MACHINES

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
WORK, ENERGY & POWER
Work done

Work is done whenever a force makes something move.

The unit for work is the Joule (J).
1 Joule is the work done when a force of 1 Newton moves one metre i.e. 1J = 1Nm.

Work is defined as the product of force and distance.

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝑾=fxd

Energy is the capacity/ability to do work.

The amount of energy something has is also the amount of work it can do.

Work done = Energy used

Energy used = force x distance

E=fxd

The unit for Energy is also the Joule (J)

1 Joule is the work done or energy used when a force of 1 Newton moves one
metre i.e. 1J = 1Nm.

Power
Power is the rate at which work is done.
Or
Power is the rate at which energy is converted from one form to another.

The unit of power is the Watt (W).

1W = 1J/s

Work Done W
Power= P=
Time Taken t

Energy used E
Power= P=
Time Taken t

Weight and Mass

Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
Weight is the pull due to gravity on an object.
The relationship between mass and weight is:
W = mg

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Worked examples

1. A person pushed a car a distance of 15 m with a force of 500 N. Calculate the

work done by the person.
2. A girl of mass 40kg climbs 100m. Calculate the work she does and hence state
the energy she uses in climbing.
3. A donkey pulls a cart with a force of 1500N for 1km. How much work does the
donkey do (assuming friction is negligible).
4. What is the power of a person who does 6000J of work in 10 minutes?
5. How long will it take a 1kW pump to raise 20kg of water from a well 50m deep.

Moments
 The moment of a force is the turning effect of a force, or the ability of the force
to making something turn.

Moment=Force x Perpendicular Distance from pivot

 The fixed point about which a body/object turns is called the pivot a.k.a.
fulcrum.
 Two types of moments: clockwise moments & anticlockwise moments.
 The principle of moments states that when a body is at equilibrium clockwise
moments are equal to anticlockwise moments about the same point/pivot.

An experiment to verify the principle of moments

1. Beam / metre rule balanced by / on a pivot

2. Masses / weights added to each side until the beam balances
3. Distances between weights and pivot are measured.
4. Repeated with different weights / distances
5. Moments on both sides are calculated. Moment = force × distance (from
pivot).
6. Calculated moments on both sides should be equal.

Worked examples

1. The diagram below shows a beam supported and balanced at its centre. Find
the value of m.
7kg PIVOT m

100 cm 50 cm

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Solution:
Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments
m x 50cm = 7kg x 100cm

7 kg x 100 cm
m=
50 cm

700 cm
m=
50 cm

m = 14kg

2. Two people, Courtney and Tonderai, sit on a see-saw as shown in the

diagram below.

d?

Courtney Tonderai

Courtney who weighs 375N sits 2m from the pivot. How far from the pivot
should Tonderai sit to balance the see-saw if he weighs 500N?

Solution

Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments

500N x d = 375N x 2m

375 N x 2 m
d=
500 N

750 Nm
d=
500 N

d = 1.5m
Tonderai should sit 1.5m from the pivot to balance the see-saw.

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MACHINES
 A machine is a device that makes work easier and convenient to do.
 A machine is a device in which effort applied at one end is used to
overcome a greater load/resistance at another point.
 Machines make work easier by :
1. Reducing the effort (force) which is required to lift the load or
2. Changing the direction in which the effort is applied.
 Load is the weight being lifted by a machine.
 Effort is the force applied on a machine to move the load.
 Machines make our work easier by letting us use less effort to move a load.
 They allow us to use a smaller force to overcome a larger force.
 Machines give us an advantage by changing the amount, speed, or direction of
forces.
 Two types of machines: simple machines & complex machines.
 A simple machine is a basic elementary machine. It is a basic device from which
other machines are built
 Simple machines do work with one movement.
 Examples of simple machines: Levers, pulleys, inclined plane, claw hammer,
wheelbarrow, bottle opener, gears, wheel and axle.
 Complex machines are built from a combination of simple machines.
 Examples of complex machines: Cranes, generators, fuel engines, sewing machine etc.

LEVERS
 A lever is a stiff bar used to lift or move heavy objects while it moves on a
fixed point called a pivot or fulcrum.
 Examples of levers: crowbar, claw hammer, scissors, wheelbarrow, spanner,
bottle opener, fore arm, pliers, knife, axe etc.
 Levers are based on the principle of moments.
 The weight of the object that a lever moves is called the load.
 The load is a force or weight which must be overcome by the lever.
 The effort is the force applied to a lever to move the load.

