BIOC 315 - Biochemistry of Food Processing Lecture Notes

BIOC 315: BIOCHEMISTRY OF FOOD PROCESSING
COURSE OUTLINE
 Foods of plant origin
 foods of animal origin
 enzymes in food processing
 biochemistry of food spoilage
 principles of food preservation
 food additives
 food diseases
INTRODUCTION
Food is anything solid or liquid which when swallowed digested and assimilated nourishes the body
Food science – is the study of nature, composition and the chemical and physical changes that occur
under valid conditions of storage, processing and use of food components.
Food technology – is the application of the principals of food science and engineering so that food of
better quality is grown, processed and preserved in large quantities. The different areas of study in food
science and technology include :-
 Food chemistry
 Food microbiology
 Food engineering
 Food processing
Food science and technology and food security
Food security – it is the access at all times to adequate safe, nutritious and healthy food that meets
dietary needs using socially acceptable ways for individuals and communities
Food insecurity can be caused by:

i) Low food production
ii) Seasonal food shortages
iii) High food prices

iv) High levels of unemployment
v) Low level of nutrition education
vi) Cultural factors and taboos
vii) Policy failures

FOOD COMPOSITION
The food we eat is made up of three major kinds of nutrients
 Proteins
 Carbohydrates
 Fats
It is also composed of vitamins, minerals and fibre
Food have been classified into different groups depending upon the nutritive value for
convenience of planning diet. The major food groups include
 Cereals and cereal products
 Fruits and vegetables
 Meat and meat products
 Poultry and eggs
 Milk and milk products
 Legume and root tubers
 Sea foods and fish
FOODS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN
Specific food products in food industries include the following:
1. Milk and milk products
2. Fats and oils
3. Fruits and vegetables

4. Meat and meat products
5. Cereals and pulses.
MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Composition of Milk
The predominant sugar in milk is lactose, a disaccharide of glucose and galactose. The fermentation of lactose by lactic
acid bacteria in cultured dairy products provides the flavor and textural attributes that are desirable in cultured dairy
products.
The fat is present in the milk in the form of fat globules, which are surrounded by a polar milk fat globule membrane
(MFGM). Triacylglycerols are the predominant lipid fraction in milk, accounting for 98% of the total lipids.
Diacylglycerols, monoacylglycerols, fatty acids, phospholipids, and sterols account for the remaining lipid fraction. The
phospholipids are integral components of the MFGM. Approximately 65% of the fatty acids in milk fat are saturated,
including 26% palmitic acid and 15% stearic acid. A significant amount of short- and middle-chain fatty acids, including
3.3% butyric acid are present. These fatty acids and the breakdown products of these fatty acids are important contributors
to the flavor of many cultured dairy products. Two major classes of milk proteins are caseins and whey proteins. The
caseins, which make up 80% of the total protein in cow milk, are insoluble at a pH of 4.6, but are stable to heating. The
whey proteins remain soluble at pH 4.6 and are heat sensitive. The casein micelles exist in milk as a colloidal dispersion.
The principal casein proteins, αs1, αs2, β, and κ, present in the ratio 40:10:35:12, vary in the number of phosphate
residues, calcium-sensitivity, and hydrophobicity. Within the casein micelle, the more hydrophobic proteins, such as β-
casein, are located on the interior of the micelle, while the more hydrophilic proteins, such as κcasein, are located on the
surface of the micelle.
Calcium phosphate further facilitates the association of individual calcium-sensitive casein proteins (αs1-, αs2-, and β-
casein), within the casein micelle. Hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions also play a critical role in stabilizing the
casein micelle. Processing treatments applied during the formation of cultured dairy products, such as the addition of acid
or enzymes destabilize the casein micelle causing the casein proteins to precipitate. The whey proteins consist of four
major proteins, βlactoglobulin (50%), α-lactalbumin (20%), blood serum albumin (10%), and immunoglobulins (10%).
These proteins have a significant number of cysteine and cysteine residues and are able to form disulfide linkages with
other proteins following heat treatment. Fresh cow’s milk is characterized as having a distinctive subtle flavor. Classes of
volatile flavor compounds that have been shown to have the greatest impact on milk flavor include nitrogen heterocyclics,
linolenic acid oxidation products, γ -lactones, phenolics and phytol derivatives; many of these compounds are found in
foods of plant origin.
Differences in the milk flavor from cows fed different diets have been attributed to concentration differences of these
flavor compounds rather than the presence of different compounds. Although these flavor compounds are not significant
contributors to the characteristic flavors of cultured dairy products, they do contribute to the background flavors of these
products. Lactic Acid Bacteria The lactic acid bacteria used in the development of cultured dairy products include
Streptococcus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, and Lactobacillus genera. These bacteria are gram-positive bacteria and belong
to either the Streptococcaceae or Lactobacillaceae families, depending on the morphology of the bacteria as cocci or rods,
respectively. These bacteria also differ in their optimal temperature for growth, with 20–30◦C the optimal temperature for
mesophilic bacteria and 35–45◦C the optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria. Although the lactic acid bacteria are
quite diverse in growth requirements, morphology, and physiology, they all have the ability to metabolize lactose to lactic
acid and reduce the pH of the milk to produce specific cultured dairy products. The heat treatment the cultured dairy
products receive following inoculation is one of the factors that influences the selection of lactic acid bacteria for specific
cultured dairy products.
Milk – is whole fresh clean lactale secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more healthyanimals.
Market milk – it refers to fluid whole milk that is sold to individuals usually for direct consumption.
Lactation – is the secretion of milk from mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates
to feed her young.
Milk synthesis – it refers to the continuous production of milk as the milk is being regularly and
thoroughly removed from the udder which is influenced by hormones.
Colostrums – is the yellowish coloured salty liquid that has very high serum protein content and provides
antibiotics to help protect the newborn until its own immune system is established.
1. Milk has tappened off for maternal needs of the foetus.
2. The udder needs to prepare for the next cycle.
Factors affecting composition of milk
1. Species.
2. Breed.
3. Individuality of the animal
4. Frequency of milking
5. Irregularity of milking
6. Frequent changes in the time and intervals of milking results in a low fat and solid fat content
(SNF)
7. Disease and abnormal condition
8. Season
9. age
10. administration of drugs and hormones – some drugs may affect temporary percentage of fat while
hormones increase in both field and fat%
Milk fat
The bulk of fat in the milk exist in the form of small globules in an oil water type of emulsion.
The surface of fat globule is coated with a fat globule membrane which is rich in phospholipids
and protein
The membrane prevents the globules from coalescing together.
Milk fat contribute of milk and milk products.
It is a rich source of energy and contains essential fatty acids like linoliec and arachidoic acid.
The most distinctive role of milk fat is that of flavor in most daily products.
Low melting point of milk fat gives a soft body soft texture and rich taste to daily products like
butter
Milk fats the therefore enhance consumer acceptability of food with milk and milk products in
them.
Milk sugar
- Is also known as lactose
- Lactose exist only in milk in the form of a true solution
- Upon crystallization, the lactose present in milk forms hard and gritty crystals
- This characteristic is responsible for sandyness defect in ice cream and condensed milk.
- Lactose provide energy and helps to establish a mildly acidic reaction in the intestine which
checks the growth of bacteria.
- When milk is heated, lactose react with protein and develops a brown colour.
- Lactose is easily fermented by bacteria to yield lactic acid and other organic acids.
- Lactose is also responsible for spoilage of milk and milk product by souring action on the other
hand souring action is important in the production of cultured milk products.
Milk proteins
Protein are amongst the most complex substances. They are vital for living organisms as they
constitute a large amount of the individual body cells.
Milk proteins are complete proteins of high biological value i.e they contain all the essential
amino acids in fairly large amount
The amino acid present constitute of essential and non-essential amino acid.
Essential amino acid are necessary in the diet for the formation of body protein. Protein of milk
consist mainly of
1. Casein
2. Beta lactoglobulin
3. Alpha lactoabumin
Water
Is the medium in which the other main constituents are either dissolved or suspended.
A small portion of water is in the bound form being it firmly held by milk proteins and phospholipids.
Ash/mineral matter
Practically all the mineral elements present in milk are essential for nutrition.
Milk is an excellent source of calcium and phosphosrus both of which together with vit D are
essential for bone formation chlorides, phosphates, sulphates, bicarbonates of sodium, potassium
and magnesium etc are present.
These minerals influence the condition and stability of proteins especially the casein fraction.
Copper and ion are important in the development of off flavours in milk and milk products.
However milk is rather low in iron, copper and iodine.
Vitamins
Vitamins are necessary food factors which are needed for normal growth, health and
reproduction of living organisms.
Milk is a good source of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K)
Water soluble vitamin of B complex group e.g. Thiamin, viboflavavin niacin, biotin , folic acid
etc.
Vitamin A and D are present in the milk provided the cow is fed on green fodder and exposed to
sunlight respectively however milk is deficient of vitamin C
Phospholipids
In the milk there are three types of phospholipids i.e lecithin cephalin and sphingomylin
Lecithin forms an important constituent of fat globulin membrane and to contribute to the
richness of the flavor of milk and other daily products
It is highly sensitive to oxidative changes giving rise to oxidized or metallic flavor in dairy
products.
Phospholipids are the excellent emulsifying agents and serves to stabilize milk, fat emulsion
Cholesterol
It appears to be present in true solution in the fat as part of fat globulin membrane complex.
Pigments
Avery fat soluble compound such as carotene and xanthophilis and water soluble vitamins e.g.
Riboflavin.
They are also responsible for the yellow colour in cream, butter and other fat rich dairy products.
Beside contributing to the colour of milk , carotene acts as an antioxidant and it is also a precursor of
vitamin A.
Enzymes.
They are the biological catalyst which can fasten or retard chemical changes without themselves
participating in the reactions enxymes are protein like specific in their actions and inactivated by it. The
important milk enzymes and their specific actions include:-
Amylase (diastase) – is a starch splitting enzyme.

