Overview of The Literature Onthe TOD Policy To Investigate A Practical Soluation 4 Traffic Congeston 2020

“Review Paper”
Overview of the Literature on the Transit-Oriented

Development Policy to Investigate a Practical Solution for
Traffic Congestion in Iran Cities
Hamid Mirzahossein1*, Amir Abbas Rasafi2, Kaveh Sadeghi3, Farshid Safari4
Received: 08.10.2019 Accepted: 24.01.2020
Abstract
Expanding public transportation is not enough to solve the urban sprawl problem resulted from an auto-orientation
perspective. So urban planning experts paid attention to integrated and coordinated planning of urban development
with public transportation, which reached to sustainable urban development. The purpose of this study is to review
the researches in transit-oriented development (TOD) and present practical solutions to implement TOD in Iran
cities. In this paper, urban sprawl has been introduced, and three significant solutions (Smart Growth, New
Urbanism, and Transit-Oriented Development) have been checked to prevent it. Then the researches in TOD
allocation by various methods and modifying land uses around transit stations have been investigated. Moreover,
the effects of TOD on city structure and the decisions of individuals in choosing a place of residence have been
examined. Also, methods for assessment of TOD impacts and the prosperous cities, which implement the TOD,
have been introduced, and finally, the practical solutions for implementing TOD in Iran cities have been presented.
Based on a review of the previous studies incorporated in this paper, the practice and integration of TOD through
land use and transportation showed that TOD could be the alternative solution in addressing the problems of
developing the urban area.
Keywords: Transit-oriented development, new urbanism, smart growth, traffic congestion, iran cities
Corresponding author Email: [email protected]

1
PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Imam Khomeini International University (IKIU),
Qazvin, Iran.
2
PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering -, , Imam Khomeini International University (IKIU),
Qazvin, Iran.
3
MSc, Department of Civil Engineering , Imam Khomeini International University (IKIU), Qazvin, Iran.
4
PhD, Research Assistant, Centre for Integrated Transport Innovation (CITI), School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Sydney, Australia.
International Journal of Transportation Engineering,
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Hamid Mirzahossein, Amir Abbas Rasafi, Kaveh Sadeghi, Farshid Safari
1. Introduction Therefore, investigate these changes by using

TOD can help us to identify continuity model
Up to now, various papers, theories, and changes and to find a way for controlling
investigations about land use and transportation undesirable changes and to achieve an optimal
interactions have been presented by model because of making constructive changes
researchers. Some have sought to present a in the urban context in the future [Noripayam
model for assessment of interactions and to find and Norian, 2010]. Figure 1 shows the structure
a model for a specific location. Others have of the study.
presented a flexible, localized, and executable
approach by considering the main essence of 2. Urban Sprawl and Effects
these changes. Among all these theories, new
urbanism and smart growth have been focused After World War II, decentralization and the
on executable solutions in simultaneous increasing use of cars were two of the most
planning of transportation and land use, and alarming phenomena of interest to urban
new theories and approaches like TOD has been planners in the United States. Increased
obtained in a particular place to solve this investments and subsidies for car users, in
problem. The results of studies in different parts return to a low budget for public transportation,
of the world have shown the impressibility and make cars a top priority for travelers. The
continuity of physical-spatial urban changes accessibility to lower-cost housing in the
(consist of land use changing, land prices, suburbs and the high ability of the city for
building density) rather than urban network driving cars created a wave of migration from
transportation changes (roads and the suburbs to the city; this phenomenon was
communication nodes, volume and action scale named urban sprawl in the urban planning
and the quality of transportation services). literature [Soltani and Kono 2006].
Figure 1. Structure for the Study

