atmosphere

Review
Reduction of NOx Emission from the Cement Industry in
South Korea: A Review
Ji-Hyeon Kim 1 , Jin-Ho Kim 1 , Hyo-Sik Kim 1 , Hyun-Ji Kim 1 , Suk-Hwan Kang 1 , Jae-Hong Ryu 1, * and
Soon-Seop Shim 2

1 Plant Engineering Center, Institute for Advanced Engineering (IAE), Yongin-si 17180, Korea;
[email protected] (J.-H.K.); [email protected] (J.-H.K.); [email protected] (H.-S.K.); [email protected] (H.-J.K.);
[email protected] (S.-H.K.)
2 Research Institute, Keum Kang C.N.T., Seoul 04788, Korea; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82-31-330-7882; Fax: +82-31-330-7333

Abstract: As climates change around the world, concern regarding environmental pollutants emitted
into the atmosphere is increasing. The cement industry consistently produces more than 4000
million metric tons of cement per year. However, the problem of air pollutants being emitted from
the calcination process is becoming more critical because their amount increases proportionally
with cement production. Each country has established regulatory standards for pollutant emission.
Accordingly, the cement industry is equipped with facilities to reduce air pollutants, one of which is
the NOx removal process. NOx reduction processes under combustion conditions are modified to
minimize NOx generation, and the generated NOx is removed through post-treatment. In terms of
NOx removal efficiency, the post-treatment process effectively changes the combustion conditions
during calcination. Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) and selective catalytic reduction (SCR)



processes are post-treatment environmental facilities for NOx reduction. Accordingly, considering the

 stringent NOx emission standards in the cement industry, SNCR is essential, and SCR is selectively
Citation: Kim, J.-H.; Kim, J.-H.; Kim, applied. Therefore, this paper introduces nitrogen oxide among air pollutants emitted from the South
H.-S.; Kim, H.-J.; Kang, S.-H.; Ryu, Korean cement industry and summarizes the technologies adapted to mitigate the emission of NOx
J.-H.; Shim, S.-S. Reduction of NOx by cement companies in South Korea.
Emission from the Cement Industry
in South Korea: A Review.
Keywords: environmental regulation; nitrogen oxide; cement industry; South Korea; reduction
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121. https://
process
doi.org/10.3390/atmos13010121

Academic Editors: Jong-sang Youn

and Qiang Song
1. Introduction
Received: 3 November 2021
Accepted: 10 January 2022 Cement is a binder in the form of fine powder that has been used for a long time
Published: 12 January 2022 in the building industry and is one of the most basic materials. Owing to its hardening
properties when mixed with water, it is used as a building material by adding other
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
aggregates or additives. This became the basis for the beginning of modern civilization
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
and contributed greatly to urban development. Consequently, cement is continuously
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
produced, and it is difficult to replace cement in the construction industry [1–3]. Looking at
the amount of cement produced worldwide (Figure 1, red line and symbol), production has
increased relative to 10 years ago and has been consistently maintained at over 4000 million
metric tons over the last five years. The major cement producers, in decreasing order,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. are China, India, Vietnam, United States, Indonesia, Turkey, Iran, Brazil, Russia, Japan,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Egypt, and South Korea, with Asia producing the largest amount of cement. The amount of
This article is an open access article cement produced in these 12 countries accounts for approximately 80% of the total cement
distributed under the terms and produced worldwide, with China producing the largest amount (over 50%). Among them,
conditions of the Creative Commons Korea ranks 12th in cement production, accounting for only 1%. Cement demand (Figure 2)
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// increased by approximately 24% in 2020 compared to 2017, and in terms of demand by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ region, the Asia Pacific, which produces the most cement, accounts for approximately
4.0/).

Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13010121 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/atmosphere

Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 2 of 15

75% of the total demand. As such, satisfying the increase in the demand for cement is
difficult [4–6].

Figure 1. Annual cement production (data taken from [4,5]; [5] is based on IEA data from IEA (2020)
Global cement production, 2010–2019, www.iea.org/data-and-statistics, accessed on 2 November
2021. All rights reserved; as modified by J. Kim, IAE).

Figure 2. Cement consumption in 2017 and 2020 (data taken from [6]).

