Section Outline

In this section, the rest of renewable

energy types are introduced, geothermal,
hydropower and marine energy, along
with their characteristics and operation
principles. The basic storage devices are
described and renewable energy aspects
and issues are discussed. Section 1
Introduction to Renewable Energy

72
This week’s topics…

○ Geothermal Energy
○ Hydropower
○ Marine Energy
○ Storage
○ Renewable Energy Issues and Aspects

73
 Geothermal Energy

○ Geothermal energy is the heat from the

subsurface of Earth, from the planet’s
formation and radioactive decay of
material
○ Melting rock moves from the mantle to
the crust, along the edges of tectonic
plates
○ Temperature increases with depth
○ Formation of hot springs, geysers,
fumaroles, mud pots
Figure 2-1: Earth’s inner structure. (1.continental crust, 2.oceanic crust,
3.upper mantle, 4.lower mantle, 5.outer core, 6.inner core, A.crust-mantle
boundary, B.core-mantle boundary, C.inner-outer core boundary).

74
 Geothermal Energy

○ Average increase in temperature with

depth is 25-30 °C/km
○ Mean heat flow to Earth’s surface is
60-65 mW/m2, higher in geothermal
reservoirs
○ Geothermal resources around the
boundaries of tectonic plates
○ E.g. Ring of Fire around Pacific Ocean,
Hawaii, Yellowstone National Park,
Iceland etc. Figure 2-2: Earth’s largest tectonic plates.

75
Geothermal Energy

Figure 2-3: The Strokkur geyser in Iceland.

Figure 2-4: The Grand Prismatic Spring, a hot spring in Yellowstone

National Park, USA.

76
 Geothermal Energy

Figure 2-5: Mud pots at Hverarönd in Iceland.

Figure 2-6: A fumarole at Námafjall, Iceland.

77
 Geothermal Energy

○ Hot springs and thermal pools used since pre-historic times, for
bathing, healing
○ Space heating in Roman times
○ Geothermal energy now also used for electricity production
○ Available in limited locations
○ Small portion is being exploited, majority of geothermal resources
deep in Earth’s crust, where it’s difficult and expensive to reach
and use

78
 Geothermal Energy

○ Heat content of a geothermal reservoir depends on pressure,

temperature, volume
○ High temperature, water and steam >150°C
○ Medium temperature, water and steam between 100°C and 150°C
○ Low temperature, water <100°C, no steam
○ Low temperature reservoirs at low depths used for space heating,
greenhouses, spas etc.
○ High temperature reservoirs accessible with drilling, used for electricity
production

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Geothermal Energy

○ Heat is extracted with systems

like heat pumps or enhanced
geothermal systems

○ USA, Indonesia, Philippines top in

installed capacity, located in the
Ring of Fire

Figure 2-7: Installed capacity for geothermal energy, for the top 10
countries, in 2019.

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Geothermal Energy
Hydrothermal Convection
Geothermal Resources

○ Most common geothermal reservoirs are

liquid-dominated, water temperatures
>200°C
○ Water boils to form steam in vapor-
dominated systems with temperatures up
to 300°C
○ Both are hydrothermal convection
systems, permit convection and have
fractures to allow recharge
○ Examples: hot springs, geysers Figure 2-8: Schematic of a geothermal system.

81
 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal Resources

○ Hot igneous resources: include hot dry rock and geologic magma
systems

○ Conduction-dominated resources: include sedimentary basin,

geopressured, radiogenic resources

82
 Geothermal Energy
Conduction-dominated
Geothermal Resources

○ Sedimentary basins have high heat flow, fracture is required, deep

drilling
○ Geopressured resources are in deep basins, fluids within
permeable sedimentary rocks are heated due to high depth
○ Radiogenic resources are in sites with granite intrusion near the
surface, heating of groundwater due to radioactive decay of
uranium, potassium and thorium

83
 Geothermal Energy
Hot igneous
Geothermal Resources

○ Hot dry rock systems have temperatures up to 350 °C

○ Heat is stored in rocks deep in the ground
○ Energy extraction is not possible through natural water or steam flow
○ Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) are used
○ Magma resources up to 1400 °C
○ Experimental systems are designed to extract heat from molten rock

84
 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal Resources

○ Shallow and intermediate hydrothermal

systems used for direct heating, power
generation
○ Shallow systems at normal temperatures,
used for direct heating and cooling with
heat pumps
○ Deep systems for power production with
EGS
○ Dashed line refers to intermediate Figure 2-9: Forms of geothermal energy and utilization depending on
depth.
systems at normal temperatures, can be
used in the future for power production

85
 Geothermal Energy
Enhanced Geothermal Systems

○ EGS systems used in hot dry rock resources for

electricity generation, with stimulation methods
like hydraulic stimulation
○ High-pressure cold water pumped down an
injection well to enhance the permeability of
rock
○ Fluid pressure increases
○ Second borehole made for the heated water in
the rock to be forced out

Figure 2-10: Schematic of an Enhanced Geothermal System.