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 The effort arm is the distance of the effort from the pivot.
 The load arm is the distance of the load from the pivot.
 The closer the object is to the pivot, the easier it is to move.
 That is, the longer the effort arm, the greater the turning and, therefore,
the smaller the effort needed to lift the load.
 This explains why it is easier to undo (untie) a nut or bolt using a spanner
with a longer handle than one with a shorter handle.
 Question: Why is it easier to turn a nut using a longer spanner than a shorter one?
Answer: The distance from the pivot is greater therefore there is a greater turning
effect.
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE (M.A.)
 It is the ratio of the load lifted to the effort applied.
 The larger the M.A. the easier it is to lift the load.
 The larger the mechanical advantage the more useful the machine is.
Load
 Mechanical Advantage =
Effort
L
 M.A =
E
 Mechanical advantage depends on the friction between the moving parts.
VELOCITY RATIO (V.R.)
 Is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by
the load.
Distance Effort mo ves
 V.R =
Load moves distance
 Velocity ratio depends on the geometry of the moving parts.
Work output & work input
 Work done = force x distance.
 Work done by a machine = work done on load = WORK OUTPUT.
 Work done on load = Work done by a machine
= Work output
= Load x distance load moves.
 Work done on the machine = work done by the effort = WORK INPUT
 Work done by effort = Work done on the machine
= Work input
= Effort x distance effort moves.
 Ideal (perfect) machines are frictionless and weightless.
 Therefore, in ideal (perfect) machines work input (work done by effort) is
equal to work out i.e. ideal machines are 100% efficient.
 However, ideal (perfect) machines do not exist in real practice. They are
only a standard to which we aspire when building real machines.
 Real machines are affected by friction and their weight and therefore are
never 100% efficient.
 In real machines work output is less than work input because some work has
to be done:

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1. To overcome friction.
2. To overcome weight of machine (To raise the moving parts of the machine).
 Real machines can be improved by:
1. Mass reduction (using lighter materials to construct machines).
2. Friction reduction by use of lubrication and ball/roller bearings

EFFICIENCY
 Is the ratio of the useful work done by a machine to the total energy input.
 The amount of work done does not all translate into the work output
because some of it is lost by friction.
 It is calculated as:
Efficiency = work done on a load/work done by effort
 It is usually expressed as a percentage.
work output
 Efficiency = X 100%
work input

work done on load

= work done by effort X 100%

Load x distance load moves

=
Effort x distances effort moves

 Efficiency of real machines is usually less than 100% because some work has
to be done:
1. To overcome friction.
2. To overcome weight of machine (To raise the moving parts of the
machine).
 The efficiency of a machine is improved by:
1. Mass reduction (using lighter materials to construct machines).
2. Friction reduction through the use of lubrication and ball/roller bearings.

CALCULATING EFFICIENCY

WORK OUTPUT
Efficiency = x 100%
WORK INPUT

Work done on the Load

Efficiency = x 100%
Work done by the Effort

Load x distance load moves

= x 100%
Effort x distance efoort moves

 Relationship between M A, V R and Efficiency.

MA
Efficiency = x 100%
VR

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Worked example

1. A crowbar 2.1m long is used to lift a 75kg rock out of a hole 40cm deep (see
the diagram below).
a) If the crowbar pivots 0.7m from one end, what is the force that must be
used to just lift the rock?
b) What is the:
i. M.A. of the crowbar;
ii. V.R. of the crowbar if the Effort moves 100cm downwards?
c) Calculate the:
i. Work done by the Effort.
ii. Work done on the Load.
iii. Efficiency of the crowbar.

Solution
1 a) W =mg
= 75kg x 10N/kg
= 750 N

Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments

Effort x 1.4m = 750N x 0.7m

750 N X 0 . 7 m
Effort =
1. 4 m

= 375N

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L
b) i) M.A = E

750 N
= 375 N

=2
Distance Effort moves
ii) V.R = Distance Load Moves

100 cm
= 40 cm

= 2.5

c) i) Work done by the Effort = Effort x Distance Effort moves

= 375N x 100cm

= 375N X 1m

= 375Nm

= 375J

ii) Work done on the Load = Load x Distance Load moves

= 750N x 40cm

= 750N X 0.4m

= 300Nm

= 300J

M.A
iii) Efficiency = V . R x 100%

2
= x 100%
2. 5

= 80%

ALTERNATIVELY

Work done on the Load

Efficiency = x 100%
Work done by the Effort

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300 J
= x100%
375 J

= 80%

INCLINED PLANE
 a.k.a. RAMP.

