CUTTING CONDITIONS IN METAL CUTTING

Cutting Motion

s
D d

Cutting Tool

s
Feed b
t

a
Dd
Depth of cut (t): t mm
2
Chip cross-sectional Area (Ac): Ac= a  b mm2
Chip thickness a: a  s sin mm = st

t DN
Chip width b: b mm Cutting Velocity (Vc): Vc 
sin  1000
Stress  1. Limit of Proportionality
4 2. Limit of Elasticity
3. Yield Point
3 5 4. Ultimate Tensile Stress
2
1 5. Fracture Point

Plastic Deformation
Elastic Deformation Strain

Stress – Strain Diagram of a Ductile Material

 Chip Formation

a) Tool set at a certain depth of cut.

b) Cutting force acting and tool starts to penetrate the workpiece.
c) Chip separation from workpiece under shear.
 Cutting Tool Action

f Cutting Force
 Types of Chips

Chip

Tool

Workpiecee

a) Discontinuous Chip b) Sheared Chip c) Continuous Chip

Continuous
Discontinuous Sheared
(Ribbon or Spiral)
 Continuous
Discontinuous Sheared
(Ribbon or Spiral)

When machining soft ductile materials such as mild steel,

copper, aluminum, .....etc.
This type of chip is formed when machining hard brittle
materials such as cast iron or bronze.
Are formed in machining hard but more ductile metals than
cast iron or bronze such as hard steels.
Discontinuous chip
Continuous chip
Sheared chip
 The Built-up Edge
It is the result of small particles from the
workpiece being built-up and welded under the
heavy pressure and the heat generated at the tip
of the tool face .
Chip
The hardness of the BUE is 2-3 times higher
than that of the material being cut, therefore, the
BUE is capable of cutting the material from BUE

which it was formed.

1
The presence of the BUE changes the cutting
Tool
conditions. The cutting angle is reduced leading to
easier chip removal, protects the cutting edge against 
the abrasive action of the flowing chip, therefore, it is
not to be considered harmful in roughing operations.
In finishing operations when a high class of surface a
BUE is undesirable because it gives poor surface
finish.
 B.U.E

B.U.E. Appearance
Effect of Cutting Speed on BUE
450

Height of BUE
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70
Vc m /m in

As the cutting speed is increased, the BUE will appear. The cutting speed
corresponding to the maximum height of BUE ranges from 10-20 m/min. At a
further increase in the cutting speed, the BUE will start to disappear again.
Therefore, to obtain a high surface finish, the workpiece should be machined
either at very low speed or at very high speed.
 F
Chip Curling

Wedge Shape

The chip curls into a spiral because the layer adjoining the
tool is deformed. It can be seen that on the side facing force
F, the layer becomes thicker and requires a wedge shape, as
a result of which, chip curvature (curling) is produced.
Another reason for curling is the presence of the B.U.E. as
the chip in meeting the tool face is forced to change its
direction.
The following factors affect the chip curling:
1. The cutting angle.
2. The rate of feed.
3. The depth of the wear crater on tool face.
4. The cutting speed.

•As the cutting angle increases, the deformation

increases and curling curvature decreases (tight chip).
•As the feed rate increases, the deformation
decreases and curling curvature increases.
•As the depth of the wear crater increases, the
deformation increases and curling curvature
decreases.
•As the cutting speed increases, the deformation
decreases and curling curvature increases.
Chip Contraction

Lo

The main factors affecting chip contraction are:

As a result of plastic deformation of the layer of metal being
•Geometric elements of the tool point such as the cutting angle and the
cut, the chip
tool nose turns out to be shorter than the part of the work
radius.
•Cutting
from which it hasmainly
variables, beenthecut (i.e. speed
cutting L < Loand
). the feed rate.
L
Coefficient of contraction = Cutting ratio = rc =
Lo
 Chip Breakers

Groove Chip Step Chip

Breaker Breaker
Chip Breaker Grooves:
They curl the chip into a tight spiral or break it into
small pieces. Separate Chip
Breaker
Step Type Chip Breaker:
Steps are made on the tool face. As the chip flows against the shoulder of the
step, it is curled into a tight spiral and breaks into short pieces.

Separate Chip Breakers:

The main advantage of this type is that it can be easily adjusted as desire .
Work Hardening:

34 35 33.6

36 33.8 34.2

44.8

26.4 24 30 25

22.3 22.4 24.1 22.1

• Deformation during cutting.

