Chapter 3: Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow: 3.1 Sonic Velocity and Mach Number
Chapter 3: Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow: 3.1 Sonic Velocity and Mach Number
Chapter 3: Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow: 3.1 Sonic Velocity and Mach Number
Question No 3.2: For the isentropic flow through varying flow area, show that
A
= (
dA dp 1−M 2
p γ M2 )
and discuss the physical significance. Or, derive an expression for area ratio for isentropic flow
through a passage of varying cross sectional area and discuss the significance of the expression .
(VTU, Jun/Jul-13)
Answer: The Continuity equation is given by,
dA dV dρ
+ + =0
A V ρ
Or,
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
dA
A
=−
V
+(
dV dρ
ρ )
But isentropic equation is,
dp dρ dp dρ
=γ ⟹ =
p ρ γp ρ
But Euler’s equation is,
dp dp dV
+VdV =0 ⟹ +
ρ ρV2 V
dV −dp
=
V ρV2
From Mach number,
2 2
V =M γRT =M γ
2
( pρ )
2 2
ρV =M γp
Then,
dV −dp
= 2 (3.1)
V M γp
Therefore,
dA
A (
−dp dp
=− 2 +
M γp γp )
dA
=
dp dp dp 1
− = −
A M 2 γp γp p M 2 γ γ
1
( )
( )
2
dA dp 1−M
= (3.2)
A p γ M2
The significance of the equations (3.1) and (3.2) is discussed below:
The equation (3.1) shows that for nozzle pressure decreases as velocity increases and for
diffuser velocity decreases as pressure increases.
dp dA
quantity is negative; therefore from equation (3.2) the quantity is also negative and hence area
p A
must decrease for subsonic nozzle in the direction of fluid flow. The shape of the subsonic nozzle
(convergent nozzle) is as shown in figure 3.1.
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
dp
. In the diffuser pressure increases, so the quantity is positive; therefore from equation (3.2)
p
dA
the quantity is also positive and hence area must increase for subsonic diffuser in the direction of
A
fluid flow. The shape of the subsonic diffuser (divergent diffuser) is as shown in figure 3.1.
( )
2
1−M
For supersonic flow (M>1) the quantity 2 is negative. In the nozzle pressure decreases, so the
γM
dp dA
quantity is negative; therefore from equation (3.2) the quantity is positive and hence area must
p A
increase for supersonic nozzle in the direction of fluid flow. The shape of the supersonic nozzle
(divergent nozzle) is as shown in figure 3.2.
i.e., area must be constant. This is the situation occurs at the throat portion of the convergent-divergent
nozzle.
Note: The subsonic diffuser, subsonic nozzle and the supersonic nozzle are all of practical importance as for as the
turbomachines are concerned, while the supersonic diffuser is of interest for wind tunnel and ram jet.
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
1 2
c p T o =c p T + V
2
2
V
T o=T +
2cp
Or,
( )
To V2
2
V ( γ −1) γ −1 V 2
=1+ =1+ =1+
T 2 c pT 2 γRT 2 c
2
( )
To γ −1 2
=1+ M
T 2
(iii) Stagnation Pressure: It is defined as the pressure of a fluid when it is adiabatically decelerated to
zero velocity. The relation between the stagnation and static pressures can be written as:
( )
γ
po T o γ −1
=
p T
[ ( ) ]
γ
po γ −1 2 γ −1
= 1+ M
p 2
p
For incompressible flows, h=
ρ
po p V 2
= +
ρ ρ 2
2
ρV
po =p+
2
(iv) Stagnation Density: The stagnation density can be defined by using stagnation pressure and
temperature. For an isentropic process,
( )
1
ρo T o γ −1
=
ρ T
[ ( ) ]
1
ρo γ −1 2 γ−1
= 1+ M
ρ 2
state would be 2’ while stagnation state would be 02’. Line 1-2 in static coordinates and line 01-02 in
stagnation coordinates represent the real process.