86
 Geothermal Energy
Enhanced Geothermal Systems

○ Heat from water can be converted to electricity in a steam turbine

or power plant
○ High production rate must be achieved without rapid cooling of
the reservoir, which will reduce its lifetime
○ Risks of induced seismicity
○ No commercial EGS systems, designs are made for testing

87
 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal Heat Pumps

○ A geothermal heat pump (GHP) is a

central heating/cooling system
○ Transfers heat from/to the ground for
space heating/cooling
○ A circulating fluid is transferred through
pipes, built in boreholes or trenches and
a pump extracts heat to the surface
○ The cool circulated fluid is injected back
into the ground

Figure 2-11: Examples of various types of geothermal heat pumps.

88
 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal Heat Pumps

○ Operation is reversed for space cooling

○ Closed-loop or open-loop system, in which wells or a surface body
water is used as the heat exchange fluid
○ GHP systems used 25-50% less electricity than conventional
heating/cooling systems
○ Use anywhere in the world
○ Over a million systems in the USA, Germany the leading market in
Europe

89
 Geothermal Energy
Direct Use

○ Direct uses include space heating/cooling, greenhouses, fish farming,

bathing, swimming, health spas
○ Spas, bathing use heat from hot springs, no pumps required
○ Pumps are applied to other systems to transfer hot water to surface
○ Top 5 countries in direct use installed capacity (including geothermal
heat pumps): China 40.6 MWt, USA 20.7 MWt, Sweden 6.7 MWt,
Germany 4.8 MWt, Turkey 3.5 MWt
○ In terms of population, Iceland in the first place

90
 Geothermal Energy
Direct Use

○ Geothermal heat pumps highest

use worldwide
○ Large increase during the last
years
○ Direct use exploits both high and
low temperature reservoirs, thus
more common than electricity
production installations
○ Direct use can only be applied near
the reservoir
Figure 2-12: Worldwide direct use of geothermal energy (TJ/year) from
1995 to 2020 per category.
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 Geothermal Energy
District Heating
Direct Use

○ District heating is a system for heat distribution for residential,

commercial purposes, with direct use of geothermal energy
○ First system in 1892 in Boise, Idaho, USA
○ Turkey uses 493 MWt for district heating
○ Largest district heating system in Reykjavik, Iceland, geothermal
energy from several high and low temperature reservoirs, inside and
near the city
○ 780 MWt to heat whole city and five communities nearby

92
 Geothermal Energy
Electricity Generation

○ Electricity generation from geothermal energy:

Ø Dry steam
Ø Flash steam
Ø Binary cycle power stations

○ Medium and high temperature reservoirs are required

○ In 2015, global geothermal power capacity was 12.8 MW, most of
which in USA

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 Geothermal Energy Dry Steam

Electricity Generation

○ Dry steam is the oldest, simplest type

○ Steam from a reservoir (≥150 °C) is routed
through a turbine/generator
○ Steam is then lead to a condenser, turns liquid
and cools down
○ Lead back to the well to be reheated
○ Largest dry steam facility is the Geysers,
California, 13 dry steam power plants with net
capacity of 725 MW
Figure 2-13: Schematic of a dry steam power station.

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 Geothermal Energy Flash Steam

Electricity Generation

○ Flash steam is the most common today

○ Water is used from high temperature reservoirs,
(≥180 °C)
○ High-pressure water enters a lower pressure tank and
flashed steam is formed to drive a turbine
○ Remaining water and condensed steam are pumped
back into the ground
○ CalEnergy Navy I plant at Coso geothermal field,
California can produce 270 MW of electricity
○ Wairakei station in New Zealand consists of a flash
steam plant of 140 MW and a binary cycle plant which
increased output to 181 MW
Figure 2-14: Schematic of a flash steam power station.

95
 Geothermal Energy Binary Cycle

Electricity Generation

○ Binary cycle is the newest power plant type

○ Fluid from reservoir doesn’t drive the turbine directly
○ Reservoir water is used to heat a second working fluid,
which is vaporized and used to drive the turbine
○ Second working fluid has lower boiling point than water
○ Lower temperature reservoirs can be exploited
○ McGinness Hills Geothermal Complex, Nevada has 3
binary cycle plants and total capacity of 138 MW

Figure 2-15: Schematic of a binary cycle power station.