The scale of the cement production process, which produced approximately 4000 million
metric tons in 2020, is bound to be large, and it has a proportional environmental impact. As
seen from the life cycle of cement in Figure 3A, the input materials are raw materials, fuels,
and energy, and a significant amount of waste is emitted as air pollutants and byproducts
in the cement process. A large amount of coal is used as fuel to supply the high amount
of heat required for the characteristics of the cement industry. However, as the amount of
waste increases, the use of waste to supply heat is becoming a trend. As described above,
eco-friendly management is being conducted from the viewpoint of recycling resources
with waste treatment technology while using waste as fuel; however, because a significant
amount of air pollutants are generated by calcination (Figure 3B), an air pollutant reduction
facility is necessary for the cement production process. Air pollutants such as CO2 , CO,
CH4 , sulfur oxide (SOx ), nitrogen oxide (NOx ), and particulate matter (PM), which are not
only carcinogens but also cause global warming and acidification, are generated [1,7,8].
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 3 of 15

Figure 3. Life cycle (A) and greenhouse gas emissions by process (B) of cement production (data
taken from [7]).

The annual air pollutant emissions of CO2 , SOx , and NOx are steadily increasing
(red dotted line in Figure 4) in China, accounting for more than 50% of the global cement
production. When comparing air pollutants as of 2015, it can be seen that they occur mostly
in the order of CO2 , CO, and NOx , which are substances produced by combustion [9]. As
such, because significant amounts of air pollutants are emitted from the cement industry,
the climate change caused by this cannot be ignored, and environmental problems have
been pointed out.
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 4 of 15

Figure 4. Air pollution emissions trend from China’s cement industry for the period 1990–2015 (data
taken from [9]).

Each country manages the measurement system at the national level to measure the
air pollutants emitted from the cement process. According to the data published by Global
Cement [10], different emission standards (SO2 , NOx , Hg, PM) of air pollutants from the
cement industry are applied in each country. In most countries, regulations are imposed
based on the date of establishment of cement factories, and in the case of newly established
cement factories, the regulations are tighter than those of existing factories as emission
standards are gradually becoming stringent [10]. In the case of South Korea, the Korea
Environment Corporation (K-eco) manages the emission status through the telemonitoring
system (TMS) of the place of business. Air pollutants measured by TMS include dust (total
suspended particles (TSP)), SOx , NOx , hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF),
ammonia (NH3 ), and carbon monoxide (CO). To measure air pollutants, measuring devices
are attached to several outlets, and the results are obtained by measuring the average
concentration in 30-min increments. By providing measured values of various substances
as mentioned above, business sites are encouraged to voluntarily reduce air pollutants.
In this study, we target NOx , which is a carcinogen among air pollutants, and summa-
rize the NOx generation pathway in the cement industry, the amount of NOx generated
in the Korean cement industry, and Korean regulatory standards imposed to regulate this.
In addition, the NOx reduction process (DeNOx ) conducted by cement manufacturers in
Korea to reduce NOx emissions is summarized.

2. NOx Emission and Regulation in the Cement Industry

NOx generally includes NO and NO2 , and it causes serious problems not only in the
environment but also in the human body owing to chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Typically, it causes adverse environmental effects such as photochemical smog, acid rain,
global warming, fine dust, and soil contamination due to nitrate, which in turn can cause
diseases in the respiratory tract and heart due to lung damage [11,12]. NOx is mainly
generated from (1) nitrogen present in the air during cement production under high-
temperature combustion conditions and also when the nitrogen contained in the fuel is
oxidized. (2) In addition, the nitrogen present in the feed material combusts, or pre-existing
free radicals react with the nitrogen in the air. Moreover, in recent years, there have been
cases where waste is used as a raw material for combustion, and the concentration of NOx
generated varies depending on the type of waste [13]. However, NOx generated under
combustion conditions has a large difference in NOx concentration caused by temperature,
as shown in Figure 5; consequently, NOx generation during the manufacture of cement
with a firing process is a problem that must be solved [14].
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 5 of 15

(1) Thermal NOx 2N2 + O2 → 2NO + 2N

N + O2 → NO + O
(2) Prompt NOx CH + N2 → HCN + N
C + N2 → CN + N
N + OH → NO + H

Figure 5. NOx concentration by temperature (Reproduced with permission from [14] with permission
from UNESCO-Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)).