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Review Paper: Overview of the Literature on the Transit-Oriented Development …
Urban Sprawl has a range of negative which introduces additional storm-water runoff
consequences, including social, economic, volume and degrades water resource quality.
environmental, and traffic problems [Gardner Additionally, this expansion is rapidly
2013]. consuming agricultural lands and robbing
landscapes of their natural resources and
2.1 Social Consequences of Sprawl beauty. Further, the low-density nature of
Those living in sprawling suburbs have longer sprawl almost always requires it to be accessed
commute times and distances to travel for work, via automobile. Therefore, the number of cars
to shop, or for recreation. As a result of sprawl, on the road has increased, which results in a rise
cars, attached garages, and consumerism, the in air pollution from exhaust [Gardner 2013].
social experience of the Walking-Horsecar Era
2.4 Traffic Consequences of Sprawl
has been stripped away from the city and
replaced by solitary, isolating commutes. The One of the first and most extensive studies on
car and garage have been agents of social the impacts and consequences of urban traffic
isolation, while consumerism has created a congestion is a study by Newman and
suburban landscape robbed of identity. The Kenworthy on the relationship between density
suburbs are over run with chain stores, and fuel consumption in different cities around
restaurants, gas stations, and hotels repeated the world. The results of studies on 83 cities
over and over in nearly every city. These about the impact of sprawl on travel behavior
suburban destinations are designed for show that in more sprawl cities, travel variables
vehicular access, and therefore promote a more such as length of trip, car ownership, and
sedentary and unhealthy lifestyle. accident rates are increased and instead of
walking rates, and public transport utility are
2.2 Economic Consequences of Sprawl decreased [Newman, P. and Kenworthy 1999].
By attempting to escape the city and return to
nature, a growing population has relentlessly 3. Urban Forms and Compactness
consumed the land surrounding the dense, Approaches
historic core of American cities. The expansion
was primarily funded by the public, as the The TOD has a role in reshaping urban forms.
federal government used taxes to expand It is expected to have changed in land-use
highways, utilities, and other infrastructure out patterns to encourage the development of
into the countryside. Further, those lured out higher-density mixed-use urban activity centres
into sprawling areas by the perception of less around the mass transport stations and
expensive housing soon discovered that discourage lower-density decentralized sprawl
operating costs for personal transportation [Knowles, Ferbrache, 2019]. The compaction
become a large percentage of their income. of urban spaces in the urban planning literature
has a background that its approaches have been
2.3 Environmental Consequences of outlined in Figure 2 and three important
Sprawl approaches are discussed [Alipour, Soltani, and
Hosseinpour, 2017].
Expansion of development into undeveloped
watersheds increases impervious surfaces,

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Compact
City
Smart New
Growth Urbanis
m
Urban
Modernis Compactne
m ss TOD
Approaches
Sustainabl
Human e
Preparati Developm
on ent
Post
modernis
m
Figure 2. Urban Compactness Approaches [Alipour, Soltani, and Hosseinpour, 2017]
3.1 Smart Growth Movement distribution of land uses and compact urban
form help us to think about active transport. The
Smart growth can be defined as a set of Smart Growth Strategy outlines the following
development and land use principles that seek principles that different societies can adapt to
to enhance the quality of urban life, preserve the some of these principles, depending on their
environment, and provide economic savings specific geographical and socio-economic
over time. The smart growth approach adapting conditions [EPA, 2001].
to other approaches such as Transit-Oriented
Development, mixed-use, and compact EPA’s ten guidelines for smart growth are as
development focuses on development around follows:
public transport stations. In this regard, it is
1. Creating Mixed land Uses 2. Emphasize the
suggested that public participation is essential
benefits of compact building design 3.
during the TOD. Their other proposals also
Providing different housing selection options 4.
emphasize on parking management, retail
Create neighborhoods with pedestrian access 5.
development, and mixed-land use [J. Renne
Create neighborhoods with a strong sense of
2008]. Smart growth advocators want to
place 6. Protecting open spaces, farmland,
optimize existing infrastructure instead of
beautiful nature, and environmentally sensitive
creating new infrastructures. Instead of
areas 7. Strengthen development in existing
developing agricultural lands and forests, they
communities 8. Providing a variety of
are trying to focus on development and
transportation options 9. Decisions for possible
ultimately try to reduce traffic and focus on
development 10. Encouraging communities
affordable housing and sustainability [Brown et
and stakeholders to participate in development.
al., 2009]. Smart growth is a theory of urban
planning and transportation planning that 3.2 New Urbanism Movement
focuses on the growth of compact pedestrian-
oriented centers to prevent urban sprawl. This New Urbanism is a planning approach based on
view is based on the assumption that the proper the principles of how cities had been developed