96
Geothermal Energy

○ Geothermal energy is a renewable resource since the amount

exploited is very small compared to Earth’s total thermal content
○ Uncontrolled exploitation however could lead to depletion of local
resources
○ Exploitation releases mixture of gases, some contributing to
global warming, but emissions are less than those from fossil
fuels
○ Other toxic elements may be released from the hot water, such
as mercury or arsenic

97
Geothermal Energy

○ Return of working fluids into the ground minimizes risks of

contamination and depletion
○ Effects on land stability is an important issue
○ Land subsidence or uplift has been observed in areas of
geothermal power plants
○ Risks of triggering earthquakes due to deep drilling of enhanced
geothermal systems

98
Hydropower

○ Hydropower is derived from the energy of moving water

○ In use since ancient times, e.g. watermills for irrigation and
operation of mechanical devices
○ Watermills are still in use for grinding grain, e.g. Himalayas or
elevated regions in developing countries
○ Late 1800s water from a dam was first used to generate
electricity
○ First hydroelectric plant in 1879, Niagara Falls, USA

99
Hydropower
○ Water has potential energy due to height difference
F force due to gravity, d distance, m mass of water,
g acceleration of gravity, H height. Since m=ρV and ρ=1000kg/m3 for water

Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as water falls

Energy/time gives the power, while V/time gives the water flow and as ε is the
efficiency of the turbine, the power is calculated

○ Water flow data important for hydropower installations

100
 Hydropower
Hydropower Resources

○ Hydropower relies on water cycle

○ Solar energy heats surface water which
evaporates
○ Vapors condense in the atmosphere and
return as precipitation
○ The flow of water which is collected back to
rivers and streams is the source for
hydropower production
○ In 2018 global electricity production from
hydropower (pumped storage not included) Figure 2-16: Total electricity generation (GWh) from hydropower, excluding
reached 4150 TWh pumped storage.

101
 Hydropower
Hydropower Resources

○ Hydropower is the largest source of global

renewable electricity generation, 65% in 2017
○ Can be used for production of mechanical
power, like in water mills, where a water wheel
or turbine is used for grinding or hammering
etc., or in trompes, which are water-powered
air compressors
○ Main use is the production of electricity
○ Low cost, site specific Figure 2-17: Electricity production from renewable resources
for 2017.

102
 Hydropower
Types of Hydropower

○ Hydropower is classified according to power

output:
large-scale, small, micro, pico
o Large-scale produces more than a few hundred
MW, largest plants reach capacity of thousands
MW
o China lead country, largest plant is the Three
Gorges Dam, 22.5 GW
o Second largest is the Itaipu Dam, Brazil-
Paraguay, 14 GW
o Xiluodu Dam, China, 13.8 GW, Guri Dam, Figure 2-18: Installed capacity of hydropower (MW) exc. pumped storage,
for the top 10 countries, for 2019.
Venezuela, 10.2 GW

103
Hydropower
Types of Hydropower

○ Small hydropower, up to 10
MW (25-30 MW in USA,
Canada)

○ Small hydropower can be

connected to distribution
network or work alone in
remote areas
Figure 2-19: The Three Gorges Dam in China.

104
Hydropower
Types of Hydropower

○ Micro hydro, <100 kW, can power a home or small community, or

even connect to local network
○ Micro hydro installations in developing countries, no need for
dams or reservoirs
○ Pico hydro, <5 kW, power a few devices, don’t require dams only
pipes to divert water flow

105
Hydropower
Hydroelectric Stations

○ Hydropower facilities are categorized into three types:

Ø Impoundment (dam)

Ø Diversion (run-of-the-river)

Ø Pumped storage

106
 Hydropower
Impoundment (dam)
Hydroelectric Stations

○ Impoundment is the conventional dam

hydropower plant
○ A dam is used to store water from a river in a
reservoir
○ Water is released from elevated position to
drive a turbine
○ A generator is activated to produce electricity
○ Power depends on water volume and the head
(height difference between water level at the
reservoir and the tailwater level, downstream)
Figure 2-20: A conventional hydropower plant.

107
 Hydropower
Impoundment (dam)
Hydroelectric Stations

○ Penstock is the pipe through which

water is driven from the reservoir to the
turbine
○ Water can be released to meet
electricity demands or maintain certain
level in the reservoir
○ Hoover Dam in Nevada/Arizona, USA has
a capacity of 2080 MW

Figure 2-21: Hoover Dam in Nevada/Arizona, USA.

108
 Hydropower
Pumped Storage
Hydroelectric Stations

○ In pumped storage, water is pumped

uphill, from a low elevation to a higher
elevation reservoir
○ Energy storage for later use
○ When demanded, water is released
back to lower reservoir to drive a
turbine
○ One route for pumping water and
storing energy, other route for Figure 2-22: Pumped storage hydropower plant.

generating electricity

109
 Hydropower
Pumped Storage
Hydroelectric Stations

○ Pumped storage facilities have

the role of a battery
○ Most important means of energy
storage
○ Castaic Pumped Storage Plant,
USA has a capacity of 1250 MW

Figure 2-23: The Castaic Pumped Storage Plant, USA.

110
 Hydropower
Diversion (run-of-the-river)
Hydroelectric Stations

○ Diversion or run-of-the-river are

facilities with small or no reservoir
○ Water from a river is channeled
through a canal or a penstock to
drive a turbine
○ Limited flexibility to follow peak
variation in electricity demand
○ Mainly used for baseload capacity Figure 2-24: Run-of-the-river hydropower plant.