Lipase – is a fat splitting enzyme and contribute to rancid flavor Protease
– protein splitting enzyme
Phosphatases– is capable of splitting phospholic acid esters
Pyroxidase and catalase – decompose hydrogen peroxide.
Casein – constitutes 80% of total nitrogen present in milk. Milk protein contains proteases, peptones and milk
enzymes casein is classified as a phosphoprotein because the phospholic acid that is contained in its molecular
structure.
Casein is a good source if essential amino acid and it can be separated from milk by the addition of venin
and enxyme secreted by young calves.
Milk quality and microbiology
Whole milk has distinctive quality of odour taste, and appearance.
These qualities are related to the feed given to the animal and the type of animal.
Co-agulation of milk is done by acidify it milk is slightly acidic with a ph of 6.6-6.7
Nearly all changes that take place in the taste, odour or appearance is as a result of the activities
of milk.
As the milk passes from the udder, bacteria are picked from the walls and passage ways.
Nearly all changes that take place in the flavor and appearance of the milk after it is drawn from
the cow are as a result of activities of micro-organisms of these microorganisms, the most of
importance in the dairy industry are the bacteria, moulds and yeast.
Bacteria is the predominating amongst all.
Relatively small portions of micro-organism are disease producing types and are called pathogen.
Results of microbial growth in milk
Souring – is the most common and is caused by transformation of lactose in to lactic acid and other acid
compounds principles by lactic acid bacteria
The development of sour acid flavour in the milk is due to volatile acids and compounds.
Souring and gassiness
It is caused by e-coli group which are commonly found in soil , manufactured etc and therefore indicate
contamination of milk and dairy products..
Aroma production
Is due to production of the desirable flavor compounds such as di-acetyl e.g. In ripened cream and butter-
proteolyses
Ropiness
long threads in milk that are formed due to microbial growth and results in the spoilage of milk
sweet curdling.
Is due to the production of an enzyme which curdles to milk without souring.
Destruction of microorganisms
This may be done by the means of:-
1. Heat
2. Different types of heat treatment (temp, time combination) are employed such as pasteurization
and sterilization to destroy or inherit growth of micro-organisms in milk or milk products.
3. Ionizing radiation e.g. U.V radiation at different doses are applied to destroy microorganisms.
4. High frequency sound waves e.g. Supersonic and ultrasonic sound waves are applied to destroy
the presence of micro organisms.
5. Chemicals e.g. Acids, alkalis, hydrogen peroxide etc are used in milk and milk products.
Safeguarding the milk supply
Safety milks freedom from pathogenic micro-organisms for human consumption, milk that is both clean
and safe is highly desirable.
The sanitation of milk supply can be safeguarded in two ways:-
Production and handling of raw milk in such a manner as to prevent its attack by pathogenic organisms.
This will require by (a) ensuring the health of dairy cattle by various control measure.
Safeguarding the health employees by various medical examines protection of water supply from contamination by
pathogenic organisms.
Pasteurization of milk/sterilization so as to kill all the pathogenic organisms present and avoidance of
any post process contamination.
PROCESSING MILK
Coagulation of Milk Proteins
The production of lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria decreases the pH of the milk to cause coagulation of the casein. As the
pH decreases to less than 5.3, colloidal calcium phosphate is solubilized from the casein micelle, causing the micelles to
dissociate and the casein proteins to aggregate and precipitate at the isoelectric point of casein (pH 4.6).
The resulting gel, which is somewhat fragile in nature, provides the structure for sour cream, yogurt, and acid-precipitated
cheeses, such as cream cheese and cottage cheese.
The casein micelles are also susceptible to coagulation through enzymatic activity.
Rennet, a mixture of chymosin and pepsin, obtained from calf stomach, is most commonly recognized as the enzyme for
coagulation of casein. However, proteases from microorganisms and produced through recombinant DNA technologies
have been successfully adapted as alternatives to calf rennet. Chymosin, the major enzyme present in rennet, cleaves the
peptide bond between Phe-105 and Met-106 of κ-casein, releasing the hydrophilic, charged casein macropeptide, while the
para-κ-casein remains associated with the casein micelle. The loss of the charged macropeptide reduces the surface charge
of the casein micelle and results in the aggregation of the casein micelles to form a gel network stabilized by hydrophobic
interactions. Temperature influences both the rate of the enzymatic reaction and the aggregation of the casein proteins,
with 40–42◦C, the optimal temperature for casein coagulation. The use of rennet to hydrolyze the peptide bond and cause
aggregation of the casein micelles is used in the manufacture of most ripened cheeses.
Processing helps to procedure milk that has low or no bacteria found count , good flavor and satisfactory
keeping qualities . Operations of milk processing include:-
1. Clarification
2. Homogenization
3. Pasteurization
4. Sterilization
Clarification – the milk is passed through a centrifugal clarifier.
The speed is adjusted in such a way that cream is not separated but dirt, filth, cells from udder and some
bacteria are removed.
The clarified milk is ready for other processing e.g. Pasteurization.
Pasteurization
The original cultured dairy products relied on the native microorganisms in the milk for the fermentation process.
Current commercial methods for all cultured dairy products include a pasteurization treatment to kill the native
microorganisms, followed by inoculation with starter cultures to produce the desired product. The heat process, which
must be sufficient to inactivate alkaline phosphatase, also destroys many pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and
enzymes that may have a negative impact on the quality of the finished products. The time-temperature treatments for
the fluid milk pasteurization have been adapted for the milk to be used in the processing of cultured dairy products
(62.8◦C for 30 minutes or 71.1◦C for 15 seconds). More severe heat treatments than characteristic of pasteurization
causes denaturation of whey proteins and interactions between β-lactoglobulin and κ-casein. In cheeses, this
interaction decreases the ability of chymosin to hydrolyze the casein molecule and initiate curd precipitation and
formation. Pasteurization has a significant effect of the flavor profile of the milk. Cultured dairy products produced
from pasteurized milks tend to have less intense flavor characteristics due to the heat inactivation of the naturally
occurring microorganisms and enzymes in the milk that contribute to flavor formation. Lactones and heterocycles are
also formed during the heat treatment of raw milk to contribute cooked flavors. Cooling The processing of cultured
dairy products relies on the metabolic activity of the starter cultures to contribute to acid formation and flavor and
texture development. Once the desired pH or titratable acidity is reached for these products, the products are cooled to
5–10◦C to slow the growth of the bacteria and limit further acid production and other biological reactions.
In general terms it is the heating of milk to a temperature which destroys microorganisms, responsible
T.B and fever and nearly all other microorganisms present in that product without necessary affecting
composition and proportion of the product. It follows rapid cooling to check the growth of
microorganisms resistant to temp used.
Also inactivates natural enzyme glycolipases.:
General methods used in pasteurization include:- Holding or

batch system.
Cream or batch system.
Cream or milk or another product is brought to a temperature usually 65oc and held for at least 30 minutes
followed by rapid cooling.
High temperature short time method (HTST)/ continuous system.

In this process, cooked flavor is not imparted and cream line is not affected
(U.H.T) ultra high temp system
Milk is held for 3 sec at 93.4oc or for 1 sec at 149.5oc
U.H.T treated milk products keep longer than other products pasteurized by other methods Pasteurized
milk is cooled to 7oc or lower.
Role of phosphatases in pasteurization.
Raw milk contain- alkaline phosphatase. It is a build in indicator for adequate pasteurization. This
enzyme has heat destruction characteristic that closely approximates the time, temperature and exposures
of proper pasteurization. Therefore alkaline phosphatase activity beyond a certain level is evident of
inadequate processing of pasteurized milk or cream.
This enzyme liberates phenol giving a deep blue colour with certain organic compound e.g. A reaction
with phenol phosphoric acid compound.
Absence of blue colour reactions indicates complete pasteurization.
Effects of pasteurization on nutritive value
There are no changes except some slight decrease in vitamins like B,C,(ascorbic acid) and some slight
denaturization of the proteins e.g. betalactomoglobin ,immunoglobin,enzymes
,celiumalbumins etc.
Effects on flavor
Does not produce objectionable cooked flavors since flavoring compounds present in meat are no way
destroyed by pasteurization.
Effect on microorganisms
Pasteurized products are not sterile
They contain vegetative organisms and spores still capable of growth.
Homogenization
Milk fat globules have a tendency to coalesce and separate upon standing. Homogenization reduces the diameter of
the fat globules from 1–10 µm to less than 2 µm and increases the total fat globule surface area. The physical change
in the fat globule occurs through forcing the milk through a small orifice under high pressure. The decrease in the size
of the milk fat globules reduces the tendency of the fat globules to aggregate during the gelation period. In addition,
denaturation of the whey proteins and interactions of the whey proteins with casein or the fat globules can alter the
physical and chemical properties of the milk proteins to result in a firmer gel with reduced syneresis. Milk to be used
to process yogurt, cultured buttermilk, and unripened cheeses is commonly homogenized to improve the quality of the
final product.
Is a process of making a stable emulsion of milk fat and milk serum by mechanical treatment rendering
the mixture homogenous.
Warm milk for cream is passed through a small aperture under high pressure and velocity.
This makes a permanent and a uniform suspension of fat to an extent no visible cream separation occurs
in the milk.
Sterilization.
Is the heat treatment applied in bottles.
The milk bottles are heated to a temperature of 104 to 113 degrees Celsius for 15 – 40 min.
Bottles are left to cool naturally .Bottles of milk are passed through hot water tanks on conveyed balls
then to the cooling tanks .sterilized milk can be kept for several weeks without refrigeration as long as it
is not opened.
FORMS OF PROCESSED MILK
1. Concentrated milk
Thins include evaporated milk sweetened, condensed milk and dried milk made from both whole and
skimmed milk products. These milk products have a longer shelf life and some can be reconstituted to
their original form. When milk is heated to concentrate it by evaporating fat of the moisture, color of the
milk changes in aroma and flavor.
2. Evaporated milk
Its made by evaporating more than half of the water from the milk and a vacuum. It’s necessary to fore
warm milk 10 min to prevent coagulation of casein during sterilization after its canned. Color and flavor
are based preserved if sterilization is carried out at a high temperature for a short time.
3. Condensed milk
Its concentrated to about 1/3 of its original and has about 15% sugar added to the milk. Since the finished
products contain at least 40% of the sugar which acts as a preservative it’s not necessary to sterilize
before canning.
4. Dehydrated milk products

They include whole milk powder skimmed milk powder and infant milk foods. Milk powder can be
dehydrated to about 97% by spraying, drying and vacuum drying.
It has a good shelf life without refrigeration. It can be reconstituted to fluid milk. It is highly hydroscopic
( it can easily be stored for only 6 months because of fats which can be oxidized).
 Skimmed milk
Fat content is reduced to 0.5-2% by centrifugation, by removing fat from the milk not only taste or flavor
is reduced but soluble vitamins like A and D are reduced. Usually this milk is fortified with vitamin A
and D.
 Ice cream
Ice cream is frozen dairy products constituting of whole milk .Skeemed milk, cream ,butter ,condensed milk products
or dried milk products. Milk fats and milk solids, non fats constitute about 60% of the total solids of ice cream.
These components give ice cream a rich flavor and improved body texture. In addition to dairy products
ice cream contains sugar , stabilizers emulsifiers flavoring materials water and air.
Sugar in addition to sweetening affects the smoothness of the resulting ice cream .it also lowers the
freezing point of ice cream mixtures so that it does not freeze in the freezer.
Stabilizers are used to prevent the formation of ice crystals during freezing. They form with water in the
formula and thereby improving the body texture of the ice cream.
Emulsifiers egg yolk helps to disperse the fat globules thought the mix and prevent them from cramping
together during the freezing and the mixing operation. Emulsifiers also help to make ice-cream dry and
stiff. Common flavoring materials used include vanilla, strawberry; chocolate coffee etc. fruits and nuts
are also added to improve the taste.
5. Flavored milk
Flavored milk contain banana, straw berry,chocolate, coffee, and any other edible flavor. Edible
food color and cone sugar. It can either be pasteurized or sterilized.
Co2 is added to the milk to create a unique sensation in the mouth that makes milk more thirst quenching
.it increase the shelf life by displacing some of the O2 needed for the spoilage bacteria to grow.
6. Cream
This is milk fat separated from milk by centrifugation creams containing various amounts of fats are made
to meet different requirements , the high % of fat help to give a more stable form . it can be used in baked
products as well as salad dressing.
Cream is pasteurized to kill the spoilage bacteria.

