as an inverting integrator. A resistance Rcomp = R1 is
usually connected to the (+) input terminal to minimize the effect of input bias
current.
A simple low pass RC circuit can also work as an integrator when time
contant is very large. This requires very large values of R and C. The components
R and C cannot be made infinitely large because of practical limitations. However,
in the op-amp integrator of Fig.6.24, by Miller’s theorem, the effective input
capacitance becomes CF (1 - Av) where Av is the gain of the op-Amp.The gain
Av is infinite for an ideal op-Amp, so the effective time constant of the op-Amp
integrator becomes very large which results in perfect integration.
The operation of the integrator can also be studied in the frequency domain.
In phase notation, Equation can be written as
Vo(8) = - 1 / sR1CF) Vi(s)
In steady state, put s = jw and we get
Vo(jw) = - 1 /jwR1CF) Vi(jw)
So, the magnitude of the gain or integrator transfer function is
The frequency response (or Bode Plot) of this basic integrator is shown n
fig.6.23. The Bode Plot is a straight line of slope -6B/octave (or equavalently -
20 dB/decade). The frequency fb in Fig 6.24 is the frequency at which the gain
of the integrator is 0 dB and is given by
fb = 1 / 2 R1CF
Energy Controlled
Timer
Source Device
Applications of Timers
1. Control systems 2. Industrial use
3. Computers 4. Communication system
5. Measuring systems 6. Clock circuits
7. Motor starters etc.
IC 555 TIMER (ELECTRONIC TIMER)
Fig 6.28 gives the functional block diagram of 555 IC timer. The three
equal resistors R1, R2 and R3 serves as internal voltage divider for the source
voltage. Thus one third of source voltage VCC appears across each resistor. The
voltages at point P1 and P2 serves as reference voltages for the comparators.
The reference voltage for comparator 2 is + 1/3 VCC. If a trigger pulse is applied
at the negative input of the comparator drops below + 1/3 VCC it causes a
change in state. Comparator 1 is reference at voltage + 2/3 VCC . The output of
each comparator is fed to the input termints of the flip-flop.
The flip-flop changes states according to the the voltage values of its input.
Thus if the voltage at the threshold terminal rises above +2/3 VCC it causes
comparator 1 to cause flip-flop to change its state. On the other hand, if the
trigger voltage falls below +1/3 VCC it causes comparator 2 to change its state
and hance cause flip-flop to change its states. Thus the output of the flip-flop is
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 309
to ground through pin 7. The output voltage drop to its low or ground state.
Thus the output stage follows the change in the trigger level. The time duration T
of the output is given by T = 1.1 RC.
6.13 IC 555 Astable Multivibrator:
The astable multivibrator using IC 555 is shown in Fig.6.30. During the
charging up period transistor T1 is held open by the flip-flop and the capacitor
charges through the series connected resistors RA and RB. Whe the voltage
across the capacitor reaches the reference level of the upper comparator 2 VCC
/ 3, the comparator changes the state of the flip-flop and this terms the transistor
T1 ON. The capacitor discharges through resistor RB until its voltage reaches
the reference level of the lower comparator VCC /3. This comparator changes
the state of flip-flop again, which in turn makes the transistor T1 OFF and the
cycle repeats
The charging time of the capacitor is determined by
T1 = C (RA + RB) loge (VCC - VCC /3) / VCC - 2 VCC/3
The above equation immediately follows from the fact that the charging of
capacitor starts from VCC /3 instead of zero. Further the charging continues upto
2 VCC / 3, after which the upper comparator changes state. The equation ()
simplifies to
T1 = C (RA + RB) loge 2
(or) T1 = 0.7 (RA + RB) C
the loop is to cause (symbol) to take on just that value which is required to
generate the d.c. control voltage necessary to change the frequency of the VCO
from free running value to frequency of the input signal. This action allows the
PLL to ‘track’ any frequency changes of the input signal once lock has been
acquired.
Functional block diagram of LM - 565 PLL is shown in Fig. 6.32 and pin
diagram is shown in Fig.6.32. It is self-contained, adaptable filter and
demodulator for the frequency range from 0.001 Hz to 500 kHz. The circuit
consists of a VCO, a phase comparator, an amplifier and a low pass filter.
R2, C2 form a low pass filter. The capacitor C2 is connected externally while
R2 is an internal resistor of value 3.6 k(symbol). Here the free running frequency
of the VCO is determined by the values of a external resistor R, connected
between pin 8 and the positive supply line and an external capacitor C, connected
between pin 9 and the negative supply line. A capacitor ofvalue typically 0.001mF
is normally connected between pins 7 and 8 to eliminate possible oscillation in
the VCO voltage controlled current source.
The square wave output signal of VCO is available at pin 4 and in order to
close the loop, pin 4 must be connected externally to the phase comparator
input Pin 5. The amplified loop error voltage which is applied as the control
signal tothe VCO is available at pin 7. This signal is referenced to the positive
supply line. A reference voltage which is normally equal to the voltage at Pin 7 in
available at Pin 6 and this allows differential stages to be both biased and driven
by connecting them to Pin 6 and 7. The signal inputs to the phase comparator
are differential at Pin 2 and Pin 3, and the d.c. level at these two Pins must be
made the same. If dual power supplies are used it is simplest to bias 2 and 3 at
the potential of the common power supply line. With single supply operation
they should be biased to a level in the lower half of the total power supply
voltage by means of a suitable potential divider.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 313
Fig. 6.33 shows the second method which can provide large multiplication
of frequency. To set up the circuit, the frequency limits of the input signal are
determined. The f0 is adjusted by means of R1 and C1 which ensures the output
frequency of the divider midway between the input frequency limits. The value
of C2 is selected large enough to eliminate variations in the demodulated output
voltage at Pin 7 so that the VCO frequency is established. The output can now
be taken as the VCO square wave output, and its fundamental will be the desired
multiple of the input frequency as long as the loop is in lock.