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for the last several centuries: walkable blocks commercial area. TOD’s mix residential, retail,
and streets, housing and shopping nearby, and office, open space, and public uses in a
accessible public spaces. In other words, New walkable environment, making it accessible for
Urbanism concentrates on human-scaled urban citizens and employees to travel by transit,
design [CNU, 2008]. bicycle, foot, or car”. Urban TODs are located
directly on the trunk line transit network: at
In this regard, the New-Urbanism congress first
light rail, heavy rail, or bus stops. They should
started with a collection of designers, theorists,
be developed with high economic intensities,
and politicians, and overtime included
job clusters, and high residential densities
academic scholars, economists, planners,
[Calthorpe and Poticha 1993]. The proposed
transportation engineers, sociologists, and
diagram of Calthorpe is shown in figure 3. The
environmentalists. The congress developed its
principles of transit-oriented development are
charter in 1996, which provides a positive
as follows: 1. Planning for the adjacent area of
outlook for local communities. Their values and
the station and changing its role from one node
the core principles of their work are explained
to one location 2. Establishing neighborhoods
in the Charter of the New Urbanism
and compact residential blocks along with
[CNU,2008]. The charter of the New Urbanism
favorable pedestrian routes 3. The combination
Society begins with this statement: “The
of land use (mix land use) 4. Increasing the
Congress for the New Urbanism views
optimal height and building density (medium to
disinvestment in central cities, the spread of
high) 5. Enhancing the quality and accessibility
placeless sprawl, increasing separation by race
of transit and parking management 6.
and income, environmental deterioration, loss
Promoting non-motorized transport modes such
of agricultural lands and wilderness, and the
as cycling and walking 7. Excellent design and
erosion of society’s built heritage as one
development of a network of green and public
interrelated community-building challenge.”
spaces 8. Providing varied options for housing
Basic principles of New Urbanism are as
in terms of form, combination, and price
follows:
[Alizadeh and Abdi, 2013]. A typical land use
1. Walkability arrangement around a transit station can be seen
2. Connectivity Factor in Fig. 4. Compact mix-use structures are
3. Structure of the Neighborhood clustered around the metro stations. These have
4. Diversity a high density and diversity. Smaller structures
5. Environment-Friendly Urban development are placed away from the station [Sahu, 2018].
6. Density of population As a result of following the above principles,
7. Mixed Housing & Aesthetic Urban Planning the most important advantages of this approach,
8. The Objective to Improve Quality of Life all aimed at strengthening sustainable urban
3.3 Transit-Oriented Development neighborhoods, can be reduce the ownership of
private cars and their fuel consumption, reduce
The most comprehensive definition of transit- the traffic congestion and its pollution, make
oriented development provided by Peter affordable housing, revival of urban
Calthorpe, a leader in the New Urbanism neighborhoods, economic development, and
movement. He describes TOD as “a mixed-use increasing land value [Alizadeh and Abdi,
community within an average 2000-foot 2013].
walking distance of a transit stop and core

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Figure 3. Proposed Diagram for TOD by Peter Calthorpe [Calthorpe and Poticha, 1993]
Figure 4. Modify land uses around transit stop based on TOD principles [Sahu, 2018]
Besides, new developments based on TOD are

