Topic 1: Brainstorming and Consultations

Intended Learning Outcome:

At the end of the topic, students should be able to:

 Learn and understand the concept of brainstorming and consultation.

Lesson 1: Brainstorming and Consultations

Present your plan

Do not keep your plan to yourself. Let those who shall get involved know the details of the plan. For other stakeholders,
give them a general outline, and ask them to contribute their moral and financial resources. Do not be afraid of critiques. Do not be
discouraged when others disregard te value of your plan. Present it during Command conferences.

Let your men know

Let your commander know

Let the peace and order Disaster council and other legitimate organizations know

Let others know on a need-to-know basis

Encourage a question-and-answer session

An effective plan should undergo a question-and-answer session, it’s the only way to test whether the plan is sufficient,
effective and efficient. Organize People’s day and other consultative for a like Barangay pulong -, pulong, PDCCO meeting to get
citizen feedback.

Encourage suggestions

Entertain suggestions, but consider only those that do not drastically digress from what you have in mind. After all you are
going to be one, to implement it. But do not let them know that you won’t make use of their suggestions. Put-up suggestion boxes
in your situation and in the barangay halls. Conduct client satisfaction surveys to see if your programs can still be strengthened.

Don’t take forever in brainstorming and consultations

The only measurement of an effective plan is in the implementation.

TOOLS IN MAKING PLAN

1. The S.T.E.P analysis

Structure- refers to the element of organizational set up (command and control/ hierarchy) policies and procedures, the
decision-making process, communication flow, rewards system and the reporting relationships.

Task-refers to the elements of assigned jobs, or function of each individual, the performance standards, the goals and the
workflow/ process.

Environment- refers to the external environment which includes socio/ political forces. The community, support groups,
science and technology and other concerned agencies. Internal environment includes the leadership, mission, vision, values
and culture

People- includes the elements of knowledge/ skills of the human resource demographics, needs an expectations, groups,
interpersonal relations and conflicts

It will best for the planner to make two or three sentences description of each element in STEP. This will form a basis of what
problem to attack and how.
2. S.W.O.T analysis

Strengths- refer to the element of the organization which give advantage or make it strong and capable of accomplishing its
mission.

Weaknesses- refer to the elements which constraint the organization from effectively and efficiently

Attain its objectives.

Opportunities- refer to the elements which can be tapped to allow the unit to move forward or progress.

Threats- refer to the elements which pose serious challenges to the organization

3. Relevance- tree analysis

The tree analysis is metaphorically illustrated similar to an organizational chart. The first “branches” are major modules,
necessary for achieving the objectives. Second branches drop from the first ones. Third branches from the second and so
forth until an entire structure of the re-enact parts of the objectives has been displayed.

Likewise, the relevance tree aids in planning and predicting the complexities of future events, hence, it would sustain
accurate predictions. The diagram factors out the real essence of planning which is

Back to basic problem, identification under a causal relationship.

4. Fishbone analysis (Ishikawa Diagram)

This model sought to help team members to display, categorize and evaluate all the possible causes of problems. These in
turn lead to the solution of the problem.

Recommended steps to be followed in fish analysis

Step 1- the team needs to begin by agreeing on the “effect which should be stated in a form of a problem.

Ex:

Inefficient community service

Malfunctioning facilities

Ameliorating criminality

If the team is not able to begin with clear view of the problem’s nature, facilitate brainstorming to arrive at certain consensus of
what the problem is.

Step 2- After stating the problems, the team must identify all general factors that cause the problem. Identify all specific causes
and divide it into four major categories such as:

a. People
b. Equipment
c. Methods
d. Materials

Step 3- Brainstorming- this is helpful in any situation especially in solving cases. However, there is a danger in brainstorming.
It may lead to endless discussions and clashes of ideas. If you wish to be successful in your brainstorming, your team leader
must follow the basic rules;

1. Impose time limit for the session

2. Limit your discussion to relevant and specific questions
 3. Summarize all ideas
4. Say little else- or else you will end up with nothing productive at all

Step 4- Arrive at an agreement. Vote on issues which are contentious or draw lots just so that a decision is arrived at

Police Planning- is defined as the process of combining all aspects of the public safety activity and the realistic anticipation of
future problems.

Other definition:

 The analysis of strategy and the correlation of strategy to details.

 The use of rational design or pattern for all public safety undertakings.
 The act of determining policies and guidelines for police activities and operations
 Providing controls and safeguards for such activities and operation in the police forces.

Police Planning is deciding in advance on what is to be done and how it is to be accomplished. It is, in essence, preparation in
actions.

Significance and importance of police planning

Police planning is the key to administrative process. The process of combining all aspects of the public safety activity and
the realistic anticipation of future problems, analysis of strategy and the correlation of strategy to detail and the use of rational
design or pattern to all the public safety and undertakings. Police planning also means the act of determining policies and
guidelines for police activities and operations and provides controls and safeguards for such activities and operations in the police
forces.

Types of police planning

1. STRATEGIC PLANNING is a long term and with a far-reaching impact. The commonly agreed time line for these types of
this is [plans is more than five years in durations. This is usually done at the executive levels

Steps in the strategic planning process

Step 1: defining the mission of the organization

An organization must first assess its mission in order to determine the more specific objectives and goals. The mission of
the organization is the fundamental, unique purpose that sets the organization apart from other of its type and identifies the scope
of this operation.

Mission is the fundamental unique purpose that distinguishes an organization from others of its type; it is general, enduring
statement of the intent of an organization.

The mission statement should added what organization are we in?

1. What organization are we in?

2. Who are our client?
3. What good or service will we offer?

Step 2: Developing organizational Objectives

The next step after determining the organization’s mission is to establish how that mission is to be accomplished by the
organization. They formulated a set of objectives a concrete, specific aims that management seeks to achieve for the organization,
often within a stated time period.

Objectives are guidepost in defining standards of what the organization should accomplish in providing direction and motivation.
Objectives improve the effectiveness of an organization by producing three major benefits:

1. Providing direction
2. Serving as standards for evaluating performance, and
3. Motivating members of the organization

Providing direction- clearly defines objectives specify an end result for the organization.

Objectives serving as standards

Objectives serve as motivators- Objectives perform a role in encouraging workers to put forth their best efforts to achieve
the end goals. Employees who understand the objectives of profitability and their role in generating profits may be motivated to
work harder or more efficiently under a bonus for other profit-sharing program.