• Change in mechanical properties. Hardness is increased and ductility is

decreased.
Soft steel, aluminum and copper are most affected by work
hardening and will harden to a greater depth. Mild steels will work
harden much less and cast iron to a negligible degree.
 Some alloy steels such as stainless steels and
manganese steel will take high degrees of work
hardening and are therefore difficult to be machined.

The degree of work hardening and the depth of the hardened

layer depend on:
1. The properties of the metal being machined.
2. The cutting speed: as the cutting speed increases, the work
hardening decreases.
3. The feed: as the feed increases, the work hardening
decreases.
4. The sharpness of the tool: the work hardening increases
when the tool gets dull.
5. The rake angle: when the rake angle is increased, the work
hardening is reduced.
Heat Generated in Metal Cutting

75%
Chip

20% Tool
4% Work
1% Atm.

In metal cutting, heat is generated as a result of:

1.Deformation in the layer of the metal being cut and
friction between particles of the metal displaced.
2. Friction of the chip on the tool face.
3. Friction of the tool flank on the work.
To decrease the harmful influence
of heat on the cutting edge of the
tool, it is vital to remove the heat as
effectively as possible. Cutting
fluids are often used for this
purpose.
 Cutting Fluids (Coolants):

To protect the tool from being dulled and to increase its life, the cutting
edge must be kept at a temperature lower than red hardness temp.

The red hardness temperature is the temperature at

which the tool looses its hardness.

The cutting fluid will carry away the heat generated at the point of chip
formation. Cutting fluids also posses lubricating properties to reduce the
friction between the chip and the tool and between the tool and the
work.

In cutting Cast Iron or Bronze (brittle materials), fine chips mix with the
fluid and form a sludge which is harmful to the machine, therefore, brittle
materials are commonly machined dry.
 Orthogonal & Oblique Cutting

Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

The cutting edge is perpendicular to the The cutting edge is oblique to the
cutting motion. cutting motion.
 Forces Acting on the Workpiece during Orthogonal Cutting

Cutting Force “R” Shear Plane

R
Friction Component “Ff ” a

Normal Component on Friction Plane “Fn ” f Fs

FH f

Shear Force “Fs” FN

FV R
Normal component on Shear Plane “FN” Ff

a
Horizontal Component “F H ” Fn

Vertical Component “FV ”

 Calculating Friction & Normal Forces

Ff  FH sin a  FV cos a

Fn  FH cos a  FV sin a a
R

FH
The coefficient of friction  a

FV R
=tan the friction angle b a Ff
b
Fn
Ff
The coefficient of friction  
Fn
 To determine the shear stress,
we must first find the area of the shear plane As

t1w
As  ts  w  a

sin  t2

The shear stress at the shear plane t1 ts fa

f
can be given as follows:
Fs Fs sin 
 
As t1w
The normal stress on the shear plane is given by:

FN FN sin 
 
As t1w
 Calculating Shearing & Normal to Shear Plane Forces
t1 = Undeformed chip thickness
t2 = Deformed chip thickness > t1 a
t2
t1/ ts = sin φ & t2/ ts = cos (φ – α)
t1 ts fa
f
t1 sin 
The cutting ratio rc  
t2 cos(  a )
rc is less than 1
Substituting cos( - a) = cos cos a + sin sina and dividing by cos:

rc cosa Hence, we can get angle φ then shearing

tan 
1  rc sina force Fs & FN normal to shear plane

FS  FH cos  FV sin  FN  FH sin   FV cos

To determine the shear stress,
we must first find the area of the shear plane As
a
t1w
As  ts  w  t2

sin  t1 ts fa
f
The shear stress at the shear plane
can be given as follows:

Fs Fs sin 
 
As t1w
The normal stress on the shear plane is given by:

FN FN sin 
 
As t1w
Determination of Shear Strain in Orthogonal Cutting
a
c y
b

Dy a
f c x
d a f

d a

The strain in cm/cm of chip movement normal to the shear plane

may be expressed as:

ac Y
   cot   tan(  a )
db X
 Forces Acting on Cutting Tool in Oblique Cutting
The cutting force “R” can be resolved into
three mutually perpendicular components

Fz : the vertical or tangential force component

Fy Fx
Fy : the radial force component
s
Fx : the axial or feed force
Fz
R
The largest in magnitude is the vertical force Fz

( about 2 or 3 times larger than that of the

radial component Fy )

