The course is clear, logical and concise,

and should well serve its purpose.

Higher Education Journal
 GEOMETRY

A knowledge of the fundamental principles of geometry is

essential for the study of other branches of mathematics
such as trigonometry and mechanics, subjects which are of
vital importance to engineers as well as to those who are
proceeding to more advanced work in mathematics. This
book provides a lucid introduction to the basic principles of
practical and abstract geometry. It is designed for those
with no previous knowledge of mathematics beyond simple
arithmetic, and thus will be of value both to beginners and
to students who seek a simple refresher course.

TEACH YOURSELF BOOKS

GEOMETRY

P. Abbott
B.A.

V
TEACH YOURSELF BOOKS
Hodder and Stoughton
 First printed in this form March 1948
Revised edition 1970
Third impression 1973
Fourth impression 1976
Fifth impression 1977

Copyright © 1970 edition

Hodder and Stoughton Limited

All rights reserved; No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording,
or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.

isbn o 340 05595 2

Printed in Great Britain

for Hodder and Stoughton Paperbacks, a division of
Hodder and Stoughton Ltd, Mill Road, Dunton Green, Sevenoaks, Kent
(Editorial Office; 47 Bedford Square, London WCi 3DP)
by Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press}, Ltd., Bungay, Suffolk
 PREFACE
The primary object of this book is to provide an intro­
duction to the fundamental principles of Geometry suitable
for a private student, whether he be one who is desirous of
beginning the study of the. subject or one who, after a com­
pulsory gap in his education, wishes to refresh his memory
of previous studies.
The general plan of the book, modified in accordance
with its special purpose, follows, in the main, recommenda­
tions made some years ago by the Teaching Committee of
the Mathematical Association, of which committee the
writer was at the time the Hon. Secretary. Accordingly
there is a first part which is intended to lead the student to
a realization of basic geometric truths by appealing to
common sense reasoning and intuition. The usual proofs,
when introduced are considerably modified, the formal
proofs in logical sequence being postponed to Part II.
The use of geometry in our everyday life is constantly
indicated so that the student does not feel that the subject
is merely one of academic interest.
Very little “ practical geometry,” involving drawing and
measurements, is employed, as it is thought to be hardly
suitable to the kind of student for whom the book is written.
When, however, the theorems enunciated are suitable for
the purpose, a considerable number of numerical exercises
are included, their main purpose being to impress the
theorems on the memory. Also such elementary mensura­
tion as arises naturally from the geometry is introduced
and the student thus acquires a knowledge of the ordinary
rules for the calculation of areas and volumes.
No previous knowledge of Mathematics, beyond ordinary
Arithmetic, is required by a student who proposes to use
V
vi PREFACE

the book. It is desirable, however, from every point of

view that the student who possesses but little knowledge of
algebra should begin his study of that subject concurrently.
At a later stage, Trigonometry should be started when the
student will begin to find himself weaving together threads
from all three subjects and realising their interdependence.

NOTE ON THE 1970 EDITION

This edition has been revised to cover the introduction
into Britain of SI {Systems Internationale), the internation­
ally agreed metric system.
In two respects the book ignores SI. First, for various
reasons the centimetre is officially excluded from the units
available, but many eminent people have already objected
to this decision, and it is certainly true that it is more con­
venient to handle centimetres when making constructions.
Secondly, we have completely ignored the use of the radian,
a unit of angular measure. Its advantages are not apparent
in the earlier stages of mathematics and there are not many
protractors available marked in radians, and as with the
centimetre, it is more convenient in practice.
If the student does come across radians before being
introduced to them, he can convert them to degrees by
multiplying by 360/2-rt.
 CONTENTS
PARA. PAGE

Introduction. What is Geometry ? « • • xv

PART I
PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL GEOMETRY

CHAPTER I
SOLIDS, LINES, POINTS AND SURFACES
1-8. Geometric figures. Solids, lines, points, plane
surfaces ....... 19

CHAPTER 2
ANGLES
9-20. Adjacent, vertically opposite, right, acute, obtuse.
Angles formed by rotation. Geometric theorems,
converse theorems. Angles at a point . . 26

CHAPTER 3
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
21-25. The circle. Degrees, protractors, complementary
and supplementary angles .... 36
Construction No. I
Exercise 1.

CHAPTER 4
SIMPLE GEOMETRY OF PLANES
26-30. Planes. Angle between two planes. Vertical and
horizontal planes. Angles between a straight line
and a plane ....... 45
vii
viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 5
DIRECTION
PARA. PAGB

31-37. Standard directions. Magnetic compass. Points

of the compass. Bearing. Angle of elevation.
Altitude of the sun..................................... 50
Exercise 2.

CHAPTER 6
TRIANGLES
38-49. Rectilineal figures. Perimeter. Triangles. Ex­
terior angles. Kinds of triangles. Altitude.
Medians. Congruent triangles. Conditions of
congruency . . ... . . 55
Exercise 3.

CHAPTER 7
PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES
50-57. Distance between parallel straight lines. Angles
formed by transversals. Properties of parallel
straight lines. Conditions of parallelism . . 67
Construction No. 2.
To draw a parallel straight line.
Exercise 4.

CHAPTER 8
ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE
58-61. Sum of angles of a triangle. Exterior and interior
angles . . . . ... . .77
Exercise 5.

CHAPTER 9
ISOSCELES TRIANGLES
62-64. Relations between sides and angles ... 81
Exercise 6.
 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 10
FUNDAMENTAL CONSTRUCTIONS
PARA. PAGS

65-73. Nos. 3-8. Equilateral triangle; bisection of angle

and straight line. Perpendiculars to a straight line 85
Exercise 7.
CHAPTER II
QUADRILATERALS. PARALLELOGRAMS
74-87. Properties of parallelograms. Diagonals of quadri­
laterals. Trapezium. Intercept theorem. . 94
Construction No. 9. Division of a straight line.
Exercise 8.
CHAPTER 12
AREAS OF RECTILINEAL FIGURES
88-98. Measurement of area. Rectangles, parallelograms,
triangles, trapezium. ..... 107
Exercise 9.
CHAPTER 13
THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS
99-103. Connection between squares on sides of right-angled
triangles. Application to square and equilateral
triangle . . . . . ... 116
Exercise 10.
CHAPTER 14
POLYGONS
104-109. Angles of regular polygons. Circumscribing circles.
Construction of polygon ..... 122
Construction No. 10. Regular polygon.
Exercise 11.
CHAPTER 15
LOCI
110-119. Construction of loci from given conditions. Loci
by plotting points; parabola; hyperbola;
cycloid. Intersection of loci . . . 128
Exercise 12.
x CONTENTS

CHAPTER 16
THE CIRCLE
PARA. PAGE

120-125. Arcs, sectors; length of circumference; area. . 142

Exercise 13.

CHAPTER 17
THE CIRCLE (contd.)
126-131. Chords and segments ...... 151
Construction No. 11. Centre of a circle.
Exercise 14.

CHAPTER 18
THE CIRCLE (contd.)
132-136. Angles in segments. Inscribed quadrilaterals . 156
Exercise 15.

CHAPTER 19
CIRCLE. TANGENTS
137-144. Tangents to circles. Angles in alternate segments. 161
Constructions Nos. 12, 13, 14, Drawing tangents
Exercise 16.

CHAPTER 20
RATIO IN GEOMETRY. SIMILAR FIGURES
145-151. Similar triangles; ratios of sides; fixed ratios
connected with angles; tangents, sines, cosines.
Areas of similar figures ..... 169
Construction No. IS. Division of a straight line.
Exercise 17.

CHAPTER 21
EXTENSION OF THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS
152-155. Relations between the sides of any triangle . . 179
Exercise 18.
 CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER 22
SYMMETRY
PARA. PAGB

156-160. Symmetry in geometrical figures. Axis of sym­

metry. Symmetry in curves . . . .186
Exercise 19.

CHAPTER 23
SOLID GEOMETRY
161-164. Parallel planes ....... 190

CHAPTER 24
PRISMS
165-175. Regular prisms; cross sections. Cylinder; area of
surface of cylinder. ' Volumes of prisms; volume
of cylinder ....... 193
Exercise 20.

CHAPTER 25
PYRAMIDS
176-184. Construction of a pyramid. Regular pyramids.
Cones. Area of surface of pyramids and cone.
Volumes of pyramid and cone. Frusta . . 201
Exercise 21.

CHAPTER 26
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
185-193. Cylinder, cone, sphere as formed by rotation. The
earth as a sphere. Determination of position on
the earth’s surface. Latitude and longitude.
Surface and volume of a sphere . . .211
Exercise 22.
xil CONTENTS

PART II
PAaa
Introduction.—Nature of formal geometry . . 220
Section. Subject. Theorems.
1. Angles at a point. 1, 2, 3 . 222
Exercise 23.
2. Congruent triangles and exterior angles. 4, 5 225
Exercise 24.
3. Parallels. 6-9 . 228
Exercise 25.
4. Angles of a triangle and regular polygon 10-12 . 234
Exercise 26.
5. Triangles 13-17
(Congruent and isosceles) . 238
Exercise 21.
6. Inequalities. 18-21 . 244
Exercise 28.
7. Parallelograms. 22-28 . 249
(intercepts on parallel straight lines)
Exercise 29.
8. Areas of parallelograms. 29-32 . 258
Construction No. 16. . 263
Exercise 30.
9. Right-angled triangles. 33-34 . 265
Exercise 31.
10. Extensions of Theorem of Pythagoras. 35-36 . 269
Exercise 32.
11. Chords of circles. 37-39 . 272
Exercise 33.
12. Angle properties of circles. 40-47 . 276
Exercise 34.
13. Tangents to a circle. 48-51 . 285
Constructions Nos. 17-19. . 291
Exercise 35.
14. Concurrencies connected with a triangle. 52-55 . 295
(Inscribed, circumscribed and escribed triangles)
Exercise 36.
 CONTENTS xiii
PAG>
Section. Subject. Theorems.
15. Ratio in Geometry. 56-64 . 303
Exercise 37.
16. Constructions Nos. 20-22. . 322
(Proportional division of straight lines)

Appendix A. Geometrical representation of alge­

braical identities ...... 326
Appendix B. Sections of cones and cylinders . 328

Answers . . . . . . . . 330
 ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are used occasionally
throughout this book.
Sign. Meaning.
= is equal to.
> is greater than.
< is less than.
|| is parallel to.
Z angle.
A triangle.
sq. square.
|| gram parallelogram.
rect. rectangle.
rt. right.
therefore.

xiv
 INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS GEOMETRY?
1. The Practical Origin of Geometry.
The word “ geometry ” is derived from two Greek
words, and means “earth measurement." This suggests
that in its beginnings the subject had a practical basis,
with which the Greeks were familiar. It is known that the
Greeks did not originate geometry, but became acquainted
with the subject through their intercourse with the
Egyptians, who, by tradition, were the first to develop the
science. Ancient inscriptions and records indicate that this
gifted race employed some of the principles of geometry
in land surveying, together with simple developments, such
as are now included in the subject of Trigonometry.
This practical application of geometry appears to have
originated in the annual recurrence of widespread floods in
the Nile valley. These resulted in the obliteration of many
of the boundaries of private lands. Hence the necessity
of restoring them after the subsidence of the waters of the
river. Originally the work was undertaken by the priests;
to accomplish it they applied certain geometrical principles,
many of which they no doubt discovered.
It is also a fair assumption that the construction of their
massive temples, tombs and pyramids could scarcely have
been accomplished without a considerable knowledge of
geometry and mechanical principles.
2. The Development of Abstract Geometry by the Greeks.
It was, however, the abstract conceptions and logical
reasoning of geometry which made a special appeal to the
Greeks: to them, abstract reasoning of any kind was con­
genial. Consequently, when philosophers adopted geometry
as a subject for study and discussion, they were not satis­
fied with the knowledge of some geometrical truth; they
sought for logical and incontrovertible proof of it.
XV
xvi INTRODUCTION

Gradually there came into being a considerable body of

geometric theorems, the proofs of which were known and
were parts of a chain of logical reasoning. The proof of
any particular theorem was found to be dependent on some
other theorem or theorems, and logically could not be based
on them unless the truth of these, in their turn, had been
established. Nothing was to be assumed, or taken for
granted, except certain fundamental self-evident truths,
termed axioms, which from their nature were usually
incapable of proof.
Thus there gradually was established a body of geo­
metrical knowledge forming a chain of geometrical reasoning
in a logical sequence. ' •
3. Euclid’s Sequence.
As far as is known, one of the first mathematicians to
formulate such a logical sequence was Euclid, who was
bom about 330 b.c. His book, which incorporated work
accomplished by previous writers, was one of the most
famous ever written upon a mathematical subject. It
became the recognised text-book on elementary geometry
for some two thousand years, extending to our own times.
In modem times it has been displaced by a variety of text­
books, intended to render the subject more in accordance
with the needs of the age. These books, in varying degrees,
avoid what are now recognised as defects in Euclid, intro­
duce changes in the sequence and incorporate such new
topics and matter as modem opinion and necessity demand.
It has also become usual that a course in practical geometry
should precede the study of abstract formal geometry.
This method, with some modifications, has been followed
in this book.
4. The Practical Aspects of Geometry.
We have seen that in its origins geometry was essentially
a practical subject. This aspect of it has of necessity
continued to be of increasing importance throughout the
centuries, since it is essential in all draughtsmanship
necessary in the work of engineers, architects, surveyors,
and others.
 INTRODUCTION xvii

Practical geometry, in this sense, is mainly concerned

with the construction of what may be termed geometrical
figures. Some of the simpler of these constructions have
always been included in the abstract logical treatment of
the subject, the accuracy of the methods employed being
proved theoretically. For example, in practical geometry
we may learn the mechanical method of bisecting a straight
line, and go no farther. But the method is made evident
by theoretical geometry, and has been proved logically and
conclusively to produce the desired result.
A knowledge of the fundamental principles of geometry
is also necessary for the study of other branches of mathe­
matics, such as trigonometry and mechanics—subjects
which are of vital importance to engineers of all kinds as
well as to those who are proceeding to more advanced work
in mathematics.