Characteristics of soundly conceived objectives

1. Specificity-Objectives should be specific

2. Measurability- soundly conceive objectives are also characterized by measurable standards performance.
3. Time specific- Objectives should have time frame within which they will be accomplished.
4. Emphasis on result- Sound objectives focus on results, on activities. Activities are the means by which objectives are
accomplished.
5. Attainability- Objectives that are unrealistically high are ineffective as soon as employees realize they are unattainable. On
the other hand, objectives that call for the best efforts of all employees for their accomplishment provide a sense of
achievement and are effective means for motivating people.

Step 3: Assessing organizational resources, risks and opportunities

The third step in the strategic planning process involves the assessment of a organization’s strengths and weaknesses in
comparison with those of other organization. This assessment of organizational resources is used to identify appropriate strategies
for accomplishing organizational missions and objectives.

Evaluating Environmental Risks and opportunities

Environmental factors both within the organization and from the general external environment play major roles in
determining the effectiveness of different strategies in achieving organizational goals.

Step 4: Formulating strategy

The organization’s assessment of its resources in relation to its environment concludes with the selection of an
appropriate strategy to take advantage of existing and expected environmental conditions.

Step 5; Implementation strategy

According to military analogy as written by one writer, strategy may be defined simply as “doing the right thing” It deal with
the allocation of resources to the battle. On the other hand, tactics is the best define as “doing things right. It deals with the
deployment of resources. Strategy sets the point where, the time when, and the force with which the battle is fought, as written by
Clausewitz in his famous book on war.

Step 6: Monitoring and adapting strategic plans

Monitoring involves establishing control mechanism so that feedback from the actual implementation of the strategic plan
can be analyzed. Through the feedback process, managers evaluate the effectiveness of the strategy in action. They determine
whether actual performance is consistent with the strategy formulated and is moving the organizations towards the
accomplishment of its objectives.

II. MEDIUM TERM PLANNING

 The medium-term development plan is established to initially set the direction towards the aspirations for its organization.
It consists of key result areas to guide the organization’s vision and mission. Challenges are also important in the MTDP for they
foster the lessons learned from the past which are vital for the reformation and modification of its priorities.

The format

I. Introduction
II. Vision, mission and declaration of principles
III. Identification
IV. Retrospect and challenges
V. Challenges
VI. Meeting the gaps
VII. Core values, key result areas, and goals
VIII. Policies and strategies
IX. Police priority programs and parameters of success
X. Priority legislative agenda
XI. Prognosis

Appended reports to the medium-term development plan

In the PNP, there are appended reports to the medium-term development plan these are:

1. Operations plans and Budget (OPB)

2. Program review and analysis (PRA)

Operations plans and Budget (OPB)

Is formulated by the operating plan and budget chaired by the Chief of Directorial staff to ensure consistency and maintain
balance of resources within and among major activities of the command. It reflects the total coordinated effort of management
official in so far as fiscal administration and resource management are concerned.

Program review and analysis (PRA)

Provide a complete picture of how the resources were used to accomplish objectives and programs. It is based on the
authorized operating program and budget and the accomplishment of the unit or office for a given period of time.

The PRA is composed of two parts:

1. The documented PRA

2. The oral presentation which requires the consideration of the documented PRA into a briefing manuscript.

Teaching Learning Activity 1

Directions: Read the following statements and write your answer (in word format) and send it to the group chat (GC) provided.

 Discuss the significance of brainstorming and consultation?

 Enumerate the steps in the strategic planning process?

Topic 2: Tactical Planning

Intended Learning Outcome:

At the end of the topic, students should be able to:
  Learn and understand the concept of tactical planning.

Lesson 2: Tactical Planning

Tactical planning is short- term and usually has limited impact. This is also referred to as near-term plan. The commonly agreed
timeline for these types of plans is less than one year. This is usually done at the ground levels of the organization.

Four stages of Tactical Planning

1. Identify major tasks to achieve strategic goals

2. Assign persons responsible for tasks and prepare specific plans
3. Allocate resources
4. Set performance standards for each task

Tactical planning tools

1. Policies and programs- a policy is a verbal, written or implied statement that guides decision making while program is a list
of interrelated projects and activities.
2. Quantitative plans-Cash flows, budget, financial projections etc. Scheduling plans Gantt chart
3. Technical plans-Program evaluation and review techniques/ critical path method, architectural and engineering systems
and procedures, etc.

Program Evaluation and review Techniques

Is a method by which conflicts, delays and interruption in a project are minimized by coordinating the various parts of
overall job in order to complete the project on schedule? It is considered as the most popular network model.

Fundamentals of PERT

1. Constructing the Network

2. Estimating activity time requirements

Key concept of constructing the Network

1. Activities- work necessary to complete a particular event

2. Events- is an accomplishment at a particular point in time and consume no time

Critical Path Method

Brings into the planning and control functions, the concept of cost. I uses a single time estimates for each activity whereas
PERT use three activity

TYPES OF POLICE PLANS

1. Policy or Procedural Plan

2. Tactical Plans
3. Operational Plans
4. Extra- Office Plans
5. Management Plans

Policy or Procedural Plan are standard operating procedures which are outlined to guide members in their routine and field
operations and in some special operations in accordance with following procedures:

1. Field procedures- are procedures used in all situations which are outlined as a guide to officers and men in the field
2. Headquarters Procedures- are procedure used in the headquarters such as the duties of the administrative personnel,
finance officer, desk officer, radio operators, jailers, matron and other personnel concerned whose tour of duty are
reflected in the duty manual.
 3. Special operating procedures- are procedures used in certain special operations unit as their guides and references.

Tactical plans- are procedures for coping with specific situations at known locations

Operational plans- are plans for the operations for specials division like the patrol detective. Traffic fire and juvenile control
divisions. It is prepared to accomplish each of the primary police tasks

Types of plans for operations of specials division

1. Regular operating program- the operating division/ units have specific plans to meet current needs
 Equal distribution of manpower throughout the hours of operation
 Assures suitable supervision which becomes difficult when the regular assignment is interrupted to deal with
these short time period needs
 Special programs shall be developed to meet particular needs in each field of activity
 Designed programs to make better citizens of delinquent and pre delinquent children, and operational plans to
eliminate certain delinquency inducing factors in the community
 Plans to obtain assistance from all community agencies in the diagnosis and treatment of certain delinquencies.
2. Meeting Unusual Needs- the unusual needs may arise in any failed of police activity and is nearly always met in the
detective, vice and juvenile divisions by temporary readjustment of regular assignment.

Extra- office plans

are plans that continuously seek to motivate, promote and maintain an active public concern in its affairs. I shall be made
to organize the community to assist in the accomplishment of objectives in the field of traffic control, organized crime, and
juvenile delinquency prevention.

Management plans

Are plans in the organization relating to budget, accounting personnel, specifications and the organization itself.