4. Methods for Assessment of TOD
sometimes at odds with historic preservation,
but with mutual planning efforts in regard of Impacts
transportation and land-use planning, historic Methods for measuring TOD impacts are
preservation would increase the desirability of analytical and simulation-based [Taeihagh, A.,
TODs and this opportunity can aid in TOD Banares-Alcantara, R., & Millican 2009;
implementation [Renne, J. L., & Listokin, D. Macharis, C., & Bernardini 2015]. Analytical
2019]. methods generally involve three critical
analysis: cost-benefit analysis, cost-
effectiveness analysis, and multi-criteria
decision analysis techniques [Browne, D., &
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360
Ryan, 2011]. Analytical methods also contain planning factors can have a positive effect on
the forecast of land-use changes in the context the formation of a transit-oriented development
of access to transit stops, residential property city. They recommend instead of focusing on
value changes, residential/commercial increasing the development density, focus on
permitting rates around stations, and reducing the mixed-land use index, strengthening public
neighborhood environmental contamination transport services, rebuilding street networks,
[Geurs, K. T., & van Wee 2004, Hatzopoulou, and designing urban areas to improve
M., & Miller 2009, Guthrie, A., & Fan 2013]. walkability around stations [Sung and Oh,
Analytical methods can be divided into 2011].
aggregate and disaggregate models. Aggregate
Alizadeh et al., based on the results of
models investigate the impact of transport
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and
policy at the level of the whole study region.
Threats (SWOT) analysis, proposed several
Disaggregate models tend to examine policies’
strategies regarding the objectives of the
influences on individuals. Surveys are crucial
research including increasing spatial and
for disaggregate models [Eboli, L., & Mazzulla,
functional sustainability, increasing
2011; Idris, A. O., Nurul Habib, K. M., &
accessibility, providing sustainable transport
Shalaby, 2015].
options along with easy pedestrian movement,
Simulation models are generally created by a and reducing environmental challenges. The
series of input/output data. The input data results show that for implementing TOD as a
include the policy scenario and present land solution to the auto-oriented urban pattern, it
utilization data. The output data often include needs to capture a broad market view from both
indicators like housing prices, transport mode sides of private and public sectors [Alizadeh et
split, accessibility, and walkability of the study al., 2013].
area. Some of the most potent simulation
Ma et al., present a multi-objective planning
models include computational modeling
model that includes five goals and two decision
approach, Cellular Automata models, multi-
variables, to plan land use around a metro
agent models, system dynamics models, and
station in Beijing. Considering the unique
discrete event simulations [Ku, 2016]. New and
characteristics of urban development (e.g., high
emerging analysis techniques such as GIS tools,
density and diversity), five objectives are taken
visualization technology, and remote sensing
to account in their model, including rail transit
are used for the evaluation of TOD [Heeres, N.,
ridership, compactness, accessibility, conflict
Tillema, T., & Arts 2012], [Mishra et al., 2014].
degree, and environmental effects. An
[Nelson and Niles, 1999] and [Jeihani et al.,
improved immune-genetic based algorithm is
2013] developed a tool and combined with the
created to obtain optimal solutions under
urban simulation techniques to predict the TOD
alternative land use schemes. The model can
project success. These tools help us to use the
output alternative land use plan schemes with
simulation technique to recognize the future
the layout and the land use density around the
impacts of TOD.
studied subway station [Ma et al., 2018].
5. TOD Allocation by Various In a study by Wey et al., TOD's standard
Methods and Modifying Land Uses selection criteria have been formulated to meet
the principle of sustainable transport. The fuzzy
around Transit Stations
Delphi technique was used to select TOD
In a study by Sung and oh, focusing on the evaluation criteria and the fuzzy analytic
implementation of transit-oriented network process (FANP) was employed to
development factors in Seoul, South Korea, determine the weights of relevant planning
emphasizes that transit-oriented development criteria. The results show that all 9 TOD
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evaluation criteria for sustainable transport A combined Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process
supported by an expert group in the first phase (FAHP) and Data Envelopment Analysis
of the study were critical to the TOD (DEA) model with an assurance region
assessment. In the second step, according to the approach are applied to select the most suitable
weighted evaluation criteria, high density was station from a given set of possible station sites.
the most important criterion, while the least Two stations have been selected and proposed
critical criterion was equality in residence for the public sector [Wey, 2015].
accessibility. Finally, by using Geographic
Information System (GIS), the performance of 6. Effects of TOD on City Structure
each station on the Ankeng line of the New and the Decisions of Individuals in
Taipei MRT system was evaluated based on
TOD evaluation criteria. Combining the
Choosing a Place of Residence
evaluation with the Fuzzy Analytical Network Lo et al. found that residents living in transit-
Process (FANP) weighted values showed that oriented development areas used public
the Xinhe Elementary School MRT station is transportation more than other residents of the
the optimal station for TOD [Wey, Zhang, and city in different neighborhoods. They also
Chang, 2016]. emphasize that the proper combination of land-
In Sahu's research, a method for modifying land use, characteristics of the transportation
uses in a transit-oriented development scenario stations, demographic, economic and social
is explored. The purpose of this study is to build aspects and the competition between modes of
a methodology for modifying land uses around transport is effective in changing the rate of
selected stations for TOD using a mathematical public passenger transportation [Loo, Chen,
model. Global TOD parameters (density, and Chan, 2010].
diversity, and distance to transit) were studied. Bailey et al., by using the regression model,
Attributes for TOD parameters were extracted concluded that the average daily mileage of
through expert opinions. Then a mathematical families within a 1200-meter range of high-
model with four sub-objectives is developed to quality public transportation services is 11.3
investigate land-use modification at two miles per car, about 26 percent, regardless of
selected stations of Naya Raipur for TOD land use density and personal vehicle
implementation. First was to maximize TOD ownership. They also state that the residents of
characteristics (Housing density, Employment the transit-oriented development districts tend
density, Mix use structures). The second was to to have less property of vehicles and driving,
shape the skyline (minimize deviation from and are more dependent on hiking and using
ideal TOD skyline). The third was to minimize public transportation than residents of other
the degree of land-use change, and the fourth neighborhoods [Bailey, Grossardt, and Pride-
was to increase the overall compactness of the Wells, 2007].
plan. By coding this mathematical model
through a Genetic Algorithm (GA), the best- In Ratner and Goetz's research, the reshaping of
generated plan to change the land uses around land use and urban form in Denver has been
selected stations is introduced [Sahu, 2018]. explored through transit-oriented development.
Denver, Colorado, is one of the cities that
Ming Wey's study first classifies the principles expands its rail transportation system and
of smart growth based on literature review. A encourages high-density mixed-use
team of experts consisting of six experts first development at stations. This study examines