5. The Treatment of Geometry in this Book.

Geometry may thus be treated from two aspects:
(1) The practical applications of the subject, and
(2) As a method of training in mathematical and
logical reasoning. _
These are reflected in the plan of this book, which consists
of two parts:
Part I. This will be concerned with the investigation
and study of the salient facts of elementary geometry,
practical methods, intuition and deduction being freely
employed to demonstrate their truth. It is designed to
enable the student more easily, and with more understand­
ing, to proceed to a full and logical treatment of the subject.
Part II consists of a short course of formal abstract
geometry. Limitations of space do not allow of a full
treatment, but it is hoped that it will be sufficient to enable
the student to realise the meaning, and perhaps to feel
Something of the satisfaction to be derived from the logical
completeness of mathematical reasoning, from which vague,
unsupported statements and loose thinking are excluded.
 PART I

PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL GEOMETRY

CHAPTER I
SOLIDS, LINES AND POINTS
I. Geometric Forms and Figures.
It is seldom realised to what an extent the terms and
facts of geometry are woven into the fabric of our daily
life, and how important is the part they play in our environ­
ment. Such geometric terms as square, rectangle, straight
line, circle and triangle are familiar to everybody. Most
people realise-what they signify, though ideas about them
may occasionally be vague and lacking in precision.
We are familiar also with the pictorial representation of

Oblong or Triangle Circle

Rectangle
Fig. 1.
these terms by means of drawings such as are shown in
Fig. 1. These drawings we may call geometric figures.
They will be found very useful when examining and dis­
cussing the properties of the particular forms represented.

2. Geometric Figures and Solids.

Many of the geometric figures which we see around us are
surfaces of what are termed solid bodies. As an example,
examine the outside cover of an ordinary box of matches.
20 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
This box has six sides or faces, each of which is an oblong
or a rectangle.
This box may be represented by a drawing in two ways.
In Fig. 2 (a), it is drawn as we see it. Owing to the wood of
which the box is composed, three faces only of the box are
visible. But for the examination of the figure from the
point of view of geometry, it is usually drawn as shown in
Fig. 2 (Z>). There it is represented as though the solid
were a kind of skeleton, constructed with fine wires, so that
all the faces can be seen. Those which are actually hidden,
in reality, are represented by dotted lines.
In this form we are better able to examine the construc­
tion of the body and to develop relations which exist between
parts of it. For example, attaching letters to the corners

Fig. 2.
for the purpose of reference, we can state that the faces
ABCD, EFGH, are equal. Similarly, BCGF and ADHE
are a pair of equal opposite faces, and so are ABFE and
DCGH.
We spoke above of this as a solid body, and we must dwell
for a moment on the sense in which the term is used in
geometry. In the ordinary way we mean by the term
“ solid ” something which is compact with matter. But in
geometry we are concerned only with a portion of space
enclosed or bounded by surfaces, and are not concerned with
the matter or material which it might or might not contain.
We think only of the abstract shape of the solid. Thus :
A solid body from the point of view of geometry is con­
ceived as occupying space, and the amount of this space is
called its volume.
 SOLIDS, LINES AND POINTS 21
3. Surfaces, Lines, Points.
Examining in more detail the box represented in Fig. 2,
we note the following points:
(1) The box is bounded or enclosed by six faces or
sides, which we call surfaces.
(2) Two adjacent faces meet in a straight line, which
is called an edge. Thus the faces ABCD and FBCG
meet in the straight line BC. In the whole solid there
are twelve of these edges.
(3) The Intersection of two edges is a point. For
example, the edges AB and BC meet in a point which
is indicated by B.' There are eight such points,
commonly referred to as corners. Each of these also
indicates the meeting point of three edges. Thus B
marks the intersection of the edge BF with the edges
AB and BC.

4. Definitions.
In the preceding section three geometric terms occur:
surface, straight line, point. It is very important, when
geometric terms are employed, that we should be quite
clear as to the precise meanings which are attached to them.
It is necessary, therefore, that such terms should be clearly
and accurately defined.
Before proceeding to deal with definitions of the terms
above, it is desirable that we should consider for a moment
what should constitute a clear and accurate definition. At
a later stage this will be dOalt with more fully, but it may
be stated now that definitions should employ no words
which themselves require definition. Further, they should
contain no more words or statements than are necessary for
accurate description.
There are terms in geometry, however, ..which describe
fundamental notions, for which no satisfactory definitions
have been framed, or are possible. They are terms for
which no simpler words can be found, and at the same time
are so clearly understood by everybody that definitions are
not really necessary; there is no misconception as to their
 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
meaning. Among such terms are those employed above—
viz., points, straight lines and surfaces.
In the same category as these, are many other words
outside geometry in everyday use, such as colour, sweet,
noise and shape, which we cannot define by the use of
simpler words, but we know exactly what they mean.
In geometry, though we may not be able to define certain
terms, such as those employed above, it is necessary to
examine further the sense in which they are employed,
when they occur in the subject.
5. Points.
It was stated in § 3 that the edges AB and BC of the box
meet in the point B. This means that the point B marks
the position in space where the straight lines AB and BC
meet. It is a familiar act with all of us to mark a position
on a piece of paper, or a map, or on a picture by making
a small dot, and we speak of that as showing some particular
position which we wish to indicate. Thus we may say that
A point indicates position in space.
Although we make a small dot, which is visible, to mark
a particular position, in theory a point has no size or magni­
tude. Sometimes, for various reasons, we make a small

cross instead of a dot to indicate position, and in that case

the point lies at the intersection of the two lines forming
the cross.
In Fig. 3 is shown the position of a point as marked by:
(a) The intersection of two straight lines, AB and
CD, atO.
 SOLIDS, LINES AND POINTS 23
(b) The meeting of two straight lines, AB and OC,
at 0.
(c) The meeting of two straight lines, OA and OB,
at 0.
(d) The intersection of two curved lines, AB and
CD.
The student should note the differentiation in the above
between a straight line and a curved line.
6. A Straight Line.
It was stated in § 3 that when two faces of the solid inter­
sected a straight line was formed. We were thus using
the term “ straight line ” before defining.it. No confusion
or misunderstanding is caused thereby, because everybody
knows what is meant by a
straight line, though no satis- ~
factory definition of it has been
formulated. However, it is \ B
necessary to investigate further -------
the term as it is used in geom- D
etry. Fig. 4.
Straight fines occur in very
many other ways besides the intersection of two faces of a
solid. They were employed, for example, in the construc­
tion of two of the geometric figures of Fig. 1. They enter
into the constructions of the majority of geometric figures.
There is a further way in which the formation of a line
may be imagined.
Suppose a point to move along the surface of the paper,
or in space. It will mark out a line, which may be straight,
curved or irregular, according to the manner in which it is
moving.
In Fig. 4 let A and B be two points on the surface of the
paper. Imagine a point at A to move to the position B.
There is an innumerable number of paths which it may take,
such as those indicated by ACB and ADB. These vary
in length, but we know intuitively that the most direct
way will be along the straight line AB, which joins the
points. Just as, if we wish to cross a field from one side
24 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
to the other, the nearest and quickest way, other things
being equal, is along a straight path.
Thus we arrive at a description of a straight line as " the
shortest distance between two points.”
It will be noted that this idea of a line being formed as
the path of a moving point is illustrated in drawing, when
the point of the pencil moves along the paper, either along
a ruler or straight edge to produce a straight line, or guided
by the compass to form a circle.
It was stated in § 5 that a point has no size or magnitude.
Consequently the straight line which marks the path of a
moving point can have no width, though when drawing a
representation of it on paper a slight width is given to it,
in order to make it visible to the eye.
It can, however, be measured in one way only—l.e., its
length. Hence a line is said to be of one dimension only;
it has length without breadth.
Axioms about Straight Lines and Points.
The following axioms, or self-evident truths, will now be
clear to the student:
(1) One straight line only can be drawn to pass through
two points.
(2) Two straight lines can intersect in one point only.
(3) Two straight lines cannot enclose a space. Other­
wise, they must meet in more than one point.
7. Surface.
It was pointed out in § 3 that the box which we were
considering—a solid—was marked off, or bounded, from the
surrounding space by six faces or surfaces. This is true
for all solids; the space which they occupy is bounded by
surfaces.
As stated previously, “ surface ” is another geometric
term which cannot be satisfactorily defined; but every
student will understand the meaning of it. You write on
the surface of a sheet of paper, you polish the surface of a
table; you may observe the surface of the water in a
tumbler.
 SOLIDS, LINES AND POINTS 25
Area of a Surface. If it is required to find the size or
magnitude of a given surface, as for example the page you
are reading, we must know both the length and breadth
of it, since the size of it evidently depends on both of these.
This will be found to be true of the surfaces covered by all
regular geometric figures; two measurements are necessary.
Hence a surface is of two dimensions. Evidently thickness
or depth does not enter into the conception of a surface.
The amount of surface covered by a figure such as a rectangle
or circle is called its area.
8. Plane Surfaces.
Some surfaces are perfectly flat or level, such as the
surface of the paper on which this is printed, or the top of
a polished table, or the surface of still water.
Such surfaces are called plane surfaces, or, more briefly,
planes. No formal definition of a plane surface can be
given, but the meaning of a flat or level surface is perfectly
clear to everybody.
Other surfaces may be curved, such as that of the sides
of a jam jar, a billiard ball, etc., but for the present we are
not concerned with these.
Test of a Plane Surface. A plane surface could be tested
as follows:
If any two points are, taken on the surface, the straight
line which joins them lies wholly in the surface.
Acting on this principle, a carpenter tests a surface, such
as that of a piece of wood, which he is “ planeing ” to produce
a level surface for a table, etc.
This is clearly not the case with curved surfaces. If, for
example, you take a rubber ball and make two dots on its
surface some distance apart, it is obvious that the straight
line joining them would not lie on the surface of the ball.
They can be joined by a curved line on the surface of the
ball, but that will be discussed in a later chapter.
We shall return to plane surface or planes later, but for
the present we shall proceed to discuss figures which lie in
a plane. Such figures are called plane figures.
 CHAPTER 2
ANGLES
9. When two straight lines meet they are said to form an
angle.
Or we may say that they include an angle.
This is a statement of the manner in which an angle is
formed; it is not a definition; and, indeed, no satisfactory
definition is possible. It is in-
B correct to say that the angle is
the space between two intersect-
ing lines: we have seen that two
_____ _____ straight lines cannot enclose a
0 A space.
fig. 5. Arms of an Angle. The
straight lines which meet to
form an angle are called the “ arms ” of the angle.
Vertex. The point where the two arms meet is called
the vertex.
In Fig. 5 AOB represents the angle formed by the meeting
of the two arms OA and OB, and 0 is the vertex.
It is evident that the size of the angle does not depend
on the lengths of the arms; this will be seen if the arms
OA, OB in Fig. 5 are produced. In making a drawing to
scale, whether the drawing is reduced or enlarged, all angles
remain the same in size.
Naming an Angle. When letters are employed to denote
an angle, it is usual to use three, as the angle AOB in Fig. 5,
the middle letter being that which is placed at the vertex.
Then OA and OB represent the arms of the angle. When
there can be no doubt as to the angle referred to, the letter
at the vertex—0 in Fig. 5—is often used by itself to denote
the angle; thus, we may speak of the angle 0.
The phrase “ the angle AOB ” may be abbreviated to
Z.AOB or AOB.
26
 ANGLES 27
10. Adjacent Angles.
When a straight line meets two other straight lines, as
AO meets CO and DO in Fig. 6, two angles are formed,
with a common vertex 0. These angles, AOD, AOC, are
called adjacent angles. If CO be produced to B, then Zs
COA, BOA are adjacent angles. So also are Zs AOD, BOD
and the Zs COD, BOD.
Definition. Angles which have a common vertex, one

common arm and are on opposite sides of the common arm,

are called adjacent angles.
When two lines intersect, as in Fig. 7, four pairs of
adjacent angles are formed.
11. Vertically Opposite Angles.
When two straight lines cut one another, as AB and
CD, which intersect at 0, in Fig. 7, the two angles AOD,
BOC are called vertically oppo­
siteangles. The other two angles
which are formed—viz., AOC,
BOD—are also vertically oppo­
site angles. Such angles have a
common vertex.
12. Right Angles.
When a straight line such as
AO meets another straight line BOC (Fig. 8) then, if the
adjacent angles are equal, each of these is called a right angle.
AO is then said to be perpendicular to BC, and BC is
perpendicular to AO.
28 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
13. Acute and Obtuse Angles.
In Fig. 8 the straight line OD is drawn to meet the
straight line BOC at 0, thus forming the angles DOC and
DOB with BC. It is evident that of these two angles:
ADOC is less than a right angle. It is called an
acute angle.
CDOB is greater than a right angle, and is called an
obtuse angle.
Hence the definitions:
An acute angle is less than a right angle.
An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle.
14. Angles Formed by Rotation.
There is another conception of the formation of an angle

