LINEAR MOTION

Linear motion: is the motion of an object or a body moving along a straight path or line.
The physical quantities which describe this motion are displacement, velocity and
acceleration or deceleration.
Displacement (S): This is the distance travelled or covered in a specified or constant
direction.
Displacement is a vector quantity and is measured in metre (m). The displacement can
be along vertical direction, or horizontal direction (Sx) or (Sz).
Velocity (v): This is the time rate of change of displacement.
Velocity is a vector quantity, and is measured in metre per second (ms-1).
Note: Speed and velocity are often used interchangeably; however, speed is the time
rate of change of distance while displacement
velocity is the time rate of change of
displacement. Also Speed does not specify direction while velocity specifies direction.
For an object moving say from point P1 to P2 along x-axis, it can be represented as
shown in the figure below:
P1 P2

x1 x2
Fig.1: Refresentation of displacement between two poits
As the motion is along x-axis, the average velocity in the - axis, or the average -
velocity is given by:

Where; t1 is the time at x1 and t2 is the time at x2. This can be represented in graphical
form as follows:

Fig.2: displacement - time graph of linear motion

Δx
The slope of the graph = Δt
= Average velocity

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The average -velocity depends only on the total displacement, that
occurs during the time interval .
Instantaneous Velocity:
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a particular instance of time.
It is defined as the instantaneous rate of change of position with time. In other words; it
is the limit of the average velocity as time interval approaches zero.
Mathematically;
∆𝑥
Vx = lim∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
dx
vx = dt = Slope of the tangent on x-t graph.
Δx dx
Limit, of as Δt tends to zero means, the expected value of the gradient as the value
Δt dt
of Δt reduces to zero.
Problems related to linear motion are solved using equations of motion. However, it can
also be solved using a particular expression/equation that describes the motion of an
object/body in a particular situation.
Let’s consider the examples below:
Example 1
A tiger crouched 20m to the east of an observer’s vehicle. At time t=0, the tiger charges
an antelope and it begins to run along a straight line. During the first 2.0s of the attack,
the tiger’s coordinate x varies with the time according to the equation
x = 20m + (5.0m/s2)t2
Find:
a. The displacement of the tiger between t1 = 1.0s and t2 = 2.0s.
b. The average velocity during the same time interval.
c. The instantaneous velocity at time t1 = 1.0s by taking Δt = 0.1s, then Δt = 0.01s,
then Δt = 0.001s.
d. Derive a general expression for instantaneous velocity as a function of time, and
from it find vx at t = 1.0s and t = 2.0s.
Solution
Given that the equation that describes the motion of the tiger and the antelope is given
by;
x = 20m + (5.0 m/s2)t2.

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We are to use it to determine the distance at any given time. Also by differentiating it
w.r.t time, we obtained the velocity, and by differentiating it twice, the acceleration can
also be found.
a. At time t1 = 1.0s, the tiger’s position x1 is x1= 20m + (5)(1.0)2 = 25m.
At time t2 = 2.0s, the position x2 = 20m + (5)(2.0)2 = 40m
The change in position (displacement) during the interval t1 to t2 is given by;
Δx = x2 – x1 = 15m
b. The average x-velocity during this interval is given by:
x 2 − x1 40 − 25
Vav-x = = = 15ms-1.
t 2 − t1 2− 1

c. With Δt = 0.01s, the time interval is from t1 = 1.0s to t2 = 1.0 + 0.01 = 1.1s,
This means at time t2, the new position is x2= 20m + (5.0 m/s2)(1.1)2 = 26.05m
The average x-velocity during this interval is;
x2 − x1 26.05 – 25.0 1.05
Vav-x = t 2 − t1
= 1.1− 1.0
= 0.1
= 10.5ms-1.

Also with Δt = 0.01s, the time interval is from t1 = 1.0s to t2 = 1.01s.

This means at time t2, the new position is x2 = 20m + (5.0 m/s2)(1.01)2 = 25.1005m
The average x-velocity during this interval is:
x2 − x1 25.1005 – 25.0 0.1005
Vav-x = t 2 − t1
= 1.01− 1.0
= 0.01
= 10.05ms-1.

Similar with Δt=0.001s, vav-x = 10.005m/s

It can be seen that when Δt gets closer to zero (from 1s, to 0.1s to 0.01s to 0.001s), the
average x-velocity gets closer to 10.0m/s, (15, to 10.5, to 10.05, to 10.005) so we can
conclude that the instantaneous x-velocity at time t = 1.0s is 10m/s. Thus, this velocity
is the limit of the velocity as Δt tends to zero, and is therefore called the instantaneous
velocity at t=1s.
d. Given that x=20m+(5.0m/s2)t2, this means
x = 20 + 5t2,
So, the general expression for instantaneous velocity as a function of time is:
Vx = 10t.
The instantaneous velocity at t = 1.0s is therefore
Vx = 10(1) = 10ms-1.
And similarly at t = 2.0s,
Vx = 10(2) = 20ms-1