1. Budget planning
2. Accounting procedures
3. Specifications and purchasing procedures

Steps in Police Planning

1. Frame of reference
2. Clarifying the problem
3. Collecting all pertinent facts
4. Analyzing the facts
5. Developing alternative plans
6. Selecting the most appropriate alternatives
7. Selling the plan
8. Arrange for the execution of the plan
9. Evaluating the effeteness of the plan

Frame of reference- is based on the review of the matters relating to the situation for which plans are being developed

Clarifying the problem- identification of the problems and understanding both the problem and the recommended solution.

Collecting all pertinent facts- all facts relating to the issue must be gathered before the development of a plan addressing the
situation.

Analysing the facts-Careful analysis and evaluation must be made after all the data have been collected.
Developing alternative plans- As the alternative solutions are evaluated, one of the proposed plans shall usually prove more logical
than others.

Selecting the most appropriate alternatives- A careful considerations of all facts leads to the selection of the best alternative
proposal

Selling the plan- A plan to be effectively carried out, must be accepted by persons concerned at the appropriate level of the plans
development.

Arrange for the execution of the plan- Requires the issuance of orders and directives to units and personnel concerned, the
establishment of a schedule and the provision of man power and equipment for carrying out the plan.

Evaluating the effeteness’ of the plan- this is necessary in order to know whether a correct alternative was chosen, whether or not
the plan was correct, which phase was poorly implemented, and whether additional planning may be necessary.

Process Of Planning

1. Discovery or identifying of the problems

2. Frame of reference isolation and classification of the problem
3. Collecting and analysis of pertinent facts, data and opinions
4. Developing alternative plans through identification and evaluation
5. Selections of the most appropriate alternative and subsequently
6. Selling the plan to person concerned for the arrangement of its execution and evaluation of its effectiveness

Fundamentals Of Police Planning

1. Know your situation

2. Know what you want to do
3. Breakdown your goals into smaller tasks
4. What are the resources needed
5. Anticipate problems or changing conditions
6. Implement you plan
7. Monitor result
8. Evaluate plans
9. Document experience
10. Report you experience

Characteristics of police plans

1. Clearly defined objective and goals

2. Possibility of attainment
3. Flexibility
4. Provision for standard of operation
5. Economy in terms of resources needed for implementation
6. Anticipate effect/s on future operation

Execution Of Police Plan

1. Protection of person and property

2. Preservation of the peace
3. Preservation of crime
4. Repression or suppression of criminal activities
5. Apprehension of criminals
 6. Enforcement of the law and ordinances and regulation of conduct
7. Safeguarding the public health and moral
8. Prompt execution of criminal writs and processes of the courts
9. Coordination and cooperation with other law enforcement agencies

Teaching Learning Activity 2

Directions: Read the following statements and write your answer (in word format) and send it to the group chat (GC) provided.

 What is program evaluation and review techniques mean?

 Enumerate the four stages of Tactical Planning?

Topic 3: Crime Analysis and Mapping

Intended Learning Outcome:

At the end of the topic, students should be able to:

1. Learn the definition of terms used in this topic.

2. Learn the types of crime analysis.
3. Learn the history of crime mapping and the types of crime mapping.

Lesson 3: Crime Analysis and Mapping

Ever since maps have been available that depict the geographic features of communities, such as streets and city
boundaries, police departments have used such maps to determine patrol areas and emergency routes as well as to assist patrol
officers in finding specific addresses. Police departments have also mapped crime, a process that, until recently, involved the
manual placement of pins on hand-drawn wall maps. This chapter discusses the emergence of computerized crime mapping as a
tool for conducting crime analysis. It begins with an introduction to key terms and then describes basic concepts before presenting
a history of crime mapping and information on the field’s current status and career paths.
The following topic was developed from the curriculum for the “Introduction to Crime Analysis, Mapping and Problem
Solving”. This topic focuses on definition terms used in this topic, types of crime analysis, introduction to crime mapping, types of
crime mapping and its history.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Apprehending criminals
The main function of crime analysis is to support law enforcement endeavors. One of the primary goals of law
enforcement is the apprehension of criminals; consequently, one of the primary goals of crime analysis is to assist in the
apprehension of criminals. For example, a detective may have a robbery incident in which the suspect has a snake tattoo on his
left arm. The crime analysts may assist by searching a database of field incident cards to identify individuals with such a tattoo.
Also, a crime analyst may conduct a time of day/day of week analysis of burglary incidents that would assist officers in surveillance
of an area to catch offenders.

Crime Analysis
Is a law enforcement function that involves systematic analysis for identifying and analyzing patterns and trends
in crime and disorder. Information on patterns can help law enforcement agencies deploy resources in a more effective manner,
and assist detectives in identifying and apprehending suspects. Crime analysis also plays a role in devising solutions to crime
problems, and formulating crime prevention strategies.

Crime
In a law enforcement agency, the central focus is crime, both those reported to the police and those that are not. Thus,
the central type of data analyzed is crime and the information surrounding it, such as arrests, offenders, victims, property, and
evidence.
Crime mapping
This is a term used in policing to refer to the process of conducting spatial analysis within crime analysis. This is the
process of using a geographic information system to conduct spatial analysis of crime problems and other police-related issues.

Crime mapping serves three main functions within crime analysis:

1. It facilitates visual and statistical analyses of the spatial nature of crime and other types of events.
2. It allows analysts to link unlike data sources together based on common geographic variables (e.g., linking
census information, school information, and crime data for a common area).
3. It provides maps that help to communicate analysis results.
Evaluate organizational procedures
The fourth goal of crime analysis is assisting with the evaluation of organizational procedures. Several examples include
resource allocation, the assessment of crime prevention programs, realigning geographic boundaries, forecasting staffing needs,
and developing performance measures for the police department.
Geographic information system (GIS)
This is a powerful software tool that allows the user to create any kind of geographic representation, from a simple point
map to a three-dimensional visualization of spatial or temporal data.

Law enforcement information

In addition to crime, law enforcement agencies address many other issues and thus collect many other types of data.
Examples of law enforcement data that are often available for crime analysts are calls for service (e.g., noise complaints, burglary,
alarms, suspicious activity), traffic information (e.g., accidents and citations), citizens’ perceptions (e.g., fear of crime, crime
prevention behavior, satisfaction with the police), victimization, probation records, and parole information.

Socio-demographic
This type of information refers to characteristics of individuals and groups such as sex, race, income, age, and education.
On an individual (micro) level, socio-demographic information is used in law enforcement to search for and identify crime suspects.
On a macro level, socio-demographic information is used to determine the characteristics of groups and how they relate to crime.
For example, the information may be used to answer the questions, “Where can we find the suspect who is a white male, 30-35
years of age with brown hair and brown eyes?” or “Can demographic characteristics explain why one neighborhood has a higher
rate of crime than another?