( from 4 to 10 times larger than the feed force component Fx )

Specific Cutting Pressure

“SpecificCutting Pressure” p is the value of the vertical

force Fz per unit area of chip cross section

Fz
p N/mm2
Ac
“p” is not constant for the same material

The “Cutting Coefficient” K, is the specific cutting pressure “p”

obtained under the following definite conditions
Depth of cut “t” = 5 mm, feed “s” = 1 mm/rev, rake angle a=15o,
approach angle k = 45oand operation is done without using a
coolant.
 STEEL
su 300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000- 1100-
N/mm2 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
K 1320 1450 1570 1700 1910 2000 2260 2460 2600

CAST IRON
140- 160- 180- 200- 220- 240-
BHN
160 180 200 220 240 260

K 810 860 920 980 1040 1080

The value of the vertical cutting force Fz can be determined using the formula

Fz = K * t * sm
m is an exponent which equals 0.75 for both steel and C.I.
Measurement of Cutting Forces

Measurement of the cutting forces is made using a special apparatus

known as a “Dynamometer.”

Dial
Gauge

Load

Leaf Rubber Pad

Spring Work
A
Pivot Edge

B
FZ

Mechanical Dynamometer
 Load (Force) N

Deflection mm
Calibration Chart
Measurement of Cutting Forces

FZ

Wire Strain Gauges

Work
Tool Holder

Strain Gauge Dynamometer

Power Required in Metal Cutting
The power “Pc” required in cutting depends on the
value of the vertical cutting force Fz and the cutting
speed Vc . It is determined from the formula:

FzVc
Pc  KW
9.8 x60 x75 x1.36
The required power of the electric motor for driving the
machine tool is then:
Pc
Pm 
1 2
where: h1 is the efficiency of the machine tool
and h2 is the efficiency of the driving motor
 Cutting Tool Materials

Most important properties:

• high hardness
• wear resistance
• heat resistance
• mechanical strength
1- Carbon Tool Steels
It contains from 0.7 to 1.4% Carbon plus manganese, silicon, sulpher and
phosphorus. A disadvantage of carbon tool steels is their comparatively low
heat and wear resistance. They lose the required hardness at temperatures
from 200 to 250.

Therefore, they may only be used in the manufacture of tools

operating at low cutting speeds.
2- Alloy Tool Steels:
They contain various special elements such as chromium,
tungsten, vanadium, silicon and manganese.
A- Chromium Steel
(0.95 – 1.1% C + 1.6% Cr)
It is used in single point tools, drills and files.
B- Chromium Silicon Steel
(0.85 – 1.1% C + 0.95 - 1.25% Cr + 1.2 – 1.6% Si)
a.Used for single point tools, drills and milling cutters.
C- Chromium Tungsten Steel
(1.25 – 1.5% C + 0.4 – 0.7% Cr + 4.5 – 5.5% W + 0.15 – 0.3% V)
It is used in reamers, taps, threading dies.
D- Tungsten Steel
(1.05 – 1.25% C + 0.8 – 1.2% W + 0.15 – 3% V)
Used in drills, single point tools and milling cutters.
E- HSS High Speed Steel

0.7 - 0.8% C + 0.4% Mn + 3.8 – 4.4% Co + 17.5 – 19% W +

1.0 – 1.4% V + 0.3% Mo + 0.4% Ni + 0.03% S + 0.03% P

It has a relatively high percent of alloying components (W, Co

& V) (18 – 4 – 1) which provide for the high heat and wear
resistance. HSS can withstand up to 600ºC without loosing
its hardness. It can therefore operate at speeds 3-4 times
higher than that of carbon steel tools. It is some times used as
tips which are either welded on the tool shank or held by
clamps
3- Cemented Carbides
They are produced by compacting powdered Titanium, Tungsten,
Cobalt and Carbon at high pressure (1000 – 4200 Kp/cm2) and then
sintering at high temperatures (1500 - 1550ºC). The cobalt will melt
and cement these carbides together. The tips obtained are brazed
or clamped on the tool shanks. They can withstand temperatures up
to 1000ºC and cutting speeds 6 or more times higher than tools of
HSS.

Brazed Tips
Clamped Tips
The color of cemented carbide tips is gray.

There are two types of cemented carbides:

A- Tungsten Type

a.They contain 92 – 98% tungsten carbide and 2 – 8%

cobalt. These carbides are designed chiefly for
machining brittle materials.

