86 I Strength of Materials

two lines which are originally at right angles as shown. It is given by

The shear stress is proportional to shear strain within the elastic limit.
TOc 4
z=a constant x 4
The constant in this case is known as the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.
It is usually denoted by the symbol G , so that z=GI$.Note that since 4 is non-
dimensional, G has the same units as shear stress. In the case of normal stresses,
O = EE

&=-=-
O P
E AE
PL
EL = change in length A L = -
AE
The following examples illustrate the application of these simple formulae.
Example 3.1 Application of Hooke’s law

A circular bar 20 mm in diameter and 200 mm long is subjected to a force of 20 kN. Find
the stress, strain, and elongation in the bar if the value of E = 80 GPa.
Solution Area of the bar = n x 202/4 = 314.16 mm2
Stress o=P/A = 20 x lo3/ 314.16 = 63.66 N/mm2
E = 80 GPa = 80,000 MPa = 80,000 N/mm2
Strain = o / E = 63.66 /80,000 = 7.9 x lo4
Elongation = Strain x length = 7.9 x lo4 x 200 = 0.16 mm 0
Example 3.2 Young’s modulus of elasticity
The ratio of Young’s moduli of elasticity of two materials is 2.35. Find the ratio of the
stresses and elongations in two bars of these materials if they are of the same length and
same area and subjected to the same force P.
Solution Stress o=P/A. Load P and area remaining the same, ratio of stresses = 1 .O
Strain in one bar c1= o / E l ; strain in the other bar c 2= o/E2
Length being the same, the ratio of elongations will be the same as ratio of strains
Ratio of elongations = c1/c2= (OfE1)/(OfE2)
= E2/E1= U2.35 = 0.42 0
Example 3.3 Young’s modulusof elasticity
A bar of cross-sectional area 314 mm2 elongates by 0.8 mm over a length of 600 mm when
subjected to a tensile force of 12000 N. Find the Young’s modulus of elasticity of the
material of the bar.
Solution Stress o= 12,000/314 = 38.22 N/mm2
Strain E = o / E = 38.22/E. Elongation = E L = 38.22 L / E
Elongation = 0.8 mm
Therefore, 38.22 x 600/E = 0.8 mm
E = 38.22 x 600/0.8 = 28665 N/mm2 = 28.67 GPa 0
 Simple Stresses and Strains

Example 3.4 Young's modulus of elasticity of a circular pipe

A circular pipe of internal diameter 30 mm and thickness 4 mm is subjected to a force 30
kN and the elongation was measured as 1 mm. If the length of the pipe is 2 m, find the value
of Young's modulus of elasticity and the stress in the pipe.
Solution Internal diameter of the pipe = 30 mm; thickness = 4 mm; external diameter =
38 mm; area of the pipe = ~ ( 3 -8302)/4
~ = 427.26 mm2
Stress in the pipe material o=P/A = 30,000/427.26 = 70.2 N/mm2
Elongation = 1 mm; Length of pipe = 2 m = 2000 mm
Strain E = 1/2000 = 5 x 10"
E = stress/strain = 70.2/(5 x 10") = 140,400 N/mm2 = 140.4 GPa 0
Example 3.5 Stress in uniform bar
A uniform steel rod, 6 mm @and0.5 m long, is subjected to a tensile force of 3 kN. Find the
stress in the bar and its elongation. E = 200 GPa.
Solution Tensile force = 3 kN = 3000 N
z x 62
Area of cross section = ~ = 9zmm2
4
3000
Stress = ~ = 106 N/mm2
9n
Change in length,
PL
3000 x (0.5 x 1000)
L=-=
AE 9 ~ ~ 2 0 0 ~ 1 0 ~ / 1 0 ~
(Note that 1 GPa = lo9 Pa = lo3 MPa = lo3 N/mm2.)

AL = 0.265 mm
0
Example 3.6 Determining stress and E
The length of an aluminium rod 10 mm @and400 mm long increases to 400.15 mm when
subjected to a tensile force of 2 kN. Find the stress in the bar and the value of E for aluminium.
n x lo2
Solution Area of bar = ~ = 25p mm2
4
Stress = ~ = 25.46 N/mm2
2%
Change in length,
AL = 400.15 - 400 = 0.15 mm
PL PL
A L = -, E=-
AE A M

E for aluminium = 2ooo 400 = 67,906 N/mm2 = 67.9 GPa

2 5 x~0.15
0
Example 3.7 Uniform bar subjected to loads along length
A bar of uniform cross section 20 mm @issubjected to loads as shown in Fig. 3.5(a). Find
the total elongation of the bar and the maximum stress in the bar. E = 200 GPa. (All lengths
are in mm.)
 50 kN
+ +
10 kN
20 kN
+
A