assigns the main weights to each criterion. TOD data for 0.5 miles around the railway
Then, six sets of scores are averaged for stations. Early evidence suggests that transit-
selecting the possible location of each station. oriented development in Denver is significant,
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which includes about 18,000 residential units, Models (HCM) with latent variables; they
5.3 million square feet of retail space, 5.4 demonstrate that land use predispositions affect
million square feet of office space, and 6.2 location decisions. According to the results of
million square feet of medical space within one- this research, it can be concluded that
half mile of existing or planned transit stations households with the same demographic
from 1997 to 2010. The emphasis on transit- characteristics choose different housing options
oriented development is helping to increase the [Olaru, Smith, and Taplin, 2011].
average density of the Denver area [Ratner and
Nasri and Zhang's research focuses on TOD
Goetz, 2013].
analysis in urban areas of Washington DC, and
Duncan's research responds to this question that Baltimore. The present study tries to find out
would the replacement of park-and-ride (P&R) how travel behavior is different for TOD
facilities with transit-oriented development residents in the two urban districts of
reduce vehicle kilometers traveled (VKT) in an Washington DC and Baltimore. It is explicitly
auto-oriented US region? At four of the seven done by examining the changes in vehicle miles
stations examined in this study, replacing a traveled (VMT) to analyze the impact of the
P&R facility with a moderately dense housing TOD on encouraging driving less and starting
(100 units per hectare) is predicted to result in to use public transportation, hiking, cycling and
a net VKT reduction. This research indicates other sustainable modes of transportation. This
that replacing P&R facilities with TOD would paper, by analyzing the VMT of Washington
result in a net VKT reduction at some, but not DC residents and Baltimore, indicates that
all, LYNX stations that currently have P&R people living in TOD areas tend to drive less,
facilities. Surface P&R facilities that are either reducing their VMT by around 38% in
underutilized or close to the Central Business Washington, D.C. and 21% in Baltimore,
District (CBD) make particularly good compared to the residents of the non-TOD areas
candidates for replacement [Duncan, 2017]. even with similar land-use patterns [Nasri and
Zhang, 2014].
In a study by Olaru et al., TOD effects on
choosing a place of residence in two areas of Zhao and Shen's research is about the impacts
Western Australia are checked. Analyzing the of rail transit on future urban land use
opinions of interviewees on access to development: A case study in Wuhan, China.
transportation and urban facilities support the This research considers a multinomial logit
hypothesis that environmental characteristics model (MNL) and the land-use allocation
play an important role in relocation decisions. model to quantify the effects of Urban Rail
A series of discrete choice models also show Transit (URT) on urban land-use change. Land
that households value housing attributes, the use data from 2000 and 2010 were used to
quality of the surrounding environment, and analyze land-use changes at three railway
proximity to transport and facilities such as stations. The results show that the model is
shopping and schools, parks, and friendly useful in quantifying the effects of URT and
places where to walk or cycle. Preferences for can reflect them in simulating land-use change.
bigger houses and proximity to “everything” Finally, future land use plans in 2020 are
occur among higher-income and more produced [Zhao and Shen, 2018].
prominent families with school-aged children.
Mu and Jong's research focuses on establishing
The choice for open, greener spaces is
the conditions for effective transit-oriented
consistent with the greater focus on reducing
development in China: the case of Dalian.
obesity and enhancing the quality of life. The
Dalian has a good tradition in using public
best models are Latent Class Models (LCM)
transport, which officially embraced the TOD
with social variables and Hybrid Choice
planning method. Results are drawn as to where
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Dalian’s strengths and weaknesses invention Curitiba is the capital of the state of Parana in
and what actions the Dalian government has the south of Brazil, near the city of Sao Paulo.
taken about each of these conditions. In The city, with a population of one million nine
conclusion, to transfer the TOD lessons of hundred thousand, is the eighth largest city in
Dalian to other Chinese cities, they achieve that Brazil and the largest city in southern Brazil.
to make TOD work in China, cities should at The lines of the bus rapid transit, connecting the
least encounter all critical conditions such as transportation centers by equipping the stations
pedestrian-friendly urban design, good every 500 meters. In the 1970s, only seven
governance, and high-quality transit services percent of the traffic was transported by public
[Mu and de Jong, 2012]. transport. It reached 75 percent in 2006,
equivalent to 23,000 passengers per hour. In
7. Successful TOD Cities general, the share of travel for each mode
equals 23% of personal vehicles, 5%
Perth is the capital of Western Australia state motorcycles, 5% of bicycles, 21% of
with a population of one million nine hundred pedestrians and 45% of public transport (bus).
thousand, the largest city in Western Australia, The statistics show that 85% of the population
and Australia's fourth-largest city. of Curitiba is using rapid buses. The five
Implementing TOD in this city is set up by the arterial axes extend from the city center to the
Metropolitan Redevelopment Institute. The outside of the city and act as the axis of
goal of this institution is to rebuild the city of development and paths of growth. These axes
Perth by planning and promoting the distribute traffic in the center of the city by
development of deserted industrial sites and connecting two circular rings. Two blocks with
other less developed areas to create valuable high buildings and high density cover these
places for people who want to be part of it. The main axes. Departing from public
main objective of the project is to achieve a transportation routes, the amount of building
proper design and development in the city of density decreases. Density distribution in the
Perth, through the creation of valuable public city of Curitiba is carried out in four different
environments, high-quality buildings, the districts. As the distance from the system's lines
creation of links between people and places, a increases, the density decreases. With this
successful combination of applications and zoning approach, urban planners have been able
activities. The primary goal of this project, as to provide easy access to the public
well as other urban regeneration projects, is to transportation system [Suzuki, Cervero, and
progress to a sustainable future for the people Iuchi, 2013]. After World War II, urban
of Perth. Perth's redevelopment project consists planners in Copenhagen in 1947 formulated the
of several separate projects that have been Urban Development Plan, which represents the
scattered across the city of Perth and constitute transit-oriented development planning. The
the entire study area. The strategies of this program was called the Finger plan, which
project include aspects of land use, became famous throughout the world. Urban
development management, and social and development in this program was carried out
historical heritage. The most important along the five axes of metro rail transport,
principles used in the preparation of this project which included five fingers connecting these
include creating spaces for people, high areas to the city's central commercial district
density, high-quality design, variety and (Figure 5). The approach as a method
mixing, connectivity, and environmental integrating the metro lines along the axes with
integrity, based on sustainable urban renewal services, businesses, and residential units
principles [J. L. Renne, 2005]. around the station in the suburbs, while
simultaneously emphasizes on public