Summary
1. An op-amp can be used to perform mathematical operations such as
scale changer, addition and subtraction.
2. An instrumentation amplifier is useful for amplifying low level signals
which are obtained by sensing with a transducer in the measurement of physical
quantities like temperature, water flow etc.
3. Op-Amps can be used for amplifying both ac and dc inputs. A capacitively
coupled amplifier is used for amplifying ac signals only.
4. The V - to - I converters are useful in low voltage dc and ac voltmeters,
LED and zener diode testers.
5. The I-to -V converters are used for testing photo devices.
6. A diode in the feedback loop of an op-amp behaves as a precission
diode as its cut-in voltage gets divided by the open-loop gain of op-amp.
7. A precision diode may be used for half-wave rectification, full wave
rectification, peak-value detector, clipper and clamper.
8. A sample and hold circuit samples an input signal and holds on to its last
318 Electronics Engineering Technician
sampled value until the input is sampled again. Thie circuit is used in analog to
digital interfacing and pulse modulating system.
9. Op-Amp may be used to perform functions such as In, log, antilog,
multiply or divide signals.
10. The op-Amp integrator and differentiator are useful for signal wave
shaping.
11. Integrators are preferred over differentiators for analog computers as
the gain of integrator decreases with increasing frequency and hence signal to
noise ratio of integrator is higher than that of differentiator.
12. Monolithic audio power amplifiers with built in heat sink are available.
13. The operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) outputs a current
proportional to its input voltage. OTAs are used to build programmable gain
voltage amplifiers, voltage controlled resistances, neural networks etc.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Mention the types voltage regulators.
2. Mention the types of IC regulators.
3. What are the applications of Differential amplifiers. ?
4. What are the IC numbers of positive/negative regulators?
5. What is adjustable voltage regulator ?
6. Define Op-Amp input impedence,open loop gain.
7. Define Op-Amps slew rate,CMRR.
8. Define Op-Amps input offset voltage,input offset current.
9. Mention the number of pins in IC741.
10. Write applications of Op-Amp.
11. What are the applications of IC555 ?.
12. What is PLL.?
13. What are applications of LM565 ?
14. What is lock range of PLL?.
15.What is capture range of PLL ?
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 319
UNIT 7
Power Electronic Devices
Learning Objectives
• Study of power electronics devices SCR,DIAC,TRIAC,GTOs,PUT,
QUADRACS, SIDACS, SLRs, UJT, RCT, MCT, IGBT, etc,.symbols.
• Study of construction and working of SCR.
• Study the construction and working of DIAC and TRIAC.
• Study the triggering of SCR by using UJT.
• Study the operation and working of Thtrister.
7.0 Introduction
Thyristers are a family of semiconductor devices that exibits bi-stable current-
voltage characteristics and can be switched between a high impedence, low
current of state and a low impedance, high current on state.
7.1 The Thyrister Family Devices are
(1) DIACS
(2) Gate Turn - off (GTO) Thyristers
(3) Programmable Unijunction Transisters
(4) Quadracs
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 321
(5) Sidacs
(6) Silicon Controlled Rectifies SLR
(7) Thyrister surge suppressors
(8) Thyristors
(9) TRIACS
(10) Unijunction Transistors
The diode acts as a switch during forward bias condition. The characteristic
curve of the PNPN diode is shown in the figure.
7.2 Thyristor Family Devices:
The impartent multilayer devices of the Thyristor family as follows,
322 Electronics Engineering Technician
the original input voltage.Thae overall current gain of the two transistor
arrangement is equal to 1*2.The total anode to cathode current is given by
Ia=Ic1+Ic2
consider the gate voltage,if Vgk is zero or negative the NPN trasistor Q2 is
biased off and therefore Q1 is never turned on.Thus Ia equals the sum of the
leackage currents of Q1 and Q2.Tresistance from anode to cathode is very high
and the anod to cathode voltage drop is high.Therefore the switch is open.If Vgk
is sufficiently positive,Q2 is forward biased.Therfore Ic2 increases and Q1 is tured
ON. Thus the becomes regenerative.
Both transistors saturate.This reduses the forward resistance and voltage
drop drastically,so the switch is closed .Once the SCR is on ,there is no need
for gate current.This is because Ic1 is sufficient to maintain Ib2 and keep Q2
ON.
The only way to turn off the SCR is reduce Ia below some minimum holding
current.This sometimes disadvantage with SCR.
Due to this ON-OFF action SCR can be triggered from the open or
blocking state to the closed or low resistance high conducting stage.