2.1. NOx Emission Regulation of Each Country

According to the NOx standard data of each country published in 2014 [10], most
countries set the limit within the range of approximately 195–400 ppm, and a minimum and
maximum of about 98 and 1220 ppm, respectively, of the emission limit of NOx are allowed.
In China and India, which are the largest producers of cement (Table 1), environmental
regulations are being more rigid, and government authorities are demanding lower NOx
emission limits. This regulated value corresponds to recently built cement plants, and as
countries do not regulate or discuss introducing the NOx limit, NOx emission regulation is
becoming a severe concern worldwide.

Table 1. NOx emission standard in each country (data taken from [10]).

NOx Emission Standard

Country Note
(ppm)
≤390 2008 regs.
China ≤195 2013 regs. (Existing plants)
≤195 2013 regs. (New plants)
≤585 (≤390) Proposed by industry
India
≤488 (≤293) Proposed by authorities
Lebanon ≤1220 Old plant standards
EU ≤98 —
Germany ≤98 —

2.2. NOx Emission Regulation of South Korea

In South Korea, the NOx concentrations emitted by nine cement manufacturers (A to
H) can be confirmed through the TMS measurement results implemented by the Korea
Environment Corporation. The annual NOx emissions by each manufacturer are shown in
the graph (Line and symbol) on the right axis of Figure 6, and the total NOx emissions from
cement plants in Korea are shown (gray column) on the left. As can be seen, there has been a
general trend of decreasing NOx over the past five years [15]. When compared (Figure 7A),
a similar trend can be observed in reducing clinker and cement production [16]. In addition,
NOx emissions from cement manufacturers in Korea are on the rise if we observe the
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 6 of 15

contribution of the cement industry to NOx emission sources measured by TMS in Korea
(Figure 7B). In particular, as of 2020, NOx emitted from Korean cement manufacturers is
52,427 tons/year, which accounts for 36% of the total NOx emissions (145,934 ton/year) in
Korea —the highest in the past 5 years, as measured by TMS [15]. In Figure 7, although
the amount of NOx emitted by cement manufacturers in Korea has decreased, the ratio
of NOx emitted by cement manufacturers to total NOx emissions has increased. It can be
indirectly inferred that while more efficient NOx reduction technologies are being applied
to businesses that emit NOx , for observing tightened NOx emission standards in Korea,
they are not yet applied or prioritized for application to the cement industry.

Figure 6. NOx emissions of Korean cement manufacturers for the period 2016–2020 (Units: tons/year)
(data taken from [15]).

Figure 7. (A) NOx emissions according to clinker and cement production in South Korea; (B) Ratios
of NOx emission from Korean cement manufacturers (Units: ton/year, %) (data taken from [15,16]).

The NOx emission standard specified for Korean cement manufacturers is 270 ppm
or less for kilns installed before 31 January 2007, as shown in Table 2. For kilns installed
between 1 February 2007 and 31 December 2014, it is 200 ppm or less, and for those installed
after 1 January 2015, it is 80 ppm or less.
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 7 of 15

Table 2. NOx emission standards for cement industry kilns in South Korea (data taken from [17]).

Installation Period NOx Emission Standard (ppm)

Before 31 January 2007 ≤270
1 February 2007–31 December 2014 ≤200
After 1 January 2015 ≤80

In addition, to impose an emission charge, the Enforcement Decree of the Air Envi-
ronment Conservation Act was amended in 2018, which was earlier imposed only on dust,
sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides. Based on the NOx emission standards in Table 2, the
enforcement time was 1 January 2020, and the emission charge was calculated to be 1.81
dollars per 1 kg. In this regard, a step-by-step application plan was prepared to minimize
the burden on emission sites and stably establish a system with the detailed standards
shown in Table 3.

Table 3. NOx emission charge on business entities in South Korea (data taken from [18]).

Min. Emission Emission Charge 2

Concentration 1 (%) ($/kg)
Before 31 December 2019 — —
1 January 2020–31 December 2020 70 1.26
1 January 2021–31 December 2021 50 1.54
After 1 January 2022 30 1.81
1Appropriate percentage of the permissible emission levels. 2 Converted based on the 21 December 2021 exchange
rate.