which is of great importance in practical applications of

mathematics.
Take a pair of compasses, and keeping one arm fixed,
as OA in Fig. 9, rotate the other arm, OB, slowly. As the
moving arm rotates it forms with the fixed arm a succession
of angles which increase in magnitude. In Fig. 9 are shown
 ANGLES 29
four of these angles, zSOB1( AOB2, AOB3 and AOB4. Con­
sidering these angles, it is noted that:
In (a) the angle AOBt is an acute angle;
In (i>) the angle AOB2 is an obtuse angle, and
In (c) the rotating arm is in the same straight line
with the fixed arm OA. Although this seems to be
inconsistent with the idea of an angle in § 9, neverthe­
less it is formed in the same way as the acute and
obtuse angles, and so AOB3 must be regarded as an
angle, formed by rotation. This is sometimes called
a straight angle, and it will be considered again later.
(d) Continuing the rotation beyond the straight angle
a position such as AOB4 is reached. Such an angle,
greater than a straight angle, is called a reflex angle.
It must not be confused with the acute angle which
is also formed with OA. Clearly the angle which is
meant when we speak of AAOBi depends on the
direction of the rotation. This is indicated by an
arrow on the dotted curve. It is therefore important
to know the direction of the rotation before we can
be sure which angle is referred to.
15. Clockwise and Anti-clockwise Rotation.
The formation of angles by rotation may be illustrated
by the familiar example of the hands of a clock. If the
rotation of the minute hand be observed, starting from
twelve o’clock, all the above angles, acute, obtuse, straight
and reflex, will be formed in turn. For example, a straight
angle has been formed with the original position at half­
past twelve.
It will be noted, however, that the direction of the rotation
is opposite to that indicated in Fig. 9. This movement is
from left to right, whereas the minute hand moves right to
left.
When the direction of the rotation is the same as that
of the hands of a clock it is called clockwise, but when in
the opposite direction, anti-clockwise. Thus if the angle
A0B4 (Fig. 9 (<i)) is formed by clockwise rotation, it is an
acute angle, if by anti-clockwise, reflex.
3O TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Mathematically, anti-clockwise rotation is conventionally
regarded as a standard direction and considered to be
positive, while clockwise rotation is considered as negative.

16. Rotating Straight Lines.

We must now proceed to examine the idea of rotation
in the abstract by imagining the rotation of a straight line.
Suppose a straight line OA (Fig. 10) to start from a fixed
position to rotate in the plane of the paper about a fixed

point 0 on the line, the rotation being in an anti-clockwise

direction.
When it has reached any position such as OB (Fig. 10 (a)),
an angle A OB has been formed by it with the original position
OA.
Thus we have the conception of an angle as being formed
by the rotation of a straight line
about a fixed point on it, which
becomes the vertex of the angle.
As the rotation continues fo
another position such as OC (Fig.
10 (&)), an obtuse angle, AOC, is
formed. If the rotation is- con­
tinued, the position OA 'is reached,
in which A, O, A' are in the same
straight line.
A Complete Rotation. Con­
tinuing the rotation, as shown
in Fig. 11, the straight line passes through a position such
as OD, and finally returns to OA, the position from which
it started. The straight line has thus made a complete
 ANGLES 3i
rotation or revolution about the fixed point 0 which is the
centre of rotation.
A Half Rotation. It is evident that when the position
OA' is reached the rotating line has moved through half a
complete rotation. OA and OA' are now in the same
straight line. Hence the name straight angle (§ 14).
Reflex or Re-entrant Angle. When the rotating line
reaches a position such as OB, shown in Fig. 12—that is,
between a half and a complete rotation—the angle so
formed is a reflex or re-entrant angle. The dotted curve
and arrows indicate how the position has been reached
(see §14 (<f)).
Angles of Unlimited Size. The student will probably

have noticed that the rotating line, after describing a

complete rotation, may continue to rotate. In doing so
it will pass again through all the positions indicated in
Figs. 11 and 12 and go on to make two complete rotations.
In this way the minute hand of a clock makes twenty-four
complete rotations in twenty-four hours, while the hour
hand makes two complete rotations in the same period.
Clearly there is no limit to the possible number of rotations,
and therefore, from this point of view, no limit to the
size of an angle.
17. Right Angles and Rotation. The conception of an
angle as being formed by'rotation leads to a convenient
method of describing a right angle.
Let the straight line OA (Fig. 13) describe a complete
32 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
rotation as indicated by the dotted curve. In the position
OC, half a complete rotation has been made (§ 16).
Let OB be the position half-way between OA and OC.
Then with equal amounts of rotation the two angles AOB,
BOC will have been described.
Hence the angles AOB, BOC must be equal and are
therefore right angles (§ 12).
Similarly, considering the position at OD, half-way in the
rotation from OC onward to OA, the angles COD and
AOD must also be right angles, and BO and OD must be
in the same straight line.
Thus a complete rotation covers four right angles and a
half rotation two right angles. Or the straight angle AO,
OC equals two right angles.
From the above the following axiom relating to right
angles is self-evident.
Axiom. All right angles are equal.

18. Geometric Theorems.

We have seen in the previous section that if a straight
line, OA (Fig. 14), rotates through an angle, AOB, and
then continues the rotation
o through the angle BOC so
S that it is in a straight line
.Z with its initial position OA, it
has completed a half rotation.
q /__ / h a Consequently the sum of the
0 two angles must be two right
Fig. 14. angles (§ 17). The angles
AOB, BOC are adj acent angles
(§ 10)—i.e., they are the angles made when 013 meets AC.
The conclusion reached may be stated more concisely as
follows:
If the straight line OB meets the straight line AC at O,
the sum of the angles so formed, AOB and BOC, is two
right angles.
This is a statement of a geometric fact, and when expressed
in general terms is called a geometric theorem. In such a
form it would be stated thus :
 ANGLES 33
Theorem. If one straight line meets another
straight line, the sum of the two adjacent angles on
one side of it is two right angles.
In this particular case the student, after reading the last
few sections, will probably be satisfied as to the truth of
the theorem but in general, a theorem cannot be accepted
as being true until it has been proved to be so by methods
of geometric reasoning.
The first step towards this is a clear and accurate state­
ment of what has to be proved and what are the data from
which we start. Thus in the above theorem the facts,
which are given, are that one straight line (OB in Fig. 14)
meets another straight line (AOC), and so forms two
adjacent angles (BOA, BOC).
What has then to be proved is that the sum of these
angles is two right angles.
There are thus two distinct parts of the theorem, and of
all others.
(1) What is given—i.e., the data, sometimes called
the hypothesis—and
(2) The proof.
When the theorem has been stated in general form it is
customary to draw a figure by means of which the two
parts of the theorem can be clearly stated with special
reference to this figure. By the use of this figure the proof
of the theorem is developed.
19. Converse Theorems.
If the data and the proof are interchanged, we get a new
theorem which is called the
converse of the first theorem. g
Applying this to the above /
theorem (1) it may be given /
that a straight line such as p____ /_______
BO in Fig. 15 meets two other • 0 A
straight lines such as CO and Fig. 15.
AO, and that the sum of the
adjacent angles so formed—-viz., BOC, BOA—is two right
angles. These are the data or hypothesis.
34 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
(2) We then require to prove that CO and AO are in
the same straight line, or, in other words, C, 0 and A are
in the same straight line.
This new theorem may be expressed in general terms as
follows:
Theorem. If at a point in a straight line two
other straight lines, on opposite sides of it, make
the two adjacent angles together equal to two
right angles, these two straight lines are in the
same straight line.
The two theorems above are converse theorems. The
hypothesis in the first theorem is what has to be proved
in the second and vice versa.
It is important to remember that the converse of a
theorem is not always true. Examples will occur in
Part II.
It was stated above that a theorem cannot be accepted
as being true until it has been proved to be so by geometrical
reasoning. This will be adhered to in the formal treatment
of the subject in Part II of the book, but in Part I, for
various reasons, the strict proof will not always be given,
especially with such theorems as those above, which will
probably be accepted by the student as self-evident or
axiomatic. They arise naturally from the conception of
angles, and especially right angles, as being formed by the
rotation of a straight line, as in § 16.
If the student desires to see how the above theorems can
be proved he should turn to the proofs of Theorems 1 and 2
in Part II.
20. Vertically Opposite Angles.
There is an important theorem concerning vertically
opposite angles, defined in § 11, which may be stated thus:
Theorem. When two straight lines intersect,
the vertically opposite angles are equal.
The theorem is illustrated by Fig. 16, in which two
straight lines AB and CD intersect at 0, forming as shown,
 ANGLES 35
in § 11, two pairs of vertically opposite angles. It will be
sufficient if this is proved to be true for one pair of angles
only, say COB, AOD.
It is thus required to prove that /.COB = /.AOD.
Proof. In the Theorem of § 18 it was shown that:
(1) The adjacent Zs, /.COB + /.AOC = 2 right Zs.
and (2) „ „ /-AOD + /-AOC — 2 right Zs.
But things equal to the same thing are equal to one
another.
/-COB + ZAOC = /AOD + ZAOC.
Subtracting /AOC, which is common to both, the
remainders must be equal—i.e., ZCOB =. ZAOD.

Similarly, the other pair of vertically opposite angles,

AOC and BOD, may be proved equal.
The student is advised to write out this proof from
memory as an exercise.
Proof by Rotation.
'The equality of the angles is also evident by using the
method of rotation.
Suppose the straight line AOB to rotate about 0 in an
anti-clockwise direction to the position CD.
Then each arm must move through the same amount of
rotation.
/COB = /AOD.
 CHAPTER 3
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
21. The Circle.
In Fig. 1, one of the geometric figures depicted is the
familiar one known as a circle. It is a closed figure,
bounded by one continuous curve. Mechanically it is
constructed by using a pair of compasses, and the method,
though well known, is recapitulated here. The arms
having been opened out to a suitable distance represented
by OA, Fig. 17, the arm with the
B sharp point is fixed at 0 and that
Qwith the pencil is rotated with its
point moving along the surface of
the paper. The point of the pencil
then marks out the curve ABCD,
and when
This a complete
curve, rotation
the path of has
the
been made
moving point curve
theof is closed
the pencil, at A.
is called
pIG. 17. theThe
circumference circle.
of thethe
point O is called centre
of the circle, and the distances of all points on the circum­
ference from 0 are equal. This distance, OA, is called the
radius (plural radii).
A circle may now be defined as follows:
Definition. A circle is a plane figure bounded by a curved
line, called the circumference, and is such that all straight
lines drawn from points on the circumference to a fixed point
within the curve, called the centre, are equal.
The circle may also be conceived as the area marked out
in a plane by the rotation of a straight line, OA, about a
point, 0, at one end of the line.
Note.—The term " circle ” is sometimes applied to the curved
part—i.e., the circumference—when there is no doubt what is
36
 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES 37
meant, but, strictly, it is the name for the whole figure. Thus
the area of a circle, as suggested above, is the area of that part of
the plane which is enclosed by the circumference.

Arc of a Circle.
A part of the circumference is called an arc. Thus in Fig. 17
the part of the circumference between the points B and C
is an arc.
(Other definitions connected with the circle are given in
Chapter 16.)
Concentric Circles.
Circles which have the same centre but different radii are
called concentric.

Fig. 18. Fig. 19.

In Fig. 18, with centre 0, and different radii, OA, OB,

OC, three circles are described. These are concentric.
22. Measurement of Angles.
The conception of the formation of angles by the rotation
of a straight line (§ 16) leads to a convenient method of
measuring them.
When a straight line, OA, rotates about a point, 0,
Fig. 19, any point, B, on it will always be at the same
distance from 0, and consequently will describe a circle,
concentric with that described by OA, as shown in Fig. 19.
When an angle such as BOC is described, the point B has
marked out an arc of a circle, BC.
38 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
The length of the arc clearly depends on the amount of
rotation, as also does the size of the angle. The same
amount of rotation as before will produce the angle COD
equal to the angle BOC.
* Then the arc CD must clearly be equal to the arc BC.
Thus, the angle BOD being twice the angle BOC, the arc
BD will be twice the arc BC, and so for other multiples.
We may conclude, therefore, that the length of the arc
will depend on the size of the angle. If the angle be
doubled, the arc is doubled; if the angle be halved, the
arc is halved.
Suppose the circumference of the circle, when a complete
rotation has taken place, to be divided into 360 equal
parts. Then each arc is 3 Jo th of the whole circumference;
consequently the angle corresponding to this arc is sloth
of that marked out in a complete rotation.
This angle is employed as a unit of measurement for angles
and is called a degree. It is denoted by 1°. 15 degrees—
t.e., -s&th of a complete rotation—would be denoted by
15°, and so on.
It was seen in § 17 that a right angle is one-fourth of a
complete rotation, i.e., of 360°.
/. a right angle = 90°.
A straight angle, corresponding to half a rotation,
contains 180°.
Fig. 20 shows a circle, centre 0, in which the circum­
ference is divided into 360 equal parts. The arcs are
comparatively very small, and so are the corresponding
angles which, for each arc of one degree, are formed by
joining the ends of the arc to O. Any particular angle
made with OA can be constructed by joining the appropriate
point to O.
For example, Z.A0E is an angle of 45°, and Z.A0F is
120°.
The Z.A0C, the straight angle, represents 180°.
The straight line BOD is perpendicular to AOC, and thus
the angles of 90° and 270° are formed.
* For a proof of this see Part II, Theorem 46.
 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES 39
For angles smaller than one degree the following sub­
divisions are used:
(1) Each degree is divided into 60 equal parts, called
minutes, denoted by '; thus 28' means 28 minutes.
(2) Each minute is divided into 60 equal parts, called
seconds, denoted by ”. For example, 30” means 30
seconds.
Example.—An angle denoted by 37° 15' 27” means 37
degrees, 15 minutes, 27 seconds.
This subdivision of the degree is very important in marine

Fig. 20.

and air navigation, surveying, gunnery, etc., where very

great accuracy is essential.
It will be observed that the circle in Fig. 20 is divided
4o TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
by BD and AC into four equal sectors called quadrants.
These are numbered the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th quadrants,
respectively, AOB being the 1st quadrant, BOC the 2nd
quadrant, etc.
23. Protractors.
An instrument for measuring or constructing angles is
called a protractor. It may be semi-circular or rect­
angular in shape. The ordinary semi-circular protractor
is much the same as half of the circle shown in Fig. 21.