7.4 Volt-Ampere, Charactrtistics of SCR
This is a graph between Ia anode current versus V ak voltage for different
gate currents.When the anode voltage is negative the SCR works as two revrese
biased PN junctions.A small leackage current flows .When VAK exceeds the
reverse break down voltage
The characteristics of SCR are shown in Fig. SCR acts as a switch when it
is forward biased. When the gate is kept open, i.e. gate current IG = 0, Operation
of SCR is similar to PNPN diode. When IG < 0, the amount of reverse bais
applied to J2 is increased. So the breakover voltage VBO is increased. When IG
>0, the amount of reverse bias applied to J2 is decreased thereby decreasing the
breakover voltage. With very learge positive gate current breakover may occur
at a very low voltage such that the characteristics of SCR is similar to that of
ordinary PN diode. As the voltage at which SCR is switched ‘ON’ can be
controlled by varying the gate current IG . It is commonly called as controlled
switch. Once SCR is turned ON, the gate loses control i.e. the gate cannot be
used to switch the device OFF. One way to turn the device OFF is by lowering
the anode current below the holding current IH by reducing the supply voltage
below holding voltage VH, keeping the gate open.
(7.04)
Equation(7.04) indicates that (1+ 2) = I then IA = infinity, i.e. the anode
current IA suddenly reaches a very high value approaching infinity. Therefore,
the device suddenly triggers into ON state from the original OFF state. This
characteristics of the device is known as its regenerative action.
The value of (1+ 2) can be made almost equal to unity by giving a
proper value of positive current Ig for a short duration. This signal Ig applied at
the gate which is the base of T2 will cause a flow of collector current IC2 by
transferring T2 to its ON state. As IC2 = Ib1, the transistor T1 will also be switched
ON. Now the action is regenerative since each of the transistors would supply
base current to the other. At this point even if the gate signal is removed, the
device keeps on conducting, till the current level is maintained to a minimum
value of holding current.
7.5 SCR Ratings
The following are the ratings of SCR
1. Current at break over point
326 Electronics Engineering Technician
Fig. 7.6
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 333
Construction:
The DIAC is basically a two terminal parellel-inverse combination of
semiconductor layers that permits triggering in either direction. The basic
arrangement of the semiconductor layers of the diac is shown in the figure, along
with its graphical symbol. Nore that either terminal is referred as the cathode.
Instead, there is an anode 1 and an anode 2. When the anode 1 is positive with
respect to anode 2, the semiconductor
Operation:
DIAC circuits use the fact that a DIAC only conducts current only after a
certain breakdown voltage has been exceeded. The actual breakdown voltage
will depend upon the specification for the particular component type.
When the diac break down voltage occurs, the resistance of the component
decreases abruptly and this leads to a sharp decrease in the voltage drop across
the diac, and a corresponding increase in current. The DIAC will remain in its
conducing state until the current flow through it drops below a particular value
known as the holding current. When the current falls below the holding current,
the DIAC switches back to its high resistance, or non-conducting state.
334 Electronics Engineering Technician
DIAC are widely used in AC applications and it is found that the device is
“reset” to its non-conducting state, each time the voltage on the cycle falls so
that the current falls below the holding current. As the behaviour of the device is
approximately equal in both directions, it can provide a method of providing
equal switching for both halves of an AC cycle, e.g for triacs.
Most DIAC s have a breakdown voltage of around 30 volts, although the
exact specifications will depend upon the particular type of device.. Interestingly
their behaviour is somewhat similar to that of a neon lamp, although they offer a
far more precise switch on voltage and thereby provide a far better degree of
switching equalisation.
TRIAC Symbol
This results from the fact that the diac switching characteristic is far more
even than that of the TRIAC. Since the diac prevents any gate current flowing
until the trigger voltage has reached a certain voltage in either direction, this
makes the firing point of the TRIAC more even in both directions.
Motor lamp
heater or some
other device
Peak Point P
R1 (Load Line)
Negative Resistance
Region
Valley Point
handling capacity, vacuum devices have been nearly entirely replaced by solid-
state equivalents, or by solid state devices that have no thermionic equivalent.
Power electronic devices may be used as switches, or as amplifiers. [1] An
ideal switch is either open or closed and so dissipates no power; it withstands
an applied voltage and passes no current, or passes any amount of current with
no voltage drop. Semiconductor devices used as switches can approximate this
ideal property and so most power electronic applications rely on switching devices
on and off, which makes systems very efficient as no power is wasted in the
switching devices. By contrast, in the case of the amplifier, the current through
the device varies continuously according to a controlled input. The voltage and
current at the device terminals follow a load line, and the power dissipation
inside the device is large compared with the power delivered to the load.
Several attributes dictate how devices are used. Devices such as diodes
conduct when a forward voltage is applied and have no external control of the
start of conduction. Power devices such as silicon controlled rectifiers and
thyristors (as well as the former mercury valve and thyratron) allow control of
the start of conduction, but rely on periodice reversal of current flow to turn
them off. Devices such as gate turn-off Thyristors, bipolar junction transistors.
(BJT), and MOSFET transistors provide full switching control and can be turned
on or off without regard to the current flow through them. Transistor devices
also allow proportional amplificaton, but this is rarely used for systems rated
more than a few hundred Watts. The control input characteristics of a device
also greatly affect design; sometimes the control input is at a very high voltage
with respect to ground and must be driven by an isolated source.
Devices vary in switching speed. Some diodes and Thyristors are suited
for relatively slow speed and are useful for power freqauency switching and
control; certain thyristors are useful at a few KHz. Devices such as MOSFETS
and BJTs can switch at tens of KHz up to a few megahertz in power applications,
but with decreasing power levels. Very high power (hundreds of KW) at very
high frequency (hundreds or thousands of megahertz) is still the area where
vacuum tube devices predominate. The use of faster switching devices minimizes
energy lost in the transitions from on to off and back, but may create problems
with radiated electtromagnetic interference. Gate drive (or equivalent) circuits
must be designed to supply sufficient drive current to achieve the full switching
speed possible with a device. A device that doesn’t get sufficient drive to switch
rapidly, may be destroyed by excess heating.