7. Yoghurt (curd)
Yoghurt is ranked 2nd to milk in the extent of consumption. Milk is boiled and cooled to about 50c and a
tea spoon of curd from an earlier from an earlier produced batch of curd is added and mixed thoroughly.
The lactic acid bacteria present in this sample of curd, curdle the milk. They utilize the lactose in milk and
break it down to lactic acid. The formation of lactic acid increases the rancidity of milk.
Riboflavin and thiamin content increases during curd formation.
Effects of heat on milk
A number of changes occur in milk due to heat and the extent of changes depends on the temperature and
period of heating.
The changes affect the color, flavor and the viscosity of milk. Brown color is due to reaction of milk
products proteins with reducing sugars such as lactose. The dispersion of calcium phosphate in milk is
decreases when the milk is heated and part of precipitated to the bottom along with the coagulated lacto
albumin. Volatile elements such as iodine are lost when milk is heated.
Scum formation- As the temperature of heating increases a scum forms at the top and can be removed. As
soon as its removed another layer of scam forms. The milk boils overdue to scum formed.
The scum is a tough leathery insoluble layer. The scum is forced upwards due to the pressure build up
under it and the milk flows out of the pan under this pressure.Boiling is over is increased when the pan is
covered during heating of the milk. The scum consists of a mesh of a coagulated albumin, mineral salts
such as calcium phosphate and fat globule. Scum formation can be prevented by agitation or stirring
during heating of milk. To reduce scorching of heated milk specialized milk boilers and milk cookers can
be used.
MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS
The term meat refers to muscles of warm blooded animals. It also includes organs of these animals of all
is the name given to edible parts taken from inside the carcass of meat e.g. liver , kidney , heart ,brain
,tongue etc.
Types of meat
Beef – is the meat of cattle over 1 yr. old..
Lamb/mutton- meat from sheep that is 12 months old or below.

Veal- meat from cattle slaughtered 3-4 wks. After birth e.g. a calf.
Pork/bacon – meat from pig, best meat from pig is between 3-12 months old.
Game
Poultry
Goat
Yearling mutton – meat obtained from young sheep 12- 20 months old.
Organ meat- e.g. liver, kidney, lungs, heart etc.
Composition of meat
Meat is agood source of high biological value proteins and fats . The proportion of nutrients in the meat
depends on the kind of animal ,the type of cut and species.
The protein content of meat decreases with increase on the fat content. The average protein content of
meat range from 10 – 40%. Other components include water and minerals .
Protein
It constitutes about 15 – 20% of the weight of lean meat and its high biological value . proteinsare of two
types:
1. Collagen
2. Elastin
Collagen:
Its abundant in tendons, skins, bone vascular systems of the animal and connective tissue sheaths
surrounding muscles. Collagen contributes toughens. it increases with age and hence greater difficulties’
in chewing meat of older animals than those from younger ones .
Elastin
It’s tougher than collagen and is constituent of ligaments, no changes occur during heating and it doesn’t t
matter as elastin quality is low. Fish protein has a higher biological value than meat proteins.
Fat
Meat is found in two forms:
Adipose tissue – which forms the exterior layer of fat in connective tissue
Marbling – which is the distribution of fat thought the muscles .
Meat fat are rich in saturated fatty acids the cholesterol content of meat is about 75mg/100gms
The lean portion of meat contains of phospholipids and these are located in the membrane of the cell. The
fatty acids in the lean portion of the meat have a higher portion of unsaturated fatty acids than tissue fat.
Minerals
Meat is a good source of phosphorous ,iron ,calcium and magnesium and some trace elements
Calcium and magnesium are essential components of the contraction and relaxation cycle. Iron is part of
the red pigment and influences the color of meat .
Zinc is found as a component of enzymes present in meat .liver is an excellent source of iron as well as
vitamin B 12 and A.
Unless the cooking of water is discarded , minerals and water soluble vitamins are not lost to a greater
extent from meat.
Water
It’s the largest single component of muscle by weight ,changes of water levels is considered to
influence the tenderness , texture and juiciness of meat as well as yield cooked meat.. Structure of
meat
An individual muscle is made up of muscle fibre which is surrounded by connective tissue .
Muscle tissue
Muscle is a complex structure, the smallest unit of muscle is called a muscle fibre.
Many muscle fibres are joined by connective tissues to form bundles called fasculi. The fasculli together
with fat deposits are covered with thick membrane and attached to the bone.
Muscle fibres do not increase in number after the animal is born,before individual fibres grow larger by
increase in the number of myofibrils within and between the muscles, fatty deposits occur . fibres are
made up of myofibrils which are surrounded by a complex system of tubules and vessels.
Connective tissues
They will bind the fibres together the meat is connected to the bone by means of connective tissue ,
collagen and elastin are two types of connective tissues . during cooking collagen is softened and is
converted to gelatin.
Fatty tissues
Made up with connective tissues with embedded fat cells , fat is deposited under the skin around the glands organ’s
between and within muscle fibres.

Bones
The appearance of a bone is an indicator of the part of the animal form which the cut of meat is taken
.They are either short or long
Long bones are hollow and contain yellow marrow other bone contain red marrow are spongy inside.
Pigments
Myoglobin is the pigment in it that gives the characteristic’s red color in it.
The greater the amount of myoglobin the darker the color of the meat. As the animal ages , the amount of
myoglobin increase. Raw meat when allowed to stand in the refrigerator changes its color from red to
brownish red. If myoglobin is heated the color changes from red to brown.
The slaughter of animals is controlled by law.

Main stages of slaughtering
Rest
Stunning Breeding Removal of
intestines and other
internal organs
Hanging
Post mortem changes in meat

Muscle is highly specialized tissue, converse chemical energy to mechanical energy.
Just before an animal is slaughtered, the muscles are soft and pliable but immediately upon death as
metabolism in the cell is interrupted , the process begin that link of stiffening of the carcass.
Meat has the chemical and structural characteristics of muscles with death, a series of biochemical
reactions initiate some changes that transform the muscle into meat.
Within the first 24 hrs and 48 hrs these changes establish all the quality attributes of meat. They
include:
Increased acidity – at slaughter most of the blood is removed from the body, the blood therefore no
longer carries nutrients and oxygen to the muscles nor carries away waste .
As the oxygen supply of muscles is depleted, the aerobic (oxygenated)pathway for energy metabolism
cannot function .For a .time, the aerobic pathway of glucose metabolism takes over the yield
ATP.Glucose is derived from glycogen stored in the muscles ,This pathway yield lactic acid since there is
no blood to transport it to liver for glucose and glycogen synthesis.It accumulates in the muscles and
decreases the pit.The PH depends on the amount of stored glycogen at the slaughter, changes in ph. affect
meat quality. If PH decreases is too rapid in preserve of body, muscles and proteins are denatures with
accompanying loss of water holding capacity High PH remains – meat will be dark with dry surface as
water is highly bound in proteins
Rigor mortis
This refers to the general stiffening that occurs at animal carcass a short time after death as a result of
metabolic changes. At the moment of death energy in from ATP is used to maintain integrity of the
muscles.
When ATP stores are depleted the muscles cross bridges from between acting and myosin to from
actomyosin and the muscles contracts. Therefore there is loss of muscle elasticity increased tension and
shortening.
Meat cooked in rigor tends to be tough. After a day or 2 the period passes and the meat becomes tender.
Tenderness increases with increased length of holding period. This process is called ageing
Ageing
Refers to the softening of the shift muscles of animal after holding for some time.
Tenderness in the meat increases with holding time.ageing is the resolution of rigormortis and is that to
result in alteration in the structure of myofibrils.Muscle fibre increase their water holding capacity which
increases the tenderness . musckle also contain proteolytic enxymes called cathepsin which may have
some effects on structural changes.holding condition should be carefully controlled. uncontrolled
condition may allow putrefactive bacteria to grow controlled conditions of holding are:-
a) temperature of holding should have a range of 34-36of
b) CO2 in the altmosophere
c) 70% humidity
This helps to keep the meat in a good condition 4 3 to 6 weks. after ageing process the meat is ready for
sell.The process of ageing is called ripening of meat.
i) Quality:Meat is categorized on bases of palatability. Quality factors include maturity of the animal,
marbling of fat within muscles, color and texture of limit.
ii) Quantity (yield):Are designated in terms of yield or productivity proportionate amount of sellable
retail cuts, that can be obtained from carcass.
Grades are indicated by number 1, 2,3,4,5 where i indicated the highest yield. Factors
affection the quality of meat. This include
Tenderness
Flavor
Water, holding capacity
Spoilage and deterioration of meat.
Meat tenderness-tenderization
Connection tissue determines tenderness of meat
Meat that is difficult to cut or hard to chew is said to be taugh it has longer and thicker muscle fibre. It has
a longer tough meat has more connective tissue than tender meat. These two are related to the tage of the
animals and activity of the muscle.Certain procedures in the food preparation can increase the tenderness
of tough meat. The muscle fibres and connective tissue may be broken by mechanically action as in
mincing or bashing with a rolling pin or meat hammering. Protyolitic enzymes may be used to digest
muscle fibre and connective tissue partially.
Commercially prepared tenderizes may be used or enxymes obtained directly from the source
e.g. Bromelin from fresh pineabple , ficing from fresh figs and papain from the leaves of
pawpaw.Substance that increase the a dresssion or water holding capacity of the muscle- fibre proteins
may be used as tenderizers, and this include acids, alkali and salt.Acid e.g. Lemon joice, vinegar, wine
and tomatoes alkali, darken meat.
a) Mechanical methods
Pounding cutting, grinding, kneadling or pinning and using ultra sonic vibration . This cut or break
muscle fibres and connective tissue>
b) Use of enzymes
Wrapping of meat with papaya leaves result in tenderization due to action of papein on meat proteins.
Gromelin from pineabple, ficin from figs, trypsin from opancrease and fungal enxymes are also used.
To achieve uniform tenderness, papein may be injected into the veins of animals10 min before
slaughter.Freeze, drying meat and dehydrating it in water containing proteolytic enxymes is also
effective.Over tenderization by enxymes, however changes texture in meat and results in loss of flalvour
and juiciness
c) Use of low levels of salts
Salt increases water holding capacity of muscle fibres results in tenderness and juiciness.Salt also
saliblizes meat protein.Freeze drying meat can be rehydrated in a weak solution. Salt use include sodium
chloride, sodium bicarbonate and sodium phosphate or potassium phosphate
d) Changes of PH
Decreasing or increasing ph increase hydration and tenderness.Soaking beef for 48 hours in concentrated
vinegar increase tenderness and juiciness
Water holding capacity
This is the ability of meat to retain its water during application of external forces such as cutting, heating,
grinding or pressing.Water in meat has locations bound, immobilize, free where water- holding capacity
is lowest, the iso-electric point.PH determining H2O holding changes in PH increases alteration.
The flavor
The flavor meat is largely due to extractive and fat. flavor is more pronounce in less tender cuts of
meat.muscles from older animals or well exercised parts have more extractive than the muscles of young
animals or less use parts.
The flavor of extracting is not fully understood but it is known that they include soluble in organic salts,
lactic acid and nitrogenous compounds.
Fat has a distinct effect on the flavor and aroma of meat. The aroma from fat during cooking is largely
responsible for smells associated with different meat.
In dry methods of cooking, the extractive and fat settle on the surface of meat. This is why the meat on
the outside of5 a joint is more tasty than interior.
In moist methods of cooking, the extractive and fat pass into the cooking liquid so unless this is used in
the recipe a source to accompany the dish much of the flavor will be lost.
There is an association between flavor cooking times. If less tender cuts of beef cooked in a pressure
cooker or microwave oven, the flavor is not well developed as in beef cooked by longer more convection
methods.
Colour. The colour of meat is due to pigment myoglobin. This is pigment accounts from about 75% of the
total pigment of red meat.
Some muscles contain more of the meat pigment than other e.g. leg of pigmentation is related to muscle
use well its myoglobin content.
The degree of pigmentation is related to muscle use well used muscles and those of older animals darker.
The colour of meat changes during cooking. When heating, the pigment myoglobin is oxidized to form
oxymyoglobin. This is associated with a change in colour from purple-red to right-red. With further
heating, the meat become greyish brown due to formation of denature globins hemichrome. The protein in
pigment is denatured and iron in the pigment is oxidised.
v) Spoilage and deterioration of meat.
Spoilage of meat occurs in a matter of hour on days if it is untreated. The meat becomes unappetizing,
poisonous or infections. Spoilage is caused by infections and decomposed by bacteria and fungi which are
born by the animal itself, by people handling the meat and the implements.
Factors that cause meat spoilage include:-
Microorganism,exposure to air and improper feeding techniques.
Deteriorative conditions include abnormal colour, off odours, abdominal texture, of flavor, foreign
material, slime formation, formations of pockets of gas or swelling and microbial growth (especially
mould)
lOMoARcPSD| 440 099 6
Some meat become soft and morshy. Colour changes that incidates micriobial spoilage include:-
redpolls, blue, green, purple, yellow, green brownish –black abnormal pink, cream or white.
EGG PROTEINS
ズ 2 major parts: egg white and egg yolk
ズ Major protein of the egg white: oval bumin
ズ Major proteins of the yolk: lipoproteins(high density lipoproteins(HDL) and low density lipoproteins(LDL)
Functional Characteristics of Eggs:

1. Emulsification: lipoproteins and phospholipids present in the egg yolk help to keep fat dispersed in H2O.
2. Foaming: proteins in egg white have high capacity to form strong protein film that surrounds air bubbles to produce
stable foams.
3. Coagulation: egg white proteins can set and form a gel during heating
Eggs quality
ズ Haugh units
ズ Candling
NUTRIENT COMPONENTS OF FOOD
Carbohydrates - includes sugars, starches and fibres

- Consists of C,H,O
- Formed in green plants through photosynthesis whereby the sun’s energy converts carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and water from the soil into glucose γ O2 is given off
CHO foods include:

1) Cereal grains and flours - (wheat, rye, coin, rice)
2) Legumes (pulses) - (peas, beans, lentils)
3) Starchy roots or tubers - (potatoes, yam, cassava)
4) Fruits - (oranges, apple, banana)
5) Sugars, honey, jams, molasses
Classification (# of basic sugars - saccharides)

1) Monosaccharides - simple sugars, 1 unit

2) Disaccharides - simple sugars, 2 units
3) Oligosaccharides - simple sugars, 3 - 10 units
a) Fructo-oligosaccharides: have prebiotic properties, not used to feed harmful bacteria. Has benefits
such as lowering cholesterols.
4) Polysaccharides - complex sugars, many units
Monosaccharides - 6 carbon hexoses, 5 carbon pentoses

- hexose sugars γ glucose mannose, fructose, galactose (building blocks of polysaccharides)
- pentose sugars γ Ribose, xylose, arabinose (building blocks of fibres and gums)
Glucose - most abundant sugar in the world
- Found in fruit, plant juice, honey

- Often present with other sugars for instance honey in fructose
- Form of sugar that circulate in the bloodstream
It is broken down to give 3 products: a) energy

b) water
c) CO2
- Many complex carbohydrates such as starch and cellulose have glucose as the basic unit
- Major component of coin syrup which is formed by hydrolysis of starch γ used in the baking industry
Fructose - found in fruits, plant juices, honey
- Sweetest of all common sugars

- Very soluble and does not crystallize easily
- High solubility which reduces freezing point (not ideal for deserts)
- Glucose is changed to fructose by adding glucose isomerase
- High fructose corn syrup is used in soft drinks
Galactose - not normally found in its free form in foods
- Glucose + galactose --. Lactose (milk sugar)
- Found in free form in fermented milk products (yogurt) where hydrolysis of lactose has occurred
- Basic units of some complex carbohydrates such as vegetables gums
Disaccharides - 2 monosaccharides linked together
- Sucrase (cabe/beet sugar), maltose (corn syrup), lactose (milk sugar)

- Must be hydrolyzed to monosaccharides to be absorbed in bloodstream
- Gas production can cause flatulence and abdominal cramps, discomfort

Hydrolysis - a water molecule enters the region of the functional group of a larger molecule and splits it off
Sucrose - table sugar

- Extracted from sugarcane and sugar beets
- Glucose + fructose chemically bonded together
- Present in fruits, honey, vegetables
- Highly concentrated sucrose solutions act as preservative and cryoprotectant
Lactose - milk sugar
- Glucose + galactose chemically bonded together ONLY found in milk and dairy products
- Lactose intolerance result from undigested lactose
Maltose (malt sugar) - found in germinating grain and corn syrup

- A products of starch hydrolysis
- Commercial beta-amylase is used for hydrolysis
- Important for production of malted beverages (bees)
- 2 glucose molecules chemically bonded together
Sugars: Functional Properties

Reducing Agents - all mono and disaccharides
- Dextrose equivalent is a measure of percentage of glycorate bonds hydrolyzed in disaccharides,

polysaccharides and is an indicator of the level of reducing sugars present
-
1. Non enzymatic Browning
Maillard reaction - occurs due to formation of pigments called melanoidins

- Non enzymatic browning where a reducing end of reducing sugar and amino acid must be present
Caramelization - non enzymatic
- Formation of a pigment called caramelin produced due to heat treatment (generally over 200c)
2. Condensation - reducing sugars + AA α γ glucosamine

3. Rearrangement - glucosamine α γ amadon compounds )calories) α γ pyrazines
4. Polymerization - colorless compounds γ brown melanoides
5. Humectancy - ability to attract water (similar to hygroscopicity)

- Desirable in food preservation by making water less available to microbes

- Delay starch gelatinization in pudding, makes baked goods tender and moist
- Undesirable when free flowing sugar is needed
6. Inversion - hydrolysis of sucrose into its because it has certain functional properties and the sweetness is then adjusted
being alternative sweeteners
7. Crystallization - the more complex the mix, the slower will be the tendency for crystallization to occur
- Low DE sugars, because of complex structures will decay the ones of crystallization
- At room temp, about 2 parts sucrose can be dissolved in one part of water, giving a concentrated solution of 67%
Starch granules when heated in water undergo gelatinization

Gelatinization - responsible for thickening that occurs when a starch pudding or sauce is cooked
Commercial varieties of high amylose corn contains up to 65% amylose
Starch gelatinization - swelling of starch granules when heated in the preserve of water
Gelation - formation of rigid thick structure (starch gel) when cooled

Retrogeneration - recrystalization of amylose during storage
Syneresis - leakage of water from the gel
Factors affecting gelatinization:

ズ Amount of H2O
ズ Temp
ズ Duration of cooking
ズ Shear (mixing)
ズ Acidity
ズ Sugar (more sugar, softer gel)
ズ Rate of cooling (if cooled fast, harder gel)
ズ Amylose: amylopectin ratio
Starch dextrinization - heating the starch leads to dextrinization

Dextin - sweeter and mobile, , homoglucan, brown in colour
2. Glycogen (homoglucan)
ズ Storage form of glucose in animals
ズ During digestion, carbohydrates is hydrolyzed to glucose which is converted into either fat or glycogen
ズ Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles temporarily until hydrolyzed to help maintain blood glucose levels or
used as fuel by muscles

ズ Undetectable meats γ rapidly breaks down when the animal is slaughtered
3. Plant Fibre Components
ズ Dietary fibre is not digested by humans since there is no enzyme in the digestive tract that can hydrolyze the
molecules that make up plant fibre

ズ Dietary fibre is a complex mixture of cellulose, hemicellulose, beta-glucans, pectins, gums
ズ Some fibre components are found in the cell walls of vegetables, fruits and seeds
Give physical compactness, crispness, good mouth feel

Other fibre components such as vegetable gums have no structural role but impart thickening, viscosity, adhesiveness, gel
forming ability to foods
ズ Public health promotion usually emphasize the fibre importance in our diet to prevent chronic disorders (colon
cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes)
ズ fibre components such as vegetable gums: no structural role but impart thickening, viscosity,
adhesiveness, gel forming ability to foods
Fibre: Why the concern?