111
 Hydropower
Diversion (run-of-the-river)
Hydroelectric Stations

○ May have small storage reservoir

(pondage) to meet daily demands
○ These facilities divert part or most
of the river flow and lead it through
a pipe to the turbine and then back
to the river downstream
○ Chief Joseph Dam in Washington, Figure 2-25: Chief Joseph Dam, a run-of-the-river plant in Washington,
USA has a capacity of 2620 MW USA.

112
Hydropower
Water Turbines

○ Water turbines in hydropower plants

convert the potential and kinetic energy
of water to electricity
○ Two main types: impulse and reaction
turbines
○ Type selected for each power plant
depends on the head and water flow
○ Cost and efficiency factors to be
Figure 2-26: Difference between an impulse and
considered a reaction turbine.

113
Hydropower
Impulse turbines
Water Turbines

○ In an impulse turbine, blades spin due to fast moving water fired

through a nozzle
○ Blades have bucket shape to catch the water and change flow
direction
○ Potential energy is converted to kinetic before heating the blades
○ Newton’s second law describes energy transfer
○ Impulse turbines used for high head and low flow applications

114
 Hydropower
Impulse turbines
Water Turbines

○ An example of impulse turbines is

the Pelton turbine
○ One or more free water jets hit the
buckets of the runner
○ Pelton is considered one of the
most efficient types, doesn’t need
to be inside pipe or housing

Figure 2-27: A Pelton turbine.

115
Hydropower
Reaction turbines
Water Turbines

○ In a reaction turbine power is developed from the combination of

pressure and moving water (kinetic energy)
○ Water changes pressure at it moves through the turbine, giving up
its energy
○ Newton’s third law describes the energy transfer
○ Need housing to contain water pressure or be fully submerged
○ Used for lower head and higher flow

116
 Hydropower
Reaction turbines
Water Turbines

○ An example of reaction turbines is the Francis

turbine
○ Inward flow turbine with a combination of radial
and axis components
○ Consists of spiral casing with openings to allow
water to impinge on blades
○ Pressure is converted to kinetic energy before
water hits the blades
○ Other components are the guide and stay vanes,
runner blades, draft tube
○ Usually operates in water head between 40 and
600m
Figure 2-28: A Francis turbine connected to a generator.

117
Hydropower
Advantages and disadvantages

○ Flexibility, increases and decreases production very quickly

○ Reservoirs are power on demand, little cost for storage
○ Long lifetime, up to 100 years, can be used for flood control, irrigation,
recreation etc.
○ Low emissions of greenhouse gases
○ Landscape negative effects, submersion of land, destroy forests, marshlands
○ Interruption of river flow, displacement of population and wildlife
○ Damage to dams from rivers with high siltation
○ Risks in case of dam collapse

118
 Marine Energy

○ Marine energy/ocean power comes from

various sources, like waves, currents,
tides, ocean thermal energy conversion
and salinity
Figure 2-29: Electricity production from marine energy (GWh) from 2000
to 2018.
○ Huge resource potential
○ Early stages of development, ocean
power the smallest contributor of
renewable resources
○ Total installed capacity in 2019 was 530
MW

Figure 2-30: Installed capacity of marine energy (MW), from 2000 to

2019.
119
 Marine Energy

○ Republic of Korea and France amount

to over 90% of total installed
capacity, due to their two tidal
barrages
○ La Rance station in France has a
capacity of 240 MW
○ Sihwa power plant in the Republic of
Korea has a capacity of 254 MW Figure 2-31: Installed capacity of marine energy (MW) for the top 10
countries, for 2019.

120
 Marine Energy
Current Power

○ Ocean currents carry large amounts of

water and energy and their flow is
relatively constant
○ Example, the Gulf Stream transports
warm water to North Atlantic
○ Ocean currents are created and
controlled by the wind, Coriolis effect,
topography of ocean floor, temperature,
salinity differences
○ Ocean current power estimated around Figure 2-32: Major ocean currents worldwide.

5000 GW, with power densities up to to

15 kW/m2

121
 Marine Energy
Current Power

○ Advantages of current power for electricity generation: predictable

resource, very large, little impact on the atmosphere
○ No commercial applications though research is conducted in many
countries
○ Two types of turbines considered for ocean current exploitation:
axial-flow horizontal-axis propellers, cross-flow Darrieus rotors
○ These turbines can be supported in sea-bed mounted systems or
floating moored systems

122
 Marine Energy
Wave Power

○ Waves are created from wind on ocean surface

○ Energy is transferred from wind to the waves
○ Waves can travel great distances without important energy loss
○ Wave energy calculation, where H is the wave height

○ Waves in the ocean are a superposition of waves

123
 Marine Energy
Wave Power

○ Wave speed in terms of its period is: speed = wavelength(λ) / period(T)

○ In deep water where water depth is larger than half the wavelength, wave
power per length, P/L is:

o In stormy weather, large waves can have height around 15m and a period of
15sec, there is 1.7 MW of wave power across each meter of wavefront
o Wave power device captures most of that power and behind it, waves will have
lower heights