Fig. 21.
A circular protractor.

These protractors are usually made of transparent

celluloid, so that when one is placed over straight lines
these are visible. To measure the angle whose arms are
OB and OD the protractor is placed with OB over one arm.
The point on the angle scale of the protractor where
it is cut by the other arm enables us to read off the angle
BOD. In Fig. 21 this angle is 40°. A suitable modification
enables us to construct an angle of a. given size, when one
arm of the angle is fixed.
The purpose of the two sets of numbers is to make it easy
to read the angle from either end A or B. (See the next
paragraph.)
 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES 41
24. Supplementary and Complementary Angles.
(I) Supplementary angles.
When the sum of two angles is equal to two right angles,
each of the angles is called the supplement of the other.
In Fig. 22 Z-BOA is the supplement of ABOC,
and ABOC „ „ ABOA.
Example. The supplement of 30° is 180° — 30° = 150°.
Also „ 150° is 180° - 150° = 30°.
(See scales on protractor, Fig. 21).

The Theorem of § 18 could therefore be written as

follows:
If a straight line meets another straight line, the adjacent
angles are supplementary.

(2) Complementary angles.

When the sum of two angles is a right angle each of the
angles is the complement of the other.
In Fig. 23 ABOC is the complement of AAOB,
and LAOB „ „ LBOC.
Example. The complement of 30° is 90° 30° = 60°,
and „ „ 60° is 90° — 60° = 30°.

25. A Practical Problem.

The foregoing work enables us to perform a useful piece
of practical work, the first of our constructions.
42 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Construction I.
To construct an angle equal to a given angle.

Let Z.AOB, Fig. 24, be the angle which we require to

copy. We are not concerned with the number of degrees
in the angle, and a protractor is not necessary.

Method of Construction.
Take a straight line, PQ, which is to be one of the arms of
the required angle.
With 0 as centre and any suitable radius, draw an arc of
a circle, AB.

With P as centre and the same radius OB, draw another

arc, CD.
With D as centre and radius BA, draw another arc inter­
secting the arc CD in E.
Join EP.
Then AEPD is the angle required.
The two circles of which AB and ED are arcs have the
same radii. Since DE was made equal to AB, it is evident
that the arc ED is equal to the arc AB.
from previous conclusions the angles at the centre
AOB and EPD may reasonably be concluded as equal.
the angle EPD has been constructed equal to the angle
AOB.
 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES 43
Exercise I W
■, measure the angles marked with
1. Using a protractor,
Q, a cross in Fig. 25, check by find­
ing their sum. What kind of
R P angles are the following ?
(1) BOR, (2) AOQ, (3) ROQ,
B 0 -A (4) FOR, (5) POB, (6) ROA
Fig. 25. and ROB.
2. State in degrees and also as fractions of a right angle:
(a) the complement, and (b) the supplement, of one-fifth
of a right angle.
3. (a) Write down the complements of 371°, 45° 15', 72° 40'.
(&) Write down the supplements of 112°, 154° 30',
21° 15'.

A 0
Fig. 26.
4. In Fig. 26 if the AAOD = 25° and ABOC = 31°,
Find Z.COD. What is its supplement ?
5. In Fig. 27 Z.A0B is a right angle and OC and OD are
any two straight lines intersecting AO and OB at 0. Name the
angles which are complementary to AOC, AOD, COB, DOB.
6. In Fig. 28, AAOB is an acute angle and OP, OQ are
drawn perpendicular to OA and OB, respectively. What
reason could you give to justify the
statement that AA.OB — APOQ ? Q\ P
7. Without using a protractor, con­
struct angles equal to A andB in Fig. B
29. Afterwards check by measuring
the angles with a protractor.
8. Draw a straight line, PQ. At 0 A
P on one side of it, construct an Fig. 28.
angle of 72°. On the other side con-
44 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
struct an angle of 28°. Check by measuring the angle
which is the sum of these.
9. Without using a protractor, construct an angle which
is twice the angle B in Fig. 29, and another angle which is
three times the angle A.
10. Through what angles does the minute hand of a clock
rotate between 12 o’clock and (1) 12.20, (2) 12.45, (3)
2 o’clock ?
11. Through what angles does the hour hand of a clock

Fig. 29.

rotate between (1) 12 o’clock and 2 o’clock, (2) 12 o’clock

and 6 o’clock, (3) 12 o’clock and 10 minutes to one ?
 CHAPTER 4
SIMPLE GEOMETRY OF PLANES
26. Rotation of a Plane.
Every time that you turn over a page of this book you
are rotating a plane surface, or, more briefly, a plane:
this may be observed more closely by rotating the front
page of the cover. It will be noticed that the rotation
takes place about the straight line which is the intersection
of the rotating plane and the plane of the first page. It was
pointed out in § 3 that the intersection of two plane surfaces
is a straight line.
27. Angle between Two Planes.
Take a piece of fairly stout paper and fold it in two.
Let AB, Fig. 30, be the fine of the fold, Draw this straight
fine. Let BCDA.BEFA
represent the two parts
of the paper.
These can be regarded
as two separate planes.
Starting with the two
parts folded together,
keeping one part fixed,
the other part can be
rotated about AB into
the position indicated
by ABEF. In this pro­
Fig. 30.
cess the plane ABEF
has moved through an angle relative to the fixed plane. This
is analogous to that of the rotation of a line as described in
§16. We must now consider how this angle can be definitely
fixed and measured. Flattening out the whole paper again,
take any point P on the fine of the fold—i.e., AB, and draw
RPQ at right angles to AB. If you fold again, PR will
45
46 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
coincide with PQ. Now rotate again, and the line PR will
mark out an angle RPQ relative to PQ. The angle RPQ is
thus the angle which measures the amount of rotation, and
is called the angle between the planes.
Definition. The angle between two planes -is the angle
between two straight lines which are drawn, one in each plane,
at right angles to the line of intersection of the plane and from
the same point on it.
When this angle becomes a right angle the planes are
perpendicular to one another.
Numerous examples of planes which are perpendicular
to each other may be observed. The walls of the room are
perpendicular to the floor and ceiling; the surfaces of the
cover of a match-box, as shown in Fig. 2, are perpendicular
to each other, when they intersect.
The angle between two planes can be measured, in many
cases, by means of a protractor. If, for example, it is
required to measure the angle between the two planes in
Fig. 30, this can be done by measuring the angle DAF,
provided that AF and AD are perpendicular to the axis
AB. The protractor is placed so that the point 0, Fig. 21,
is at A and the line AD coincides with OB in the protractor.
The position of AF on the scale of the protractor can be
read off.
28. Vertical and Horizontal Plane Surfaces.
A Vertical Straight Line. If a small weight be attached
to a fine thread and allowed to hang freely, its direction
will always be downwards towards the earth. Regarding
the fine thread as a line, we have what is called a vertical
straight line. This is very important in many practical
ways—g.g., in engineering and building. A builder obtains
a vertical straight line as in the above experiment by
attaching a piece of lead to a fine string. This is called a
plumb line.
A Vertical Surface. A plane surface which contains
two or more vertical straight lines is a vertical surface.
For example, the surfaces of walls of a house are vertical.
Horizontal Surface. Take a glass containing water and
suspend in it a weight held by a thread (Fig. 31). Let a
 SIMPLE GEOMETRY OF PLANES 47
couple of matches float on the surface, so that ends of
the matches touch the string. It will be observed that the
string is always at right angles to the
matches. In other words, the string is
always perpendicular to any straight lines
which it intersects on the surface. Under
these conditions the thread is said to be
perpendicular to the surface.
A surface which is thus at right angles to
a vertical line or surface is called a horizontal
surface. Or it may be stated thus: a hori­
zontal surface is always perpendicular to
vertical lines or surfaces which intersect it.
Fig. 31.
29. A Straight Line Perpendicular to a Plane.
The experiment above leads to a general consideration of
the conditions under which a straight line is perpendicular
to. a plane.
Take a piece of cardboard., AB (Fig. 32), and on it draw a

Fig. 32.
number of straight, lines intersecting at a piont, 0. At 0
fix a pin, OP, so that it is perpendicular to one of these lines.
Then OP will be perpendicular to the other lines and is said
to be perpendicular to the plane AB.
Definition. A straight line is said to be perpendicular to a
plane when it is perpendicular to any straight line which it
meets in the plane.
48 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
The distance of the point P from the plane AB is given
by the length of the perpendicular, OP, drawn from it to
the plane.
30. Angle between a Straight Line and a Plane which it
Meets.
Take a set square, OPQ, and stand it on a piece of smooth
paper or cardboard, AB, so that one of the edges, OQ, con-

Fig. 33.

taining the right angle, lies along the plane and the plane
of the set square is perpendicular to the plane AB.
Thus PQ is perpendicular to the plane.
Regarding the edges as straight lines, OP meets the plane
in 0, PQ is perpendicular to the plane and OQ joins 0 to
the foot of this perpendicular.
The angle thus formed, POQ, is the angle which the
straight line OP makes with the plane.
It will be noted that if from any point R on OP a straight
line, RS, is drawn perpendicular to the plane, S will lie on
OQ. Thus the straight line OQ contains all the points in
which perpendiculars from points on OP meet the plane.
OQ is called the projection of OP on the plane AB.
Definition. The angle between a straight line and a plane
is the angle between the straight line and its projection on the
plane.
Consequently, the projection of a straight line OP on a
 SIMPLE GEOMETRY OF PLANES 49
plane which it meets at O, is the straight line intercepted on the
plane between 0 and the foot of the perpendicular drawn from
P to the plane.
This may be extended to the case in which the straight
line does not meet the plane. Thus in Fig. 33, QS is the
projection of PR on the plane AB.
 CHAPTER 5
DIRECTION
31. Meaning of Direction.
The term “ direction ” is a difficult one to define, but its
meaning is generally understood, and the definition will
not be attempted here. It is, however, often used vaguely,
as when we speak of walking “ in the direction of London ”.
We are more precise when we speak of the direction of the
wind as being, say, “ north-west ”, though this may some­
times be only roughly correct. To find exact direction
is so important in navigation, both at sea and in the air, as
well as in many other ways, that it is desirable to have precise
ideas of what is understood by “ direction ” and how it is

Fig. 34.

determined and expressed. We will begin with a simple

everyday example.
In Fig. 34, PQ represents a straight road along which a
man walks from P towards Q. 0 represents the position
of a church tower lying at some distance from the road.
At various points along the road, A, B, C, D, E, the straight
lines AO, BO, CO, DO, EO represent the direction of 0 at
these points. This direction can be described more accurately
if we know the angle which the line of direction makes with
the road. The angles, of course, change as the man walks
along, as is evident from the diagram, in which the angles
are consistently measured in an anti-clockwise direction
5°
 DIRECTION 5i
from the road. These angles can be obtained by the use of
a surveying instrument known as a theodolite. If, as an
example, the angle made by BO with the road is 45°, then
we can say that at B the direction of O makes an angle of
45° with the direction of the road.
It must be emphasised that this statement as to the
direction of 0 gives the information only relative to the
direction of the road, and this may not be known. Conse­
quently for practical purposes the statement is not precise
and does not state an absolution direction.