 An inclined plane is ramp or sloping surface that reduces the effort (amount of
force) needed to lift or move down an object.
 2 Ways to reduce the (effort) force:
 increase the length (l) of the ramp (incline).
 decrease the height (h) of the ramp (incline).
 This involves decreasing the angle of incline (ϴ).
 The smaller the angle of incline (ϴ), the greater the length of the
ramp and the smaller the effort needed to move/lift the load.
 By increasing the length of the ramp compared to the height of the ramp will
reduce force.

Tradeoff
There is a tradeoff with this simple machine. If the slope is gentle, a person has to
push or pull the object over a longer distance, but with very little effort. If the
slope is steep, a person has to push or pull the object over a very short distance,
but with more effort.

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Trade off helps us to understand the mechanical advantage of inclined planes. For
example; there is a greater mechanical advantage if the slope is gentle because
less force will be needed to move an object up or down the slope.

Some good examples of inclined planes are accessibility ramps and stairs.

 For an inclined plane we can say that

L
M.A. =
E

Length of incline
V.R. =
Height of incline
l
V.R. =
h

M.A.
Efficiency = x100%
V .R.

Work done on the load Load X Distanceload moves

Efficiency = =
Work done by the effort Effort X Distance effort moves

 Friction, larger angle of incline and greater height reduce the efficiency of
the inclined plane
Ways to improve the efficiency of an inclined plane
1. Reduce friction by smoothening or lubricating the incline.
2. Decrease the angle of incline.
3. Increase the length of the incline.
4. Decrease the height of the incline.

TRY THESE QUESTIONS

1. A trolley of weight 10N is pulled from the bottom to the top of the inclined
plane by a force of 2N.

If the height of the incline is 2m and length of the incline is 20m, calculate the
a) M.A.

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b) V.R.
c) Work done on the load.
d) The work done by the effort.
e) Efficiency of the inclined plane.
f) (i) What reduces the efficiency of the inclined plane?
(ii) How can the efficiency of the inclined plane be improved?

SOLUTION
L
a) M.A. =
E

10 N
=
2N

=5

l
b) V.R. =
h

20 m
=
2m

= 10

c) Work done on the load = Load x Distance load moves

= 10N x 2m
= 20Nm
= 20J
d) The work done by the effort = Effort x Distance effort moves
= 2N x 20m
= 40Nm
= 40J
M.A.
e) Efficiency = x 100%
V .R.
5
= x 100%
10

= 50%
W ork done on theload
Alternatively, Efficiency =
Work done by the effort
20 J
= x 100%
40 J
= 50%

f) (i) Friction, larger angle of incline and greater height reduce the efficiency of
the inclined plane.
(ii) The efficiency of the inclined plane can be improved by

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 Reducing friction by smoothening or lubricating the incline.

 Decreasing the angle of incline.
 Increasing the length of the incline.
 Decreasing the height of the incline.

2. Two inclined planes, A and B, were set up as shown in the diagram. A brick
is pulled along the inclined plane using an inextensible string attached to an
instrument for measuring force. The reading on the instrument in A was 30N
and in B was 65N.

a) Name the type of machine used in this experiment.

b) Name the instrument for measuring force used in this experiment.
c) Comment on the difference in the forces used to pull the bricks.
d) How can the efficiency of this machine be improved?

SOLUTIONS

a) Inclined plane/ramp.
b) Forcemeter.

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c) The smaller the angle of incline / the smaller the height of incline / the
longer the length of incline; the smaller the force (effort) applied to move
the brick (load).
Conversely, The steeper the incline (the bigger the angle of incline)/the
higher the incline/the shorter the incline; the larger the force (effort)
applied to move the load.

d) The efficiency of the inclined plane can be improved by

 Reducing friction by smoothening or lubricating the incline.

 Decreasing the angle of incline.
 Increasing the length of the incline.
 Decreasing the height of the incline.

PULLEYS
 A pulley is simply a wheel with a groove in it, and a rope in the groove.
 The groove helps to keep the rope in place.

 Pulleys are used to lift up or lower heavy objects.

 The object to be lifted is tied to one end of the rope, and the effort is
applied to the other end by pulling the rope downwards.
 The downward force turns the wheel with the rope and pulls the load
upwards at the other end.
 Pulleys change the amount and/or direction of force.
 There are three types of pulleys:

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1. SINGLE FIXED PULLEY

 The axle is fixed in place and cannot be moved.
Axle  The rope moves in the groove of the pulley but
the wheel is fixed to one spot.
 The wheel on your school flag pole is a good
example.
 The tension is the same throughout the rope.
Neglecting the weight of the rope and friction on
EFFORT (E) the axle, we have:

Load = Effort

Load
Therefore, M.A. = =1
Effort

V.R. = 1
LOAD (L)

2. SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY

 In a single movable pulley the load is attached to
the pulley and both of them move.