Spatial
The location where crimes or activities occur and the relationship of those places to one another and to other information
is an important factor in the analysis of crime. It is not only important where a crime takes place but also the characteristics of those
places and the environment in which the crime occurs. Thus, examination of spatial data such as streets networks, parcel
information, orthophotographs, school locations, business and residential zoning, among others, is imperative for effective crime
analysis.

Prevent crime
Another primary goal of law enforcement is to prevent crime through methods other than apprehension. This goal lends
itself particularly well to assistance from crime analysis. For example, members of the police department are conducting a crime
prevention campaign about residential burglary and would like to target their resources in the areas that need it the most. Crime
analysis can assist in planning community education and patrol response tailored to the problem by providing spatial analysis of
residential burglary, analysis of how, when, and where the burglaries occurred, and analysis of what items were stolen. This
information could be used to develop crime prevention suggestions such as closing and locking a garage door.

Reduce disorder
Many criminologists contend that social disorder can lead to crime; that is, blight and other indicators of social decay left
unchecked can attract crime and accelerate further decay. Thus, reducing disorder is a law enforcement objective and, by
extension, one for crime analysis as well. Crime analysis can assist with these efforts by providing research and analysis of
disorder indicators such as traffic accidents, noise complaints, or trespass warnings that can assist officers in addressing these
issues before they become more serious problems.

Study
Is a systematic way of looking at crime and law enforcement information? That is, crime analysis is not examining
information haphazardly but rather is applying formal analytical and statistical techniques as well as research methodology to law
enforcement information according to the rules of social science.
Topic 4: Types of Crime Analysis

Intended Learning Outcome:

At the end of the topic, students should be able to:

1. Learn the types of crime analysis.

2. Learn the history of crime mapping and the types of crime mapping.

Lesson 4: Types of Crime Analysis

The following are five types of analysis that fall under the umbrella of crime analysis. As you will see, each contains
characteristics of crime analysis in general, but each is specific in the type of data and analysis used as well as in its purpose.

Intelligence Analysis
The study of “organized” criminal activity, whether or not it is reported to law enforcement to assist investigative personnel
in linking people, events, and property. The purpose of intelligence analysis is to assist sworn personnel in the identification of
networks and apprehension of individuals to subsequently prevent criminal activity. A related goal is to link information together,
prioritize information, identify relationships, and identify areas for further investigation by putting the analysis in a framework that is
easy to understand. Much of the information analyzed in the field of intelligence analysis is not reported to the police by citizens but
is gathered by law enforcement. Examples of data collection methods include surveillance, informants, and participant observation.
In addition, the type of information is not limited to criminal information but can include telephone conversations, travel information,
financial/tax information, and family and business relationships. Intelligence analysis has traditionally focused more or less on
organized criminal activity, which includes drugs and prostitution syndicates. The data analyzed are plentiful and primarily
qualitative, and thus are usually analyzed through qualitative methods.

1. Criminal Investigative Analysis

The study of serial criminals, victims, and/or crime scenes as well as physical, socio-demographic, psychological, and
geographic characteristics to develop patterns that will assist in linking together and solving current serial criminal activity. This
type of analysis has also been called “profiling,” which is the process of constructing a “profile” of an unknown offender based on
the nature of the crime, the facts of the case, and the characteristics of the victim. As with intelligence analysis, this type of analysis
focuses primarily on qualitative data surrounding serious serial crimes such as murder and rape. Data are collected and analyzed
on an individual level for those persons primarily or peripherally involved with the incidents. The spatial nature of the incidents and
related locations such as the body dump sites or the encounter sites is also considered. The primary purpose of criminal
investigative analysis is to develop patterns of serial crimes crossing city, state, and even national boundaries by linking behavior
and evidence within and among incidents in order to catch the offender and/or clear cases. This is a very specific type of crime
analysis that is primarily done on the federal law enforcement level since these types of crime occur infrequently and cross
jurisdictional boundaries.

2. Tactical Crime Analysis

The study of recent criminal incidents and potential criminal activity by examining characteristics such as how, when, and
where the activity has occurred to assist in problem solving by developing patterns and trends, identifying investigative
leads/suspects, and clearing cases. Tactical crime analysis focuses on information from recent crimes reported to the police.
“Recent” can refer to the last few months or longer periods of time for specific ongoing problems.

Three purposes of tactical crime analysis are;

1. Linking cases together and identifying the notable characteristics of
the patterns and trends.
2. Identifying potential suspects of a crime or crime pattern.
3. Clearing cases.
The focus of tactical crime analysis is examining data daily in order to identify patterns, trends, and investigative leads for recent
criminal and potential criminal activity. Once a crime pattern, suspect, or investigative lead is identified, the information is compiled
and disseminated to patrol officers and detectives.

3. Strategic Crime Analysis

The study of crime and law enforcement information integrated with socio-demographic and spatial factors to determine
long term “patterns” of activity, to assist in problem solving, as well as to research and evaluate responses and procedures.
Strategic crime analysis consists primarily of quantitative analysis of aggregate data.
(Monthly, quarterly, and/or yearly compilations of criminal and non-criminal information such as crime, calls for service, and traffic
information are analysed in aggregate form). That is, general categories such as date, time, location, and type of incident are
analysed instead of qualitative data such as narrative descriptions of incidents. Variables including race, class, sex, income,
population, location, and location type are examined along with law enforcement information in the analysis process.

Two primary purposes of strategic crime analysis

1. To assist in the identification and analysis of long-term problems such as drug activity or auto theft.
2. To conduct studies to investigate or evaluate relevant responses and procedures. Both of these purposes correspond very well
to the problem solving.

These types of studies include

1. Evaluation of crime prevention programs.

2. in depth examination of a particular crime problem.
3. Implementation of a survey of citizens’ perceptions of crime and the police.

They incorporate pre- and post-measurement as well as both impact and process evaluation methodology. Procedures
examined include such activities as deployment and staffing, redistricting of beats or precincts, data entry and integrity, and the
reporting process. In sum, strategic crime analysis uses statistical techniques and research methods to investigate long-term
problems and evaluate organizational procedures. Analysts who primarily conduct strategic crime analysis are also called problem
or research analysts.