The actual work input for compression process is,
w=h 02−h01
The ideal work input can be calculated by any one of the following four equations:
(i) Totol-to-total work input is the ideal work input for the stagnation ends,
w t−t =h02 ' −h 01
(ii) Total-to-static work input is the ideal work input for the stagnation inlet to the static exit,
w t− s=h2 ' −h 01
(iii) Static-to-total work input is the ideal work input for the static inlet to the stagnation exit,
w s−t =h02 ' −h1
(iv) Static-to-static work input is the ideal work input for the static inlet to the static exit,
w s−s =h2 ' −h1
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
As the constant pressure lines are diverging towards the right hand side of the temperature-
entropy diagram, the isentropic work per stage increases as the temperature difference increases for the
same pressure ratio and the stage efficiency. For example, in the second stage between pressures p A
and pB, the isentropic temperature difference represented by the line A-Y is greater than that
represented by the line X-O. It is therefore the isentropic work for the stage is greater by virtue of the
inefficiency of the previous stage. Similarly for the next stage also.
Therefore, w s < ( Δ w s 1+ Δw s 2+ Δ w s 3 )
Or, w s < ΣΔ ws
ws
<1
ΣΔ w s
ws
Therefore, the Preheat factor is always less than unity for multistage compressor. This is due to
ΣΔ w s
the preheating of the fluid at the end of each compression stage and this appears as the losses in the
subsequent stages.
Question No 3.7: For a multistage compressor, show that the overall efficiency is less than the stage
efficiency using T-s diagram. (VTU, Jun/Jul-08)
Answer: Consider three stage compressor working between inlet pressure p 1 and the delivery pressure
p2 as shown in the figure 3.4. The intermediate pressures are being p A and pB. The stage pressure ratio,
pr and the stage efficiency, ηst are assumed to be same for all stages. The process 1-2’ and 1-2 are the
isentropic and actual compression process respectively.
If the overall efficiency of the multistage compressor is ηo, then the total actual work is given by,
ws
w a=
ηo
Or, w s=ηo wa
The total actual work can also be written as the sum of the actual work done in each stage,
Δ w s1 Δ w s 2 Δ w s 3
w a=w a 1 +w a 2+ wa 3= + +
ηst ηst η st
1
w a=
ηst
( Δ ws 1 + Δ ws 2 + Δ w s3 )
1
w a= ΣΔw s
ηst
Or, ΣΔ ws =ηst w a
As the constant pressure lines are diverging towards the right hand side of the temperature-
entropy diagram, the isentropic work per stage increases as the temperature difference increases for the
same pressure ratio and the stage efficiency.
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
Therefore, w s < ( Δ w s 1+ Δw s 2+ Δ w s 3 )
Or, w s < ΣΔ ws
η o w a <η st wa
η o< ηst
For multistage compressor, the overall isentropic efficiency is less than the stage efficiency.
3.4.3 Infinitesimal Stage Efficiency or Polytropic Efficiency:
Question No 3.8: Obtain an expression for polytropic efficiency for a compressor in terms of
pressure ratio and temperature ratio. Further express stage efficiency in terms of polytropic
efficiency and pressure ratio. Also draw the relevant T-s diagram. (VTU, Jun/Jul-13) Or, Define the
term infinitesimal stage efficiency of a compressor. Show that the polytropic efficiency during the
Answer: A finite compressor stage is made up of number of infinitesimal stages; the efficiency of
these small stages is called polytropic efficiency or infinitesimal stage efficiency.
Consider a single stage compressor having its stage efficiency η st, operates between the
pressures p1 and p2, and an infinitesimal stage of efficiency ηp, working between the pressures p and
p+dp as shown in figure 3.5.