Most cement factories are being maintained by facility renovation because a cement
factory that is established with a new kiln has to strictly abide by the NOx emission limit of
approximately 3.4 times that of the existing value (before 2007). Ultimately, even though
the NOx limit has grown stricter, the standards imposed on cement factories are practically
meaningless because they are imposed based on the date of factory establishment. As
a result, residents and civic groups with cement factories are demanding that the NOx
emission standard in the cement industry be revised to follow that of the existing Air Envi-
ronment Conservation Act. Specifically, the environmental regulations must be imposed
such that the standard is based not on the kiln installation date but on the enforcement
date of the law, which is the current standard of 80 ppm or less. They argue that the
emission standards of kilns installed before 2015 must be urgently amended. In advanced
countries, high-efficiency DeNOx facilities are already installed to actively reduce NOx
emissions, and in Germany, approximately 77 ppm is imposed and followed. Accordingly,
it is necessary to respond in advance by introducing a process that can effectively reduce
NOx when the Air Environment Conservation Act is amended in Korea. In this regard, the
Ministry of Environment and the cement industry have set up an activity group, called the
“Cement Nitrogen Oxide Reduction Council”, to prepare goals and measures to reduce
NOx emissions from the cement industry. Currently, SNCR is applied and operated in
cement plants in Korea to reduce NOx , but the NOx removal efficiency is approximately
40–60%, and they plan to build a high-efficiency reduction facility. In addition, a method for
upgrading the existing DeNOx process is being investigated for improving the cement man-
ufacturing process. As such, Korean cement manufacturers have agreed with the Ministry
of Environment to reduce NOx emissions to solve the associated environmental problems.
Accordingly, the Korea Environmental Industry and Technology Institute (Seoul, Korea)
has invested approximately 3 million dollars in research and development (2020–2021) for
SNCR and SCR technologies to secure DeNOx technology [19,20].

3. DeNOx Process in Cement Industry

Methods for reducing NOx generated in the cement production process (Figure 8)
can be largely divided into primary control (combustion step) and post-control (after
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 8 of 15

combustion) processes. Based on the combustion stage, primary control is a method of

minimizing NOx generation by changing the combustion conditions, and the post-control
method is a method of removal of NOx generated through a chemical reaction. The primary
control to change the combustion conditions suppresses N2 oxidation by lowering the
oxygen concentration and flame temperature in cement; however, if high-temperature
combustion conditions are used, the reducing atmosphere is optimized. The presence of
substances such as C, CO, HCN, CH* (hydrocarbon intermediate), NH3 , and (NH2 )2 CO
enables NOx removal. However, in the case of primary NOx treatment (Figure 9A), another
air pollutant, CO or CO2 , is generated; therefore, this method is undesirable. In addition,
although the primary control method optimizes the process to change the conditions of
the existing process, burner change, and combustion condition control, there is a limit to
NOx generation; thus, it has a maximum reduction efficiency of 60%. To efficiently remove
the generated NOx , a separate reducing agent (NH3 , (NH2 )2 CO) is supplied to perform
the post-NOx treatment (Figure 9B). In this process, NOx reduction of up to 95% can be
achieved by using a reducing agent (NH3 or urea) in the SNCR or SCR process [12,20–25].

Figure 8. DeNOx solutions in cement production (data taken from [22]).

Figure 9. NOx reduction pathway ((A) primary control, (B) post-control) with reducing agents.

In the SNCR and SCR processes, the amount of reducing agent injected is directly
proportional to the DeNOx efficiency. However, NH3 slip occurs because unreacted NH3
increases as the amount of injected reducing agents increases. Excessive NH3 slip can lead
to economic losses along with environmental issues and process downtime due to process
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 9 of 15

pipe corrosion and clogging due to ammonium formation. Therefore, it is necessary to

optimize the process conditions to significantly reduce NOx while minimizing the amount
of NH3 slip.
In the NOx reduction process established in cement factories, a low NOx burner is
used as the primary control method for a single process, and SNCR, a method for reducing
NOx by supplying a reducing agent at high temperature, is most commonly used in the
post-control method. Therefore, for more efficient reduction, a complex process that can
reduce more NOx by the post-control method after reducing some NOx through the primary
control method is sometimes applied [22].

