The Four Basic Concepts of Mathematics

1. Set
A set is a collection of well-defined objects that contains no duplicates:
The objects in the set are called the elements of the set. To describe a set,
we use braces { }, and use capital letters to represent it.
Examples:
1. The books in the shelves in a library.
2. The bank accounts in a bank.
3. The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, …}.
4. The integer numbers Z = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
5. The rational numbers is the set of quotients of integers Q = {p/q : p,
q ∈ Z and q = 0}.
The three dot in enumerating the elements of the set are called ellipses
and indicate a continuing pattern. A finite set contains elements that can be
counted and terminates at certain natural number, otherwise, it is infinite set.
Example:
Set A = {1,3,5,7,11,13,17,19}
 - The set of all prime numbers less than or equal to 19. The order in
which the elements are listed is not relevant: i.e., the set
{1,3,5,7,11,13,17,19} is the same as the set {13,3,5, 11,13,17,19,1}.
There is exactly one set, the empty set, or null set, ∅ or {}, which has
no members at all. A set with only one member is called a singleton or a
singleton set. (“single of a”).

Specification of Sets
There are three main ways to specify a set:
1. List Notation / Roster Method – by listing all its members
- List names of elements of a set, separate them by commas and
enclose them in braces:
Examples:
1. {1, 12, 35}
2. {Daniela, Romina, Cassy,
Marga} 3. {m, n, o, p}
4. {1, 2, …, 100}
2. Predicate Notation/Rule Method/Set-Builder Notation
- By stating a property of its elements. It has a property that members
of the set share (a condition or a predicate which holds for
members of this set).
Examples:
a) {x/x is a natural number and x< 8} means “the set of all x
such that x is a natural number and is less than 8”
b) {x/x is a letter of Korean alphabet}
c) {y/y is a student of SKSU and y is older than 20}
3. Recursive rules
- By defining a set of rules which generates or defines its
members. Examples:
a) The set E of even numbers greater than 5
b) 4 ∈ E
c) If x ∈ E, then x+2 ∈ E
d) Nothing else belongs to E
Equal Sets
Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements.
Examples:
1. {3, 8, 9} = {9, 8, 3}
2. {6, 7, 7, 7, 7,} = {6, 7}
3. {1, 3, 5, 7} ≠ {3, 5]

Equivalent Sets
Two sets are equivalent if they contain the same number of elements.
Example:
1. Which of the following sets are equivalent?
{𝜃, α, β}, {∞, ∩, ∃}, {1, 3, 5}, {a, b, c}, {€, ₸, ₢}
Solution: All of the given sets are equivalent. Note that no two of
them are equal, but they all have the same numbers of elements.

Universal Set
A set that contains all the elements considered in a particular
situation denoted by U.
Example:
The universal set
a. Suppose we list the digits only.
Then, U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, since U includes all the digits.
b. Suppose we consider the whole numbers
Then U = {0, 1, 2, 3, …} since U contains all whole numbers.

Subsets
A set A is called a subset of set B if every element of A is also an
element of B. “A is a subset of B” is written as A ⊆ B.
Example:
1. A = {7, 9} is a subset of B = {6, 7, 9}
2. D = {10, 8, 6} is a subset of G = {10, 8, 6}
A proper subset is a subset that is not equal to the original set,
otherwise improper subset.
 Example:
Given {3, 5, 7} then the proper subsets are {}, {5, 7}, {3, 5}, {3, 7}.
The improper subset is {3, 5, 7}.

Cardinality of the Set

It is the number of distinct elements belonging to a finite set. It is also
called the cardinal number of the set A denoted by n(A) or card (A) and /A/.

Power Set
It is the family of all the subsets of A denoted by Power (A).
Given set A = {x, y}, the Power (A) = { ∅, {x}, {y}, {x,y} or {x/x is a subset of A}.