T
206 -
60 kN

400 , 1000 800

800

(b)
Fig. 3.5
Solution The total elongation will be the sum of the elongations of the individual sec-
tions A B , BC, and CD. The free body diagrams of each of these sections are shown in Fig.
3.5(b).
For each of the sections, the change in length is given by AL = PL/AE, appropriate
numerical values corresponding to the section being considered. For A B ,
50,000 x 400 n x 202
AL, = = loon
loon x 200,000
= 0.318 mm
For BC,
40,000 x 1000 = o.637 mm
AL, =
1oon x 200,000
For CD,
60,000 x 800
AL, =
loon x 200,000
= 0.764 mm
Total change in length = AL,+ AL, + AL, = 0.318 + 0.637 + 0.764 = 1.719 mm.
Since the cross sections of members are the same, the maximum stress will be in section
CD, where the force is maximum.

Maximum o= 60’ooo = 191 N/mm2 0

1oon
~

Example 3.8 Stress in a stepped bar

A bar has three sections of different diameters, 120 mm, 80 mm, and 100 mm, and is
subjected to a load of 500 kN as shown in Fig. 3.6(a). Find the total elongation of the bar
 Simple Stresses and Strains

and the maximum stress in the material. E = 200,000 MPa.

Solution The total elongation will be the sum of the elongations of the three sections A B,
BC, and CD shown in Fig. 3.6(b). Since the load on all the sections is the same,

-
500 kN
1204
A

T
1- 500 kN

400 800 600

B
/
I 500
500 kN
804
I

Fig. 3.6

4Ll I P2L2 I P3L3 - p Ll L2

AIEl A2E2 A3E3 - E [ x + z + : ]
[
~ - 500,000 400
+ 800
200,000 (z/4) x 1202 (z/4) x so2 (z/4)(jo0
x loo2
+

1
= 0.677 mm
The maximum stress will be in section BC, which has the least area.

o= 500’000 = 99.5 N/mm2 0

z/4 x so2
Example 3.9 Stress in a bar of different materials
A steel rod, 20 mm @and800 m long, is rigidly attached to an aluminium rod, 40 mm @and
1 m long, as shown in Fig. 3.7. The combination is subjected to a tensile load of 40 kN. Find
the stress in the materials and the total elongation of the bar. E for steel = 200 GPa, E for
aluminium = 70 GPa.
 90 I Strength of Materials

Aluminium

-
40 kN +
p
A
*

800 I 1000
I

40 kN
I I
I . L 800
Aluminium

1000

t I
(b)

Fig. 3.7
Solution The free body diagram of each section is drawn in Fig. 3.7(b). Stress in steel,

OM= 40’000 = 3 1.8 N/mm’

(x/4) x 402
Change in length,

= 40,000
[
800
(x/4) x 202 x 200,000
= 0.5093 + 0.4547 = 0.964 mm
+
(x/4) x loo0 1
402 ~ 7 0 , 0 0 0

0
Example 3.10 Stress in a piston
The piston of a steam engine is 60 mm 4 and operates in a cylinder of diameter
400 mm. The piston rod is 1 m long. What is the maximum pressure that can be allowed in
the cylinder, if the stress in the rod is limited to 80 N/mm’? What will be the change in the
length of the piston at this pressure? E = 200 GPa.
Sohtion The physical situation is represented in Fig. 3.8. I f p is the maximum pressure
permissible, the force on the rod is given by
P = p [ ( ~ / 4x) 4002 - ( ~ / 4x)602]
P p[(x/4) x 400’ - ( ~ 1 4x) 60’1
Stress in the rod = - =
A (x/4) x 60’
This stress is limited to 80 N/mm’.
 Simple Stresses and Strains

r
-
Piston

- Piston rod

5-
-
T
LCylinder
-
+-Steam
pressure

Fig. 3.8
Therefore,
p(40,000~- 9 0 0 ~ )
80 =
900~
p = 1.84 N/mm2
Change in length of the rod,
~ = o.3997 mm
PL 1.84 x 3 9 , 1 0 0 ~1000
AL = -=
AE 9 0 0 x~200,000
0
3.3 TAPERING SECTIONS
If a bar subjected to loads has a uniformly tapering section, the principles of analysis
remain the same but it is necessary to arrive at the total elongation by integration.
If the tapering is not uniform, one can follow the usual procedure to analyse the
sections so long as the variation in the cross section can be expressed by a
mathematical formula. The following examples illustrate this.
Example 3.1 1 Stress in a uniformly tapering round bar
A steel rod tapers in diameter from 18 mm at one end to 9 mm at the other over a length of
900 mm. Determine the elongation in the length of the bar if E = 200 GPa.

P
k
4 Idx I
F
L