 Tension in rope is equal to the effort applied.

EFFORT (E) EFFORT (E)  Since there are two sections of rope, the
total upward pull on the pulley is twice the
Effort (E).
 A load equal to 2E can therefore be raised,
assuming the pulley is frictionless and the
rope and pulley are weightless.

L 2E
Therefore, Therefore, M.A. = = =2
E E
V.R. = 2

LOAD (L)

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3. BLOCK AND TACKLE

 The block and tackle is commonly used on lifts and

cranes.
 A single rope passes round each pulley wheel in
turn.
 Number of sections of rope is always equal to the
total number of pulley wheels.
 For a block and tackle with 3 wheels, the total
upward force after applying Effort (E) is
E E E 3E.Therefore a Load (L) equal to 3E can be raised,
assuming the pulley is frictionless and the rope and
pulley are weightless.
L 3E
 Then, M.A. ¿ = = 3.
E E
 The V.R. for a block and tackle with 3 wheels is 3.
 N.B. The velocity ratio for a block and tackle is equal
to the number of wheels or number of rope sections
N
supporting the lower block.
E

L = 3E

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TRY THESE QUESTIONS

1. (a) For each pulley system W, X, Y, Z in the diagram below, what is the:
i.) M.A?
ii.) V.R? Give a reason for your answer.
iii.) Efficiency?
(b) How can the efficiency of a pulley system be improved?

W X Y Z

Effort
= 75N
100 N
Effort
= 40N
Effort
Effort
= 60N
100 N
100 N
Effort
= 25N

100 N
Load

100 N
SOLUTIONS

Pulley i). M.A ii). V.R iii). Efficiency

W M.A. = L/E VR = 2. M.A
Efficiency = x
= 100N/75N 2 wheels/2 ropes V . R.
= 1.33 supporting lower 100%
block

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1.33
= x 100%
2

= 66.5%
X M.A. = L/E VR = 3. M.A
Efficiency = x
= 100N/60N 3 wheels/3 ropes V . R.
= 1.66 supporting lower 100%
block
1.66
= x 100%
3

= 55.6%
Y M.A. = L/E VR = 4. M.A
Efficiency = x
= 100N/40N 4 wheels/ 4 ropes V . R.
= 2.5 supporting lower 100%
block
2.5
= x 100%
4

= 62.5%
Z M.A. = L/E VR = 6. M.A
Efficiency = x
= 100N/25N 6 wheels/ 6 ropes V . R.
=4 supporting lower 100%
block
4
= x 100%
6

= 66.7%

b. The efficiency of the pulley system can be improved by:

 Lubricating axle with grease/oil to reduce friction.
 Use of rollers/ball bearings on axle to reduce friction.
 Mass reduction so less energy is used in raising moving parts.
 Increasing number of wheels so less effort is applied.

The Wheel and Axle

 This simple machine consists of two circular/cylindrical objects — a larger
disc and a smaller cylinder, both joined at the centre.
 The larger disc is called the wheel, and the smaller cylindrical rod is
referred to as the axle.
 Sometimes, there may be two wheels attached to both ends of the axle.
 The pivot is where the axle meets the wheel.
 A turning force on the axle will cause the wheel to turn.

(Larger disc)

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(Smaller disc)

DIAGRAM: One wheel and axle e.g. bicycle wheel, screw driver, door knobs,
windlass, windmill etc.

DIAGRAM: Two wheels and axle e.g. in cars, trains, Lorries etc.

DIAGRAM: Windlass being used to lift a bucket of water from a well.

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The Wheel and axle work in two basic ways:

1. Force applied to wheel:

Let us take a screwdriver, windlass, winch and doorknob for instance. If you
apply a force to the wheel (the handle), the wheel spins and multiplies the
effort to make the output force of the axle (shaft) greater as follows:
 Circumference of wheel is larger than of axle.
 For one turn the wheel moves a greater distance than axle.
 Therefore the force on axle is larger than force on wheel.
 So smaller effort on wheel lifts/overcome a larger load on axle

PICTURE: Door knob is an example of one wheel and axle.

2. Force applied to axle:

 Now let us also consider a windmill. If you apply a force to the axle, it will
multiply the force to the wheel (blades) and result in a greater distance
covered.
 Since the wheel is larger than the axle it covers more distance.
 A ceiling fan works in a similar way. As the axle turns, it powers the larger
wheel (fan blades) to cause the desired output.

Application of the wheel and axle

 for turning turbines and fans;

 Wheels of automobiles.
 Steering wheel of a car. When you turn the steering wheel, your effort is
multiplied by the axle and results in more turns of the car wheels.
 Screw drivers
 Door knobs.
 Windlass for lifting bucket of water from a well.
 Toothed wheels in gear boxes of cars.