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364
transportation with the development of

pedestrians and bicycles.
Figure 5. Copenhagen’s 1947 Finger Plan [Knowles, 2012]
The main goals of the expansion of this the development of neighborhoods near light
approach in Copenhagen are improving rail stations. In June 2008, the Calgary City
communication and interaction with the central Council approved for the first time a wide-area
core of the city, controlling the traffic of private zoning program in an urban area [Calgary city,
vehicles, the economic growth of the town and 2004].
the region, reducing the
8. Practical Solutions for
pressure on the central business district of the
Implementing TOD in Iran Cities
town and also growing and maintaining a
position in international competitions TOD is an urban reform package that makes the
[Knowles, 2012]. subway or any city's public transport system
more efficient. The TOD and its reforms omit
Calgary is the largest city in the state of Alberta,
the cars in the streets and deliver it to
located in the south of the state, and according
pedestrians and cyclists; in other words, it
to the 2006 census, the city has a population of
makes the city human-oriented. With its free
193988 people. Calgary has a community with
reforms, TOD brings vitality and vibrancy back
a successful transit-oriented development
to neighborhoods, strengthens the local
located within the bridge Avenue. This sector
community, and boosts the urban economy
has apartments, shops, service units, and
[Tehran City Council, 2017].
various parks. The city of Calgary has
developed a new transit-oriented development Researchers agree that inner-city TOD perhaps
policy for its neighboring communities. The has more significant potential for success than
Calgary City Council has allocated funds for suburban or greenfield TOD because of
the construction of three subway stations in the naturally higher concentrations of residences,
neighborhood and suburban areas to speed up jobs, and amenities. However, there are