124
 Marine Energy
Wave Power

o Wave energy potential is very high

worldwide due to large coastline length
o Areas with high potential are for example,
west coasts of Europe and northern coast of
UK, pacific coasts of North and South
America, southern coasts of South Africa
and Australia Figure 2-33: Global wave energy resources.

o Estimations of wave power potential are

provided from the National Renewable
o For USA, estimates of 1170 TWh energy
Energy Laboratory (NREL)
production per year

125
 Marine Energy
Wave Energy Converters
Wave Power

○ Wave energy systems can be situated on the shoreline, near the shore or offshore
○ Shoreline devices are easier to install and maintain, don’t need moorings for deep
waters or long cables underwater
○ Shoreline devices receive less energy as wave energy decreases as it reaches the
shore
○ Near-shore devices are a few hundred meters away from shore, in depths 20-25m
○ Wave energy resource higher for near-shore and have some advantages like
shoreline devices
○ Offshore devices exploit higher energy resources, depths >25m

126
 Marine Energy
Wave Energy Converters
Wave Power

○ Main types of wave energy converter (WEC) devices, based on the

method for capturing the wave energy:
Ø Attenuator
Ø Point absorber
Ø Oscillating wave surge converter
Ø Oscillating water column
Ø Overtopping/terminator
Ø Submerged pressure differential
Ø Bulge wave
Ø Rotating mass

127
 Marine Energy
Wave Energy Converters
Wave Power

○ An attenuator (A) is a floating device, held by

cables to the seabed. Operates parallel to
wave direction. Captures energy from the
relative motion of its two parts as wave
passes by. Example the Pelamis Wave
Converter

○ A point absorber (B) is a floating device,

absorbs energy from all directions through its
movements near the water surface. The
motion of the buoyant top relative to the base Figure 2-34: WEC devices: attenuator (A), point absorber (B), oscillating
is converted to electricity. wave surge converter (C), oscillating water column (D).

128
 Marine Energy
Wave Energy Converters
Wave Power

○ An oscillation wave surge converter (C) uses

wave surges and movement of water particles
within them to extract energy. The arm of the
device oscillates, in response to wave
movement.

○ An oscillating water column device (D) is

partially submerged and hollow. Encloses a
column of air on top of water column. As
water column rises due to waves, the air in
the column is compressed and forced through Figure 2-34: WEC devices: attenuator (A), point absorber (B), oscillating
an air turbine to generate electricity wave surge converter (C), oscillating water column (D).

129
 Marine Energy
Wave Energy Converters
Wave Power

○ An overtopping/terminator device (E) captures

water from breaking waves to fill a reservoir
to a level higher than the surrounding. A low-
head turbine captures the potential energy to
generate power.

○ A submerged pressure differential device (F)

is attached to the seabed. Operates due to
pressure differential created by wave motion
above. The difference in pressure is used to
produce flow to drive a turbine and electrical
Figure 2-35: WEC devices: overtopping/terminator device (E), submerged
generator. pressure differential (F), bulge wave (G), rotating mass (H).

130
 Marine Energy
Wave Energy Converters
Wave Power

○ A bulge wave device (G) is a water filled

rubber tube, moored to the seabed with one
end facing incoming waves. As wave passes,
pressure variations are created along the tube
length, a bulge is created. Bulge grows as it
travels through the tube and gathered energy
drives a low-head turbine.
○ In a rotating mass device (H), there are two
forms of rotation, used to capture wave
energy, heaving and swaying. There is either
an eccentric weight driven by the motion or a
gyroscope that causes precession. Movement Figure 2-35: WEC devices: overtopping/terminator device (E), submerged
pressure differential (F), bulge wave (G), rotating mass (H).
is attached to a generator inside the device.

131
Marine Energy
Wave Energy Converters
Wave Power

○ Most typical for shoreline

applications are the oscillating
water column devices
○ For near-shore, common are the
oscillating wave surge converters
and the attenuator
○ For offshore energy extraction,
point absorber and terminator
are most promising Figure 2-36: The Pelamis Wave Energy Converter.

132
 Marine Energy
Wave Energy Converters
Wave Power

○ WEC devices raise environmental concerns

○ High risk of fish and sea mammals hit by turbine blades or affected by presence of
these structures in their habitant
○ Underwater noise and electromagnetic fields due to operation of WECs
○ Many WECs operating together form a wave farm
○ Wave farm achieves larger production, hydrodynamical and electrical interaction
between WECs
○ Wave farms have operated in the UK and Portugal, but shut down
○ Studies and tests for future commercial operation

133
 Marine Energy
Tidal Power

○ Tidal power is the capture of energy from

tides
○ Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels due
to combined gravitational forces from the
Moon, the Sun and Earth’s rotation
○ Tides are predictable, large potential for
energy production
○ Not widely used due to high installation cost
and limited eligible sites
Figure 2-37: The Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station in South Korea.
○ Rance and Sihwa Lake tidal power stations
(240MW, 254MW) main contributors to
global marine energy production