Power handling and dissipation of devices is also a critical factor in design.
Power electtronic devices may have to dissipate tens or hundreds of watts of
waste heat, even switching as efficiently as possible between conducting and
340 Electronics Engineering Technician
When the anode is at a positive potential VAK with respect to the cathode
with no voltage applied at the gate, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, while
junction J2 is reverse biased. As J2 is reverse biased, no conduction takes place
(Off state). Now if VAK is increased beyond the breakdown voltage VBO of the
thyristor, avalanche breakdown of J2 takes place and the thyristor starts
conducting (On state).
I f a positive potential VG is applied at the gate terminal with respect to the
cathode, the breakdown of the junction J2 occurs at a lower value of VAK. By
selecting an appropriate value of VG, the thyristor can be switched into the on
state suddenly.
Once avalanche breakdown has occurred, the thyristor continues to
conduct, irrespective of the gate voltage, until: (a) the potential VAK is removed
or (b) the current through the device (anode”cathode) is less than the holding
current specified by the manufacturer. Hence VG can be a voltage pulse, such as
the voltage output from a UJT relaxation oscillator.
These gate pulses are characterized in terms of gate trigger voltage (VGT)
and gate trigger current (IGT). Gate trigger current varies inversely with gate
pulse width in such a way that it is evident that there is a minimum gate charge
required to trigger the thyristor.
Switching characteristics
V - I Characteristics.
In a conventional thyristor, once it has been switched on by the gate terminal,
the device remains latched in the on-state (i.e. does not need a continuous supply
of gate current to conduct), providing the anode current has exceeded the latching
current (IL). As long as the anode remains positively biased, it cannot be switched
off until the anode current falls below the holding current (IH).
A thyristor can be switched off if the external circuit causes the anode to
become negatively biased. In some applications this is done by switching a second
thyristor to discharge a capacitor into the cathode of the first thyristor. This
method is called forced commutation.
After a thyristor has been switched off by forced commutation, a finite time
delay must have elapsed before the anode can again be positively biased and
retain the thyristor in the off-state. This minimum delay is called the circuit
commutated turn off time (tQ). Attempting to positively bias the anode within this
time causes the Thyristor to be self-triggered by the remaining charge carriers
(holes and electrons) that have not yet recombined.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 343
For applications with frequencies higher than the domestic AC mains supply
(e.g. 50 Hz or 60 Hz), thyristors with lower values of tQ are required. Such fast
thyristors are made by diffusing into the silicon heavy metals ions such as gold or
platinum which act as charge combination centres. Alternatively, fast thyristors
may be made by neutron irradiation of the silicon.
7.11 (c) Insulated Gate BipoalarTransistor (IGBT)
Widely used in any accession where need amplify and drive at grids gate,
realize the safety electrical isolation between the power semiconductor device
and control circuit by using opto-coupler. The switching frequency high up to
20K Hz, with short protection and output fault, output soft off when over-current,
timing and reset function, etc. This series include QP series ( with isolated power)
and hot sale QC series.
• QP series is built with isolated power, with high reliability and layout and
very easy to use.
• QC series can cross lots of competitors’ item.
• QA series is the assistant driving power of QC series
Application: Inverter, uninterrupted power supply (UPS,), servo drive,
welding machine and other occasion with high power IGBT.
344 Electronics Engineering Technician
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 345
346 Electronics Engineering Technician
Fig. 7.11
When v1>0.7 it lets the electrons flow toward collector, so we can control
our output current (Ic) with the input current (Ib) by using transistors.
Vertical Cross Section
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 347
Fig. 7.12
Fig. 7.13
Fig. 7.14
Fig. 7.15
Output Characteristics
Curve I ? IB=0
Curve II? IB?0
Initial part of the curve II, characterized by VCE ? called saturation region.
In this region transistor acts like switch.
Flat part of the curve ?with increasing VCE, almost IC is constant ? called
active region. In this region transistor acts as amplifier.
Almost vertically rising curve is the breakdown region, which must be
avoided at all cost.
The load line IC=(VCC-VCE)/RC. The line joining A and B.
When transistor is ON, VCE=0, the IC=VCC/RC. This collector current is
shown by point A
When transistor is OFF, or in cut-off, VCC appears across collector-emitter
and there is no collector current. This value is indicated by point B.
Transfer Characteristics
Forward current gain a=IC/IE
The ratio of collector current (O/P) IC and base current IB (I/P) called
current gain.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 349
Fig. 7.16
Working
Transistors work in 3 regions
Active: Always on —IC=BIb
Saturation :Ic=Isaturation On as a switch
Off :Ic=0 Off as a switch
Transistors have three terminals:
Fig. 7.17
350 Electronics Engineering Technician
Fig. 7.18
Fig. 7.19
Large base current will cause the transistor work in saturation region at
point A’ with small saturation voltage VCES.
When the control or base is reduce to 0, the transistor is turn-off and its
operation is shift to B’ in the cut-off region. A small leakage current ICEO flow in
the collector circuit when the transistor is off.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 351
When the control or base is reduce to 0, the transistor is turn-off and its
operation is shift to B’ in the cut-off region. A small leakage current ICEO flow in
the collector circuit when the transistor is off.