1. Bowel health
2. Healthy weight
3. Heart health
Fibre in Health
ズ Insoluble fibres (hemicellulose) provide body with roughage
ズ Soluble fibres (pectin/gums) best for inhibiting cholesterol absorption
ズ A high fiber diet requires high water intake
ズ Large amount of fibre can bind minerals
Types of fibres:
1. Cellulose (homopolysaccharide)
ﾖ Consists of many glucose linked together by beta bonds to form a linear chain
ﾖ Found in cell walls of plants and are important for physical structure
ﾖ Can be chemically modified to make it more soluble and useful for thickening, gelling and providing
bulk in low calorie products

2. Hemicellulose (heteroglucan)
ﾖ Also found in plant cell walls
ﾖ Contain a variety of different monosaccharide building blocks (pentose and hexoses)
ﾖ Improve water binding of flour
Bread dough - improve mixing quality, reduce mixing energy, aid incorporation of protein, improve volume.
3. Beta-glucans (homoglucan)
ﾖ Composed of glucose units that are linked together by beta bonds
ﾖ Less linear than cellulose and more soluble in H2O
ﾖ Oats and barley are rich sources
ﾖ Good for diabetics as a means of controlling blood sugar level
ﾖ Health claim for oat beta-glucan is 0.75g beta-glucan per serving (3servings/day)
4. Pectic Substances
ﾖ Found in cell wall and space between plant cells
ﾖ Aid in cementing plants together
ﾖ Galacturonic acid (derivative of galactose) - basic building block of pectic substances
ﾖ Pectin - pectic molecule common in fruits and is responsible for forming gels in jam, jellies, preserves
ﾖ Produced from apple cores or citrus peel commercially
Factors that affect gelling pectin:
ズ pH
ズ SUGAR
ズ Ca ions
ズ Type of pectic substances
5. Vegetable gums/hydrocolloids
ﾖ Long chain polysaccharides
ﾖ Various hexose and pentose sugars are the basic building blocks
ﾖ Gums help to retain water, fat replacers.
Examples of gums/hydrocolloids:
ズ Seaweed extracts: agar, alginate, carrageenan
ズ Plant seed: locust bean gum, guar gum

ズ Plant exudates: gum arabic, gum tragacanth
ズ Microbial gums: xanthan gum, dextran
6. Modified Cellulose
ﾖ Carboxy methyl cellulose - used as a bulking agent in low calorie foods and in fruit fillings
ﾖ Methyl cellulose - used in reformed potato products and in coating and butters to reduce oil absorption
High carbohydrate foods are often processed into more convenient forms:
ズ Corn
ﾖ Makes cereal and tortillas
ﾖ Extracted corn starch
ﾖ Corn starch can be hydrolyzed to produce corn syrup (glucose + maltose)
ズ Durum wheat
ﾖ Milled to form semolina (coarse flour) used to make pasta
ズ Wheat
ﾖ Composed of:
ﾖ Bran - outer layer, high in vitamins/minerals/fibre
ﾖ Germ - sprouting pan, high in vitamins and fat
ﾖ Endosperm - high in carbohydrate
ﾖ Bran and germ γ removed in milling
ﾖ Endosperm γ made to flour
ﾖ Wheat is also made into cereals
Note: plant carbohydrates (corn starch) are also being used in the production of ethanol γ a more environmentally friendly
fuel additive used in gasoline to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions
LIPIDS
Fats and Oils (Lipids)
ズ Includes a broad group of substances that have similar properties such as insolubility in water
ズ Oils are liquid at room temperature
ズ Fats are solid at room temperature
 Putridity is caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens on the surface of butter producing organic acids, particularly
isovaleric acid producing bad odours
 Rancidity occurs due to hydrolysis of butter fat resulting in the formation of free fatty acids.
Hydrogenation:
ズ Forced addition of hydrogen atoms to the unsaturated bonds in an unsaturated fat
ズ Raises the melting point of the fat
ズ Used in food industry γ hardens liquid oils to semi solid fats
ズ Makes oil more resistant to oxidative rancidity
ズ Linoleic acid becomes biologically inactive when converted to the trans form
ズ Trans FA are formed mostly during this process
Hydrogenation of oils is carried out to:

ズ Make the oil more solid at room temp(ex. margarine, shortening)
ズ Increase the stability(ex: smoke point) of these oils to thermal temperatures(frying oils)
ズ Hard margarine(High level hydrogenation): 25-28% trans FA
ズ Most margarines sold are not hydrogenated but consist of careful blend of different oils andfats
ズ Consumption of non-hydrogenated margarine is recommended over hydrogenated type for healthy life.
ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING
They are proteins that occur in nature and speed up biochemical processes that would otherwise take a
long time.In food industry, enzymes are used to produce, food products e.g. wine, cheese, corn syrup,
baked foods etc.
Application of enzymes allows the manufacturers to produce more of a particular product in a shorter
amount of time thus increasing profit. When enzymes are used in the processing of foods, they are not
considered food themselves; they are not required to be listed on the label of end product.
Effects of enzymes on quality of foods
1. Enzymatic browning
Browning can be observed on the cut surfaces of light coloured fruits and vegetation such as apples ,
bananas etc. due to enzymatic action.The formation of brown colour is due to action enzyme phenolase
(polyphenoloxidase) tyrosinase/catecholase).When foods containing such substrate are cut and exposed to
air rapid browning of the cut surface take place

2. Microbial spoilage
This occurs mostly in fruits where enzymes hasten the ripening process and beyond a certain stage, they
render the fruits too soft and unfit to eat.
If there is a bruised spot in the fruit, yeast would grow and produce enzymes which could spoil the fruit
3. Oxidation of ascorbic acid
Being a labile vitamin. Ascorbic acid is easily oxidized especially in presence of enzyme ascorbic
oxidase. This is facilitated by long exposure to air after cutting vegetable before cooking or serving.
Application of enzymes in food production
Enzymes in bread making
By the action of amylase in flour used in bread making, dextrins and maltose are formed and this provide
the fermentable sugar for the yeast cells.
This enzymatic reactions continue in the baking process till the enzyme activity is destroyed as the oven
temp rises. The time and extent of changes due to carbohydrates in the flour determines the softness, crust
colour , volume and texture of baked product.
Production of alcoholic drinks
Peptic enzymes play an important part in fruit ripening maintaining the viscosity of processed foods and
in textural changes.
The haziness noticed in wines is due to peptic substances. Peptinases are

used in classifying alcoholic drinks.
Application meal tenderization
The art of using enzyme for tenderizing meat is an old one.
Wrapping of meat on pawpaw or papaya leaves before cooking results in tenderization. this is the result of
the action of enzyme papain on meat proteins.
Other enzymes used for meat tenderization are
- Bromelin from pineapples

- Ficin from figs
- Trypsin from pancrease
- Fungala enzymesx
The enzyme catalyse the hydrolases of meat proteins and also hydrolyse the elastin or connective tissue
.Tenderizing enzymes remain active until the meat is heated .papain is inactive at 55oc
Cheese making
Enzymes help in the ripening of cheese. these enxymes are formed by micro-organisms and they act on
peptones and peptide and other substances to form produvts like amino acids , amines, fatty acids, esters,
aldetydes, alcohols and ketones that gives its characterstic flavor.
Tea production
The important constituent of tea contributing to the flavor are caffeine, polyphenols and essential oils.
Polyphenols present in tea have anti-oxidant activity. During fermentation, polyphenol
substances/stannins r oxidized by phenol oxidase and some new phenolic products result. Enzymes help
to cause desirable enzymatic browning during fermentation. The higher the content of enzymes in tea
leaves the better the quality.
FOOD ADDITIVES
They are substances not naturally present in a food but added during its preparation and remaining in the
finished product to preserve flavor, enhance taste and appearance.
They include anything added during the production, processing treatment, packaging, transport and
storage of a food.
Importance /functions of food additives
1. Maintain product consistency e.g. Emulsifier stabilizer anti-caking agents etc.
2. To improve or preserve the nutrient value-many foods and drinks are fortified and enriched to
improve the nutritional status of the population e.g. Vitamins, mineral that may be low or
completely lacking in a food.
3. Maintain the wholesomeness of foods- preservatives reduce the spoilage that air, fungi, bacteria
or yeast can cause . They also keep fresh from turning brown when exposed to air.
4. Controlling the acidity and alkalinity and provide leavening .Specific additives help to change the
acid base balance of food to obtain that taste color and flavor. Leavening agents that release acids
when they are heated react with baking soda to help biscuits, cakes and other baked products rise.
5. They provide colour and enhance flavor
Addititives could be natural ( e.g turmeric) or synthetic.
6. To produce easy to prepare convenient foods in a society that is busy and spends less time in the
kitchen than in the past.
7. To produce new food products that is of different shapes and colour.
Advantages of food additives
1. They allow our growing urban population to have a variety of foods all year round.
2. They make many possible convenient without the inconvenience of daily shopping.
3. They help to reduce food spoilage and reduce the risk of food poisoning.
4. They help to improve colour and flavor of food thus increasing customer acceptability of the food
product.
Disadvantages of using food additives.
1. Some food additives are toxic if a large amount is used e.g. Sodium benzoate.
2. Some food additives may be casinogenic e.g. Sodium nitrate has showed to cause cancer in mice
and may also cause cancer to human beings.
Many food colourings used in the past has showed to cause cancer.
3. Some additives may have side effects such as allergies and hyperactivity.
Types of food additives
Anti-oxidants – they are added to fats and fat containing substances to retard oxidation and thereby
prolong their wholesomeness, palatability and keeping time.
It should not contribute an objectionable odour, flavor or colour to the fat or food in which it is present.
Antioxidant include :- phenolic compounds, tocopherols etc.
Tocopherols act as biological antioxidants in plant and animal tissue but they are less or rarely used coz
they are more expensive than synthetic antioxidants.
Antioxidants also help to reduce the browning of cut fruits and vegetables (maillard reactions)
2. Acid –modifiers
They are used to control acidity and alkalinity of a food. They are also used to develop acid flavor in
baking powder in sweets, setting off the jam etc.
Examples of acids used include:- citric, tartanic acid, malic acid, acetic acid (vinegar), lactic acid from
dairy foods ascorbic acid etc.
Foaming agents
They are used to ensure that bubbles are evenly distributed e.g. Icecream
4. Sweeteners
They are substances rather than carbohydrates which have characteristic sweetness e.g. Sorbital found in
fruits. It is approx ½ as sweet as sucrose. It is stable in high temperature therefore used to make
confectionary e.g. Sweets and jam.
It can be used by diabetics.