134
Marine Energy
Tidal Power

○ Due to tidal forces on the ocean surface, a

bulge in the water level is created,
increasing the sea level temporarily
○ Bulge moves towards the shoreline due to
Earth’s rotation and a tide is created
○ A tidal generator converts tidal flow
energy to electricity
○ The greater the tidal variation and tidal
current velocities, the greater the energy Figure 2-38: The Rance Tidal Power Station in France.
production

135
Marine Energy
Tidal Power

○ Three main methods for tidal power production:

Ø Tidal stream generator

Ø Tidal barrage
Ø Tidal lagoon

136
Marine Energy
Tidal stream generator
Tidal Power

○ A tidal stream generator has the concept of a

wind turbine
○ Uses moving water kinetic energy to drive a
turbine, which can be horizontal, vertical, open
or ducted
○ Due to higher density of seawater compared to
air, slower water currents and smaller turbines
can be used to exploit tidal energy, compared to
wind energy

Figure 2-39: A tidal stream generator.

137
Marine Energy
Tidal stream generator
Tidal Power

○ Tidal stream generators include:

Axial turbines with blades facing flow direction,
crossflow turbines with spinning blades perpendicular to flow
direction,
reciprocating devices with hydrofoil instead of spinning blades,
pushed back and forth transverse to flow direction,
venturi effect devices which have turbines inside a cylindrical duct
to create second water flow.

138
 Marine Energy
Tidal barrage
Tidal Power

○ A tidal barrage system uses potential energy

due to height difference between high and
low tides, for energy production
○ Used dams and sluice gates to capture
potential energy and store it
○ Dam is constructed across the entrance of a
tidal inlet or basin, with bottom on the
seabed
○ Allows water to flow in during high tide and
releases it during low tide, by controlling the
Figure 2-40: A tidal barrage flood generation system.
sluice gates

139
 Marine Energy
Tidal barrage
Tidal Power

○ Turbines, placed in the barrage wall, generate

power as water flows in and out of the basin
○ Rance and Sihwa Lake stations both tidal
barrage systems
○ Energy can be generated as water enters the
reservoir on the incoming flood tide (tidal
barrage flood generation system) or as water
leaves the reservoir on the ebb flow tide (tidal
barrage ebb generation system)
○ In a two-way generation system, power is
Figure 2-41: A tidal barrage ebb generation system.
generated as water flows in both directions

140
 Marine Energy
Tidal lagoon
Tidal Power

○ Tidal lagoon is a modern design, consisting of circular retaining

walls, embedded with turbines to capture tidal potential energy
○ Reservoirs similar to those in tidal barrage systems
○ No operational projects yet
○ Tidal Lagoon Swansea Bay project in the UK was designed for
operation but was cancelled

141
 Marine Energy
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

○ Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

generates electricity by using the ocean
thermal difference between warm surface
and cooler deep water to drive a Rankin
cycle
○ Temperature difference between surface
ocean water and water at 1000m depth at
least 20°C for OTEC to operate
○ Temperature differences higher in the
tropics
Figure 2-42: World map with the temperature difference between ocean
○ OTEC could provide tens of times the surface water and depth of 1000m.
energy from other ocean energy systems

142
 Marine Energy
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

○ OTEC systems can be closed-cycle, open-cycle

or hybrid
○ In closed-cycle, a working fluid is turned to
vapour due to heat transferred from warm
surface seawater
○ Vapour expands and drives a turbine/generator
○ Vapour is lead to a condenser, turns to liquid
as cold seawater passes through the
condenser and is recycled through the system Figure 2-43: OTEC closed-cycle system.

○ Low boiling point working fluid, e.g. ammonia

143
 Marine Energy
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

○ In open-cycle, working fluid is the warm surface

water, which vaporizes at surface water
temperatures in a near vacuum
○ Vapour (pure freshwater) expands and drives a
low-pressure turbine attached to a generator
○ It is then condensed due to cooler deep ocean
temperatures
○ Water can be used for drinking/irrigation if there’s
no direct contact of condenser and cool seawater
Figure 2-44: OTEC open-cycle system.
○ If there’s contact of condenser and cool seawater,
more electricity is produced, water released into
the ocean

144
 Marine Energy
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

○ Open-cycle OTEC plant operated experimentally in 1993 at

Keyhole Point, Hawaii, produced 80 kW of electricity
○ A system tested in Japan in 1982 produced 40 kW of
electricity
○ Hybrid OTEC systems use parts of both closed and open-
cycle systems to increase electricity production and produce
freshwater. They have both ammonia and seawater as
working fluids

145
Marine Energy
Salinity Gradient Power

○ Salinity gradient power is the energy produced due to

differences in salt concentration between saltwater (sea)
and freshwater (river), as it happens at the mouth of rivers
○ Two main methods for salinity gradient power production:
reverse electrodialysis and pressure retarded osmosis
○ Both methods rely on osmosis with membranes
○ These systems are currently being tested and developed
for commercial use in Norway and the Netherlands