If VCE(S) is the collector –emitter saturation voltage, then the collector
current ICS is:The ratio of ICS to IB is called forced current gain and less than ß.
the time during which collector current rises from 0.1 Ics to 0.9Ics. This
shows the total turn on time ton=td+tr.
Safe-Operating Area
The safe operating area of a power transistor specifies the safe-operating
limits of collector current versus collector emitter voltage.
For reliable operation of the power transistor, the collector current and
voltage must always lie within this area.
Two types of safe-operating areas are specified by manufacturer:
FBSOA (Forward-biased safe-operating area)
RBSOA (Reverse-biased safe-operating area)
FBSOA ? belongs to the transistor operation when base-emitter junction is
forward biased to turn-on the transistor.
Forward Biased Safe Operating Area
(FBSOA) DC AS WELL AS SINGLE PULSE OPERATION
FBSOA INCREASES ?PULSE-WIDTH DECRESASES
Reverse biased safe operating area (RBSOA)
Reverse biased safe operating area (RBSOA)
352 Electronics Engineering Technician
Fig. 7.20
During turn-off, a transistor is subjected to high-current and high voltage
with BJT reverse biased.
Safe-operating area of transistor during turn-off is specified as RBSOA.
RBSOA specifies the limit of transistor operation at turn-off when the base
current is zero or when the base emitter junction is reversed biased (with –ve
base current). With increasing reverse bias, area RBSOA decreases in size.
Advantages of BJTs
• Have high switching frequencies.
• Turn-on losses are small.
• Controlled turn-on & turn-off characteristics.
• No commutation circuit required.
Disadvantages of BJTs
• Drive circuit is complex.
• Has the problem of charge storage.
• Has the problem of second breakdown.
• Cannot be used in parallel
• Problems of negative temperature coefficients.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 353
Practical devices have non-zero voltage drop and dissipate power when
on, and take some time to pass through an active region until they reach the “on”
or “off” state. These losses are a significant part of the total lost power in a
converter.
Devices
The capabilities and economy of power electronics system are determined
by the active devices that are available. Their characteristics and limitations are
a key element in the design of power electronics systems. Formerly, the mercury
arc valve, the high-vacuum and gas-filled diode thermionic rectifiers, and triggered
devices such as the thyratron and ignitron were widely used in power electronics.
As the ratings of solid-state devices improved in both voltage and current-
handling capacity, vacuum devices have been nearly entirely replaced by solid-
state equivalents, or by solid state devices that have no thermionic equivalent.
Power electronic devices may be used as switches, or as amplifiers. [1] An
ideal switch is either open or closed and so dissipates no power; it withstands
an applied voltage and passes no current, or passes any amount of current with
no voltage drop. Semiconductor devices used as switches can approximate this
ideal property and so most power electronic applications rely on switching devices
on and off, which makes systems very efficient as no power is wasted in the
switching devices. By contrast, in the case of the amplifier, the current through
the device varies continuously according to a controlled input. The voltage and
current at the device terminals follow a load line, and the power dissipation
inside the device is large compared with the power delivered to the load.
Several attributes dictate how devices are used. Devices such as diodes
conduct when a forward voltage is applied and have no external control of the
start of conduction. Power devices such as silicon controlled rectifiers and
thyristors (as well as the former mercury valve and thyratron) allow control of
the start of conduction, but rely on periodice reversal of current flow to turn
them off. Devices such as gate turn-off thyristors, bipolar junction transistors
(BJT), and MOSFET transistors provide full switching control and can be turned
on or off without regard to the current flow through them. Transistor devices
also allow proportional amplificaton, but this is rarely used for systems rated
more than a few hundred watts. The control input characteristics of a device
also greatly affect design; sometimes the control input is at a very high voltage
with respect to ground and must be driven by an isolated source.
Devices vary in switching speed. Some diodes and thyristors are suited for
relatively slow speed and are useful for power freqauency switching and control;
certain thyristors are useful at a few KHz. Devices such as MOSFETS and
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 359
BJTs can switch at tens of KHz up to a few MHz in power applications, but
with decreasing power levels. Very high power (hundreds of kilowatts) at very
high frequency (hundreds or thousands of MHz) is still the area where vacuum
tube devices predominate. The use of faster switching devices minimizes energy
lost in the transitions from on to off and back, but may create problems with
radiated electtromagnetic interference. Gate drive (or equivalent) circuits must
be designed to supply sufficient drive current to achieve the full switching speed
possible with a device. A device that doesn’t get sufficient drive to switch rapidly,
may be destroyed by excess heating.
Power handling and dissipation of devices is also a critical factor in design.
Power electtronic devices may have to dissipate tens or hundreds of watts of
waste heat, even switching as efficiently as possible between conducting and
non-conducting states. In the switching mode, the power controlled is much
larger than the power dissipated in the switch. The forward voltage drop in the
conducting state translates into heat that must be dissipated. High power
semiconductors require speicalized heat sinks or active cooling systems to keep
their junction temperature from rising too high; exotic semicoductors such as
silicon carbide have an advantage over straight silicon in this respect, and
Germanium, once the main-stay of solid-state electronics is now little used due
to its unfavorable properties at high temperature.
Semiconductor devices exist with ratings up to a few kilovolts in a single
device. Where very high voltage must be controlled, multiple devices must be
used in series, with networks to equalize voltage across all devices. Again,
switching speed is a critical factor since the slowest-switchind device will have
to withstand a disproportionate share of the overall voltage. The former mercury
valves were available with ratings to 100 KV in a single unit, simplifying their
application in HVDC systems.