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Example 2
A car is stopped at a traffic light. It then travels along a straight road so that its distance
from the light is given by
x(t) = bt2 – ct3
Where; b = 2.40m/s2 and c = 0.120m/s3
a. Calculate the average velocity of the car for the time interval t = 0 to t = 10.0s.
b. Calculate the instantaneous velocity of the car at t = 0, t = 5.0s and t = 10.0s
c. How long after starting from rest is the car again at rest?
Solution
Given that x(t) = bt2 – ct3,
When t1 = 0 and t2 = 10s. b = 2.40m/s2 and c = 0.120m/s3
At t =0, x1 = x(0) = 2.40(0) 2 - 0.120 (0)3 = 0
At t = 10s, x2 = x(10) = 2.40(10)2 - 0.120 (10) 3 = 240 – 120 = 120.0m
Δx x2− x1 120−0
a. The average velocity, vav-x = Δt
= t2 − t1
= 10− 0
= 12ms-1
dx
b. The instantaneous velocity, vx = dt = 2bt – 3ct2
At t = 0, vx = 2(2.4)(0) – 3(0.120)(0)2 = 0
At t = 5.0s, vx = 2(2.4)(5) – 3(0.120)(5)2 = 24 - 9 = 15.0m/s
At t = 10.0s, vx = 2(2.4)(10) – 3(0.120)(10)2 = 48 - 36 = 12.0m/s
c. The car will come to rest again when vx = 0 and t=?
That is vx = 2(2.4)t – 3(0.120)t2 = 0
4.8t = 0.36t2
t = 13.3s
The Car will therefore come to rest after 13.3s.
AVERAGE AND INSTANTENEOUS ACCELERATIONS
Acceleration describes the time rate of change of velocity. For average x-acceleration,
aav-x, is given by:

(2.3)
Similarly, the instantaneous acceleration ax is given by

The unit of average acceleration is meter per second per second or ms-2 or m/s2
(commonly read metre per second squared).

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 Fig.3: A vx–t graph of linear motion

Consider the Vx–t graph above, the average x-acceleration is given by

Δv x
aav –x = Δt
= Slope of line P1 – P2.
Similarly, the instantaneous x-acceleration at any point in the vx –t graph is equal to the
slope of the tangent of the curve at that point. We can also learn about acceleration of a
body from a graph of its (position versus time), so that
dx dv x
vx = dt and ax = dt

Hence,
dv x d dx d2x
ax = = ( )=
dt dt dt dt 2

EQUATIONS OF MOTION
There are four equations used to solve problems on linear motion. The equations are as
follows:
Suppose the velocity of the motion at t1 = 0 is vox and at t2 = t is vx, then we can write;
dv x v x − v ox v x − v ox
ax = dt
= t −0
= t

By making vx subject of the formular.

vx = vox + axt ……………………………………….(1)
(This is for constant x-acceleration only)
Other equation which can be derived from the above equations is:
x = voxt + ½ at2 ………………………………………………………….(2a)
If the motion started from a position xo which is not equal to zero, then the total
displacement covered is given by S = x - xo = voxt + ½ at2.
x = xo+ voxt + ½ at2 ………………………………………….……. (2b)
Where: xo is the position at t = 0, and x is position at time = t.

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The graph of the above equation (i.e. x - t graph) is always a parabola.
Solving for t from eq(1), and substituting it into eq.(2b) we get
vx2 = vox2 + 2ax(x – xo) ……………………………………………………………..(3).
x− x o v ox − v x
From the equations vav-x = t
, and vav-x = 2
, it can be shown that
v ox − v x
x − xo = ( 2
)t …………………………………………….(4)
Eq (1, 2,3 and 4) are the equations of motion and are useful when ax is constant.
A special case of motion with constant x-acceleration occurs when the x-acceleration is
zero. The x-velocity is then constant, and the equations of motion become:
vx = vox = constant
and x = xo + vxt
Example
A motorcyclist heading east through a small city accelerated after he passed the
signpost marking the city limits. His constant acceleration at time t = 0 was 4.0m/s2. He
was 5.0m east of the signpost, moving east at velocity of 15m/s.
a. Find his position and velocity at time t = 2.0s
b. Where will be the motorcyclist when his velocity is 25m/s?
Solution
Xo =5m, a = 4ms-2, vox =15ms-1.
a. To find his position at t = 2s, we use
x = xo + voxt + ½ at2
x= 5 + (15)(2) + ½ (4)(2)2
x = 43m
To find his velocity at t = 2s, we use:
vx = vox + axt
vx = 15 + (4)(2)
vx =23m
b. To find his position x, when vx= 25m/s, we use:
vx2 = vox2 + 2ax(x – xo)
By making x, subject of the formular,
𝑣𝑥 2 − 𝑣𝑜 2
x - xo = 2𝑎 𝑥
𝑣𝑥 2 − 𝑣𝑜 2
x = xo +
2𝑎 𝑥