146
Storage

○ Energy storage systems transform energy into a form that

can be stored and converted to electricity when needed
○ Energy storage systems can be
mechanical (pumped storage hydroelectricity, compressed
air energy storage, flywheels),
electrochemical (batteries),
electromagnetic (capacitors, magnetic systems),
thermal (phase change materials),
chemical (biofuels, hydrogen storage)

147
 Storage

○ Important factors are energy density, efficiency,

lifetime
○ Efficiencies range between 50% and 80%
○ Lifetimes range from minutes (e.g. non-rechargeable
batteries) to a few years (e.g. lead acid batteries) or
100 years (dams)
○ Another important factor is charging and discharging
rate

148
 Storage
Pumped storage hydroelectricity

○ Pumped storage systems store energy

in the form of potential energy of
water, which is pumped from a low to
a higher elevation reservoir
○ Stored water is released through
turbines to produce electricity
○ Most cost-effective type
○ Low energy density so large flow is
required or large height difference Figure 2-45: Pumped storage installed capacity (MW) from 2000 to 2019.

○ High initial cost

149
 Storage
Pumped storage hydroelectricity

○ Can respond to load changes within

seconds
○ Can provide peak-load power for fossil
fuel and nuclear plants
○ Usually 6 to 20 hours of hydraulic
reservoir storage for operation
○ China top country with over 30 GW
installed capacity in 2019
○ Largest pumped storage plants: Bath Figure 2-46: Pumped storage installed capacity (MW) for the top 10
countries for 2019.
County in USA, Guangdong and Huizhou
in China and Okutataragi in Japan
150
Storage
Compressed air energy storage

○ Compressed air energy storage (CAES) uses compressed air to store

generated energy for later use
○ Air is compressed and stored under pressure in an underground
cavern or mine
○ When needed, air is expanded to drive a turbine/generator
○ Heat is generated during compression and is removed during
expansion
○ Depending on how the system handles heat during compression,
process can be diabatic, adiabatic, isothermal or near-isothermal

151
Storage
Compressed air energy storage

○ In diabatic processes, much of generated heat is dissipated in the atmosphere

by using intercoolers. Decreased efficiency but only type to have been used
commercially, e.g. CAES plant in McIntosh, Alabama and the plant in Huntorf,
Germany
○ In adiabatic processes, generated heat is kept in the system and returned to
heat the air during expansion. Higher efficiencies, no commercial use
○ An isothermal process tries to maintain operating temperature by constant
exchanging heat with environment. In reality the process is never isothermal
○ In near-isothermal, compression is done near a large thermal mass in which
heat from compression is transferred

152
 Storage
Flywheel energy storage

○ Flywheel is a rotating mechanical device, connected to a

motor-generator, may be enclosed in vacuum chamber
○ Spins to high speed and rotational energy is generated,
converted to electricity when needed. Recharged with
the motor
○ Energy stored is proportional to device’s moment of
inertia and square of its angular velocity
○ Long lifetimes, doesn’t require a lot of maintenance,
fast reaction times, efficiency up to 90%
○ Have been used in transportation, buses, train, cars, Figure 2-47: Diagram of a flywheel device.

experimentally

153
 Storage
Batteries
○ Batteries convert stored chemical energy into electrical
and opposite in charge cycle
○ Consists of one or more electrochemical cells, each with
two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte, which allows
transport of ions
○ Storage capacity depends on battery age, temperature,
rate of discharge
○ Lead-acid stores chemical energy in the potential Figure 2-48: Lead-acid battery chemistry.
difference of the negative lead side and positive PbO2
side, plus the aqueous sulfuric acid
o E.g. 10MW, 4-h system in Chino,
○ Lead-acid batteries have low energy-to-weight and California and 20MW, 40-min
energy-to-volume ratios but high power-to-weight ratio, system in San Juan, Puerto Rico
low cost, used for remote village power and stand-alone
systems

154
 Storage
Batteries

○ Lithium-ion batteries have high energy density, efficiency~100%, long cycle life, higher
cost.
○ Anode is carbon graphite and cathode consists of lithiated metallic oxide, while storage
medium contains mix of lithium salts and organic carbonates.
○ Sodium-sulfur batteries are constructed from liquid sodium and sulfur. High energy
density and efficiency, long cycle life, inexpensive.
○ Operate at temperatures 300-350°C, suitable for stationary applications.
○ Support stand-alone systems or electric grid. Good option for wind farms, solar power
stations.
○ E.g. 34 MW, 245 MWh unit in a wind farm in northern Japan

155
 Storage
Batteries

○ In a flow battery, there are two chemical

components dissolved in liquids, pumped through
the system on separate sides of a membrane
○ The two external electrolyte reservoirs are
separated from the electricity converter unit
○ Three types: vanadium redox, polysulfide bromide,
zinc bromide battery
○ Can support off-grid village power, large power
applications, release energy for extended period
○ High operating, maintenance costs Figure 2-49: Diagram of a flow battery.