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365
significant challenges for developing the built- other parts of the zone are not important. After
up areas, and these challenges perhaps explain that, it shouldn’t be built high-density
the slow implementation of TOD in some commercial, office, and residential buildings
depressed inner-city areas. Researchers also outside the core of the station zone. After ten
agree that TOD is least likely to succeed in years, the private sector and investors will
places with few amenities to claim as a condense around the station. Density
locational advantage, which further strengthens justification around stations should be
arguments for urban locations (with higher proportionate to the capacity of the station. This
densities and mixed land use) over suburban will have proper revenues from the tolls of zone
locations [Daniel Baldwin Hess, 2004]. Iran’s central density.
cities that have the capability for implementing
TOD are mostly in the category of inner-city 8.3 Mix
TOD in a built-up area. Eight crucial All densities in the core of the zone should be
modifications that have been referred by TOD defined as mixed land use. This will prevent the
standard [ITDP, 2017] are needed to implement stations from changing to office, commercial,
TOD in built-up areas like Iran cities. and residential pole. Mix zoning at the core of
the zone will be enough to form different
1. Transit (Locate development near
high-quality public transport) businesses, and major commodity and service
2. Densify (Optimize density and requirements of TOD zone residents will be
transit capacity) fulfilled. Part of the daily and nightly vitality of
3. Mix (Plan for mixed-use) different neighborhoods and areas of the city
4. Connect (Create dense networks of depends on this simple decision. Of course, it
streets and paths) can be done for other parts of the zone. In
5. Compact (Create areas with short human-oriented urban design, the separation of
commutes) administrative, commercial, and residential are
6. Shift (Increase mobility by rejected.
regulating parking and road use)
7. Walk (Develop neighborhoods that Any public and non-specialist service must be
promote walking) provided in each zone or eventually one of its
8. Cycle (Prioritize non-motorized adjacent zones and accessible to pedestrians or
transport networks) bicyclists. Mix density will increase the
population that lives alongside commercial land
8.1 Transit use of the zone core. This will increase local
vitality and will reduce the car requirement by
Walkable access to rapid transit, defined as rail integrating markets and people. The local
transit or bus rapid transit (BRT), is essential to economy will prosper. At the core of the zone,
the TOD concept. The maximum walking social housing will also be formed. The mix of
distance to the nearest transit station is defined market and people and the mix of low-income
as 1000 meters. The city is zoned by creating and high-income citizens are essential for TOD.
circles of 800 to 1000 meters radius around the
subway or BRT stations that are called TOD 8.4 Connect
zones. A radius of 200 to 300 meters in TOD
The block size in each TOD zone is very vital.
zones is considered, which is called the core of
The block size is the distance between the
the zone. It is better to consider less radius in
intersections. If the size of the blocks will be
zones for small cities.
more than 150 meters, you should consider
8.2 Density creating a low-pass road just for pedestrians and
bicycles. Long alleys are visually boring and
High densities should only be at the core of the not attractive to pedestrians. Pedestrians and
zone. Any high-density buildings that exist in bicyclists’ access networks should be
Vol.7/ No.4/ (28) spring 2020
366
developed. This modification component is not be accessible by pedestrians or bicycles,
important for TOD implementation in a city or people will use their private cars. For empty
at least in a part of more important zones even spaces at the core of the zone, we should
though it has appropriation cost. This is consider mix land uses or accessible public
necessary for active walk mode. If a detailed spaces.
city plan is modified these low width roads that
are beneficial will emerge gradually. For new 8.6 Shift
and underdeveloped sections of the city, we The land occupied by motor vehicles should be
must think of blocks below 150 meters. In areas minimized, and zone roads should be suitable
that do not have proper connecting, modifying for all four modes of transportation. The shift is
the dead-end defect that is the cause of the essential to activate pedestrian and bicycle
impermeability and incentive for parking cars modes. For shift, zone highways should be
should be considered in a new detailed plan. redesign for three public, private cars, and
bicycle modes; zone arterial roads should be
8.5 Compact
redesign for four public, walk, bicycle, and
With shorter distances, compact cities require private car modes and collectors and access
less time and energy to travel from one activity roads should be redesign for three walk,
to another, need less extensive and costly bicycle, and private car modes. In other words,
infrastructure, and preserve rural land from the roads should be changed to "complete
development by prioritizing the densification streets." Complete streets fit pedestrians,
and redevelopment of previously developed cyclists, and cars together and create a multi-
land. Distance between TOD zones increases modal transportation network. In other words,
the cost of public transportation construction. complete streets are for everyone. They are
Garrisons, factories, and useless lands keep designed and implemented for all users to
TOD zones apart. In addition to the cost of secure access empowerment. Restrictions and
public transportation, there will be a bans should be imposed as far as possible about
neighborhood-break, too. The distance to the the car parks. Cost restrictions or entry
neighbor zone service center will be out of prohibition like marginal park complications or
walking scope. For example, if a pharmacy congestion charges are the examples that we
does not exist in a zone, nobody usually uses can refer to them. As an example Figures 6 and
the subway to buy medicine from a neighbor 7 show the before and after of the proposed plan
zone. If the neighbor zone will be so far and will of Motahari complete street in Tehran.

Vol.7/ No.4/ (28) Spring 2020
367
Figure 6. Tehran Motahari Street before TOD Reforms [Tehran City Council, 2017]
Figure7. Tehran Motahari Street after TOD Reforms (Complete Street) – Proposed [Tehran City
Council, 2017]
8.7 Walk Mode Car problems are solved by asphalt and traffic
signals, and cars have no other basic needs, but
Walk mode is the mother of transportation pedestrians have many needs to walk.
modes in TOD reforms. Activating walking Sidewalks in TOD should have the following
mode will lead to the human-oriented, vitality, features: 1.Safety 2.Wide passage 3.proper
succulence, and urban community pavement 4.Cool shade 5.proper lighting
empowerment, the health of citizens, the 6.vitality 7.Beauty 8.Green areas and
prosperity of urban businesses, and ultimately architectural creativity 9.Comfortable and
the growth of urban viability and sustainability. accessible furniture.
Vol.7/ No.4/ (28) spring 2020
368
8.8 Cycle level, is a low-scale initial investment that the