32. Standard Direction.

All directions are relative—i.&., they are related to some
other direction, as in the case of the road above. Therefore
it is necessary for practical purposes—e.g., navigation, that
there should be some
selected fixed direction to
which other directions can
be related. Such a direction
is called a standard direc­
tion. This is provided by
the familiar and universally
adopted system of North,
South, East and West
directions.
The North direction is
fixed by the position of the
North Pole, which is an
imaginary point at the end S
of the Earth’s axis (see Fig. 35
§ 189 and Fig. 182). The**"5’
South is the opposite direction from the North. East and
West directions are at right angles to these.
These four directions are termed the cardinal points.
They are indicated in Fig. 35 and all others between them
are related to these. Thus a direction half-way between
N. and E., and thus making angles of 45° with each,
is called North-east, and so for others as shown in
Fig. 35.
52 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
33. The Magnetic Compass.
The North direction can always be determined by the
use of the Magnetic compass or Mariners’ compass. This
instrument has a magnetised needle which is free to move
in a horizontal plane: the needle always sets, not towards
the true North, but in the direction of what is called the
Magnetic North. The amount of the angle of deflection
from the true North is known at various positions on the
Earth’s surface, and with this correction the true North
can readily be found.
34. Points of the Compass.
Fig. 36 illustrates part of the compass card or dial of a
mariners’ compass. Two diameters at right angles to one

Fig. 36.

another, and representing North-South and East-West,

divide the circle into four quadrants. Each of the quadrants
is further subdivided into eight equal divisions. Thus the
whole circle has thirty-two divisions each of which repre­
sents a definite direction. The names employed to indicate
 DIRECTION 53
these directions are shown for the first quadrant; those in
other quadrants are similarly divided and described. The
arc of each of these thirty-two divisions subtends an angle
at the centre which must be or 11|°.
Directions between these are indicated by stating the
number of degrees, from one of the 32 fixed directions,
thus:
6° East of North indicates a point between N. and N. by
E., and 6° from the North.
35. Bearing.
When the direction of one object, B, with respect to another
object A is defined by reference to a standard direction, the
angle giving this direction is called the bearing of B from A.
Thus, in Fig. 37, if A and B represent two ships, and the
angle BAN gives the direction of B from
the North, then: N
The angle BAN is called the bearing B
of B with respect to A.
If the angle BAN is 40°, then the bear­
ing of B from A is 40° East of North.
Bearings are measured in a clockwise
direction from the North. Fig. 37.
36. Angle of Elevation.
In the consideration of direction we have so far been
concerned only with direction on the horizontal plane.
But if an object such as an aeroplane is above the surface
of the Earth, in order to find its true direction its position
above the horizontal plane must be taken into account.
If, for example, a gun is to be pointed at an aeroplane, we
must not only know the horizontal bearing of the aeroplane,
but we must also know the angle through which it is neces­
sary to elevate the gun to point to it. This angle is called
the angle of elevation of the aeroplane.
In Fig. 38, if A represents the position of the aeroplane,
and 0 the position of the gun, then the latter must be
rotated from the horizontal in a vertical plane through the
angle AOB to point to the aeroplane.
54 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
The angle AOB is called the angle of elevation of the
aeroplane.
The determination of the actual height of the aeroplane
when the angle of elevation and
.✓A the range are known, is a problem
y' which requires Trigonometry for
its solution.
,0s'-------- 1 . ............ un 37. The Altitude of the Sun.
Fig 38 The angle of elevation of the sun
' is called its altitude. The deter­
mination of the altitude of the sun is of great importance
in marine navigation. The instrument which is used for
the purpose is called a sextant.
a
• Exercise 2
1. In a mariners’ compass how many degrees are there
between the E.N.E. and N.N.E. directions?
2. How many degrees are there between S.S.E. and
W.S.W. ?
3. What direction is exactly opposite to E. by S. ? (i.e.,
180° between the two directions).
4. What direction is exactly opposite to E.N.E. ?
5. If the bearing of an object is E.S.E., how many degrees
is this ?
6. A ship sailing N.N.E. changes its course by turning
through an angle of 67|°. What is then the direction of
its course?
7. If the direction of an aeroplane makes an angle of
57° 20' with the horizontal plane, what angle does it make
with the vertical plane ?
8. Two straight lines, AB and AZ), lie in the same vertical
plane. AB makes an angle of 25° with the horizontal, and
A D makes 32 ° with the vertical. What is the angle between
AB and AD ?
 CHAPTER 6
TRIANGLES
38. Rectilineal Figures.
A part of a plane surface which is enclosed or bounded by
lines is called a plane figure.
If the boundary lines are all straight lines, the figure is
called a rectilineal figure.
The least number of straight lines which can thus enclose
a space is three. It was stated in axiom 3, § 6, that two
straight lines cannot enclose a space.
When three straight lines intersect, the part of the plane

Fig. 39.
enclosed is a triangle, as Fig. 39 (a). Three angles are
formed by the intersection of the straight lines; hence the
name.
When four straight lines intersect in the same plane, the
figure formed is a quadrilateral (Fig. 39 (b)).
Perimeter. The sum of the lengths of the sides of a
rectilineal figure is called its perimeter. Thus, for the
triangle in Fig. 39 (a).
Perimeter = AB + BC + CA.
Area. The amount of the surface enclosed by the sides
of a rectilineal figure is called its area.
39. The Triangle.
Vertex. Each of the angular points of a triangle, as A,
B and C in Fig. 39 (a), is called a vertex (plural vertices).
55
56 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Base. When anyone of the three angular points of a
triangle is regarded as a vertex, the side opposite to it is
called a base, or, more accurately, the corresponding base.
In Fig. 39 (a) if A be regarded as a vertex, then BC is
the corresponding base.
40. Exterior Angles.
If a side of a triangle be produced, the angle so formed
with the adjacent side is called an exterior angle.
A In Fig. 40 the side BC is pro-
k duced to D, thus forming with
I the adjacent side, AC, the angle
/ ACD. This is an exterior angle.
/ \ Similarly, each of the sides can be
B C D produced in two directions, thus
,A forming otheT exterior angles.
40‘ There are six in all.
Note.—The student should draw a triangle and construct all the
exterior angles.
When BC is produced to D, as above, we may speak of
AACD as the corresponding exterior angle.
With other rectilineal figures—e.g., quadrilaterals—
exterior angles may similarly be constructed.
41. Kinds of Triangles.
Triangles may be classified: (1) according to their angles,
and (2) according to their sides.
(1) Triangles classified according to angles.
s'?A triangle having one of its angles
s'/ W> obtuse is called an obtuse-angled triangle
—/ (Fig. 41 (a)).

SX When one of the angles Is a right

(6) angle, the triangle is a right-angled tri-
/ angle (Fig. 41 (&)).
The side opposite to the right angle is
Fig. «. called the hypotenuse.
 TRIANGLES 57
A triangle with all its angles acute is
called an acute-angled triangle (Fig. 41 (c)).

(2) Triangles classified according to sides.

(a) A triangle with two equal sides is
called isosceles, as in Fig. 42 (a). The
angular point between the equal sides is
called the vertex and the side opposite to
it the base.

(&) When all the sides of the triangle are

equal, the triangle is equilateral, as Fig.
42 (b).

(c) When all the sides are unequal, the

triangle is called a scalene triangle (Fig.
42 (c)).
Fig. 42.
42. Altitude of a Triangle.
In triangle ABC (Fig. 43 (a)), let A be regarded as a
vertex and BC as the corresponding base.

From A draw AD perpendicular to BC.

AD is called an altitude (or height) of the triangle when
A is the vertex.
If the triangle is obtuse angled, the perpendicular drawn
from A, as in Fig. 43 (6), falls outside the triangle, and
the base BC must be produced to meet it.
58 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
If from the other vertices B and C (Fig. 43 (c)) perpendicu­
lars are drawn to corresponding opposite sides, these may
also be regarded as altitudes. Consequently when speaking
of “ the altitude of a triangle ” it must be understood that
it refers to a particular vertex and the corresponding base.
In Fig. 43 (c) three altitudes of the /\ABC have been
drawn. It will be proved later, and it may be verified
by drawing, that they meet in a point. They are said to
be concurrent (Part II, Theorem 55).
43. Medians of a Triangle.
A straight line which joins a vertex to the middle point
of the opposite side is called a median. As there are three
vertices, there are three medians. In Fig. 44, AD, BF
A
7K A

B D C BZ_----- - ----- —

Fig. 44. Fig. 45.

and CE are medians. These medians can also be shown

to be concurrent, as in Fig. 44 (Part II, Theorem 54).
44. A Useful Notation for the Sides of a Triangle.
If A, B, C are the vertices of a triangle ABC (Fig. 45), it
is found convenient to represent the sides opposite to them
by the. same letters but not capitals.
Thus the side opposite to A—i.e., BC—is represented by
a, that opposite to B—i.e., AC by b—and that opposite to
C by c. This notation makes easier the identification of
corresponding sides and angles.
Congruent triangles
45. Construction of Triangles from Fixed Data.
The method of constructing a triangle varies according
to the facts which are known about the sides and angles.
 TRIANGLES 59
We shall proceed to discover what is the minimum know­
ledge about the sides and angles which is necessary to
construct a particular triangle. It will be found that if any
one of three different sets of equal angles or sides is known
the triangle can be constructed. These sets are A, B and C
below.
A. Given the lengths of two sides and the size of
the angle between them.

Example. Construct the triangle in which the lengths of

two sides are 4 cm and 3 cm, and the angle between them is
4Q°.
I.e., Given, two sides and the angle between them.
Note.—The student should himself take a piece of smooth paper
and carry out, step by step, the method of construction given below.

Construction.
(1) Draw the straight line AB, 4 cm long (Fig. 46).
(2) At A, with a protractor, draw a line making an
angle of 40° with AB.
(3) From this line cut off A C 3 cm long.
Thus the points B and C are fixed points, and they must
be vertices of the required triangle. Join BC. This must
be the third side of the triangle, and ABC must be the
triangle required.
60 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Since only one straight line can be drawn through the
two points B and C (axiom 1, § 6), the triangle can be
completed in one way only, and is therefore drawn as in
Fig. 46.
Thus, BC and the angles ACB and ABC are fixed, and
there can be only one triangle which has the sides and
angle of the given dimensions.
The student should cut out the A he has constructed
and place it over that in Fig. 46. If the reasoning has
been correct and the drawing accurate, the two As should
exactly coincide.
It is evident that if all the students who read this book
were to construct As with sides and angle as above, all the
As would be of exactly the same size and shape—i.e., they
will coincide and their areas must be the same.
Triangles which are equal in every respect and coincide
in this way are said to be congruent.
Definition. Triangles which are equal in all respects are
called congruent triangles.
Conclusion. Triangles which have two sides equal, and
the angles contained by these sides equal, are congruent—i.e.,
they are equal in all respects.

B. Given the lengths of all three sides. J _

Example. Construct the'driangle whose sides are 5 cm,
4 cm, and 3 cm in length.
Construction.
(1) Draw a straight line AB, 5 cm long (Fig. 47).
(2) With centre B and radius 3- cm draw an arc of
a circle.
(3) With centre A and radius 4 cm draw an arc of a
circle.
The.two arcs cut at C.
C is 4 cm from A and 3 cm from B.
Joining AC and CB the AXBC so formed fulfils the
given conditions.
Clearly there can be one triangle only, and all As con­
 TRIANGLES 61
structed as above must be identically equal. they must
be congruent. As before the student should construct a
triangle step by step, and test his A by the one in Fig. 47.
Note.—-If the complete circles be drawn above, with A and B as

Fig. 48.

C. Given two angles of the triangle and one side.

Example. Construct a triangle having one side 4 cm long
and two angles 30° and 45°.
Construction.
(1) Draw a straight line AB, 4 cm long (Fig. 48).
(2) At A draw AX making 45° with AB.
(3) At B „ BY „ 30° „ AB.
62 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
The two straight lines AX and BY will cut at one point
only, C.
Thus ACB is a triangle which fulfils the conditions and
is the only one possible.
all other such As drawn in the same way with the same
data will be congruent.
46. Conditions which Determine that Triangles are Con­
gruent.
There are six essential parts, or elements, of every
triangle—viz., three angles and three sides. As has been
shown above, if certain of these are equal in two or more
As, the As are congruent. Summarising the cases A, B
and C above, it appears that the As are congruent if the
following elements are equal.
A. Two sides and included angle, e.g., b,c,A (§44).
B. Three sides, i.e., a, b, c.
C. Two angles and one side, e.g., A, B, c.
It should be noted that if two angles are equal, the side
given may be any one of the three sides of the triangle.
47. Triangles which are not Congruent.
(1) Triangles which haveall theiranglesequal, are not
congruent, unless they also have at least one side equal.
(2) The ambiguous case in which the triangles may
or may not be congruent.
The following example will illustrate the problem.
Example. Construct a triangle with two of its sides 4 cm
and 2-4 cm in length and the angle opposite to the smaller
side 30°.
Construction.
(1) Draw a straight line AD of indefinite length (Fig.
49). .x ' ’ •
(2) At a point A draw a straight line making an
angle of 30° with AD.
(3) From this line cut off AC 4 cm long.
(4) With C as centre and radius 2-4 cm draw an arc
 TRIANGLES 63
of a circle which will cut AD. This it will do in two
points, B and B'.
(5) Join CB and CB’.
Thus two triangles are constructed ACB and ACB' each
of which satisfies the given conditions.
Thus the solution is not unique as in cases A, B, C above
—iA., there is not one triangle, satisfying the given conditions,
which may be drawn as in previous cases. There can be
two triangles.
Hence this is called the ambiguous case.

Fig. 49.

There are, however, two cases in which there is no

ambiguity. Using the notation of § 44, in Fig. 49 it will
be seen that we had given above A, a, b—i.e., two sides
and an angle opposite to one of them.
From C (Fig. 49) draw CP perpendicular to AD.
Let CP = h.
(1) If a = h there is one solution and one only—viz.,
AACP. There is thus no ambiguity. The triangle is
right angled.
(2) If a = b there will be one solution, and the
triangle will be isosceles, the other side, equal to CA
meeting AB produced.
(3) If a > b there will be one solution as is obvious.
It will be seen therefore that for ambiguity a must be
less than b and greater than h.
64 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Summarising.
If the given elements are A, a, b, ambiguity will arise if
a, i.e., the side opposite to the given angle is less than b,
unless a is equal to the perpendicular drawn from C to the
side c.