The current rating of a semiconductor device is limited by the heat generated
within the dies and the heat developed in the resistance of the inter connecting
leads. Semiconductor devices must be designed so that current is evenly distributed
within the device across its internal junctions (or channels); once a “hot spot”
develops, breakdown effects can rapidly destroy the device. Certain SCRs are
available with current ratings to 3000 Amperes in a single unit.
Applications
Power electronic systems are found in virtually every electronic device.
For example:
· DC/DC converters are used in most mobile devices (mobile phones,
PDA etc.) to maintain the voltage at a fixed value whatever the voltage level of
360 Electronics Engineering Technician
the battery is. These converters are also used for electronic isolation and power
factor correction.
· AC/DC converters (rectifiers) are used every time an electronic device
is connected to the mains (computer, television etc.). These may simply change
AC to DC or can also change the voltage level as part of their operation.
· AC/AC converters are used to change either the voltage level or the
frequency (international power adapters, light dimmer). In power distribution
networks AC/AC converters may be used to exchange power between utility
frequency 50 Hz and 60 Hz power grids.
· DC/AC converters (inverters) are used primarily in UPS or renewable
energy systems or emergency lighting systems. When mains power is available,
it will charge the DC battery. If the mains fails, an inverter will be used to produce
AC electricity at mains voltage from the DC battery.
7.14 Power Control Schematic
Power supplies and control schematics
· +9V *and* -9V from one battery
· 0-14 volt, 0-2 amp current limited variable power supply regulator
· 12 Vdc - 120 Vac Inverter Schematic
· 12 volt battery monitor
· 12 Volt Gel Cell Charger
· 12 volt power supply
· 12 Volt Switching Power Supply circuit diagram and PCB layout
· 12V 30A power supply
· 12V Lead-Acid Battery Monitor using LM3914
· 12V to 120V Inverter
· 12V, 4-AA Cell Differential Temperature Charger
· 13.8V 30-40A Power Supply (PDF)
· 1A Variable Regulated Power Supply
· 200 Watt Modified PC Power Supply 13.5 Volt 14 Amp
· 3.3V / 5V Regulated Power Supply Circuit
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 361
UNIT 8
Opto Electronic Devices
Learning Objectives
• Study of Opto electronic devices.
• Study of classification of opto eletronic devices.
• Study of operation of LDR.
• Study of operation and working of LED applications.
• Study of construction and working of LCD applications.
• Study of consrtuction and working of Photo diode.
• Study of construction and working of Photo transister.
• Study of construction and working of Opto coupler.
• Study of working of Photo conductive cells.
bombardment etc. Out of this light is one of the common sources used for imparting
external energy. The device especially made to change their properties with light
are called as Optoelectronic devices; the optoelectronic devices are product of
a technology that combines optics with electronics.
A phase locked loop (PLL) is basically a closed loop feedback system.
The action of PLL is to lock or synchronise the frequency of a controlled oscillator
to that of an incoming signal. The implementation of PLL with discrete
components involves circuits of considerable cost and complexity. For the reason,
the use of PLL in the past has been limited to specialized measurements. The
development of integrated circuits PP now makes it highly economical as well as
reliable. In this chapter we will study the application of 555IC timer and description
of face locked loop.
In this chapter we will also study the different opto electronic devices.
8.1 Classification of OPTO Electronic Devices
Opto electronic devices are basically classified into
1. Sensors
2. Emitters
3. Couples of insulators
Opto electronic devices are of three categories
1. Photo conductive device
Example of Photo conductive device are
(a) Photo bodies
(b) Photo transistor
(c) Light Dependent Resistor.
2. Photo Emissive Devices
Example of photo emissive devices are
(a) Light Emitting Device or (LED)
(b) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
(c) Photo Tube
(d) Photo multiplier
(e) Light Activated Simulating Emitter Radiation(LASER)
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Sensors Emitters
Fig. 8.1
Fig 8.2 shows Photo Conducting Cell and its symbol. The photo resistor is
deposited on top ceramic substrate. After fabrication it has translucent to and
hermetically sealed. Ratings and performance of the devices are characterized
by the value of current flowing through the device at a given voltage and the
amount flux. In the presence of light, it poses a little reactance in the circuit giving
ON stage. In darken it poses a very high resistance which causes almost no
flow of current thus resulting in OFF state of the switch. Hence the device acts
like an automatic switch whose ON and OFF states are dependent on total
illumination and dark condition respectively. The characteristic of CdS LD is
shown figure 8.3.
2. Easy Operation
3. High photo sensitivity
Disadvantages:
1. Effect of light intensity
2. Poor temperature stability
3. Narrow spectral response
Application of LDR
1. Automatic street lighting
2. Burglar alarm
3. Relay circuits
4. Light meters
8.3 Light Emitting Diode
The LED is basically a device which convert input electrical energy into
output optical radiation in the visible or infrared portion of spectrum depending
on the semi conductor material used. LEDs have replaced incandescent lamps
in much application because of low voltage long life and fast ON-OFF switching.