Saccharine is 300 times sweeter than sucrose. It is popular with the diet conscious people. It is used in
production of soft drinks and diabetic foods. However it has an after taste.
Aspartame – it is a mixture of aspartic acid and phenyplanine. It is 200 times sweater than sucrose..
It is suitable if sweetening soft drinks. However, it is unsuitable for children suffering from a genetic
deficiency called phenyl ketonuria
5. Thickeners
They are added to processed food products to thicken basically liquids e.g. soups.
6. Nutritive agents.
During the processing of some foods, nutrients are lost and this may be replaced by the manufacturer by
addition of nutrients to enrich or fortify them e.g. Vit A and D are added to margarine and calcium is
added to white bread, by law fruit juices have extra vit C added, iodine is added to salt.
7. Flavor enhancers
They are added to strengthen the flavor of the end product e.g. strawberry, vanilla, monosodium
glutamate (for meat products)
8. Humectants
They are to food to make them soft and prevent them from going dry e.g. glycerol found in cake mixes.
9. ABT-caking agents
They are added to prevent powders from caking in the packet e.g. calcium silicate added to icing sugar to
stop it going lumpy
Other food additives includes anti-foaming agents e.g. in pineapple juice to prevent it from frothing too
much.
Flour improvers, raising agents, glazing agents are added to give a shine to confectionery.
Legislation of food additives
The use food and drug administration has a list of food additives that are considered safe.
Many have not been tested but are considered safe by most scientists. Substances are put on the GRAS
list (Generally Recognized As Safe list).
Some that are allowed may be harmful but should be on the label.
Prohibitions on food additives controls to use and limits of any food additives are outlined by the food
law.
The primary aims of the legislation controlling are:-
 To protect the health of consumers
 To prevent food fraud
The food safety act prohibits addition to food of any substances that may be injurious to health.
CONTAMINANTS
Contaminants – are residues that become part of food as a result of processing, handling and distribution
of food.
Occurrence and types of contaminants:-
The main contaminants in food industry include:-
1. Geo – contaminants e.g. heavy metals like lead and mercury

2. Pesticides – are substances intended for preventing destroying or repelling any pest.
A pesticide is generally a chemical or biological agent that through its effect deters/ incapacitate
/kills or otherwise discourages pests. They include organochloride, organophosphates, herbicide,

fertilizers, anti-biotics, hormones (like those found in chicken, beef and veal)
3. Industrial fall-out – these refers to the surface contamination originating from sources such as
overhead electrical cables, metals in the manufacturing factory etc.
Heavy metal poisoning from elements such as lead and mercury caused by industrial fall- out
eventually build in the tissues of predators such shark and whale.
- Industrial fall-out include acid rain and chlorofloral carbons (CFC)
Legislative Methods of control of contaminants is food industry
Prohibition:Legislative authorities have been taken numerous steps to protect consumer against food that
is detrimental to his health
Withdrawal:Where specific premises fail to meet the conditions of approval or licensing, the appropriate
approval or license may be withdrawn.Where raw agricultural products are produced, market withdrawal
capabilities from the point of processing are essential
Controlling application.:Official standards have been prescribed if ordinary fertilizer and for each type
of a fertilizer have a minimum and maximum amount that can be used.
Enforcing standards on them:Environment protection agencies give licenses for use e.g. enforcing
pesticides requirement.
TOXIC CONSTITUENTS AND ANTI-NUTRIENTS
(Toxins) Toxic constituents are substances created by plants and animals that are poisonous to human.
Anti-inutrients are natural or synthetic compounds that interfere with absorption of nutrients in the
human body.
The contamination of various foods by toxicants may occur as a result of microbial production, crop plant
production or ingestion by animals for human consumption.
Microbial sources of toxins are mycotoxin-producing fungi and toxin-producing bacteria. Notable
examples of microbially derived toxins are botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum and the
Staphylococcus aureus toxin. These toxins are produced in the food itself and result in food poisoning.
Both toxins are heatlabile; however, the extreme toxicity of the botulinum toxin, potent at 10−9 g per kg
body weight, makes it of particular concern for food processing of anaerobically stored foods.
Mycotoxins are extremely toxic compounds produced by certain filamentous fungi in many crop plants.
Ingestion of mycotoxins can be harmful to humans via contaminated foods or feed animals via their feed,
particularly in maize, wheat, barley, rye and most oilseeds. Mycotoxins produce symptoms that include
nervous system disorders, limb loss and death. Aflatoxins are a well-studied type of mycotoxin that are
known carcinogens. An example of a mycotoxin structure, aflatoxin B1. Mycotoxin poisoning can take
place either directly or indirectly, through consumption of a contaminated food or by a food ingredient
that may be contaminated and subsequently eaten as part of a final product.
An important example of food-related mycotoxins is ‘ergot’, the common name for fungi of the genus
Claviceps. Ergot species produce ergot alkaloids, which are derivatives of lysergic acid, isolysergic acid
or dimethylergoline. When ingested, the various alkaloids produce devastating symptoms such as
vasoconstriction, convulsion, gastrointestinal upset and central nervous system effects
Occurrence and type of toxic constituents
1. Cyanogenic glycosides
They are present in a number of food plants and seeds hydrogen cyanide is released from cynogenic
glycosides when fresh plant materials are broken down e.g. as in chewing which allows enzymes and
cyanogenic glycosides to come together releasing hydrogen cyanide.
Cassava is detoxified by chopping and griding in running H2O prior to preparation

Cyanide is one of the most potent rapidly acting poisonous known.
Cyanide inhibit active sites of cells causing them to die very quickly.
The human body rapidly detoxifies cyanide and an adult human can withstand 50-60 ppm for an 1hr
without serious consequences. However , exposure to concentrations of 200-500 ppm for 30 minutes is
usually fatal.
2. Dhurrin in sorghum/millet
Dhurrin is found mainly in the leaves and germinating seeds of sorghum. It

plays the role of defense against herbivore attack.
The content of cynanogenic glycoside dhurrin in sorghum vary depending on plant age and growth
conditions.
The cyanide potential is highest shortly after onset of germination.
3. Amygdelin (Vit BIT/Laterine)
- It mostly occurs in nuts and almonds.It is also found in plants such as lima beans and
sorghum.Cyanide is believed to be the active cancer willing ingredient in latelline.
- Amygdelin is also common in macadamia nutsWhen amygdelin containing seeds are crushed and
moistened free cyanide is formed.
4. Lytharism factor.
Lytharism is a paralytic disease affecting lower limbs toxic substances interfere with formation of normal
collagen in connective tissue.It is present in pulses.Most commonly found in India.
5. Favism factor (vifabafactor)
Found in vicafaba beans
Favism is haemolytic anaemia
It may cause death within 24-48 hrs of attack
This is brought about by eating broad beans and it affects metabolism of glutathione
6. Mycotoxins
 It is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by organism of the fungus kingdom commonly

known as moulds.
 The mycotoxin is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi readily
colonize crops.
 Mycotoxins can appear in the food chain as a result of fungal infection of crops either by
eating directly by humans or by –being used as livestock feed.
 Temperature treatment such as cooking and freezing do not destroy mycotoxins thus
mycotoxins greatly resist decomposition of being broken down in digestion so they remain in
the food chain in meat and dairy products.
7. Marine Toxins
□ Paralytic shellfish poisoning
Caused by consuming mussels, clams and oysters that produces saxitoxins

Symptoms developed within 30 min of consumption
 Ciguatera
Caused by consumption of tropical herbivorous reef fish
Symptoms developed approx. 3-5hrs after consumption
Ciguatera is a foodborne illness caused by eating certain reef fish whose flesh is contaminated with toxins
originally produced by dinoflagellates such as Gambierdiscus toxicus which live in tropical and subtropical
waters. These dinoflagellates adhere to coral, algae and seaweed, where they are eaten by herbivorous fish which
in turn are eaten by largercarnivorous fish. In this way the toxins move up the food chain and biomagnify
□ Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning
Caused by consuming clams and oysters that contains brevetoxins
□ Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning
□ Caused by consuming of clams and mussels that contain toxins that resemble brevetoxins
□ Amnesic shellfish poisoning
□ Caused by consuming mussels harvested from the eastern shore of Canada that contain a toxin called domoic
acid
Types of anti-nutrients
1. Enzyme inhibitors
They are molecules that bind enzymes and decrease their activity.
Not all molecules that bind enzymes are inhibitors. Enzyme activators bind to enzymes and increase their
enzymatic activities.
Proteins can be natural poisons or anti-nutrients e.g. Trypsin inhibitors, amylase inhibitor
Amylase inhibitors are also known as starch locus because they contain substances that prevent dietary
starches from being absorbed by the body.
Amylase inhibitor can be extracted from several types of plants especially those in legume family.
Currently available amylase inhibitors are extracted either from kidney bean white and red kidney bean
or wheat. Amylase inhibitors are not essential nutrients and are normally not produced in the body and so
no deficiency is possible.
High content of amylase inhibitors reduce carbohydrate absorption in humans
2. Avidin in eggs
Avidin is a biotin protein produced in the oviducts of birds, reptiles and amphibians deposited in the
whites of their eggs.
Biotin is necessary for proper carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism and for proper utilization of other
B complex vitamins as well as healthy hair and skin
3. Goitrogens
They are substances that suppress thyroid gland by interfering with iodine uptake which can as a result
cause enlargement of thyroid gland.
They are common constituents of plants belonging to the crucifer family e.g.broccoli, cauliflower, kales,
mustard seeds etc.
4. Glucosinotes
Plants use substances derived from glucosinolates as a natural defence against herbivores.
These substances are responsible for the sharp and bitter taste found in food such as mustard,
cauliflower, broccolis turnips
5. Phytic and phenolic compounds
Phytates are phosphorous compounds found primarily in cereal grains, legumes and nuts.
They bind with minerals such as iron, calcium and zinc thus interfering with their absorption in the body.
Phytic are phytic acids are storage form of phosphorus in the fiber of raw whole grains, legumes seeds
and nuts.
Phytates are not released through the digestive process
Through leavening phytic acid and phytates cause no problem. They are also destroyed through baking
food processing.
Effects of toxic constituents and anti-nutrients
1. Acute toxicity
Is the harmful effect of toxic agent that manifest itself in seconds, minutes hours or days after entering
the patients body.
Due to toxicity described the adverse effects of a substance which result either from a simple exposure or
from multiple exposures in a short span of time usually less than 24hrs
Chronic toxicity describes adverse health effects from repeated exposure often at lower level of
substances over a long time of period which could be months or years
Other effects include
 Reduced growth
 Intolerance of nutrients.
2. Paralysis
Is loss of muscle function for one or more muscle
It can be accompanied by a loss of feeling in the affected area if there is sensory damage
3. Dementia
 Is the loss of mental function such as thinking, memory and reasoning that is severe enough to
interfere with a person daily functioning.
 It is not a disease itself but rather a group of symptoms that might accompany certain diseases or
symptoms.
 Sometimes it is irreversible or not when caused by a disease or injury but might be reversible
when caused by alcohol drugs etc.
 Reduced availability of nutrients.
FOOD PRESERVATION
It’s the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow down spoilage, loss of quality edibility and
nutritional value thus allowing longer storage.
It usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, yeast, fungi and other micro organisms as well as
retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity.
MAJOR CAUSES OF FOOD SPOILAGE

Major Causes of Food Spoilage include:
Active water in tissues is one of the primary causes of food spoilage; food with high water content deteriorate quickly
(lettuce, beef),
Biological changes (growth of microorganisms),
Chemical and physical changes
Reasons /roles of food preservation
1. To eliminate any potential micro biology harm to the consumer.
2. To add variety to the diet by making foods available out of season
3. To produce new products out of the food e.g. in fermentation also in the germ making
4. Maintain nutritional value of the food production of safe food products.
5. Maintain the quality of food and increase the shelf life
Principles of food preservation