48. Corresponding Sides and Angles of Congruent

Triangles.
When triangles are congruent it is important to specify
accurately which sides and angles are equal.
Let the As ABC, DEF (Fig. 50) be congruent triangles.

If AB and DE are sides which are known to be equal,

then the angles which are opposite to them are called
corresponding angles and are equal.
Summarising:
If AB = DE, AACB = ADFE
BC = EF, ABAC = AEDF
CA = FD, AABC = ADEF.
Similarly when angles are known to be equal, the opposite
sides are corresponding sides and are equal.

49. Theorems concerning Congruent Triangles.

The three sets of conditions that triangles may be con­
gruent, which were deduced in § 45, may be set out in the
form of Geometric Theorems as follows:
 TRIANGLES 65

Theorem A. Two triangles are congruent if

two sides and the included angle of one triangle
are respectively equal to two sides and the included
angle of the other.
Theorem B. Two triangles are congruent if the
. three sides of one triangle are respectively equal
to the three sides of the other.
Theorem C. Two triangles are congruent if
two angles and a side of one triangle are respectively
equal to two angles and a side of the other.
It will be noted that the theorems above have been
enunciated, or stated, with respect to two triangles,
because it is in this form that the theorem is usually applied,
but they are true, of course, for all triangles which satisfy
the given conditions.

WExerclse 3
1. Construct a triangle in which two of the sides are 6 cm
and 8 cm and the angle between them 35°. Find by
measurement the third side and the other angles.
2. Construct a triangle of which the three sides are 10
cm, 11 cm and 12 cm. Measure the angles and find their
sum.
3. Construct a triangle in which two of the angles are
40° and 50° and the length of the side adjacent to them
both is 6 cm. Measure the third angle and the lengths of
the other two sides.
4. The angles and sides of a triangle are as follows.
A = 88°, B = 40°, C = 52°.
a = 645 cm, b => 3-95 cm, c «=> 4*85 cm
Construct the triangle in three different ways by selecting
appropriate data. Cut out the triangles and compare
them.
66 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
5. Construct by three different methods triangles con­
gruent with that in Fig. 51. Cut them out and test by
superimposing them on one another.

6. In the As ABC, DEF certain angles and sides are

equal as given below. Determine whether or not they
are congruent. If they are congruent, state .which of the
conditions A, B, C of § 49 is satisfied.
(1) LA = LD, b — e, c = f.
(2) LA = LD, c=f,a = d.
LB = LE, b = e, c — f.
(4) LB = LE, LA = LD, c=f.
(5) LD = LE, LA = AC, b = e.
7. In a LABC, LB = 25°, c = 8-7 cm, b m 7‘6 cm.
Construct the triangle and show that there are two
solutions.
8. Two straight hues AB, CD bisect each other at their
point of intersection 0. What reasons can you give for
saying that CB = AD ?
9. The straight lines AB and CD bisect each other
perpendicularly at 0. What reasons can you give for stating
that the straight lines AC, CB, BD, DA are all equal?
10. The As ACB, ADB are congruent and are placed on
opposite sides of the common side AB. Join CD cutting
AB at 0. Using Theorem A show that OC = OD.
 CHAPTER 7
PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES
50. Meaning of Parallel.
If the ruled printed lines on an exercise book are
examined, two facts will be evident.
(1.) The distance between any pair of lines is always
the same.
(2) If the lines could be produced through any
distance beyond the page of the book, you would be
confident that they would never meet.
Such straight lines drawn in a plane are called parallel
straight lines.
Railway lines provide another example of parallel
straight lines. We know that they must be always the
same distance apart, and no matter how far they extend
they will never meet. If they did it would be a bad
business for a train travelling over them.
All vertical straight lines are parallel. If weights be
allowed to hang freely at the end of threads, the threads
are always parallel.
In Geometry parallel straight lines are very important,
and we need to be thoroughly acquainted with certain
geometrical facts about them. They are defined as follows:
Definition. Parallel straight lines are such that lying in
the same plane, they do not meet, however far they may be
produced in either direction.

51. Distance between Two Parallel Straight Lines.

It should be noted that in the definition of parallel
straight lines stated above there is no mention of them
being always the same distance apart, though in the pre-
67
68 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
ceding explanations it was stated as a fact which would be
regarded as obvious. The definition itself involves only
the fact that parallel straight lines in a plane never meet.
The fact that the distance between them is constant follows
from the definition, as will be seen.
It is important that we should be clear at the outset as
to what exactly is the
“ distance apart ” of
parallel straight lines and
how it can be measured.
Let AB, CD be two
parallel straight lines
(Fig. 52).
Let P be any point on
AB.
Let PQ be the straight line which is the perpendicular
drawn from P to CD.
PQ is defined as the distance between the two parallel
straight lines. Two facts may be deduced from this:
(1) PQ is the least of all straight lines such as PQ,
PR, PS ... which may be drawn from P to meet
CD.
(2) If from any other point P', the straight line
P’Q' be drawn perpendicular to CD, P'Q' will also be
the distance between the two parallel straight lines, and
P’Q' = PQ.
It will be seen later that PQ and P'Q' must them­
selves be parallel. Consequently we may deduce the
fact that: Straight lines which are perpendicular to
parallel straight lines are themselves parallel.

52. Corresponding Angles.

Take a set square, angles 60°, 30°, 90°, and place the
shortest side AC against a ruler, as in Fig. 53. Draw
straight lines along the sides of the set square, so forming
the triangle ABC.
Now, holding the ruler firmly, slide the set square along
it to a new position to form another triangle A 'B'C.
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES 6g
The two triangles ABC and A 'B'C must be congruent.
The angles at A are right angles and
AACB = LA’CB' = 60°.
(1) The straight lines AB and A'B', which are both
perpendicular to the straight line representing the edge of
the ruler PQ, are evidently parallel.
We cannot prove that they satisfy the definition of
parallel fines—viz., that they do not meet if produced in

Fig. 53.

either direction—but we know intuitively that they will

not meet.
If the set squares in the experiment were moved along
the ruler to other similar positions the straight lines corre­
sponding to AB would all be parallel.
This, in effect, is the method commonly employed by
draughtsmen for drawing parallel straight lines.
(2) The angle ACB represents the inclination of the
straight line BC to PQ. Or we may say that BC is inclined
at an angle represented by BCP to PQ—i.e., inclined at
60° to PQ.
Similarly AA'C'B' represents the inclination of CB' to
PQ, and is equal to AACB.
BC and B'C are equally inclined to PQ.
Also BC and B'C are evidently parallel straight lines,
since, as was the case with AB and A ’B’, they will obviously
7o TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
never meet if produced. It may now reasonably be
deduced that:
(a) Straight lines which are equally inclined to
another straight line which they cut are parallel.
Also, the converse of this is clearly true, viz. s
(b) If straight lines are parallel they are equally
Inclined to another straight line which they intersect.
Transversal. A straight line which cuts other straight
lines is called a transversal.
Corresponding angles. The angles ACB, A'C'B', are
corresponding angles in the congruent triangles ABC,
A'B'C (see §48). They
P/ are also corresponding angles
when the parallel straight
A Ml U linesBC.B'C' are cut by the
/R transversal PQ; theyrepre-
/ sent the equal angles of in-
jA clination of the parallel
C~.. .... /min- ■ H . , d straight lines to the trans-
/ versal.
£ 53. The conclusions
reached above may now be
flG- ®4. generalised. In Fig. 54,
AB and CD are two straight
lines cut by a transversal PQ at R and S.
Then Zs PRB, RSD are corresponding angles.
Zs PRA, RSC ate also corresponding Zs.
From the considerations stated in § 52.
(1) If AB be parallel to CD.
Then /LPRB = ARSD.
Conversely, (2) If the corresponding ZS PRB, RSD are
equal.
Then AB and CD are parallel.
These conclusions may be expressed generally as geo­
metrical theorems as follows :
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES 7i
Theorem D. If a straight line cuts two parallel
straight lines, corresponding angles are equal.
Theorem Dj (converse of previous Theorem). If
two straight lines are cut by another straight line
so that corresponding angles are equal, then the
two straight lines are parallel.

54. Alternate Angles.

In Fig. 55 the two straight lines AB, CD are cut by the
transversal PQ at R and
S. The angles ARS, RSD
are called alternate angles.
They lie on alternate
sides of PQ.
The angles BRS, RSC
also form a pair of alter­
nate angles.
(1) Let AB and CD be
parallel.
Then, as shown in § 53,
corresponding angles are Fig. 55.
equal.
e.,
I. APRB = ARSD,
But APRB = AARS (vertically opp. Zs).
.-. ZARS = ZRSD.
I.e., The alternate angles are equal.
Note.—The other pair of alternate angles may similarly be shown
to be equal.
Conversely, (2) Let ZARS = ZRSD.
Now AARS = APRB (vertically opp. Zs).
.-. APRB = ARSD.
But these are corresponding angles.
AB is parallel to CD. (Theor. § 53)
Note.—These results can be expressed in the form of geometric
theorems as follows:
72 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Theorem E. If two parallel straight lines are cut
by another straight line the alternate angles are
equal.
Theorem Ej (converse of previous Theorem). If
two straight lines are cut by another straight
line so that the alternate angles are equal then
the two straight lines are parallel.

55. Interior Angles.

In Fig. 56, with the same figure as in preceding sections
the angles BRS, RSD are called the interior angles on the
same side of the transversal.

Similarly ARS, RSC are interior angles on the other

side.
(1) Let AB and CD be parallel.
Then AARS — ARSD (alternate angles).
Add ABRS to each.
Then AARS + ABRS = ARSD + ABRS.
But AARS -|- ABRS = two right angles. (§ 18)
Z.BRS + ZR.SD = two right angles.
I.e., the sum of the interior angles on the same side of
the transversal is equal to two right angles.
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES 73
Conversely (2). Let
ABRS + ARSD = two right angles.
Then ABRS + ARSD = ABRS + AARS.
Subtracting ABRS from each side
ARSD = AARS.
But these are alternate angles.
.'. AB and CD are parallel (§ 53).
These conclusions may be expressed in the form of
theorems as follows:
Theorem F. When two parallel straight lines
are cut by another straight line the sum of the
two interior angles on the same side of the line is
two right angles.
Theorem Fj (converse of previous Theorem).
When two straight lines are cut by another straight
line, and the sum of the two interior angles on the
same side of the straight line is two right angles,
then the two straight lines are parallel.
56. Summary of above Results.
I. Three properties of parallel straight lines.
If two parallel straight lines are cut by a transversal,
then:
D. Pairs of corresponding angles are equal.
E. Pairs of alternate angles are equal.
F. Sum of the interior angles on the same side of the
transversal is two right angles.
II. Conditions of parallel straight lines.
Straight lines are parallel if one of the following condi­
tions is satisfied:
When they are cut by a transversal, they are parallel ;
Dv If corresponding angles are equal.
Ex. If alternate angles are equal.
Fr If the sum of two interior angles on the same side
of the transversal is two right angles.
74 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

57. Construction 2.
To draw through a given point a straight line
parallel to a given straight line.
The conditions of Ev (§ 54) above suggest the method of
construction.
Note.—The student is advised to perform the construction which
follows, step by step.
Let AB (Fig. 57) be the given straight line and P the
given point. It is required to draw through P a straight
line parallel to AB.

Fig. 57.

Method of construction.
From P draw any straight line PQ to meet AB at Q.
At P make angle QPY equal to APQA (Construction 1,
§ 25).
Theti PF is the straight line required, and it can be
produced either way.
Proof. The straight lines PY, AB are cut by a trans­
versal PQ and AYPQ — APQA. (By construction.)
But these are alternate angles.
Condition Er of § 54 is satisfied.
PY and AB are parallel.
Notes.—(1) When PY is drawn making ZV-PQ = £_PQA, it is
evident that only one such line can be drawn. Hence we conclude :

Through a point only one straight line can be

drawn parallel to a given straight line.
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES 73
(2) If the straight line PQ in Fig. 57 and again in Fig. 58 were
drawn perpendicular to AB, since Z_gPY = Z.PQA (§ 54), it is also
perpendicular to XY. Hence it may be concluded that:

A straight line which is perpendicular to one of

two parallel straight lines, is also perpendicular to
the other.

Fig. 58.

£ Exercise 4
1. In Fig. 59 AB and CD are parallel straight lines and
are cut by a transversal PQ at X and Y.