Operations on Sets
Union is an operation for sets A and B in which a set is formed that
consists of all the elements included in A or B both denoted by U as A U B.
Examples:
a) Given U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A = {1, 3, 5, 7}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and
C = {1, 2}, find the following:
a) A UB b) A U C c) (A U B) U {8}
Solution:
a) A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
b) A U C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}
c) (A U B) U {8} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

Intersection
-is the set containing all elements common to both A and B,
denoted by ∩.
Example:
Given U = {a, b, c, d, e}, A = {c, d, e}, B = {a, c, e} and C = {a} and D =
{e}. find the following intersections of sets:
a) B ∩ C b) A ∩ C c) (A ∩ B) ∩ D
Solutions:
 a) B ∩ C = {a} c) (A ∩ B) = {c, e}, (A ∩ B) ∩ D = {e}
b) A ∩ C = ∅

Complementation
-is an operation on a set that must be performed in reference to a
universal set, denoted by A’.
Example:
Given U = {a, b, c, d, e}, A = {c, d, e}, find A’.
Solution: A’ = {a, b}

2. Relation
- A relation is a rule that pairs each element in one set, called the
domain, with one or more elements from a second set called the range. It
creates a set of ordered pairs.
Examples: 1. Given:
Regular holidays in the Philippines Month and Date
1. New Years’ Day January 1
2. Labor Day May 1
3. Independence Day June 12
4. Bonifacio Day November 30
5. Rizal Day December 30

A clearer way to express a relation is to form a set of ordered pairs;

(New Years’ Day, January 1), (Labor Day, May 1), (Independence Day,
June 12), (Bonifacio Day, November 30), (Rizal Day, December 30). This set
describes a Relation.
{ {2,3}, {4,5} is not a relation but just a set of ordered pairs.
{ {1,4}. {2,5}, {3,6} } is a relation. The domain of the relation is the set
{1,2,3} and the range is {4,5,6}

3. Function
- is a rule that pairs each element in one set, called the domain with
exactly one element from a second set, called the range. This means that for
each first coordinate, there is exactly one second coordinate or for every first
element of x, there corresponds a unique second element y.
Remember: A one-to-one correspondence and many-to-one correspondence
are called Functions while one-to-many correspondence is not.

Examples: The function can be represented using the following:

1. Table
The perimeter of a square is four times the length of its side.
Sides (S) 1 3 5 7 9
Perimeter (P) 4 12 20 28 36

2. Ordered Pairs
{{1,4}, {3,12}, {5,20}, {7,28}, {9,36}}

3. Mapping

1 4
3 12
5 20
7 28
9 36

Therefore, this a function.

4. Graphing

Using vertical line test, that is, a set of points in the plane is the graph
of a function if and only if no vertical line intersects the graph in more than one
point. Below is not a function.
4. Binary Operations

A binary operation on a set is a calculation involving two elements of

the set to produce another element of the set.

A new math (binary) operation, using symbol *, is defined to be

a * b = 2a + b, where a and b are real numbers.

Examples:

1. What is 5 * 3?

Solution: 5 * 3 = 2(5) + 3 = 10 + 3 = 13

2. Is a * b commutative?

Solution: Verify if a * b = b * a.

2a + b = 2b + a? Not true for all real numbers

If a = 4 and b = 2, then 2(4) + 2 = 2(2) + 4 is not true.

Therefore: The operation * is not commutative for all real numbers

3. Is a * b * c associative?

Solution: Verify if a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c

2a + (2b+c) = 2(2a+b) + c

If a = 2, b = 3, c = 4; 2●2 + (2●3 + 4) ≠ 2(2●2 + 3) + 4;

4 + 10 ≠ 2(7) + 4; 14 ≠ 18. The operation * is not associative

for real numbers.

Sometimes, a binary operation on a finite set (a set with a limited

number of elements) is displayed in a table which shows how the operation is
to be performed. A binary operation, * is defined on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}. The
table below shows the 16 possible answers using this operation.

(To read the table: read the first value from the left-hand column and the
second value from the top row. The answer is the intersection point).
 * 1 2 3 4

1 4 3 2 1

2 3 1 4 2

3 2 4 1 3

4 1 2 3 4

Examples:

1. What is 2 * 2? Answer: 1

2. Is 4 * 3 commutative? Answer: 4*3 = 3 and 3*4 = 3

3. What is the identity element for the operation *? Answer: 4

(Find the single element that will always return the original value. The
identity element is
4. You will have found the identity element when all of the values in its
row and its column are the same as the row and columns headings).

4. Is associative for these values? Answer: 4*(3*2) = (4*3)*2

4*4 = 3*2

4 =4

Answer: Yes, it is associative for values 4, 3, and 2.