rest can be developed from TOD monetization.
Cycling is the second-most healthful,
affordable, and inclusive mode of urban 9. Summary and Conclusion
mobility. In inner zone trips, which walk mode
is important if this mode will be active, those As described, transit-oriented development at
people that speed is their trip requirements do any scale offers appropriate opportunities for
not need to use the car. The bicycle mode also dense and mix development and can be
in outer zone trips is a mode to achieve the considered as an effective way to achieve an
destination and transit station. The key factors integrated model of land use patterns and
in promoting cycling are the preparation of safe transport planning around the stations and
street conditions for cycling and the availability determine the sustainable way of relocation in
of secure cycle parking and storage at all trip urban areas. However, transit-oriented
origins and destinations. It is not necessary to development planning will lead to
design a bicycle network for the city in the TOD beneficiaries' participation and the continuous
approach. Each zone with its bicycle roads and presence of residents in the planning and
network that its design details are in TOD decision-making process. The successful
instructions is joint to bicycle roads of the results of TOD implementation in other
neighbor zone, and this will create the whole countries that four of them have been reviewed
city bicycle network. All width of the road will in this paper cause to find a pattern for applying
be modified in TOD, and the bicycle roads will it in Iran cities. This study investigated eight
be designed after allocating the walk share. significant changes for the successful
There will be a rework and disinvestment if implementation of TOD in these cities. Then
these integration and transposition do not the methods for assessment of TOD impacts
accomplish [Tehran City Council, 2017]. and the researches in TOD allocation by
various methods and modifying land uses
Finally, it seems that implementing a successful around transit stations were investigated. In the
TOD does not impose any cost on city next section, the effects of TOD on city
management. The cost of rehabilitation the structure and the decisions of individuals in
transportation system will be provided by choosing a place of residence were examined.
mixed density, although it is not a sustainable Reviews show that in developing countries
income, but a disposable source for improving where the TOD has not yet been implemented,
the quality of public transportation. The shift the main concern is to find the optimal location
will also supply sustainable income. Price to implement the TOD and to reform policies in
limitations or entry prohibition like marginal the city's comprehensive plans for the
park tolls or congestion charging are samples implementation of the TOD. Iran cities are also
that we can indicate. Activating the pedestrian part of this category. However, in the developed
mode presents a new income that depends on countries where TOD is implemented, the main
roads and its land-use classification. The concern is finding the effects of TOD
implementation of TOD does not cost much, implementation, and the main question in most
but it generates revenue for municipalities and researches is to what extent TOD has been
states. The expensive section of TOD successful in solving urban issues such as urban
implementation is related to subway and BRT congestion, reduce travel time, and car
development, but if TOD does not implement, dependency? The implementation of TOD can
these costs still exist. In fact, these costs do not reduce congestion by facilitating the population
relate to TOD. Another part of implementing preference of public transport in comparison to
detailed TOD features, especially at the passage private modes of transportation and improved
environmental quality. However, of course, it
Vol.7/ No.4/ (28) Spring 2020
369
takes a strong commitment and consistency of next American Metropolis: Ecology,

the stakeholders to be involved in the community, and the American dream.”
implementation of TOD persistently. Princeton Architectural Press.
https://books.google.com/books?id=WtKU5
L0ajA8C.
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Overview of The Literature Onthe TOD Policy To Investigate A Practical Soluation 4 Traffic Congeston 2020

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“Review Paper”

Overview of the Literature on the Transit-Oriented

Received: 08.10.2019 Accepted: 24.01.2020

Corresponding author Email: [email protected]

1. Introduction Therefore, investigate these changes by using

Figure 1. Structure for the Study

International Journal of Transportation Engineering,

International Journal of Transportation Engineering,

Figure 2. Urban Compactness Approaches [Alipour, Soltani, and Hosseinpour, 2017]

International Journal of Transportation Engineering,

International Journal of Transportation Engineering,

Besides, new developments based on TOD are

International Journal of Transportation Engineering,

transportation with the development of

Figure 5. Copenhagen’s 1947 Finger Plan [Knowles, 2012]

International Journal of Transportation Engineering,

International Journal of Transportation Engineering,

8.8 Cycle level, is a low-scale initial investment that the

takes a strong commitment and consistency of next American Metropolis: Ecology,

International Journal of Transportation Engineering,

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