State:
(1) Which are pairs of equal corresponding angles.
(2) Which are pairs of equal alternate angles.
(3) Which are the pairs of interior angles whose
sum is two right angles.
2. In Fig. 60 AB and CD are parallel straight lines cut
by a transversal at X and Y.
If APXB = 60°, find in degrees all the other angles in
the figure.
76 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
3. In Fig. 59 if the angle CYP = 60° state the number
of degrees in the following angles:
(1) PXA, (2) BXY, (3) DYX,
E\ / (4) QYD, (5) PXB.
p 'XZ------- Q 4. Through the vertex A of the
yZX. EABC (Fig. 61), PQ is drawn parallel
/ X^ to the base BC, and BA and CA are
B C produced to D and E respectively.
Fig. 61. If ^DAQ = 55° and AEAP = 40°,
find the angles of the triangle.
5. In Fig 62 AB is parallel to CD and AC is parallel to
BD. CD is produced to E.
If ACAD = 37° and ABDE = 68°, find the angles of
the figure ABDC.
6. In Fig. 63 the arms of the angles ABC, DEF are

Fig. 62. Fig, 63.

parallel. What reasons can you give for the statement

that A ABC = ADEF ? (Hint.—Let BC cut DE in Q and
produce to R.)
7. Draw a straight line AB. Take points C, D, E on it,
and through them draw parallel
straight lines making corresponding a________ P r
angles of 30° with AB. ~7
8. AB and CD are parallel straight 0
lines (Fig. 64). The angle APO = C------ 7.-----D
45° and AOQC = 35°. Find the H
angle POQ. F1G- 64-
9. Two parallel straight fines dB, CD are cut by the
transversal PQ at E and F. The As BEF and EFC are
bisected by the straight lines EH, FG. Prove that these
straight lines are parallel.
 CHAPTER 8
ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE
58. On several occasions in the previous work the
attention of the student has been called to the sum of the
three angles of particular triangles. He also has continually
before him the triangles represented by the two set squares
which he uses and the sum of their angles. It is probable,
therefore, that he has come to the conclusion that the sum
of the angles of a triangle is always equal to two right
angles or 180°.
A simple experiment will help to confirm this. Draw
any triangle and cut it out. Then tear off the angles and
fit them together, as is indicated in Fig. 65.

Fig. 65.
The common vertex 0 will be found to lie in a straight
line, AOB. Therefore, as stated in the Theorem of § 18, the
sum of the angles—i.e., the angles of the triangle—is 180°.
This is one of the most remarkable facts in elementary
geometry, but it would not be satisfactory to accept it as
being true for all triangles because it has been found to be
true in certain cases. We must therefore prove beyond
doubt that the result holds for all triangles.
The proof which we shall proceed to give has already
been anticipated in Question 4, Fig. 61, of Exercise 4. With
a small modification this is substantially the standard proof
of the theorem. This is as follows.

77
78 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
59. Theorem. The sum of the angles of any
triangle is equal to two right angles.
Fig. 66 represents any triangle ABC. It is required to
prove that:
AABC + ABCA + ACAB = two right angles.
To obtain the proof some additional construction is
necessary.
Construction. (1) Produce one side, e.g., BC to D.
(2) From C draw CE parallel to BA
(Construction 2).
Proof.
(1) AB and CE are parallels and AC is a transversal.
Alternate angles ACE, BAC are equal (§ 56 E).
(2) AB and CE are parallel and BC is a transversal.
Corresponding angles ECD, ABC are equal
(§ 56 D).

(3) .*. by addition—

ABAC + AABC = AACE + AECD
= AACD.
(4) Adding AACB to each
ABAC + AABC + AACB = AACD + AACB
= two right angles (§ 18).
I. the sum of the angles of the triangle is equal to two
e.,
right angles.
 ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE 79
60. It will be evident that in proving the above theorem
two other theorems have been incidentally proved. They
are as follows:
Theorem. An exterior angle of a triangle is
equal to the sum of the two interior opposite
angles.
It was shown in step (3) of the proof that
AACD = ABAC + AABC.
I.
e., the exterior angle ACD is equal to the sum of the two
interior opposite angles ABC and BAC.
Employing a similar proof, it can be shown that if any
other side be produced, the exterior angle thus formed is
equal to the sum of the two corresponding interior angles.
Theorem. An exterior angle of a triangle is
greater than either of the two opposite interior
angles.
For, in Fig. 66, since the exterior angle ACD is equal to
the sum of the two interior angles ABC, BAC, it must be
greater than either of them.

61. Corollaries.
When a theorem has been proved it sometimes happens
that other theorems follow from it so naturally that they
are self-evident. They are called corollaries.
From the above Theorem the following corollaries thus
arise.
(1) In a right-angled triangle the right angle is the
greatest angle. The sum of the other two must be 90°
and each of them is acute.
(2) No triangle can have two of its angles right angles.
(3) In any triangle at least two of the angles must be
acute angles.
(4) Only one perpendicular can be drawn from a
point to a straight line. This follows from Corollary 3.
8o TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
^Exercise 5
1. Find the third angle of a triangle in which two of the
angles are as follows:
(a) 87°, 35°. (&) 105°, 22°.
(c) 90°, 46°. (d) 34°, 34°.
2. In the triangle ABC, the angle A is 40° and the angles
B and C are equal. Find them.
3. In the AABC, BC is produced to D, and the exterior
angle so formed, ACD, is 112°. If AA = 40°, what is the
angle B ?
4. If the three angles of a A are equal, how many degrees
are there in each ?
5. The angles of a A are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3. Find the
angles in degrees.
6. In a right-angled triangle two of the angles are equal.
Find them in degrees.
7. ABC is a right-angled triangle and AABC is the right
angle. From B a perpendicular BD is drawn to AC. If
ABAC = 55°, find the angles ABD, CBD and ACB.
8. In the AABC, from P, a point on AB, PQ is drawn
parallel to BC, meeting AC in Q. If the AAPQ = 70° and
AACB = 50°, find the angles ABC, AQP, and BAC.
9. In the AABC the angle B is bisected, and the bisector
meets AC in D. If AABC = 80° and ABDC = 95°, find
the angles at A and C.
10. AB and CD are parallel straight lines, and PQ is a
transversal cutting them at P and Q. The interior angles
at P and Q on the same side of PQ are bisected by the
straight lines PR, QR. Show that the angle at I? is a right
angle.
11. The side BC of the triangle ABC is produced both
ways to D and E. If AABD = 124° and AACE = 130°,
find the angles of the triangle.
12. ABC is a right-angled triangle with B the right angle.
BC and CA are produced on to D and E respectively.
Prove that AACD + ABAE = three right angles.
 CHAPTER 9
ISOSCELES TRIANGLES
62. Relations between the Sides and Angles.
In Fig. 42 (a) an isosceles triangle was defined as a triangle
having two equal sides.
Take two set squares (30°, 60°, 90°) of the same size and
place them side by side as in Fig. 67. It will be seen
that:
(1) Since As ADB, ADC are right angles, BD and
DC are in the same straight line.

Fig. 67. Fig. 68.

(2) The two As together constitute a new A in
which AB = AC—i.e., AABC is isosceles.
(3) /.ABC = Z.ACB, each being 60°, i.e., the angles
which are opposite to the equal sides are equal.
The question now arises, is this true in all cases? Can
we prove the following theorem ?
Theorem. If two sides of a triangle are equal,
the angles which are opposite to them are equal.
Let ABC be a triangle in which AB = AC (Fig. 68).
We want to prove that
AABC = AACB.
Fig. 67 suggests the proof might be obtained by drawing
AD, bisecting the angle BAC and meeting BC in D.
8i
82 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Thus the /ABC is divided into two As, ABD, ACD.
If it can be proved that these are congruent by applying
one of the three conditions A, B, C of § 49, then it will follow
that the Zs ABD, ACD must be equal.
We therefore set down which of the angles and sides of
these As are known to be equal.
They are as follows:
In As ABD, ACD.
(1) AB = AC (given).
(2) ABAD = /-CAD (angle BAC was bisected).
(3) AD is a side of each of the As and therefore equal
in each triangle, or, as we say, AD is com mon to both As.
in the two triangles, two sides and the included angle
are equal.
By Theorem A, § 49.
The triangles ABD, ACD are congruent.
Corresponding angles are equal, and in particular
ZABD = ZACD.
Thus the theorem is proved to be true for all cases since
ABC is any isosceles triangle.
Corollaries.
1. Since BD = DC and AADB = AADC.
1. e., these angles are right angles, it can be said that;
In an isosceles triangle the straight line which bisects the
angle at the vertex also bisects the base at right angles.
2. Triangles which are equilateral are also equiangular.
3. The perpendicular drawn from the vertex to the base
bisects it.
63. The following theorem follows directly from the
Theorem of § 62 :
Theorem. If the equal sides of an isosceles
triangle are produced the exterior angles so formed
are equal.
Let the sides of the isosceles /.ABC be produced to D
and E (Fig. 69).
 ISOSCELES TRIANGLES 83
Then, the exterior angles DBC, ECB are supplementary
to the angles ABC, ACB which have been proved equal.
/. ADBC = AECB.
64. The converse of the above Theorem is also true.
In that Theorem we proved that “ if the sides were equal,

the opposite angles must be equal.” The converse is, " if

the angles are equal, the opposite sides are equal.”
Theorem. If two angles of a triangle are equal,
the sides opposite to them are equal.
In Fig. 70 the angles ABC, ACB are given equal.
We require to prove AB = AC, these being the sides
opposite to them.
The proof is similar to that of the Theorem above, but
Theorem C of § 49 is used instead of Theorem A.
Construction. Draw AD bisecting the angle BAC.
Proof. In the As ABD, ACD:
(1) AABD = AACD (given).
(2) ABAD = ACAD (construction).
(3) Side AD is common to both.
As ABD, ACD are congruent (Theorem C, § 49).
In particular AB = AC.
Corollary. Triangles which are equiangular are also
equilateral [converse of Corollary 2 (§ 62)].
84 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

♦Exercise 6
1. In the isosceles triangles, in which the angle of the
vertex is (a) 45°, (J) 110°, (c) 90°, find the remaining
angles.
2. Find the angle at the vertex of an isosceles triangle
when each of the equal angles is (a) 50°, (Z>) 32°, (c) 45°.
3. In the triangle ABC, AB = AC, find the angles of the
triangle when
(1) AB = 48°, (2) AA = 80°, (3) AC = 70°.
4. In an isosceles triangle each of the angles at the base
is double the angle at the vertex. Find all the angles.
5. The angles of a triangle are in the ratio of 2 : 2 : 5.
Find them.
6. The equal sides of an isosceles triangle are produced,
and each of the exterior angles so formed is 130°. Find
the angles of the A.
7. In a AABC, AB = AC. PQ is drawn parallel to BC
and meets the equal sides in P and Q. Prove that the
triangle APQ is isosceles.
8. The equal angles of an isosceles triangle ABC—viz.,
ACB and ABC—are bisected and the bisectors meet at 0.
Prove that AOBC is isosceles.
9. ABC is an isosceles triangle, and AB = AC. AB is
produced to D. If ABAC = 50°, find the angle CBD.
10. Show that if the mid points of the sides of an equi­
lateral triangle are joined, the resulting triangle is also
equilateral. What fraction of the whole triangle is it?
11. ABC is a triangle and D is the mid point of BC.
DA is drawn. If DA = DC prove that ABAC is a right
angle.
 CHAPTER 10
SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONSTRUCTIONS
65. Before beginning the study of draughtsmanship,
engineering and building students and others must first
master a number of fundamental constructions. Some of
these will be dealt with in this chapter, others will come
later. For these constructions only compass and ruler
should be employed for the present.
These constructions are placed before the student not
only for their practical value, but also because, with the
aid of those geometrical theorems which have been studied
in previous chapters, it will be possible to prove that the
method of construction is a correct one, and must produce
the desired result. They will thus furnish exercises in geo­
metrical reasoning of which the reader has already had a
number of examples. Two examples of constructions have
already been introduced (§§ 25 and 57), and the methods of
constructing triangles from fixed data were explained in
§45.
66. Construction No. 3.
(a) To construct an equilateral triangle on a
given base. r_^
(i>) At a point on a straight
line to construct an angle of 60°. // Vx.
(<z) AB is a straight line on which // \\
it is required to construct an equi- // \\
lateral triangle (Fig. 71).
Method of construction. ' _
(1) With A as centre and AB
as radius, construct an arc of a circle.
(2) With B as centre and AB as radius, construct
85
86 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
an arc of a circle large enough to cut the arc previously
described in C.
(3) Join AC, BC.
ABC is the required triangle.
Proof. By the method of construction AC and BC are
each equal to AB.
they are equal to one another.
ie. the three sides AB, BC and AC are all equal.
the triangle ABC is equilateral.
(&) The triangle ABC being equilateral is therefore
equiangular (Corollary 2, § 62).
each angle is | of 180°—i.e., 60°.
at the points A and B angles of 60° have been con­
structed.
67. Construction No. 4.
To bisect a given angle.
Let AOB (Fig. 72) be the angle which we require to
bisect.

Method of construction.
(1) From the two arms of the angle OA, OB cut off
OX and OY equal to one another.
 SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONSTRUCTIONS 87
(2) With X as centre, and with any convenient
radius, describe an arc of a circle.
(3) With Y as centre, and the same radius, describe
an arc of a circle cutting the other arc in P.
(4) Join OP.
Then OP bisects the angle AOB.
Proof.
Join PX, PY.
In As OPX, OPY:
(1) OX = OY (construction).
(2) PX = PY (construction).
(3) OP is common to both As.
As OPX, OPY are congruent (§49, B).
In particular LPOX — APOY.
I.e., OP bisects the angle AOB.
68. This construction suggests the following theorem:
Theorem. Any point on the bisector of an
angle is equidistant, from the arms of the angle.
Let Q be any point on the bisector OP of the angle A OB
(Fig. 72).
Draw QE and QF perpendicular to the arms OA, OB.
Then QE, QF are the distances of Q from OA and OB.
Proof. In As OEQ, OFQ :
(1) AEOQ = AFOQ (halves of AAOB],
(2) AQEO = AQFO (right As).
(3) OQ is common to both As.
the triangles OEQ, OFQ are congruent (§ 49, C).
In particular QE = QF.
Q is equidistant from the two arms.
Similarly any other point on OP can be shown to be
equidistant from OA and OB.
Note.—Students may have noticed that use was made of the
bisector of an angle in Theorem of § 62, before the method of obtaining
88 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
it had been considered. But this does not in any way invalidate
the proof of the Theorem above-mentioned since the bisector of the
angle does exist even though we had not previously proved how it
was to be drawn. The proof of the theorem does not in any way
depend on the method of drawing an accurate bisector.
69. Construction No. 5.
To bisect a given straight line.
Let AB (Fig. 73) be the straight line which it is required
to bisect.