4. Administrative Crime Analysis

Administrative crime analysis is different from the previous types of analysis in that it refers to presentation of findings
rather than to statistical analysis or research. The decision of what and how to present information is the primary focus of
administrative crime analysis. Often, the type of information that is presented represents the “tip of the iceberg” of all the work and
analysis that has previously been done, for example, an executive summary of a report. The purpose and the audience of the
information determine “what” is presented along with legal (e.g. privacy and confidentiality), political (e.g., union issues, election
concerns), and practical concerns (e.g., complexity of the information presented). The primary purpose of administrative crime
analysis is to inform audiences. These audiences may vary from one situation to the next, which is why the type and quantity of
information should vary as well. Audiences can be police executives, city council, media, citizens, and neighbourhood groups or a
combination. (An excellent example of administrative crime analysis is the use of the Internet to provide information to the general
public).
Introduction to Crime Analysis Mapping and History

History of Crime Mapping

Even though crime mapping plays a significant role in crime analysis today, conducting spatial analysis and creating crime
maps have only recently become common in policing and crime analysis, thanks to advancements in technology. Unlike crime
analysis, the history of crime mapping begins not with the establishment of the first police force, but with researchers long before
computers were invented.

Beginnings of Crime Mapping

In the 1800s, European researchers who adhered to the school of thought known as the cartographic school of
criminology examined the levels of crime within different areas (regions) and the relationship of these levels to sociological factors,
such as socioeconomic status (Groff & La Vigne, 2002). (For example, in 1829, Adriano Balbi, an ethnographer and geographer,
and André-Michel Guerry, a lawyer, created the first maps of crime using criminal statistics for the years 1825 to 1827 and
demographic data from the census. They examined crimes against property, crimes against persons, and levels of education in
France and found that areas with high levels of crimes against property had a low incidence of crimes against people and that
higher numbers of educated people lived in areas with more property crime (Weisburd & McEwen, 1997). Also during this period,
the Belgian astronomer and statistician Adolphe Quételet used maps to examine correlations between crime and transportation
routes, education levels, and ethnic and cultural variations (Weisburd & McEwen, 1997).

United States: 1900–1970

In the United States, the use of crime mapping began a little later than it did in Europe. Because the United States was a
relatively new country in the 1800s, reliable maps were not readily available and census data were not regularly collected, as they
were in France and England at that time. The first substantive spatial analysis of crime in the United States was conducted in the
1920s and 1930s by urban sociologists in Chicago. Their crime research and related crime maps linked crime and delinquency to
factors such as social disorganization and poverty. In fact, these scholars’ spatial analysis of juvenile delinquency and social
conditions in Chicago is considered to be one of the foremost examples of crime mapping in the first half of the 20th century (Groff
& La Vigne, 2002).
 In the late 1960s, scholars began conducting spatial analysis of crime with the help of large computer systems and
unsophisticated visualization methods (Weisburd & McEwen, 1997).

1970 to Present
From the late 1960s through the early 1980s, a group of researchers in England, Canada, and the United States shifted
their focus of the study of crime away from what traditional criminology examined—criminal offender—and toward the criminal
event and its context, including the physical and social environments that create opportunities for crime (Brantingham &
Brantingham, 1981; Clarke, 1980, 1983; Cornish & Clarke, 1986). This movement affected crime mapping, as researchers shifted
from aggregate analysis of crime and social factors to the analysis of discrete criminal events and their locations (for a more
detailed discussion of this theoretical approach.
 In New Jersey, Rutgers University and the Jersey City Police Department implemented an experimental design to test
problem-oriented policing responses to reduce violent crime.
 In Connecticut, the city of Hartford joined with Abt Associates, a private consulting firm based in Boston, to promote
crime mapping as a way of encouraging community involvement in addressing crime problems.
 In California, the San Diego Police Department and the Police Executive Research Forum mapped drug incidents and
drug markets with police interventions in an experiment that evolved into a crime mapping system.
 In Pennsylvania, Carnegie Mellon University and the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police developed a system in which thematic
maps were created to show changes in crime by area over time.
 In Missouri, the Kansas City Police Department partnered with the Crime Control Institute to develop an innovative
narcotics enforcement strategy aimed at reducing the violence and disorder associated with retail drug sales in residential
neighbourhoods. These projects led the way for crime mapping partnerships between practitioners and researchers and
demonstrated how communities could use GIS tools as a central part of crime control initiatives. The program was focused
primarily on the use of geographic police data, but the participants found that examining other geographically based data
contributed to their ability to target problem-solving strategies, brought together key partners with different perspectives, and
facilitated the assessment of their joint efforts (Taxman & McEwen, 1997).
In the early to mid-1990s, significant improvements in computer technology and police data systems made electronic
crime mapping a much more practical tool for police and researchers. GIS software became available for desktop computers as
these computers became capable of processing large amounts of data quickly. In addition, police data on crimes, arrests,
accidents, and calls for service became available electronically through computer-aided dispatch systems as well as through
electronic records management systems

Types of CRIME Mapping

Manual Pin Mapping

Wall maps have long been a simple and useful way to depict crime incidents or hot spots. Many police departments still
have large maps tacked to the wall of the briefing room with the most recent crimes represented by pins. Although useful, manual
wall maps, offer limited utility because they are difficult to keep updated, keep accurate, make easy to read, and can only display a
limited amount of data. (For example, although different colored pins could be used to represent different types of crime, date and
time of incidents, the nature of incidents, and other information cannot be displayed easily. In order to update a manual wall map,
for example, the pins must be removed each month. Unless a photo or some other mechanism is used to record the previous
month’s map, the information illustrated on the map is lost. Thus, comparison is difficult, if not impossible, from one month to the
next. Finally, the maps become unreadable when they display large amounts of data because of the numerous pins and/or holes.

Picture 1. Manual pin mapping

Computer Mapping
An Internet mapping program, where an address is entered and a map of the surrounding area appears with a pin to
locate the address. Even though it is possible to zoom in and out of this type of map, the geographic features (e.g., locations,
streets, parks) are static and cosmetic only. In essence, a computer map is similar to a wall map, in that the computer is used to
place a point at a specific location just as a person would put a pin on a wall map.

Picture 2. Computer Mapping

Geographic Information System (GIS)

A geographic information system (GIS) is a set of computer-based tools that allow a person to modify, visualize, query,
and analyze geographic and tabular data. A GIS is a powerful software tool that allows the user to create anything from a simple
point map to a three-dimensional visualization of spatial or temporal data.
A GIS is different from manual pin maps and computer maps in that it allows the analyst to view data behind the
geographic features, combine various features, manipulate the data and maps, and perform statistical functions.