The material used in manufacturing the LEDs are
1.Arsenide phosphide (GaAsP): it provides either red light or yellow light
2.Galliun phosphide (GaP) :it provide red or green light
3.Galliun Arsenide (GaAss):it provide infrared radiation
Principle :
When a PN junction is forward baised, charge carrier recombination take
place at a junction as electrons cross then-side and combine with holes on the
P-side. Free electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels while holes
are in the valence band. Therefore electrons are at higher energy level then
holes. When recombination take place, some of its energy given up in the form
of heat and light. If the semiconductor material is translucent, the light will be
emitted and junction becomes light source, which is called as Light Emitting
Diode (LED)
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 373
Diffused P-type
Epitaxial a-type
(b) Circuit Diagram
Disadvantages :
1. Sensitive to damage by over voltage or over current
2. Wide optical band width compared to LASERS
3. Temperature dependent of radiant output power and wave length4
4. Theoretical overall efficiency is not achieved except in special cases or
pulsed conditions.
Applications of LED
1.Calculators
2. Multi meters
3. Picture phones
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 375
When you apply the positive voltage to the anode, the diode allows current to
flow. The display reads a low voltage level.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 377
tangent line in the forward-bias region near the maximum current (refer to Figure
7.8). The point where the tangent intersects the voltage axis defines the threshold
voltage. Observe the (I,V) characteristic curve for a light emitting diode. For
this LED, the threshold voltage given by the intersection of the tangent with the
voltage axis is about 1.56 V.
1. Install two each of red, yellow, and green LEDs on the NI ELVIS II
protoboard, positioned as a two-way stoplight intersection.
2. Connect the pin socket DIO <0> to the anode of the red LED in the
North-South (Up-Down) direction.
3. Connect the other end of the LED through a 220 W resistor to digital
ground (not pictured).
NOTE: The resistor is used to limit the current through the LED.
4. Connect the remaining colored LEDs in a similar fashion.
Here is the complete mapping scheme.
DIO <0> Red N-S direction DIO <4> Red E-W direction
DIO <1> Yellow N-S direction DIO <5> Yellow E-W direction
DIO <2> Green N-S direction DIO <6> Green E-W direction
5. From the NI ELVIS II Instrument Launcher strip, select Digital Writer
(DigOut).
6. Using the vertical slide switches, select any 8-bit pattern and output that
pattern to the NI ELVIS II digital lines. Recall that Bit 0 is connected to the pin
socket on the protoboard labeled DIO <0>.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 381
When all switches (Bits 0-2 and 4-6) are HI, all the LEDs should be lit.
When all these switches are LO, all the LEDs should be off.
You can now use these switches to find out which 8-bit codes are necessary
to control the various cycles of a stoplight intersection.
Here are some clues for an intersection. The basic operation of a stoplight
is based on a 60-second time interval with 30 seconds for red, followed by 25
seconds for green, followed by 5 seconds for yellow. For example, in a two-
way intersection, the yellow light in the North-South direction is on while the red
382 Electronics Engineering Technician
light in the East-West direction is on. This modifies the 30-second red timing
interval to two timing intervals: a 25-second cycle followed by a 5-second cycle.
There are four timing periods (T1, T2, T3, and T4) for two-way stoplight
intersection operation.
9. Study the following chart to see how a two-way stoplight intersection
works.
Direction N-S E-W
Lights RYG RYG 8-Bit Code Decimal Value
Bit # 012 456
T1 25 s 0 0 1 1 0 0 00001100 12
T2 5 s 0 1 0 1 0 0 ________ ___________
T3 25 s 1 0 0 0 0 1 ________ ___________
T4 5 s 1 0 0 0 1 0 ________ ___________
10. Use the Digital Writer to determine which 8-bit codes need to be written
to the digital port to control the stoplights in each of the four timing intervals.
For example, timing period 1 requires the code 00101000. Computers
read the bits in the reverse order (least significant bit on the right). This code
then becomes 00010100. In the white box above the Manual Pattern Line
switches display, you can read the radix of the switch pattern in binary
{00010100}, decimal {20}, or hexadecimal {14}.
11. Click on the black ^ to left of the white display box to change the radix.
You can use this feature to determine the numeric codes for the other timing
intervals T2, T3, and T4. If you output the 8-bit code for each of the timing
intervals in sequence, you can manually operate the stoplights.
NOTE: You can also change the radix in the Line States display by clicking
on the white x beside the Numeric Value display.
Repeating this four-cycle sequence automates your intersection.
Exercise 8.4: Automatic Operation of the Two-Way Stop light
Intersection
Complete the following steps to automate the timing cycle on the stop light
circuit.
1. Close NI ELVIS II SFPs and launch LabVIEW.
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 383
(a) Molecules in Liquid crystal when no (b) Change carrier flow through
current is flowing liquid crystal disturbs molecular
alignment and causes turbance
When not activated, the liquid crystal is transparent. When activated, the
molecular turbulence causes the light to be scattered in all directions, so that the
activated areas appear bright. The phenomenon is known as dynamic scattering
and is shown in fig 8.13.
The actual liquid crystal material may be one of several organic compounds
which exhibit the optical properties of a solid while retaining the fluidity of a
liquid.
Example of such compounds are
1.Cholestaryl nonanoate
2. p- azoxy anisole
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Spacer
With both glass sheets transparent the cell is known as “transmitive type
cell”. When only one glass sheet is transparent and other had a reflective coating
the cell is termed as reflective type the liquid crystal cells do not generate light
but transmit or reflect light from external sources thus only energy required by
the cell is to produce :dynamic scattering effect”.