The infinitesimal stage efficiency is given by,
Isentropic Temperature Rise dT '
ηp = =
Actual Temperature Rise dT
The actual temperature rise for infinitesimal stage is given by,
dT =
dT ' T −T
=
'
=
T ( TT' −1)
ηp ηp ηp
[( ) ]
γ−1
p+ dp γ
−1
dT p
=
T ηp
[( ) ]
γ −1
dT 1 dp
= 1+ γ
−1
T ηp p
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
ln ( )
T2
=
1 γ−1
T 1 ηp γ
ln
p2
p1 ( )
ηp =
γ −1
γ
ln
p2
p1( )
ln
( )
T2
T1
Question No 3.9: With the help of T-s diagram, show that polytropic efficiency during the
γ −1
ηpγ
p
=Const
T
For actual compression process 1-2,
( )
γ−1
T2 p2 ηpγ
=
T1 p1
Assume actual compression process having polytropic index ‘n’,
( )
n−1
T2 p2 n
=
T1 p1
Therefore,
( ) ( )
γ −1 n−1
p2 ηp γ p2 n
=
p1 p1
Equating the indices,
γ −1 n−1
=
ηp γ n
Or,
( ) [( ) ]
γ −1
T 2' p2 γ
T1 −1 −1
T −T 1 T1 p1
η st = 2 ' = =
( ) [( ) ]
T 2−T 1 T p2 γ −1
T 1 2 −1 ηp γ
−1
T1 p1
p2
Let, pr =
p1
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
γ −1
Pr γ −1
η st = γ −1
ηpγ
P r −1
3.4.4 Multistage Compressors:
Question No 3.11: Derive an expression for an overall isentropic efficiency for multistage
compression in terms of pressure ratio, polytropic efficiency, number of stages and ratio of specific
heats for a compressor. Or,
γ−1
K
γ
Pr −1
Show that for a multistage compression the overall isentropic efficiency is given by η o= γ−1
K
ηp γ
P r −1
Where K= number of stages, Pr= pressure ratio per stage, ηp= polytropic efficiency, γ= ratio of
specific heats.
Answer: The figure 3.6 shows the T-s diagram for compression process in multistage compressor
p K +1
operating between the pressures p1 and pK+1. If there are K stages with the overall pressure ratio
p1
and having equal stage efficiency and stage pressure ratio.
The overall efficiency of the multistage compressor is,
Total Isentropic Temperature Rise
η o=
Total Actual Temperature Rise
η o=
T ( K +1) ' −T 1
=
T1 (T ( K+ 1) '
T1
−1)
( )
T K +1−T 1 T K+1
T1 −1
T1
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
γ−1
P roγ −1
η o= γ−1
ηpγ
P ro −1
The overall pressure ratio can be written as, pro = pKr
Then overall efficiency of multistage compressor is,
γ−1
K
γ
Pr −1
η o= γ−1
K
ηp γ
P r −1
Question No 3.12: Derive an expression for an overall isentropic efficiency for finite number of
stages of compression in terms of pressure ratio, stage efficiency, number of stages and ratio of
specific heats for a compressor. (VTU, May/Jun-10) Or, Show that for a finite number of stages for
compression the overall isentropic efficiency is given by
γ −1
K
γ
Pr −1
η o=
[ ]
γ−1 K
γ
P r −1
1+ −1
ηst
Where K= number of stages, P r= pressure ratio per stage, ηst= stage efficiency, γ= ratio of specific
heats. (VTU, Jan/Feb-06)
Answer: If T1 is the initial temperature at which the fluid enters the multistage compressor, K is the
number of stages having equal pressure ratio pr in each stage, then the actual temperature rise in each
stage can be given as follows:
For first stage:
∆ T 1=( T 2−T 1 )=
( T 2' −T 1 )
=
T1 ( T 2'
T1
−1 ) γ −1
P γ −1
=T 1 r
η st ηst η st
γ−1
γ
Let A= Pr −1
ηst
∆ T 1= A T 1
For second stage:
∆ T 2=( T 3−T 2 )= A T 2= A ( T 1+ A T 1 )
∆ T 2= A T 1 ( 1+ A )
For third stage:
∆ T 3=( T 4 −T 3 ) = A T 3=A [ T 2 + A T 1 ( 1+ A ) ]
∆ T 3= A [ ( T 1 + A T 1 ) + A T 1 ( 1+ A ) ]= A [ T 1 ( 1+ A ) + A T 1 ( 1+ A ) ]
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
∆ T 3= A [ ( 1+ A ) ( T 1+ A T 1 ) ] =A T 1 [ (1+ A )( 1+ A ) ]
∆ T 3= A T 1 ( 1+ A )2
Similarly for fourth stage:
3
∆ T 4 =A T 1 ( 1+ A )
And for Kth stage:
K−1
∆ T K = A T 1 ( 1+ A )
Total temperature rise across the multistage compressor is:
∆ T o=∆ T 1 + ∆T 2 +∆ T 3 +∆ T 4 +…+ ∆ T K
2 3 K−1
∆ T o= A T 1 + A T 1 ( 1+ A ) + A T 1 ( 1+ A ) + A T 1 ( 1+ A ) + …+ A T 1 ( 1+ A )
∆ T o= A T 1 [ 1+ (1+ A )+ ( 1+ A ) + (1+ A ) + …+ ( 1+ A ) ]
2 3 K−1
∆ T o= A T 1 S
2 3 K−1
Where S=1+ (1+ A )+ ( 1+ A ) + ( 1+ A ) + …+ ( 1+ A )
S=1+ (1+ A ) [ 1+ ( 1+ A )+ ( 1+ A ) …+ ( 1+ A ) ]
2 K −2
S=1+ (1+ A ) [ 1+ ( 1+ A )+ ( 1+ A ) …+ ( 1+ A ) ]
2 K −2 K−1 K −1
Or, + ( 1+ A ) −( 1+ A )
∆ T o=T 1 [ ( 1+ A ) −1 ]
K
[( ) ]
γ −1 K
Pr γ −1
∆ T o=T 1 1+ −1
η st
η o=
T ( K +1) ' −T 1
=
T1
( T ( K+ 1) '
T1
−1
) =
T1 P (
γ −1
ro
γ
−1 )
∆To ∆ To ∆T o
T (P )
γ−1
K
γ
1 r −1
η o=
[( ) ]
γ −1 K
γ
P r −1
T 1 1+ −1
η st
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
γ −1
K
γ
Pr −1
η o=
[ ]
γ−1 K
γ
P r −1
1+ −1
ηst
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
The thermodynamic effect of multistage expansion can be studied by considering three stage
turbine working between inlet pressure p1 and the delivery pressure p2 as shown in the figure 3.8. The
intermediate pressures are being pA and pB. The stage pressure ratio, pr and the stage efficiency, ηst are
assumed to be same for all stages. The process 1-2’ and 1-2 are the isentropic and actual expression
process respectively.
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
Question No 3.15: For a multistage turbine, show that the overall efficiency is greater than the stage
efficiency using T-s diagram. (VTU, Jun/Jul-08)
Answer: Consider three stage turbine working between inlet pressure p1 and the delivery pressure p2 as
shown in the figure 3.8. The intermediate pressures are being p A and pB. The stage pressure ratio, pr
and the stage efficiency, ηst are assumed to be same for all stages. The process 1-2’ and 1-2 are the
isentropic and actual expansion process respectively.
If the overall efficiency of the multistage expansion is ηo, then the total actual work is given by,
w a=η o ws
Or,
wa
w s=
ηo
The total actual work can also be written as the sum of the actual work done in each stage,
w a=wa 1 +w a 2+ wa 3=ηst Δ ws 1 +η st Δw s 2+ ηst Δ w s 3
w a=η st ( Δ w s 1 + Δ ws 2 + Δ ws 3 )
w a=η st ΣΔ w s
Or,
wa
ΣΔ ws =
η st
As the constant pressure lines are diverging towards the right hand side of the temperature-
entropy diagram, the isentropic work per stage increases as the temperature difference increases for the
same pressure ratio and the stage efficiency.
Therefore, ( Δ w s1 + Δ w s 2+ Δ w s 3 ) >w s
Or, ΣΔ ws > ws
wa wa
>
η st ηo
η o> ηst
For multistage turbine, the overall isentropic efficiency is greater than the stage efficiency.