Picture 1. Geographic Information System

Picture 2. Geographic Information System

Types of GIS programs which include;

1. Desktop packages (e.g., ArcView®, MapInfo®, GeoMedia®, Atlas GIS®, Maptitude®)
2. Professional software (e.g., ArcInfo® and Intergraph®).
GIS Components
The following is a description of the major components of a GIS, which include
1. Data representation
2. Data features, visualization
3. Scale
4. Querying

Data Representation
Real world data are represented by one of four features in a GIS.
(They include point, line, polygon, and image features).
1. Point feature
 A point feature is a discrete location that is usually depicted by a symbol or label. A point feature in the
geographic information system is analogous to a pin placed on a paper wall map. Different symbols are used to depict the location
of crimes, motor vehicle accidents, traffic signs, buildings, beat stations, and cell phone towers. The following map shows a robbery
point map.
2. Line feature
A line feature is a geographic feature that can be represented by a line or set of lines. The following map shows
how different types of geographic features such as railways, streets, and rivers can be represented by a line in a GIS. Additional
examples are streams, streets, power lines, bus routes, student pathways, and lines depicting the distance from a stolen to a
recovered vehicle.

Point and line feature example.

3. Polygon feature
A polygon feature is a multisided figure represented by a closed set of lines. In the following map, the largest
blue polygon represents the city boundary, the green are census tracks, and the black are census block groups. Other examples of
polygon features used in law enforcement would be patrol areas, beats, neighborhoods, or jurisdictions. Polygon features can
represent areas as large as continents and as small as buildings.

Polygon Feature Example.

4. Image feature
An image feature is a vertical photo taken from a satellite or a plane that is digitized and placed within the
geographic information system coordinate system so that there are -x and -y coordinates associated with it.
Image Feature example

Data of geographic features

Each type of feature has “attributes” or a table of data that describe it. All the attributes for three of the four types of
features (point, line, and polygon) are stored in a GIS as a data table (Note that a digital orthophotograph has an –x and –y
coordinate but does not have an associated data table worthy of analysis). The ability to view, query, relate, and manipulate data
behind these features is the true power of a GIS. A manual pin map and a computer map depict points, lines, and polygons but do
not have data associated with the features and are not easily manipulated. In a GIS, simply clicking on a point, line, or polygon can
produce the data table associated with that particular feature.
The primary advantage of a GIS is its functionality that allows geographic data to be manipulated. The following are some
components that enable data to be manipulated.

Connectivity
Refers to streets and other linear features that are represented by segments that connect at intersections. However, each
segment connects at an intersection, and connectivity is the ability of the GIS to recognize that the two line segments come
together to form an intersection.

Contiguity
Refers to adjacent areas that are represented by adjacent polygons. The following map shows how a GIS includes
adjacent polygons representing parcels and buildings. The ability of the GIS to recognize adjacent polygons allows for querying,
selection of polygons within others, and visualization of complex land units.
Geometry
Refers to the fact that all features in the geographic information system have at least one set of –x and –y coordinates.

Visual display/mapping Thematic approach

Scale
Scale is the relationship between the dimensions of the map and the dimensions of the Earth. Usually, the scale depends on the pur

Crime Analysis Mapping

“Crime mapping” is a term that has been used to refer to research analysis using GIS in a law enforcement setting. The
term crime analysis mapping is used to describe this process because using a GIS to analyze crime is not just the act of placing
incidents on a map but also of analysis.
It is the process of using a geographic information system in combination with crime analysis techniques to focus on the
spatial context of criminal and other law enforcement activity.
Topic 5: Definition of Terms

Intended Learning Outcome:

At the end of the topic, students should be able to:

1. Learn the proper usage of the various terminologies being defined.

Lesson 5: Definition of Terms

Problem Solving Approach

Refers to a methodical process for reducing the impact of crime and disorder problems in a community. The problem-
solving approach is an integral component of the philosophy of community policing.

SARA Approach to Problem Solving

The SARA approach to problem solving is described as Scanning (S), Analysis (A), Response (R), and Assessment (A).
That is, once a problem is identified and its characteristics are analyzed, a response is developed and deployed to combat the
problem, and after a determined time period, the response is evaluated. The following is a brief discussion of each aspect of the
SARA process.
Scanning
Scanning is the first step to problem solving and is the identification of a cluster of similar, related, or recurring
incidents through a preliminary review of information, and the selection of this crime/disorder problem among competing priorities
for future examination.

Analysis
Analysis is the use of several sources of information to determine why a problem is occurring, who is responsible, who is
affected, where the problem is located, when it occurs, and what form the problem takes.

Response
Response is the execution of a tailored set of actions that address the most important findings of the analysis phase.
Some examples of responses that have been used are working with city engineers to redesign a park that had a high number of
assaults, vandalism, and drug dealing incidents.

Assessment
Assessment is the measurement of the impact(s) of the responses on the targeted crime/disorder problem using
information collected from multiple sources, both before and after the responses have been implemented.

Crime Analysis and Problem Solving

 Crime analysis and mapping play a major role in all phases of the problem solving process. The role of crime analysis in
problem solving lies in the fact that members of a law enforcement agency have different experiences and understandings of a
problem, and it is necessary for the crime analyst to either support or refute these assumptions by providing a comprehensive
analysis of a problem and an evaluation of process and response impact.

General Data Integrity Issues

There is various data integrity issues associated with tabular and geographic law enforcement data. This section is not
meant to serve as a comprehensive description of the data integrity issues in law enforcement but instead gives a general overview
of the major issues.

Data Entry
In a law enforcement setting, oftentimes the individuals, officers, dispatchers and records clerks, who are conducting data
entry, do not realize that others are using the data they produce. This lack of awareness can lead to carelessness and result in
unreliable data. Data entry errors can be improved by technology (address cleaning software), proper training, and making
individuals aware of the uses and importance of the data.

Timeliness
A primary concern in crime analysis, especially in tactical crime analysis, is that data obtained are current and available in
a timely manner. Unfortunately, because of human error and technological difficulties, this is not always possible. One method to
remedy this problem is to stress the need for and the value of current data for crime analysis. This need should be communicated
throughout the department in order to come up with solutions for improving data timeliness.

Data Validity
Validity refers to whether data accurately reflect the concept that they are intended to measure. Although true validity is
difficult to measure, law enforcement data, like any other data, are prone to validity issues. For example, many police departments
use calls for service information as a proxy for crime. This is problematic, because not all calls that are originally dispatched as a
crime are in fact crimes. The best example is a robbery call for service, since there is a common confusion about the difference
between a robbery and theft. If the dispatcher enters what the citizen reports and the title of the call is not changed when the actual
crime is determined (a common problem), the call for service would not accurately represent the crime that occurred. Even if the
call title and crime match, using calls as a proxy for crime is problematic as the date and time variable would indicate when the call
was received by the police department, not when the crime actually occurred.

Reliability
Refers to the weather data are measured the same in repeated observations. An example of a reliability issue related to
law enforcement data is when there is a policy or law change (e.g., mandatory arrest for domestic violence offenses). Frequently,
there will be a sharp increase or decrease that indicates that the data no longer represent the same phenomenon and thus, the
numbers are not reliable. Obviously, reliability issues can significantly affect crime analysis results.