1. Controlling of micro organisms
This can be done in the following ways:
Keeping microorganisms out of the food (asepsis)
Removing microorganisms from the food e.g. through filtration

Killing microorganisms and the spores
Delay microbial growth
2. Controlling self decomposition. This can be done by inactivating endogenous enzymes
e.g. in blanching.
3. Preventing or delaying chemical reactions of the food e.g. in fats
4. Controlling insects, rodents, birds, and other physical cause of food spoilage
METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION
Methods of preservation can be broadly classified into (3)
1. Physical methods e.g. pasteurization ,sterilization, control of water content, radiation etc
2. Chemical methods e.g. salting ,curing, smoking and use of preservatives
3. Biological methods e.g. fermentation
PHYSICAL METHODS
 Food /radiation
Ionizing radiation can kill micro organisms thus used in food preservation When
food is radiated, energy passes through it and kills harmful bacteria The energy
is similar UVL and does not make the food radioactive
BIOLOGICAL METHODS
 Fermentation
It is the breakdown of carbohydrates material by micro organisms or under anaerobic conditions
Several end products of fermentation particularly acids and alcohol ,inhibitory to the common
pathogenic micro organisms that may find their way in the foods.
Examples of food preserved through fermentation include:
 Cheese

 Butter
 Bread
 Alcoholic beverages etc
Advantage /benefit of fermentation
 Flavor and textural changes
 Increase nutritional value
 Increase digestibility of food due to the breakdown of indigestible proactive coating of grains.
 Dehydration and drying
 It involves complete removal of H20 under controlled conditions in such a way that food quality
is not altered.
 On reconstitution with H2O, dry foods are very close and visually indistinguishable from the
original foods used in their preparation
 Foods could be dried naturally e.g. for cereals and grains
 They could also be dried through controlled methods e.g. by air convention driers ,drum or roller
driers which is limited to liquid foods ,vacuum driers etc
CHEMICAL PRESERVATION
Involves addition of preservatives .A preservative is a chemical agent which serves to hinder or mask
desirable changes in food
P#reservatives can be organic e.g. benzoic acid or inorganic e.g. sulphurdioxide Other
chemical preservative include vinegar, salts, sugar, wood smoke etc
Most chemical preservatives work by surrounding the microbial cells with a concentrated solution which
draws water out of the cells by osmosis. This renders the cells inactive.
Enzyme activity is also affected by the presence of high concentration of salts, acids, sugar etc as it is in
the curing of meat and meat products
Other chemical preservative include antioxidants, acids e.g. ethanoic acid, nitrates and nitrites in meat,
products, sulphur dioxides in fruits and soft drinks.
 `Freezing and refrigeration
When the temperature is reduced, the activities of most micro organism are slowed down until they
become dormant or inactive thus reduction in growth and multiplication.
Some types of microorganisms are reduced while other still thrive in low temperature.
Refrigeration
Refrigerators are used to store food for a short period and are usually set at 5 degrees At this
temperature, microbial activity still take place although it is slowed down
Freezing
The basic principles of refrigeration also apply to freezing, the temperatures are much lower in freezing
and foods can be stored for much longer periods.
In vegetables, enzymes action may produce a desirable effect on flavor and texture during freezing.
The enzymes therefore must be destroyed during freezing but the chief effect of freezing is the inability
of micro-organism to grow.
Types of freezing method
Slow freezing /sharp-Foods are placed at the temperature ranging from -4 to -30 degrees
Quick freezing-Lower temperature ranging from -32c to – 40c are used.
Fine crystals are formed. This helps to protect the structure of foods on thawing.
De-hydro freezing-Done in fruits and vegetables
Foods dried about 50% of their original weight and volume then frozen to preserve it . The
quality of fruits and vegetables does not change considerably.
EFFECTS OF FREEZING FOOD
Vitamin c and thiamine when vegetables are branched before freezing. Ascorbic acid is lost during
storage if the temperature is much above -18degrees.
Use of high temperatures for food preservation
Most bacterial, yeast, mould and enzymes are destroyed by heating a food at around 100oC. However,
some are resistant and higher temperature for destruction are required./
Heat destroys microorganisms by denaturing their cellular proteins particulary the essential enzymes.
Factors that influence type and intensity of heating process used in food preservation.
Microbial load
Microorganisms resistance to heating process
The composition of food i.e. natural ph, acidify or a alkalinity

Blanching. A quick heat treatment applied to vegetables and fruit to inactivate natural food enzymes that affect colour
and texture and to decrease oxidative degradation of the food. Commonly done before freezing fruits and vegetables aiding in
further presevation; does not completely stop enzyme activity
Canning
Involves the application of temp to food that are high enough to destroy essentially al microorganisms
present contamination.Degree of heat and length of time of heating vary with the type of food and kinds
of microorganisms targeted.Most fans are made of tin coiated steel or glass..Acid foods e.g. Tomatoes and
fruit juices are easily processed than low acid foods because acids aid destruction of micro-organisms by
heat.Acid foods can be processed safely if their internal temp reaches 82.2oc
Nutritive value of canned foods
In caned meat, thymine is lost if stored at 18oc or higher.
Ascorbic acid is well retained in citrus juices due to greater acidity.
Thiamine is preserved in vegetables e.g tomatoes because they require minimum amount of heat due to
their low PH.
Pasteurization
It is mostly used in liquids like milk and beer.Pasteurization is a heat treatment that kills part but not all
microorganisms present and usually involves the application of temp below 100oc.It has to primary
objectives:-
 I.e. to kill pathogenic microorganisms and inactivate enzymes
 Milk is the most pa5steurized food product by high temperature short time method.
 Dry fruits like raizings, dates can also be pasteurized in their package.
Hurdle technology
Hurdle technology emphasizes intelligent combination of various preservation techniques. It has been suggested that
different preservative factors of variable intensity be used for the synergistic action, instead of using a single high-
impact preservative. These targets include cell components, enzymes, pH, water activity, redox potential. Barbosa-
Canovas et al. (1998) suggested that the applicability of multitarget preservation approach is not only limited to
traditional methods of food preservation, but also valid for emerging nonthermal technologies like HPP, PEF, etc.
Limitations of Hurdle Concept
Combination of two or more hurdles results in either additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effect. Addition and
synergism justify the use of hurdle technology but some studies have shown the negative effect of using some hurdle
combinations (Jordan et al. 1999, Casey and Condon 2002). The antagonistic phenomenon is related to the type of
conditions, intensity of preservative action of each hurdle, and the type and nature of food to be minimally processed.
Is a method of ensuring that pathogens in food products are eliminated by combining more than one
approach. These approaches can be thought of “hurdles” the pathogen has to overcome if it is to remain
active in the food.The right combination of hurdles can ensure all pathogens are eliminated or render
harmless in the final product.It also ensures stability , organytic and nutritional quality and the economic
viability of food products. Hurdles used depends on the targeted pathogens.
Smoking
Increased shelf life is achieved by exposing food to smoke from burning plant materials such as wood.It
is done on food product such as meat , fish etc that have undergone curing.Selected wood enhances flavor
and presence of heat reduces h2o content in the food.Heat can also help to kill some bacteria present.
FOOD PACKAGING
It is the means by which protection is accorded to food material and the containers which are designed to
isolate the content to some degree from outside influence thereby minimizing deterioration of quality.
It is a means of ensuring safe delivery of a food to a consumer so that the food product arrives in a safe
and sound condition at the most minimal cost to the consumer and producer.
Food packaging is a science and an art because as a science it involves procedures and machinery and as
an art it communicates, has aesthetic value and educates.
Packaging – is a physical container and a label that protect the food and ensures its safe delivery to the
ultimate consumer in sound conditions at the minimum overall cost.
Functions of packaging
1. To protect the food before sale from any physical damage, microbial spoilage, chemical attack
and other biological agents such as insects and rodents.
2. Helps in product preservation – packaging lengthens the extent of time a product would be
preserved.
 The better the packaging, the better the preservation of the quality of the product.
 It keeps oxygen out and prevents food from going stale
 It helps to prevent tampering thus improved conference of the consumer.
3. To advertise communicate or educate

The type of packaging used in a food product can either attract or communicate positively to a
consumer. Well finished food packaging materials communicates indirectly good quality. A food
packaging can also be labeled to give information to the consumer on the contents in terms of
amount, nutritional benefit e.g. Anti-ageing or digestion , cholesterol level , shelf life, name
producer or method of preparation.
4. Provide ease of dispensing the finished food product as well as distributing food from one point to
another.
5. To help in unitizing or put into groups small amounts of food products to serve in one large pack.
6. To provide ease in processing or manufacturing process e.g. If dealing with high temp during
processing, the food may be packed with food packaging that is heat resistant and when
processing on high speed food can be packaged in a material that can withstand high speed in
manufacture.
Factors to consider when selecting a packaging material

 The packing material must:
 Must keep the product safe and prevent any damage,
 Must keep the product clean and protect it from contamination
 Must attract the customers to the product to increase sales and profit
 Must convey the information required by food labeling regulations.
Types of packaging material
Packaging materials can be primary, secondary or tertiary based on their on their function. Packaging
materials can be flexible packaging e.g. Paper natural fibre, plastics, metal foil etc Rigid packaging
materials include – tin, aluminium , wood , steel , glass earthen ware.
Flexible packaging materials are the type of packaging materials that have the ability.
Advantages
 They are light in weight
 Flexible with respect to the shape of the food
 Can wrap food in small quantities
 Reasonably cheap and available.
Paper.
Paper can be used in the form of rigid or semi rigid containers

 Can be untreated paper or improved /treated paper
 Treated paper is modified to have varying permeability to liquid and gases.
Advantages of using papers in food industry.
1. It is cheap
2. Light in weight
3. Recycled
4. It is readily available
5. Greatly versatile with reasonable machanicle strength.
6. .it is semi flexible therefore can take the shape of a food materials
Disadvantages of use and not appealing.
1. It not treated, rough and not appealing
2. In the long run will lead to deforestation.
3. Untreated paper is not safe liquid food products
4. The mechanical strength cannot resist burns/excess/overweight during transportation