3.1. DeNOx Process for Primary Control

The primary control method for removing NOx from the cement manufacturing pro-
cess is to control it by adjusting the combustion conditions in general. For example, it
includes multi-stage combustion, gas reburning, and low NOx burner use. In the case of
Korean cement manufacturers, Seo et al. stated that NOx generation is suppressed depend-
ing on the presence or absence of a pre-calciner. Primary controls classified according to the
presence or absence of a pre-calciner are (1) a suspension preheater consisting of a rotary
kiln and a multi-stage cyclone-type preheater and (2) a new suspension preheater (NSP)
with a pre-calciner added. In addition, NSP is classified into the air through (AT) and air
separate (AS) according to the form in which air is additionally supplied to the calciner.
It has also been stated that an NSP to which a pre-calciner is added is more effective in
suppressing NOx generation than suspension preheater (SP) by reducing the combustion
step. As seen in Figure 10, most of the kilns operated by nine Korean cement manufacturers
are of the NSP type equipped with a preheater [20,26]. In addition, there are primary
control methods to reduce NOx by changing the combustion conditions in various ways;
although a low NOx burner is applied, the NOx reduction rate is low; consequently, it is
inevitably limited in its capability to meet the stringent NOx emission standards.

Figure 10. Cement production process facility types in South Korea.

3.2. Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR)

The SNCR process is a method of reducing NOx in exhaust gas at high temperatures
without a catalyst by supplying a reducing agent. The SNCR process in the cement
production process occurs before the preheater, as shown in Figure 11. This allows it
to utilize the process temperature as the kiln temperature is high (850–1050 ◦ C). SNCR
is the most widely used reduction method for reducing NOx in the cement production
process because NOx can be removed simply by supplying a general reducing agent (e.g.,
urea or NH3 ) without a catalyst. The DeNOx efficiency is influenced by many factors,
such as reaction temperature, reducing agent to NOx /NH3 ratio, residence time, oxygen
concentration, and additives, as it utilizes the temperature of the kiln section without a
catalyst to reduce NOx present in the process gas [22,27–29].
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 10 of 15

Figure 11. SNCR location and mechanism in the cement production process for DeNOx .

This SNCR process was operated by Korean cement manufacturers in 2004 to reduce
the amount of NOx emitted. At this time, the SNCR between the preheater and the kiln
complies with Korea’s NOx emission limit of 270 ppm (based on the installation date of the
kiln) and the DeNOx efficiency of SNCR is in the range of 10–40%. Accordingly, a plan such
as the application of adaptive SNCR (ANCR) to maximize the NOx reduction efficiency,
which improves the performance of the existing SNCR, has been implemented. Unlike
the existing SNCR process, the ANCR process is controlled by multiple stages arranged
by the reducing agent spray nozzles. The reducing agent is continuously measured at
the location where it is sprayed so that it is automatically adjusted to each temperature
(NH3 : 820–950 ◦ C, urea: 900–1020 ◦ C). This not only significantly increases the NOx
reduction efficiency but also prevents NH3 from slipping through the minimum injection
of the reducing agent and reduces economic cost. Despite these improvements, there is a
large difference in the DeNOx efficiency due to a different processing condition of each
manufacturer owing to the characteristics of the cement process. In addition, there is a
limit to reducing NOx by the SNCR process because the process gas and raw material
are mixed at the point where the reducing agent is supplied [26,29,30]. In practice, in
the cement process, a significant amount of ash and other minerals, as well as NOx, are
formed. Therefore, unlike the reaction formula in Figure 9B, in the actual cement process,
the NH3 /NOx ratio is generally supplied at 1.5–2.0 for NOx removal efficiency and NH3
slip minimization.
Recently, our research team conducted an SNCR demonstration operation according
to the changes in NH3 /NOx using an actual 650,000 Nm3 /h flue gas. The results of
minimizing NH3 slip and NOx removal rate are shown in Table 4. The results show that
the NH3 /NOx ratio was in the range of 1.0–1.71. The lowest NH3 slip (approximately
20 ppm) and the highest NOx removal efficiency was observed at the NH3 /NOx ratio of
1.04. However, the DeNOx efficiency was 55%, which limited the elimination of NOx in the
SNCR process.