Data Transfer Process

The data transfer process can affect data quality and integrity in that data can be inadvertently or unavoidably lost or
reformatted. An issue associated with the data transfer process is data compatibility. Police departments are notorious for having
data in many different formats and converting and combining these data is often a time-consuming and frustrating process.

Data Confidentiality/Privacy
Crime analysts are managers of law enforcement data; therefore, crime analysts are responsible for protecting the
information and individuals represented within the data. Normally, the data used and created in crime analysis adheres to a
jurisdiction’s policies on privacy and confidentiality.

Data Management

Metadata
Metadata refers to the data that describes the analyst’s work. Metadata are the data that describe data. Every police
department has its own set of procedures that outlines how crime analysis is conducted. These written procedures are also
invaluable training tools for new analysts. Categories of metadata include:
Location of data files (e.g., on network, mainframe, personal computer)
Source of the data (e.g., Records Management System, Investigation Bureau)
Data cleaning procedures
Geocoding procedures
Report and map formats
 Methodology for regular reports and studies (e.g., monthly crime report, annual staffing analysis)

Geocoding
Is the process of bringing tabular and geographic data together based on a common geographic unit of analysis.

Image 1. Geocoding

Image 2. Geocoding

A geographic unit of analysis

Refers to a spatial characteristic within the data that is necessary to locate it on a map (such as address, zip code, beat,
or grid).

Tabular data
This are contained in a table and are a list of records that, along with information about the record, contain addresses or
some other type of geographic variable. Examples of law enforcement tabular data are calls for service, crime, accidents, citations,
sex offenders, and arrests. Along with information about nature of the incident (e.g., type of call or crime, date, time), these data
contain the location of the incident (e.g., address, grid, and/or beat), which will allow it to be geocoded.

Image 1 for Tabular Data

Image 2 for tabular data

Geographic data

This is data that can be displayed on a map such as streets, census tracts, parcels, and buildings.
(Examples of geographic data specific to law enforcement are police districts, beats, or grid boundaries).
The purpose of geocoding is to assign tabular data to a location on the earth’s surface to visualize the spatial
characteristics of the data. It is analogous to placing a pin on a map in the appropriate location. Unlike the paper map, when
geocoding in a geographic information system, data associated with the pin, or data point, are available. In order to geocode either
electronically or manually, there must be a common geographic unit of analysis. In law enforcement, address is primarily used as
the geographic unit of analysis to which tabular data are geocoded. However, other types of geographic units are also used such
as parcels, zip codes, census tracts, census blocks, or beats. In the case of geocoding, geographic data used for geocoding are
called “reference data” since the geographic data are used to reference the tabular data.
The following is a discussion of the geocoding process, regardless of the geographic information system (GIS) software used, and
some common problems faced when geocoding law enforcement data.

Image for geographic data

The geocoding process
In general, there are five basic steps in the geocoding process. They are:
1. Prepare the geographic and tabular files for geocoding.
2. Specify the geocoding parameters.
3. Geocode.
4. Review results.
5. If necessary, re-specify parameters and geocode again.

Spatial Analysis Techniques

Single Symbol Mapping

Single symbol mapping refers to the use of individual symbols to represent point, line, and polygon features. The utility of
single symbol maps is that they allow for a detailed analysis of small amounts of data. Single symbol mapping is also helpful in
representing geographic data such as schools or churches in that it is known that they are discrete addresses and the risk of two
points on top of one another is low. The following is an example of schools in a single symbol map. The user should be aware of
the readability of the map in order to determine what is “too much” data.

Graduated Mapping
Graduated mapping consists of aggregating data into groupings that are displayed on the map. These groupings can be
graduated by size or by color and can be classified statistically in various ways. This next section describes the size and color
graduations as well as the classifications that are available in most GIS software packages.

1. Graduation By Size

Graduated size mapping is the process by which data are summarized so that symbols (point or line features) are altered
in size to reflect the frequencies in the data.
In other words, in this type of map, more than one incident at a given point or line is represented with a larger symbol or a thicker
line. One drawback is that oftentimes, the size of the symbol or line is difficult to distinguish and the actual value associated with
that symbol is not clearly displayed. In addition, similar to single symbol mapping, this type of map is most helpful with smaller
amounts of data, since too many incidents make the map unclear and difficult to read.

2. Graduation By Color
 In graduated color mapping, symbols (point, line, or polygon features) are altered in color to reflect a particular value of
the feature. Features can be graduated by any variable. Law enforcement variables include shading by date/time, by priority, by
crime type, by number of crimes at a location or in an area, or by crime rate of an area. Each category or unique value is a different
color.

Lesson5: Crime Analysis Product Format and Dissemination

The effectiveness of any crime analysis or mapping endeavor has as much to do with the presentation of the results as it
do the analysis. If the resulting document of analysis is not legible and understandable to its audience, it is worthless.

Factors to consider when developing a final product;

1. Methods of dissemination
2. Components of a crime analysis product
3. Types of crime analysis products.
4. Included also the recommendations for elements of a crime analysis product and elements of a map. These are
distinguished from one another since maps include additional elements such as a legend, North arrow, and scale.

Factors to Consider When Developing a Crime Analysis Product,

1. The purpose of the product.

Crime analysis products can serve many purposes, from informing citizens about recent activity, to assisting the agency in
planning, to apprehending a suspected criminal. For example, monthly maps of a town that depict reported crime are useful for
providing general information to the public about changes in hotspots of reported crime; however, a detailed map of each hotspot
location may be necessary for patrol officers and investigators who need specific information in order to focus their problem-solving
efforts. In either case, it is important to prepare maps that are appropriate to the purpose. In addition,

2. The audience of the product

There are also many audiences for crime analysis products. They can include police department personnel, the general
public, community groups, business groups, school officials, or city council members. By gauging the needs, expectations, and skill
level of these individuals, products that are appropriate for each group can be developed. For example, a map of the residences of
all known gang members that includes names and case numbers may be useful to gang enforcement officers compiling
intelligence information. However, a map with this level of detail would not be disseminated to the public as it may violate an
individual’s privacy rights or compromise an investigation. It may be appropriate to include a brief notation on the map, such as
“law enforcement use only” or “external use” to indicate the intended audience.
In general, when producing a crime analysis product, the needs of users of the information need to be balanced with
political, legal, and ethical concerns.
Methods of Dissemination
Methods of dissemination of a product inherently rely on the intended purpose and audience. They also rely on the means
available, such as the Internet and Intranet capabilities, or the newspaper.
For example, a crime analyst may want to let officers know that there is a sexual assault pattern happening in a certain
part of the city and provide them with detailed information about the pattern. The analyst, of course, would not provide this
information on the Internet for the public to see, but instead may include selected information on fliers to hand out at a briefing,
send a department-wide (internal) e-mail, or attend the briefings of the officers in the affected areas. Thus, the purpose, informing
the patrol officers in an area, dictates how that information should be disseminated.
The analyst must also consider what is the most efficient and effective method of dissemination, because frequently, the
easiest method is not the most effective. For example, it may be simple to publish a crime pattern bulletin and e-mail it to the
department or place fliers on a table in the briefing room for officers to read. But if the officers do not regularly check their e-mail or
the table is full of other similar fliers, these methods of dissemination may be ineffective and a more time-consuming method, such
as attending briefings, may be warranted.
The most effective way to disseminate information depends on the current specific circumstances of the department, and
the analyst should continually pay attention to what is appropriate and effective.