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
Question No 3.16: Define the term infinitesimal stage efficiency of a turbine. Show that the
(
dT =η p dT '=η p (T −T ' ) =η p T 1−
T'
T )
[ ( ) ]
γ−1
dT p−dp
=η p 1− γ
T p
[ ( ) ]
γ−1
dT dp
=η p 1− 1− γ
T p
n n ( n−1 ) 2
By series of expansion, ( 1−x ) =1−nx + x −… and neglecting second order differentials,
2
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
dT
T [ (
=η p 1− 1−
γ −1 dp
γ p )]
dT γ−1 dp
=η p (3.4 )
T γ p
By integration with limits 1 to 2,
ln
( )
T2
T1
=η p
γ −1
γ
ln
p2
p1 ( )
ηp =
ln
( )
T2
T1
γ −1
γ
p
ln 2
p1( )
Or,
ηp=
γ
γ −1
T
ln 2
T1 ( )
ln
( )
p2
p1
Question No 3.17: With the help of T-s diagram, show that polytropic efficiency during expansion
( γ −1γ )( n−1
process is given by η p =
n )
(VTU, Dec-08/Jan-09, Jun/Jul-14)
( )
γ −1
T2 p2 ηp
γ
=
T1 p1
Assume actual compression process having polytropic index ‘n’,
( )
n−1
T2 p2 n
=
T1 p1
Therefore,
( ) ( )
γ−1 n−1
p2 ηp
γ p2 n
=
p1 p1
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
( γ −1γ )( n−1
ηp=
n )
(3.5)
Question No 3.18: Show that the index ‘n’ of polytropic expansion in a turbine of infinitesimal
γ
stage efficiency ηp is given by n= , where γ is a ratio of specific heats. (VTU, Dec-10)
γ −( γ −1 ) η p
Answer: From equation (3.5),
( ) [ () ]
γ −1
T p ηp
T 1 1− 2 1− 2 γ
T 1−T 2 T1 p1
η st = = =
( ) [ () ]
T 1−T 2 ' T 2' p2 γ−1
T 1 1− 1−
γ
T1 p1
p1
Let, pr =
p2
− ηp ( γ −1
γ )
1−Pr
η st =
1−Pr
− ( γ−1γ )
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
( ) [ ( ) ]
γ −1
T K +1 p ηp
T 1 1− 1− K +1 γ
T −T K+1 T1 p1
η o= 1 = =
( ) [ ( )]
T 1−T ( K +1) ' T ( K +1) ' p ( K+1 ) '
γ−1
T 1 1− 1−
γ
T1 p1
p1
Let, pro =
p K +1
− ηp ( γ −1
γ )
1−Pro
η o=
−
1−P ro
( γ −1γ )
The overall pressure ratio can be written as, pro = pKr
Then overall efficiency of multistage turbine is,
(
− ηp
γ −1
γ
K )
1−Pr
η o=
1−P r
− ( γ −1γ K )
Question No 3.21: Derive an expression for an overall isentropic efficiency for finite number of
stages of expansion in terms of pressure ratio, stage efficiency, number of stages and ratio of
specific heats for a turbine. (VTU, Jul-07) Or,
Show that for a finite number of stages for expansion the overall isentropic efficiency is given by
{ [ ]}
K
( )
γ−1
1
1− 1−ηst 1− γ
pr
η o=
[ () ]
γ −1
1 K
1− γ
pr
Where K= number of stages, P r= pressure ratio per stage, ηst= stage efficiency, γ= ratio of specific
heats. (VTU, Jun/Jul-09)
Answer: If T1 is the initial temperature at which the fluid enters the multistage turbine, K is the
number of stages having equal pressure ratio pr in each stage, then the actual temperature drop in each
stage can be given as follows:
For first stage:
( ) [ () ]
γ −1
T 2' p
∆ T 1=( T 1−T 2 )=η st ( T 1−T 2 ' )=T 1 η st 1− =T 1 η st 1− 2 γ
T1 p1
[ () ]
γ −1
1
∆ T 1=T 1 η st 1− γ
pr
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
[ () ]
γ −1
1
Let, B=η st 1− γ
pr
∆ T 1=BT 1
For second stage:
∆ T 2=( T 2−T 3 )=B T 2=B ( T 1−B T 1 )
∆ T 2=B T 1 ( 1−B )
For third stage:
∆ T 3=( T 3−T 4 ) =BT 3=B [ T 2−B T 1 ( 1−B ) ]
K
S=1+ S−SB−( 1−B )
K
SB=1−( 1−B )
But, ∆ T o=S BT 1
{{ [ ]} }
K
( )
γ −1
1
∆ T o=T 1 1− 1−ηst 1− γ
pr
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Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
{{ [ ]} } { [ ( ) ]}
K K
( )
γ −1 γ −1
1 1
T 1 1− 1−η st 1− γ
1− 1−η st 1− γ
pr pr
∆To
η o= = =
( ) [ ( )]
T 1−T ( K +1) ' T (K +1 )' p ( K+1 )'
γ−1
γ
T 1 1− 1−
T1 p1
p1 K
But, = pro = pr
p ( K+1 )'
{ [ ]}
K
( )
γ−1
1
1− 1−ηst 1− γ
pr
η o=
[ () ]
γ −1
1 K
1− γ
pr
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