Table 4. NOx removal efficiency according to the NH3 /NOx ratio in the SNCR process of Korean
cement manufacturer G (13% with O2 base).

Urea Concentration NOx (ppm) DeNOx Efficiency

NH3 /NOx Ratio
(%) Before After (%)
15 282 125 55.7 1.04
20 233 94 59.7 1.71

3.3. Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)

The SCR process using a catalyst is the most efficient process for reducing NOx and
is widely applied in industries (combustion or production process, transportation, etc.)
corresponding to the NOx emission source. The catalyst used is based on the already
commercialized composition (V2 O5 -WO3 (or MoO3 )/TiO2 ), and depending on the process
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 11 of 15

conditions (temperature, space velocity, etc.) to which SCR is applied, honeycomb, plate,
and corrugated types are selectively used. As NOx is reduced through a catalytic reaction
at an appropriate reaction temperature (300–400 ◦ C), NOx removal efficiencies of up to 90%
or more are achieved [12]. This SCR process can remove NOx more efficiently by applying
different catalyst types depending on the exhaust gas and overall process conditions.
Accordingly, SCR is applied to thermal power plants or mobile pollution sources (ships,
automobiles), which are sources of NOx in Korea, to remove NOx ; however, the SCR
process has not been applied in cement factories. Therefore, to prepare for the stringent
NOx regulations and emission charges, recent attempts to introduce them into the Korean
cement industry have been made.
The commercial SCR process, which is usually applied to other industries, has the
optimum DeNOx efficiency at a temperature of 300–350 ◦ C, but the efficiency in the cement
production process is lowered because the temperature of the process gas, at the end of
the bag filter, after removing dust is lower than approximately 150 ◦ C. In addition, it is
difficult to secure an installation space to build an SCR facility within the existing cement
manufacturing process. Consequently, only a few manufacturers around the world, as
shown in Table 5, operate the SCR process, and the largest number of SCR devices are being
built and operated in Germany. China, which produces the largest amount of cement, also
introduced SCR process facilities [26,30–32].

Table 5. Examples of cement manufacturers with an SCR process.

Installation Year Cement Manufacturer SCR Type DeNOx Efficiency (%)

2000 Solnhofen — 63
2006 Monselice High Dust SCR 43–95
2010 Mergelstettn High Dust SCR 83
2011 Rohrdorf Tail End SCR 76
2012 Mannersdorf Semi Dust SCR 81

In the case of Germany’s Solnhofen (Figure 12), which introduced SCR for the first
time, the SCR facility with the highest reduction efficiency in the cement process was
installed on the right side of the preheater for a pilot test. It consisted of three honeycomb
catalyst layers and an empty layer between the catalyst layers. In the case of a honeycomb
catalyst, compressed air is used to wash the dust accumulated, in the cement process, on
the catalyst to increase the pitch size and minimize the clogging of the catalyst, and an SCR
system suitable for the cement process is utilized [33].

Figure 12. SCR Reactor in Solnhofen (reprinted from [33] under the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 License).
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 12 of 15

To install the SCR process in a cement plant in Korea, it is necessary to secure a

space in the existing plant site and develop a Korean-type SCR suitable for the Korean
cement manufacturing process. Currently, a research project is in progress from 2020 to
2021, with the support of the Environmental Industry and Technology Institute. This
project is currently being completed by our researchers in cooperation with the Korean
cement manufacturer G and SOOM Environment. Tech. with SCR technology, as shown in
Figure 13.

Figure 13. SCR system design and mechanism of SOOM Environ. Tech. (data taken from [34]).

Figure 14 show the pilot-scale SCR process with 4000 Nm3 /h of exhaust gas as slip-
stream after the SNCR process. More than 65% of the dust contained in the slipstream
exhaust gas is removed through the cyclone installed before the SCR process; subsequently,
the exhaust gas is supplied to the SCR process for an ideal catalytic reaction. The SCR pro-
cess was performed at approximately 270 ◦ C with a commercial catalyst (volume 21.7 m3 ).
As shown in Table 6, 70% of DeNOx efficiency was observed at an NH3 /NOx ratio of ≥0.8,
including 20 ppm of NH3 slip in SNCR. At this time, the NH3 slip was measured to be
as low as 4.8 ppm. Thus, the possibility of the simultaneous operation of the SNCR/SCR
process was confirmed.