Components of Crime Analysis Products

A crime analysis product can include one or more of several types of analytical output, which can include tables, charts,
graphs, maps, images, and narratives. In a law enforcement setting, a balance of one or more of these components should be
used in any one product, and including all or just one component should be avoided.
For example, a two-page essay on the recent burglary activity in Beat will not be as effective as a simple description of the
pattern, a table of the relevant information, a chart depicting the time of day and day of week of the activity, and a map that
indicates where the activity is occurring. Conversely, a crime analysis product should not contain only a map or a chart. Even
though a map or chart should be produced to stand on its own, the crime analyst should also include additional information such as
interesting findings, interpretation of the results, and recommendations for future analysis.

Types of Crime Analysis Products

The following are some general types of crime analysis products.

Crime bulletins
Short one to two-page documents that describe a tactical short-term trend or pattern.

Memos
A document in letter form that summarizes a request, explains the analysis, highlights the interesting findings, and, in
some cases, makes recommendations for response or further analysis. These should be included as cover letters for research and
special reports.

Weekly/monthly/quarterly reports and maps

Documents and maps that convey the same information in regular intervals to inform about activity and allow for
identifying problems. These products should be consistently formatted to ensure recognisability by customers and allow
comparison.

Annual reports
Reports that provide information aggregated by year and are published on a yearly basis. They would include breakdowns
by geography, months, and types of activity (e.g., types of crime, types of calls, and accidents) and comparisons among years.
They might also include comparisons to other similar jurisdictions as well as to state and national figures.
Research reports
Reports that provide a description of the data, methodology, and analysis of a research project (i.e., problem solving
project or evaluation of a program) as well as the results of the analysis, interpretations of the findings, and recommendations for
response or future research.
Special reports
These are reports that are requested on an ad hoc basis and address a particular issue such as traffic accidents around
schools or efficient allocation of a new squad of officers. The analysis that makes up these reports is less rigorous than the
research reports and subsequently takes less time.
These special reports make up much of the daily work of the crime analyst. These general categories can include
information about crime, calls for service, arrests, and accidents.
They also can be specific to a particular area such as street segment, neighbourhood, beat, district, and the
entire city. Other more specific types may include lists of incidents, “attempt to locate” bulletins, gang information bulletins, missing
person’s fliers, and FI card summaries.

Lesson6. General Crime Analysis Product Elements

The following are the general elements of a crime analysis product.
Title
It includes the nature of the data and geography included as well as the time span included. For example, “Citizen
Generated Calls for Service in
Precinct 9: January 1, 2001 through June 30, 2001.”
File path
This is where the document is located. This is important, so that future requests for the report, an update, or similar report
can be easily filled. This assists the analyst in finding the product versus redoing it.

Credits/date
This includes the name or divisions of the individual(s) who created the report and the date it was created. This allows for
the analysts to get credit, for others to direct questions about the product to the appropriate people, and for everyone to know when
the product was disseminated.
(For example, “Prepared by Crime Analysis Unit, December, 2001” or “Prepared by Jane Doe, 01/06/02.”)

Text, tables, graphics, and/or maps

This is the substantive content of the product and what is included varies from product to product.

Analysis summary
This is an interpretation of the data and interesting findings and is important to ensure appropriate interpretations of the
data and results by others. This section is often omitted from crime analysis products.

Disclaimers
This information details what the data and analysis results do not say. For example, conclusions drawn from any report
containing crime information can only be made about crimes known to the police, not all crime. Another example is the use of calls
for service in lieu of crime data. The difference between the two data sources should be noted as should the limitations of using
calls for service.
(e.g., time and date of call may not be time and date of the criminal incident).

Recommendations
This section would contain suggestions for future analysis or actions based on the results. It is considered optional and
may not always be included in a crime analysis product. Because these elements can be included and combined in an infinite
number of ways, a specific example of a crime analysis product is not included here. See below for an example of the map design
elements.

Map Design Elements

Maps differ substantively from other components of a crime analysis product, and they contain specific features unique to
maps. The following are guidelines for map design elements.

Title
Similar to the title of a general crime analysis product, the title of a map should contain the nature of the data and
geography included as well as the time span included.

Legend
This element lists the tabular and geographic data sources displayed in the map and indicates the symbols that are used
to represent each data source. In addition, in the case of a map that includes graduation by color or size, the classification used
should also be listed. This will allow the reader to understand the divisions of the categories and the analysis that has been
conducted. For example, “Classification = Natural Breaks” or “Quantile Classification.”

Geocoding rate
As with statistics and tables that are presented in social science, data that are missing from the map should be noted. In
the case of a map, this would be displayed as a percentage of the data that have been successfully geocoded. For example,
“Geocoding Rate = 99%.”
Labels
Should be used in moderation and where appropriate within the map. Labels should orient users to the map as well as
highlight analytical results.

Scale Bar
Describes the distance units used in the map.

North Directional
Indicates the geographic orientation of the map.

Credits/date
 As in the general crime analysis product, this contains the name or division of the individual who produced the map as
well as the date it was created. Remember, these elements are specific to maps and even though maps should basically stand on
their own, supplemental description and interpretation of the analysis should be included.

Evaluating the Utility of Crime Analysis and Mapping Products

Finally, a feedback mechanism for crime analysis products is important to determine both their relevance and
effectiveness. Customer surveys, informal discussions, and/or focus groups can be used to learn whether a product is serving its
intended purpose and is useful to its audience. In addition, it is necessary for the analysts themselves to review and re-evaluate
current crime analysis products. As noted in the following figure, this process is ongoing. Changes in focus of the department,
capabilities of customers, the nature of criminal activity, and information technology are only a few of the factors that could
influence needs and purposes of crime analysis products.