Plastics
It is the most commonly used but difficult to expose
Advantages
 Reduces cost of transportation
 It is light, strong e.g. When used to package sugar, yorghut,
 It is cheap to manufacture
 Can be recycled
1. 10% of rubbish consist of plastic hence a problem in land fills because they are bulky and
degrade slowly
2. Interaction with food content emits some chemical compounds e.g. Dioxins which would cause
harm to the health of human.
Special Topic: Safety of Packaging Material
Bisphenol A (BPA)
ﾖ Food contact chemical with new safety concerns
ﾖ Used in cans as lining and in polycarbonate plastics
ﾖ Concerns for effects on brain, behaviour, prostate glands in fetuses, infant children
Metal
Metal used include tin, aluminum , steel etc.
Metals are mostly used for packaging canned foods. Among the aluminium is oftenly used. Advantages
1. Aluminium can be easily be recycled
2. Aluminium foils can be flexible and can take a shape of the food product.
3. It is light in weight and strong thus reducing transportation cost
4. Has good electrical and thermo conductivity
5. Has good resistance to corrosion
6. Relatively cheap than other metals like steel.
Disadvantages
 Aluminium is highly ductile and can tear food of high weight are packaged in aluminium alone.
This is overcome by alloying alluminium with small quantities of magnesium, manganese, silicon
and copper.
 Alluminium can be oxidized thus making welding difficult.
 Pure aluminium packages can be sold in liquids or solvents of low or high PH.
 Alluminium does not alter or impart any order of to food alluminium does not alter or impart any
order of the food.
Glass
It is ideal if packaging liquid food products
Advantages
1. It is easy to recycle
2. Strong
3. It is impevious to moisture, gases, odours and micro-organisms
4. Is inert and do not react or migrate into the food
5. Can easily show the contents of a food thus increased consumer acceptability of the fod product
1. Weight and shape make it difficult if transport and storage.
2. Can easily break hence must be handled with care during processing, transportation and use of the
food contents.
Interaction between food product and packaging material
Lacquer and food used in cans.
They are oxyphenolic resins are used to protect, lessen or do away with interactions between cans and
food. Lacquers must not only ensure inertia but also avoid altering properties of the food.
Migration of some monomers from lacquers to food have been observed.
The resulting effects include:- skin attacks , allergies, asthma, and inflammatory reactions. Genotoxical
effects and disruption of reproductive system has also observed.
Plastic packages and food contaminants
 Dioxins in paper and chemicals in plastics can migrate into the food.
This have been observed with the change of taste to that of plastic found in plastic bottled water that has
been left in the sun.
 Sulphur compounds in food.
Sulphur compounds from packaging materials reacts and results in modification of the sensory properties
and flavor of foods containing dysulphides.
Wax paper with polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
They have shown to be have transferred to foods. Paper and cartons with metallic lining, has shown
contamination in foods which is usually iron
Requirements of a packaging material
Must keep the product safe and prevent any damage.
Must keep the product clean and protect it from contamination
Must attract the customers to the product to increase salts and profit.
Must convey the information required by food labeling regulations.
PACKAGING TECHNIQUES FOR MINMALLY PROCESSED FOODS
MAP is a method of preserving the fruits and vegetables by changing the composition of the air surrounding the
food in a package. Different gas mixtures in varying concentrations are used in modifying the atmosphere inside
the package. Generally, oxygen and carbon dioxide are used for packaging of minimally processed fruits and
vegetables, but the potentials of other gases like nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and noble gases (Helium, Argon, and
Neon) have also been realized. Higher carbon dioxide and reduced oxygen levels have been found efficient in
enhancing the shelf life and preventing the problem of enzymatic browning in fruits and vegetables. Generally,
15–20% CO2 has been considered effective in preventing decay in fresh fruits and vegetables. In case of meat
products, oxygen is used for retaining the red color of oxymyoglobin, but oxygen levels are reduced in other
products to prevent oxidative rancidity and spoilage due to microbes. Very low oxygen or high concentration of
carbon dioxide can initiate anaerobic respiration in the package, which may lead to formation of certain
undesirable metabolites, harming the product’s physiology. The essential characteristics for MAP packaging
material are the gas permeability and water vapor transmission rate. Most common packaging materials include
polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyethylene terephthalate. These days, laminates or
coextruded films are used for packaging. The traditional gas mixture configuration is not enough to prevent the
deteriorative reaction if fruits and vegetables get wounded. Minimal processing up to some extent is responsible
for initiating the tissue damaging. Also, the packaging materials used for MAP are prone to some limitations
pertaining to textural, color, and permeability changes. Hence, as a solution, edible coatings are being seen as
potential alternative to the MAP technique. The advantages of edible coating are numerous, and constantly
improvements are being made by incorporating active ingredients like antioxidant, antimicrobials, antibrowning
agents, etc. Edible coatings have been explained later in the chapter. Active and Edible Packaging Active
packaging implies incorporation of certain additives that can enhance the shelf life, flavor, texture, etc. by
interacting with the food product inside the package. These additives can be oxygen scavengers, carbon dioxide
absorbers or generators, ethanol emitters, ethylene absorbers, and moisture absorbers. Antioxidants and
antimicrobial compounds are also used in the active packaging. Inclusion of chemical or physical additives in
packages may become a hindrance for consumer acceptance of packaged foods. The development of packaging
techniques that use natural materials like edible coating is a potential alternative to the chemical based packaging
methods. Edible coating is applied on the surface of food by spraying, dipping, or brushing. Sources of edible
coatings are polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids. Edible coatings help reduce water loss and delay ageing by
allowing controlled and selective gas permeability through product. They are also environmentally friendly as they
reduce synthetic packaging waste.
FOOD BORNE DISEASES
Major bacteria food borne diseases

1. Salmonella.
Found in human and animal faeces. Enters food via contaminated water, cutting boards, contaminated meat products (usually
poultry), cracked eggs and actual bits of feces on food. Onset of symptoms = 1-3 days after consumed, duration 2-3. Typical
symptoms include nausea, headache, diarrhea, abdominal pain, chills, fever, vomiting and dehydration. Can be fatal in infants,
elderly and the sick.Thorough cooking of foods kills salmonella. Typical foods involved: raw or undercooked eggs, raw milk
and poultry. Prevention: cook eggs and poultry thoroughly, pasteurize milk, irradiate chicken, avoid cross contamination.
2. Staphylococcus aureus
Responsible for 20-40% of all cases food poisoning, It is the toxin produced by the bacteria that actually causes illness. (Temp
control is the key), Onset of symptoms = 20 mins-6 hr, duration usually is 1-2 days. Symptoms: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
cramps, Rarely fatal. Susceptible foods: custard, ham, egg salad, potato salad, macaroni salad, seafood, cheese, poultry, cream-
filled pastries, whipped butter. Contamination comes from people with colds, sore throats or infected skin cuts and food slicers
that are not thoroughly cleaned.
Prevention.do not allow infected persons to prepare food; thorough heating and cooling of food; good sanitation.
3. Escherichia coli 0157:H7.
□ Lives in the large intestine of animals and also in the intestinal tract of humans
□ Referred as “hamburger diseases” because of strong connection with beef
□ Source of this: raw, undercooked meat, raw (unpasteurized) milk, unpasteurized fruit juices
□ Surface contaminant only found in the surface of the food
□ takes about 12 - 18 hours before symptoms are seen
□ symptoms include nausea, vomiting, watery and bloody diarrhea (because of hemolytic colitis), abdominal
pain, and dehydration. In more severe cases, headache, muscle cramping, and temporary changes in blood pressure and pulse
rate may occur.
□ duration of symptoms is usually 2 - 9 days, with most people recovering without treatment. However,
about 2-7% of cases lead to a condition called hemolytic uremic syndrome, which can cause acute kidney
failure, resulting in a need for dialysis and in some cases, blood transfusions in ICU.
□ Prevention: cook meat thoroughly, especially ground meat, pasteurize milk and fruit juices, avoid cross
contamination, e.g., do not use platters that held raw meat for cooked food, proper hand washing, and appropriate kitchen clean
up.
4. Clostridium botulinum
.Anaerobic (oxygen free) bacteria present in soil, Produces a toxin that blocks nerve function,
Most powerful natural toxin, Found in dented canned foods & especially low acid home caned
foods. Symptoms include double vision, inability to swallow, speech difficulty and progressive
paralysis resulting in death due to botulism poisoning. Prevention = sterilize canned foods (use
pressure canner); never use dented cans
Non-Bacterial Food Contamination

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy(BSE): Mad cow disease
 An example of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy(TSE)
 TSE: diseases that cause the brain of the victim to become riddled with holes
- Cause: a prion(PrP) which is an infectious protein particle that has no DNA or RNA. Prion
has 2 forms(normal conformer(PrPc) which causes no problems in the body and rogue conformer(PrPsc) which causes
problems)
- PrPsc causes the normal PrPc to change shape = destruction of cells as prion travels
through spinal cord to the brain and causes holes in the brain
- CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease) is a TSE that causes dementia
 BSE: a degenerative disease in cattle that affects their central nervous system. SRM are the parts
of the cattle that are most likely to contain BSE.
*New foods are made through Genetic engineering (GMOs) what is your view on how such foods are handled..
END

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BIOC 315: BIOCHEMISTRY OF FOOD PROCESSING

Food science and technology and food security

Food insecurity can be caused by:

ii) Seasonal food shortages

iii) High food prices

v) Low level of nutrition education

vi) Cultural factors and taboos

vii) Policy failures

The food we eat is made up of three major kinds of nutrients

It is also composed of vitamins, minerals and fibre

 Cereals and cereal products

 Fruits and vegetables

 Meat and meat products

 Poultry and eggs

 Milk and milk products

 Legume and root tubers

 Sea foods and fish

FOODS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN

Specific food products in food industries include the following:

1. Milk and milk products

2. Fats and oils

3. Fruits and vegetables

5. Cereals and pulses.

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

2. The udder needs to prepare for the next cycle.

Factors affecting composition of milk

3. Individuality of the animal

- Is also known as lactose

- Lactose exist only in milk in the form of a true solution

Amylase (diastase) – is a starch splitting enzyme.

Milk quality and microbiology

Whole milk has distinctive quality of odour taste, and appearance.

Is due to the production of an enzyme which curdles to milk without souring.

The sanitation of milk supply can be safeguarded in two ways:-

Also inactivates natural enzyme glycolipases.:

General methods used in pasteurization include:- Holding or

High temperature short time method (HTST)/ continuous system.

Absence of blue colour reactions indicates complete pasteurization.

Effects of pasteurization on nutritive value

Pasteurized products are not sterile

They contain vegetative organisms and spores still capable of growth.

4. Dehydrated milk products

Cream is pasteurized to kill the spoilage bacteria.

Riboflavin and thiamin content increases during curd formation.

Effects of heat on milk

Beef – is the meat of cattle over 1 yr. old..

Lamb/mutton- meat from sheep that is 12 months old or below.

between and within muscle fibres.

The slaughter of animals is controlled by law.

Post mortem changes in meat

a) temperature of holding should have a range of 34-36of

b) CO2 in the altmosophere

Spoilage and deterioration of meat.

Connection tissue determines tenderness of meat

c) Use of low levels of salts

Water holding capacity

v) Spoilage and deterioration of meat.

Factors that cause meat spoilage include:-

Microorganism,exposure to air and improper feeding techniques.