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 25 2 − 15 2
x=5+ 2 (4)
625−225 400
x=5+ = x=5+
8 8

x = 5 + 50 = 55m
His position will be x =55m.
FREELY FALLING BODIES
Free fall is a case where an object/body is released from some vertical height (Sy) and
allowed to fall freely. This motion involves a constant acceleration due to gravitational
pull on the body called acceleration due to gravity and is denoted by “g‟ which has an
approximate value of 9.8m/s2 or 10m/s2 at or near the Earth’s surface.
Example 1
A ball is dropped from a height of 20m and rebounds with a velocity which is ¾ of the
velocity with which it hit the ground. What is the time interval between the first and
second bounces?
Solution
There are four vertical motions in this instance, the first one is a freely falling motion of
the ball, the second one is the bouncing back of the ball to some height and the third
one is the second free fall of the ball and then the fourth one is the second bouncing of
the ball again.
For the first free fall of the ball;
Initial velocity, Voy = 0, acceleration = g = 10ms-2, vertical displacement, y1 = 20m,
and final velocity vy = ?
To find Vy we use:
Vy2 = voy2 + 2ay(y – yo)
Vy2 = 0 + 2(10)(20)
vy2 = 400
vy = 20m
For the first bouncing of the ball to some height;
3 3
Initial velocity, Voy = 4 vy = 4 X 20 = 15ms-1, ay= - g = -20ms-2,
upward displacement y2 = ?, final velocity, vy = 0
We can find the time taken to reach the new maximum height using:
vy = voy + ayt
0 = 15 + (-10)t
10t = 15
t = 1.5s

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To find the new maximum height reached by the ball
We use: y = ?, voy = 15ms-1, ay = -g = -10ms-2, final velocity, vy = 0, t = 1.5s
Using Height = y2 = voyt + ½ ayt2
y2 =15(1.5) + ½ (-10)(1.5)2
y2 = 22.5 -11.25
y2 = 11.25m
The ball after reaching this height will have a free fall again with
y = 11.25m voy = 0, ay = g = 10ms-2, t=?
The time for the second bounce is found using:
y2 = voyt + ½ ayt2
11.25 = 0 + ½ (10)t2
10t2 = 11.25
t2 = 1.125
t = 1.06s
The time interval between the first and the second bounces is therefore
t= 1.5 + 1.06 = 2.56s
Example 2
The distance x in metres covered by a particle at time t seconds is given by
x = 2t3 – 3t2 – 5t …………………………………….1
Find:
i. Its speed in the 5th second
ii. ii. The distance covered in the 3rd second
iii. iii. The time the particle is momentarily at rest
iv. iv. The acceleration at t = 5.0s
Solution
As the motion of the particle is described by the equation x = 2t3 – 3t2 – 5t
Its speed is obtained by differentiating the displacement w.r.t time as follows:
dx
Vx = = 6t2 – 6t – 5 ………………………..2
dt

And the acceleration is by differentiating the speed w.r.t time as follows:

dv
ax = dt
= 12t – 6 …………………………3
Now,
i. The speed in the 5th second is from eq.(2) given by

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 Vt=5s = 6(5)2 – 6(5) – 5
Vt=5s = 150 – 30 - 5
Vt=5s = 115ms-1.
ii. The distance covered in the 3rd second is from eq(1) given by
Xt=3s = 2(3)3 – 3(3)2 – 5(3)
Xt=3s =54 – 27 – 15
Xt=3s = 12m
iii. The time the particle is momentarily at rest is when x = 0, and is obtained
from eq(1) as follows:
0 = 2t3 – 3t2 – 5t
Factor out t, the equation becomes;
0 = t(2t2 – 3t – 5)
t=0
or 2t2 – 3t – 5 = 0 …………………………….4
Solving eq(4) as quadratic equation we get
t1 = -1s and t2 = 2.5s
As time cannot be negative, t = 2.5s.
the particle is momentarily at rest for t = 0s or for t= 2.5s.
Example 3
An airplane flying horizontally with a speed of 396 Km/hr releases a bomb at a height of
500m from the ground. When and where will the bomb strike the ground?
Solution
The bomb will not go straight down to the ground due to the horizontal motion of the
airplane, it will rather go in parabolic path as shown below:

The point on which it will fall on the ground will be some distance away from the point
from which it is released; it will therefore have vertical as well as horizontal motions (Sy
and Sx respectively).

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For the vertical motion, h = Sy = 500mmm initial velocity, voy = 0, a =g = 10ms-2, t = ?
To find t, we use;
Sy = voyt + ½ ayt2
Thus, 500 = 0t + ½ (10)t2
500 = 5t2m
t = 10s
In order to determine the horizontal distance, we use; Sx = voxt + ½ axt2
Where; Sx = ? , vox = 396kmh-1 = 110ms-1, t = 10s, ax = 0
Sx = 110 (10) + ½ (0)(10)2
Sx = 1100 + 0
Therefore, the horizontal distance that the bomb will cover before reaching the ground
is Sx=1100, and the time it will take to reach the ground is 10s.

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