LCDs are usually seven segment type or dot matrix type displays. In these
displays LCDs are activated by applying voltage between the segments and
common electrode. Segments on the LCD are driven by low frequency a.c
typical driving voltage of 5 V rms. When segments is not activated, the transmitive
type cell will simply transmit rear or edge lighting through the segment in straight
line. In this condition the corresponding segment will not appear bright. In reflective
type the light is reflected in usual way from mirror surface and corresponding
segment will not appear bright. When the segment is activated the incident light
is diffusely scattered forward and the corresponding segment appears bright
Advantages and Disadvantages of LCD
Advantages
1. Low power consumption
2. Small voltage requirement
3. They are economical
4. Good contrast is display
Paper - II Electronic Devices and Circuits 387
Disadvantages
1.Some time the output of the LCD is not visible clearly
2.They are not very reliable
3.Slow operation
4.Occupies large area
5.They are very sensitive to damage by over voltage or over current
6.They are limited temperature range.
7.In LCDs a.c Square wave drive of frequency less then 50Hz is employed.
Application of LCD
1. Display unit in calculators
2. Display unit in higher end CRO
3. Display unit in watches
4. Display unit in computer
5. They are used in televisions
6. Used as the slide in a projection system to obtain on enlarged image.
7. Used in all portable instrument display.
(a) 7-Segments (b) Schematic Digit (c) Digit 2 in seven segment display
Fig. 8.15 Seven Segment display
For example by grounding a,b,g,e and d we can form the digit “2”.In similar
manner by grounding f,g,b,and c can form the digit “4” and so on. A Seven
segment display can also display the capital letters A,C,E, and F besides this, it
can also display the lower case letter b and d.
The Seven segment display are used in digital clocks calculators, Stereo
tuners, microwave ovens, digital multi meters etc.
8.6.2 DOT Matrix Display
The Seven segment display is not commonly used technology and is
also the easiest to implement electronically. However it is limited to displaying
numeric and a small range of alphabetic information. the dot matrix can display
a wide range of numeric, alphabetic information and other characters. The dot
matrix display is a method of generating characters with a matrix of dots.
The commonly used dot matrix for the display of prominent characters are
5 x 7, 5 x 8 and 7 x 9. The 5 x 7 dot matrix display is shown in Fig 8.16 The two
wiring patterns of dot matrix display are as follows.
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Light Waves
The same effect occurs if the junction is illuminated. Hole and electron
pairs are also generated by the incident light energy and minority charge carriers
cross the junction. the diode specially made to follow this phenomenon is called
Photo Diode.
Construction and Working:
The Photo Diode is made of semi conductor or P – N junction kept in
sealed plastic or glass casing. The cover is so designed the light rays are allowed
to fall on one surface across the junction the remaining sides of the casing are
painted to restrict the penetiation of light rays. A lens permits light to fall on
junction
When light falls on the reverse baised PN Photo Diode junction hole –
electrons pairs are created. The movement of these electron hole pairs in a
property connected circuit results
amount illumination on a very small area of the photo transistor provides much
largest output current. Therefore the photo transistor is a light detector which
combines a photo diode and a transistor amplifier.
Construction and Working:
The Construction of a photo transistor is just like a conventional NPN
transistor with a little hole made on the surface near to collector base junction. A
small lens is fixed on the hole for allowing a focused light beam to concentrate
on the collector – base junction. In the modern methods of fabrication highly
light effective materials are used instead of making a hole and fixing a lens on it.
From fig. 8.19 is clear that emitter base junction JE is forward biased,
here as the collector base junction JC is reversed baised. when the transistor is
kept in darkness there will be very few minority charge carriers (Thermally
generated which will cause the flow of reverse saturation collector current .This
current for obvious reasons, will be negligible small. On light being focused at
the collector base junction additional photo generated minority charge carriers
will be available which will add to the reverse saturation current thus as soon as
the light source is applied the transistor starts conducting and amplified current
starts flowing through the reverse biased junction. thus owing to the transistor
amplifier action, the current caused by the luminous flux will increase a lost.
Fig 8.19 (b) shows circuit symbol of photo transistor.
Fig 8.19 shows the characteristics of photo transistor drawn for Ic verses
Vce as a function of illumination H. The current is a photo transistor is dependent
mainly on the intensity of light entering the lens and is less affected by the voltage
applied to the external circuit.
Housing
Light Lens
(b) Symbol
(a) Construction
Principle:
There is one way of transfer of electrical signal from LED(IRED) to photo
transistor without any electrical connection between the input and output circuitry.
The degree of isolation between input and output depends on the kind of materials
used in the light path and on the distance between the light emitter and light
detector. If the distance between emitter and detector is greater than & the
isolation is better but current transfer ratio i:e,ratio of detector to emitter current
is lower.
LED Photo
Transister
Working :
Fig 8.21, shows the symbol of opto coupler. The coupler may be operated
as a switch in which cause both the LED and photo transistor are normally
OFF.A pulse of current through the LED (IRED) causes the transistor to be
switched ON for the duration of the pulse. Operation as a linear coupler is also
possibly by setting usp a bias current in the LED. The signal is then capacitively
coupled to the LED and causes its brightness to increase or decrease thus the
photo transistor receives a light signal which increases and decreases linearly
around the constant bias level.
Advantages of Opto Coupler
1. The electrical isolation can be superior to that of a transformer isolation.
the charge less photons are not influenced by electrostatic or electromagnetic
fields.
2. The conditions of load changing will not affect the input as the signal
transfer is unilateral.
3. These are faster than isolation transformer
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1
Side View
(b) Circuit Symbol
0.1
10 100 1000 10,000