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M.A. AND V.R. OF THE WHEEL AND AXLE

 For one complete turn, the load and effort move through distances equal to
the circumferences (c=2πr or c=πd) of the wheel and axle respectively.
 The velocity ratio is therefore given by,

Distance Effort moves

V.R. = Distance Load Moves

circumference of the wheel

= circumference of the axle

2 πR Where R is the radius of the WHEEL and r is the

= 2 πr
radius of the AXLE.

R Where 2πR is the circumference of the wheel and

=
r 2πr is the circumference of the axle.

Radius of wheel
Therefore, V.R. =
Radius of axle

Alternatively;

circumference of the wheel

V.R. = circumference of the axle

πD Where D is the Diameter of the WHEEL and d is the

= πd diameter of the AXLE.

D Where πD is the circumference of the wheel and πd

= d is the circumference of the axle.

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Diameter of wheel
Therefore, V.R. =
Diameter of axle

 By applying the principle of moments on the wheel and axle we get the
mechanical advantage (M.A.) as follows;

Load x radius of axle = Effort x radius of wheel

Load x r = Effort x R
Lxr=ExR

L
Therefore, M.A. =
E

R
=
r

Radius of wheel
i.e. M.A. = Radius of axle

Worked examples

1. A common windlass is used to raise a bucket of water of load 480N from a well
by applying an effort of 200N to the crank handle.

LOAD EFFORT =
=480N =200N

If the handle is turned to sweep out a wheel of radius 33cm and the radius
of the axle is 11cm, find:

a) The velocity ratio;

b) The mechanical advantage;
c) The efficiency of the windlass.

Solution

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Distance Effort moves

a) V.R. =
Distance Load Moves

R
=
r

33 cm
=
11 cm

=3
L
b) M.A. =
E

480 N
=
200 N

= 2.4

MA
c) Efficiency = x 100%
VR

2.4
= x 100% = 80%
3

Gears
A.k.a. cogs.

 A gear is simply a special wheel with teeth on its circumference.

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 Gears are arranged with their teeth interlocking. The combination can
include small and large wheels.
 When one wheel is in motion, it transfers its motion and force to the
connected wheel by moving its teeth.
 Larger wheels turn slower than smaller wheels.
 Two wheels with interlocking teeth always turn in opposite direction.
 You can use gears to slow things down, speed them up, change direction,
and do more things at the same time.
 Gears can be used to increase force or increase speed but not both. An
example is the gears on a bicycle.
 As you pedal up a hill, you can change the gears to give you more power,
but that will slow the bike down.
 You can also change gears to give you speed, but that means you will need
strong legs to push the pedal.
 Generally, gears are used to change speed, to magnify force and to
change direction of motion

Driving gear
(EFFORT)
Driven gear
(LOAD)

DIAGRAM: Gears are arranged with their teeth interlocking.

If the load and effort are applied to the two axles then:

number of teeth on Load (driven)gear

V.R. = number of teeth on Effort ( driving)gear

In the example above this is just over 2.

80
V.R. = 20

4
= 1

=4
 The velocity ratio (a.k.a. Gear ratio) is 4:1.
This tells us that gear A will revolve 4 times for each full revolution of gear B. If
gear A was connected to a motor which spins at 1000rpm (Revolutions per

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minute), gear B would spin at 250rpm i.e. larger wheels turn slower than
smaller wheels.

L
M.A. =
E

M.A.
Efficiency = x100%
V .R.

Worked example

1. A driving force of 150N was applied to an effort gear with 9 teeth to drive a load
gear with 18 teeth. The driven force on the load gear was 250N.

EFFORT = 150N

9 teeth.
LOAD = 360N

18 teeth.

a) Calculate:
i.) The M.A.
ii.) The V.R.
iii.) The efficiency of the gear system.
b) Why is the efficiency of the gear system never 100%?
c) How can the efficiency of the gear system be improved?

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Solution

L number of teeth on Load gear

i) M.A. = ii) V.R. =
E number of teeth on Effort gear

250 N 18
= =
150 N 9

M.A. b) Why the efficiency of a gear system is never 100%:

iii). Efficiency = Some energy is wasted in overcoming
V .R.
1. Friction.
x100%
2. Weight of the gear system.
1.67 c) How to improve the efficiency of a gear system.
= x100% 1. Use of roller/ball bearings on axle to reduce
2 friction.
2. Lubricating axle with oil/grease to reduce
= 83% friction.
3. Mass reduction so less energy is wasted in
raising moving parts.

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