Table 6. NOx removal efficiency of pilot-scale SCR process operation in Korean cement manufacturer
G (13% with O2 base).

NH3 Water NOx (ppm) DeNOx Efficiency

NH3 /NOx Ratio
Concentration (%) Before After (%)
9 207 61.3 70.4 0.8
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 13 of 15

Figure 14. Pilot-scale SCR process operation screen and installation in Korean cement manufacturer G.

Owing to the flow conditions, high dust levels, and low temperature range in the
cement production process, it is difficult to apply the existing SCR process from other
industries directly. Therefore, SCR technology tailored for the cement production process
must be actively developed through pilot tests. Comparison and analysis of the economic
feasibility of a newly introduced low-temperature SCR process in an application scenario
have shown that the cost can be reduced to approximately one fifth as compared to that
where denitrification facilities are not introduced and about half compared to that where
the general SCR process is applied [35]. Considering these aspects, the development and
application of a catalyst with efficient SCR performance in the low-temperature region
would be economically and environmentally advantageous. However, in the case of low-
temperature SCR, it is necessary to overcome the problems caused by SOx in flue gas
(deactivation and poisoning by ammonium bisulfate), as well as the decrease in activity
due to temperature [36,37].
The Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER) has demonstrated in Figure 15 that the
SCR reaction activity at low temperatures is related to the formation rate of monomeric
VOx structural species, and as the efficiency increases, the Lewis NH3 acid site and oxygen
mobility become closely related. This catalyst exhibits a DeNOx efficiency of 80% or more
even at 180–300 ◦ C and also exhibits the anti-oxidation of sulfur oxides. Therefore, it is
expected that it will be successfully applied to commercial plant facilities for effectively
reducing NOx in the cement industry [38,39].

Figure 15. KIER catalytic activity and SOx resistance over a wide temperature range (reprinted
from [39] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License).

4. Conclusions
To reduce air pollution, new climate agreements are being concluded worldwide, and
each country’s regulations on pollutants are being amended. Accordingly, Korea is also
tightening its environmental regulations and continuing to apply reduction technologies.
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 121 14 of 15

However, the cement industry in Korea, which emits a relatively large amount of NOx ,
is still below the levels deemed acceptable regarding initiatives imposed by emission
regulations. The technology currently applied to the cement industry in Korea suppresses
NOx generation by changing the process conditions or applying a low NOx burner in
the combustion stage and reducing NOx generated through the SNCR process. However,
because these two methods have limitations in terms of DeNOx efficiency, a more efficient
method must be urgently applied. In the case of the Korean cement production process,
the operation of the DeNOx process is determined depending on the production schedule
and raw materials used (coal, waste plastic, waste rubber, and waste oil). In addition,
since the cement industry generates a large amount of dust, it has a negative effect on NOx
reduction. Therefore, even if the ideal NH3 /NOx ratio (SNCR: 1.04–1.76, SCR: 0.8–1.0) is
supplied for NOx reduction in the cement industry, the DeNOx performance of 55–60%
is obtained in SNCR and 70% in SCR, and the NH3 slip obtained during the operation is
less than 30 ppm (NH3 emission limit in Korea). The primary control method and SNCR
are currently employed in Korea to reduce NOx , and the application of the SCR process
is being considered for increasing the efficiency of the DeNOx process. Therefore, it can
be concluded that pilot-scale or further research is required in Korea to stabilize the SCR
process in the cement production process.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.-S.K. and S.-H.K.; investigation, J.-H.K. (Jin-Ho Kim)
and H.-J.K.; writing original draft preparation, J.-H.K. (Ji-Hyeon Kim); writing review and editing,
J.-H.K. (Ji-Hyeon Kim); visualization, J.-H.K. (Ji-Hyeon Kim); supervision, J.-H.R.; project administra-
tion, J.-H.R. and S.-S.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Korea Ministry of Environment as “The reduction man-
agement program of fine dust blind spot” (Project No. 202003060014).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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