○ E.g. 1.5 MW system in a semiconductor fabrication

plant in Japan

156
Storage
Superconducting magnetic energy storage

○ Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems store energy in the

magnetic field, created by the direct current flow in a superconducting coil
○ Coil must have been cryogenically cooled to temperatures lower than its
superconducting critical temperature
○ SMES systems have long lifetimes, very good response and efficiencies up to 95%
○ No energy loss over time
○ Considerable cost for refrigeration and superconductive coil
○ Several 1MWh operating worldwide for clean power quality at manufacturing plants
○ Can provide grid stability or used in utility applications
○ SMES systems in Wisconsin, USA used to enhance stability on a transmission loop

157
 Storage
Capacitors

○ Capacitors store energy on two conductors, separated

by a non-conductive region, which can be a vacuum or
a dielectric
○ Conductors hold equal opposite charges and dielectric
creates electric field
○ Supercapacitors store electrical charge in an electric
double layer, formed between each of the electrodes
and the electrolyte ions
○ Supercapacitor has long life, fast response, can be
used for micro grid energy storage, used in conjuction
with chemical batteries Figure 2-50: Illustration of a supercapacitor.

158
Storage
Phase change materials

○ A phase change material releases/absorbs energy, at almost constant

temperature, as it changes phases to provide heating/cooling
○ Liquid-solid phase change is used
○ Substance should have large latent heat and high thermal conductivity
○ Two main types are organic materials, derived from petroleum, plants,
animals and salt hydrates, which use salts from the sea, mineral deposits
or by-products
○ Used for commercial applications, e.g. heating pads
○ Biggest potential is for building heating and cooling

159
Storage
Hydrogen storage

○ In hydrogen storage, hydrogen is produced by electrolysis, either by alkaline

electrolysis or Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzers
○ Can be stored in pressurized vessels or in underground salt caverns
○ Can be re-electrified in fuel cells or burned in gas power plants with efficiencies up to
60%
○ Can be used as fuel for fuel cell cars or injected into natural gas pipelines
○ Efficiency of electrolysis to fuel cell to electricity is around 50%
○ E.g. 6MW hydrogen storage plant using PEM technology in Germany to convert
excess wind power to hydrogen to use in fuel cells or natural gas supply.
2MW PEM facility in Ontario to produce hydrogen from water through electrolysis

160
Issues and Aspects
Environmental concerns

○ Solar and concentrated solar power applications need large land areas
○ Wind power applications create noise and visual concerns, effects on wildlife,
birds, bats
○ Biomass production needs large land areas, greenhouse gases emissions
○ Geothermal production can cause land subsidence, seismic activity, risk of
depletion
○ Hydropower applications have visual impact, impact on fish, displacement of
population, risk of dam collapse
○ Marine power applications affect sea life and raise concerns for ships

161
 Issues and Aspects
Politics and Regulations

○ Approval and permits from agencies and governmental departments

○ Environmental impact analysis
○ Permits for construction, safety regulations
○ Eligibility of land, national parks, wild life protected areas, historical areas
○ Need for incentives, like tax reductions, subsidies, regulations in favor of renewable
energy advancement
○ Policies for integration of renewable energy to the power grid, portfolio standards
○ Tax incentives, investment and production tax deduction, property tax reduction, tax
credits for research development of equipment, taxes for use of conventional fuel

162
 Issues and Aspects
Politics and Regulations

○ Europe promoted wind energy with price support for kilowatt hour production and
capacity based method
○ 1990 law in Germany made utilities buy renewable energy from power producers at a
minimum price, defined by government
○ China implemented policies for wind farm installations, mandated the majority of wind
turbine components be manufactured within the country
○ Spain and Germany lead the way in 2009 in PV installed capacity due to feed-in tariff
systems
○ Incentives are the reason for increase in ethanol production

163
Issues and Aspects
Economics

○ Factors to consider: installation cost, land cost, value of produced power, cost of
energy from competitive sources
○ Cost depending on size, type and manufacturing company
○ Energy resource and its variations is an important factor
○ Operation, maintenance, insurances, inflation, legal costs, incentives
○ Land consideration, contract to sell generated electricity, access to transmission lines
○ Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is calculated by taking into account the sum of costs
of the project over its lifetime divided by the sum of electricity produced over its
lifetime

164
 Issues and Aspects
Economics
○ Solar power and wind power technologies show
decrease in LCOE values. No fuel costs, no
variations in operation, maintenance costs: LCOE
proportional to capital costs
○ Technologies with fuel costs have LCOE affected by
capital costs and fuel costs
○ Renewable energy becomes cheaper due to
technological progress, increased competition and
incentives
○ Solar and wind power expected to produce 50% of
world’s energy by 2050
○ Most economic option for new grid-connected
capacity in sites with good resources
Figure 2-51: Average levelized cost of energy (LCOE) (2019 USD/kWh)
trend for renewable technologies.
165
○ In this chapter, geothermal
energy, hydropower and
marine energy were
introduced, with their
characteristics, operation
and worldwide status. The
basic storage devices were
described and renewable
energy aspects and issues
were discussed. Summary
Introduction and Overview of Renewable Energy
Resources (RESs) (2/2)

166