B- Titanium-Tungsten Carbides

They are more wear resistant. They contain 66- 85%

tungsten carbide, 5 – 30% titanium carbide and 4 – 10%
cobalt. These carbides are used for cutting tougher
materials such as steels.
4- Ceramic Tools

They are made of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and are in the form
of tips. They are white in color.
They have higher heat resistance than cemented carbides
(1200ºC) and greater wear resistance.

Therefore, ceramic tools can operate at higher cutting

speeds than cemented carbides.
At the same time, ceramic tools are brittle and have a low
bending strength, therefore, these materials cannot be used
for tools operating in interrupted cuts or for removing a
heavy chip.

They are usually used in semi-finish and finish turning.

 5- Diamond Tools

Diamond is the hardest

metal known.

Tools made of diamond are only applied to fine finishing

and precision operations at high speeds on non-ferrous
materials, plastics, ceramics, carbon and other abrasive
materials.

Diamond has a hard and brittle nature. Diamond tips

are either brazed or clamped on the tool shank.
 Machinability and Tool Performance

Machinability may be defined as the ease with which a

material can be machined.

Tool performance depends upon the material and shape of

the cutting tool as well as upon all cutting conditions.
The most important criteria for measuring both tool
performance and machinability are:
1- The rate at which the material can be removed expressed in m3/min.
2- The life of the cutting tool.
3- The smoothness and the accuracy of the machined surface obtained.
4- The power required for making the cut.
Actually, the tool life has been found to have most
advantages from a manufacturing point of view.
Tool Life
It is the time during which the tool is in continuous operation
before it is dulled. It is measured in minutes.
Tool
Face
Tool

Crater
Face Wear

Tool Flank

Wear Land
Flank Wear

Wear of a cutting tool may be of two types:

1- Face Wear 2- Flank Wear (max. permissible 1/32 ≈ 0.6 mm)

Factors Affecting Tool Life

1- The properties of the material to be cut.

2- The tool material.

Cutting Speed VC min/min.

3- The cutting speed.

Vc  T  C
n

Tan-1 n
Empirical Formula
Where: n is an exponent C
Log-Log Chart
depending on the tool and
workpiece material

C is a constant depending on
the other cutting conditions
Tool Life T min.
Cutting Speed – Tool Life Relationship
 From the chart get Log C hence C
and get Log C hence C.
Vc  T  C
n

From the chart get the slope which is

the value of n.
log Vc  n log T  log C

Log Cutting Speed Log VC

Vc
T Tan-1 n

Log C
Log Vc Normal Chart
Log T

Plot the results on a normal

Log Tool Life Log T
square paper chart.
 4- Chip Cross-Sectional Area

An increase in the chip cross-sectional area will decrease

the tool life .

The decrease in tool life due to the increase in cross-

sectional area is less than the decrease in tool life caused
by an increase in cutting speed.

For this reason, the rule for efficient

operation is to take as heavy a depth of cut
and feed as the tool, workpiece and
machine withstand, and adjust the speed
for maximum tool life.
Economical Tool Life

Cost (L.E./min/cu. mm)

Tool Cost
Total Cost
Min. Total Cost

At some intermediate Cutting Cost

cutting speed, the
total cost is at
minimum .
The tool life corresponding to this Cutting Speed m/min.
cutting speed is the economical
tool life
The components of tool cost may be expressed in minutes and are:

t1 = minutes to change the tool

t s Rs
t2 = minutes to grind or sharpen the tool = 
N 2 Rc
where:
ts = tool grinding time in minutes
N2 = number of cutting edges obtained per grind
Rs = Labor and overhead rate for sharpening in L.E./min
Rc = Labor and overhead rate for cutting operation in L.E./min
t3 = minutes equivalent to depreciation cost of tool
CT
 CT = original cost of the tool in L.E.
N1 * N 2 * RC N1 = number of times the tool can be
ground
The total equivalent minutes required to replace the tool
when it becomes dull

Te = t1 + t2 + t3

The amount of metal in cm3 cut during the life of one tool
) =T + Te )
Thus, the rate of metal removal in cm3 / min is
1 n
Q s  t  Vc  T C  T  s  t
R  
T  Te T  Te T  Te V T c
n
C

dR  1 
Tec    1  Te
for max. R 0
dT n 
The economical cutting speed that corresponds to the
economical tool life can be found from the equation:

C
Vec  n m/min
Tec