Method of construction.
(1) With centres A and B in turn, and a radius
greater than %AB, draw arcs of circles interescting at
P and Q.
(2) Join PQ cutting AB at 0.
Then O is the mid point of AB.
Proof. Join AP, BP, AQ, BQ.
In As APQ, BPQ :
(1) AP = PB (construction).
(2) AQ = QB (construction).
(3) PQ is common to both As.
As APQ, BPQ are congruent (§ 49, B).
In particular /-APQ = /.BPQ.
 SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONSTRUCTIONS 8g
Now the t\APB is isosceles and OP bisects the angle at
the vertex.
.’. using the proof of the Theorem of § 62 (Cor. 1).
OP bisects the base AB at right angles.
AB is bisected at O.
Since OP bisects AB at right angles, this is also the method
of the following construction.
To draw the perpendicular bisector of any
straight line.
70. A theorem also arises from the above which is similar
to that following Construction No. 4, viz.:
Theorem. Any point on the perpendicular
bisector of a straight line is equidistant from the
ends of the line.
In Fig. 73 if any point C be taken on OP and joined to
A and B the As AOC, BOC can be shown to be congruent,
as in § 69 and consequently CA — CB.
71. Construction No. 6.
To draw a straight line perpendicular to a given
straight line from any point on it.
Let AB (Fig. 74) be a straight line and 0 a point on it,

at which it is required to draw a straight line which is

perpendicular to AB.
go TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Method of construction.
(1) On either side of 0 mark off equal distances OP,OQ.
(2) With P and Q as centres and any suitable radius
describe circles which cut at C.
(3) Join OC.
Then OC is a straight line perpendicular to AB.
Proof. Join CP, CQ.
In As COP, COQ:
(1) CP = CQ (equal radii).
(2) OP = OQ (construction).
(3) OC is common.
/. As COP, COQ are congruent (§ 49, B).
In particular Z.COP = /.COQ.
by definition they are right angles.
OC is perpendicular to PQ.
Note.—If the point 0 is near one end of AB, so that the two circles
cannot conveniently be described, the method of construction No. 7,
which follows, can be employed.
72. Construction No. 7.
To draw a perpendicular to a straight line from
a point at, or near, one end of it.

Let AB (Fig. 75) be a straight line to which it is required

to draw a perpendicular at one end, viz., at B.
 SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONSTRUCTIONS 9i
Construction.
(1) With centre B and any suitable radius, describe
a circle cutting AB at P.
(2) With P as centre and the same radius, describe
an arc of a circle cutting the previous circle at Q.
(3) With Q as centre and the same radius, describe
an arc cutting the same circle at R.
(4) Join PQ, BQ and BR.
(5) Bisect the angle QBR by OP (Construction No. 4].
Then OB is perpendicular to AB.

Proof. Join QR.

As in Construction No. 3, RBPQ is equilateral.
APBQ = 60°.
Also BQ, BR, QR are equal.
.'. RBQR is equilateral and
AQBR = 60°.
Since this is bisected by OB (construction).
/. A.OBQ = 30°
.-. AOBA = 60° + 30°
= 90°.
OB Is perpendicular to AB at B.
73. Construction No. 8.
To draw a straight
line perpendicular to a
given straight line from
a given point without
it.
AB (Fig. 76) is a straight
line, and P is a point with­
out it. It is required to
draw from P a straight line
perpendicular to AB.
<& TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Method of Construction.
(1) With P as centre and a convenient radius draw
a circle cutting AB at C and D.
(2) With centres C and D and the same radius, a
convenient one, draw circles intersecting at R.
(3) Join PR.
Then, PR is perpendicular to AB.

Proof. Join PC, PD, RC, RD.

As PCD, RCD are isosceles As on opposite sides of CD.
We can therefore prove as in the proof of Construction
No. 5 (Fig. 73), that the jCsPCQ, PDQ are congruent, and
in particular /-PQC = A.PQD.
these are right angles and PQ is perpendicular to
AB.
Exercise 7
Note.—In the foDowing exercises only a ruler and compasses
should be used.
1. Construct the following angles: 30°, 75°, 120°, 150°.
2. Construct on angle of 45°. Use it to obtain an angle
of 22|°.
3. Construct the following angles: 15°, 135°, 105°,
4. Construct an equilateral triangle of side 5 cm.
Bisect each side and produce the bisectors. They should
meet in a point.
5. Draw a triangle with sides 4 cm, 3 cm and 3-6 cm.
Bisect each of the angles. The bisectors should meet in a
point.
From this point draw perpendiculars to the sides of the
triangle. With the point as centre, and a radius equal to
the length of one of these perpendiculars, describe a circle.
It should touch the three sides at the points where the
perpendiculars meet them.
6. Construct a triangle with sides of 3-8 cm, 4-4 cm, 4 cm.
Bisect each side and join the points to the opposite vertices.
The three straight lines should be concurrent—i.e., meet in
a noint.
 SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONSTRUCTIONS 93
7. Construct a triangle with sides 4 cm, 6 cm, 7 cm.
Draw the perpendicular bisectors of the sides. These
should meet in a point. With this point as centre, and
radius equal to its distance from a vertex, describe a circle.
It should pass through the three vertices.
8. Draw a circle of radius 3-6 cm. Draw any chord AB
and then draw its perpendicular bisector. Repeat this
with another chord CD. Do the two perpendiculars meet
at the centre of the circle?
9. Draw a triangle of sides 8, 9 and 10 cm. From each
vertex draw a perpendicular to the opposite side. The
three perpendiculars should be concurrent.
10. AB is a straight line of length 4 cm. Show how to
find two points each of which is 5 cm from both A and B.
 CHAPTER II
QUADRILATERALS
74. As defined in §38, a quadrilateral is a plane recti­
lineal figure bounded by four straight lines. There are
thus four angular points, as A, B, C, D in Fig. 77.
Straight lines which join two opposite angular points
are called diagonals.
Thus in Fig. 77, BD is a diagonal, and as A and C can
also be joined, every quadrilateral
has two diagonals.
B Each diagonal divides the quadri­
lateral into two triangles. Conse­
quently, it follows from Theorem of
§ 59 that the sum of the angles of
any quadrilateral is equal to four right
Fig. 77. angles.
The quadrilateral of Fig. 77 is
irregular in shape, but most of the quadrilaterals which
we shall consider are regular quadrilaterals.
75. Rectangles.
The most commonly occurring quadrilateral in our daily
life is the rectangle. A knowledge of this figure and its
name were assumed in Chapter 1 as being part of the
fundamental geometrical knowledge which everybody
possesses. In § 2 it appeared again in connection with
the solid body, as the shape of each of the faces of a box.
The definition of it will come later, as it may be regarded,
from the geometrical point of view, as a special form of
another quadrilateral which we shall consider next.
76. Parallelograms.
The cover of an ordinary match-box, the inner part
having been removed, can be used, as follows, to illustrate
 QUADRILATERALS
a parallelogram. In Fig. 78, ABCD represents the oper
rectangular end of the cover of the box, with the longei
sides horizontal. Squeeze gently together the top and
bottom of the box so that the sides of the end rectangle
rotate until they take up a position such as is shown bj
A'B'CD in Fig. 78.
The opposite sides of A'B'CD are parallel, but its angles
are not right angles. The lengths of the sides, however
remain the same.
Such a quadrilateral is called a parallelogram. The
original rectangle ABCD also has its sides parallel and is

therefore, as will be seen later from the definition, a special

form of a parallelogram.
If the end of the box had been a square instead of a
rectangle, on rotating, it would still be changed to a parallelo­
gram. But just as with the square its sides are all equal.
It is therefore a special form of a parallelogram, the
rhombus.
Considering the four figures, rectangle, parallelogram,
square, rhombus, it will be seen that they have one pro­
perty in common, viz., the pairs of opposite sides are
parallel; they differ however in other respects. These
may be contrasted and defined as follows:
77. Definitions of Parallelogram, Rectangle, Square,
Rhombus.
(a) A parallelogram is a quadrilateral / /
in which both pairs of opposite sides are / /
parallel (Fig. a). / /

(a) Parallelogram.
96 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

(6) A rectangle is a quadrilateral in which

both pairs of opposite sides are parallel and
one of its angles is a right angle (Fig. b).
(&) Rectangle.

(c) A square is a quadrilateral with both

pairs of opposite sides parallel, one of its
angles a right angle, and two adjacent sides
equal (Fig. c).
(c) Square.

(<i) A rhombus is a quadrilateral with

both pairs of opposite sides parallel, two
adjacent sides equal but none of its angles
right angles (Fig. d).
(d) Rhombus.
Fig. 79.
Notes on the definitions.
(1) The definition of a parallelogram stated above should
be examined in connection with the characteristics of a
satisfactory definition as described in § 4. Since the
opposite sides of a parallelogram are obviously equal there
might be a temptation to define it as a “ quadrilateral
whose opposite sides are equal and parallel But the
inclusion of the statement of equal sides is illogical. A
parallelogram can be constructed by drawing two parallel
straight fines and then two other parallel straight lines
which cut them. But this construction involves only one
geometrical fact about the straight lines, viz., that they
are parallel. That is all that we know about them. But
from this fact, and the properties of parallels which have
been considered in Chapter 7, we can proceed to prove
that the opposite sides must be equal. This is done in
the Theorem of § 78.
(2) It may further be noted that since the rectangle,
square and rhombus are all parallelograms, in that they
 QUADRILATERALS 97
conform to the definition of having " pairs of opposite
sides parallel”, they might be defined as follows:
A rectangle is a parallelogram in which one of the
angles is a right angle.
A square is a rectangle which has two adjacent sides
equal.
A rhombus is a parallelogram with two adjacent
sides equal, but none of its angles is a right angle.
(3) In the definition of a rectangle it is stated that “ one
of the angles is a right angle ”. It will be proved later that
if this is so all the angles must be right angles. But, for
reasons previously given, this does not form part of the
definition proper.
78. Properties of Parallelograms.
We can now proceed to establish some of the charac­
teristic properties of the important quadrilaterals dealt with
above, basing the proofs upon the definitions given in § 77.
Theorem.
(a) The opposite sides and angles of a
parallelogram are equal.
(b) A parallelogram is bisected by each
diagonal.
A B

innffll
D C
Fig. 80.
ABCD (Fig. 80) is a parallelogram and BD is one of its
diagonals.
, . , a J(l) AB = DC.
(a) We require to prove^ AD __ DC
(3) AABC = AADC.
(4) ABAD = ABCD.
98 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Proof. By definition AB is parallel to DC
and AD is parallel to BC.
The diagonal BD is a transversal meeting these parallel
straight lines.
/. In the As ABD, CBD :
(1) AABD = AB DC (alternate As, § 56).
(2) AADB = ADBC (alternate As, § 56).
(3) BD is common to both As.
As ABD, CBD are congruent (§ 49, C).
In particular AB = DC
AD = BC.
Also from(1)and (2) by addition
AABD + ADBC = AADB + ABDC,
i.e., AABC = AADC.
Similarly, it may be shown by drawing the other diagonal
that ADAB = ABCD.
(&) Since the As ABD, CBD are congruent, each of them
must be half of the area of the parallelogram, i.e., the
diagonal BD bisects the parallelogram.
Similarly, it may be shown that the diagonal AC if
drawn would bisect the parallelogram.

Corollaries.
Cor. I. If one angle of a parallelogram is a right angle,
all the angles are right angles (see definition of a rectangle,
§77).
Cor. 2. If two adjacent sides of a parallelogram are
equal, all the sides are equal (see definitions of square and
rhombus, § 77).
79. The diagonals of parallelograms.
Theorem. The diagonals of a parallelogram
bisect each other.
 QUADRILATERALS 99
In Fig. 81, ABCD is a parallelogram; AC and BD its
diagonals intersect at 0.
We require to prove that the diagonals are bisected at
0, i.e.,
AO = OC, BO = OD.
Proof. In As AOB, COD :
(1) AB = CD (§ 78).
(2) AOAB = AOCD (alternate As, § 56).
(3) AOBA = AODC (alternate As, § 56).
As AOB, COD are congruent (§ 49, C).
In particular AO = OC
BO = OD.
Note.—This theorem holds for a rectangle, square and rhombus,

since these are parallelograms and the theorem can be proved

precisely as in the above.

80. The diagonals of a square.

Theorem. The diagonals of a square are equal,
intersect at right angles and bisect the opposite
angles.
ABCD in Fig. 82 is a square and 0 is the intersection of
its diagonals.
We require to prove :
(1) The diagonals are equal.
(2) The angles at 0 are right As.
(3) The diagonals bisect opposite angles.
IOO TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Proof.
(1) In the As ADC, BCD :
(1) AD = BC (§78).
(2) DC is common to each A.
(3) /ADC = ABCD (right angles, § 78, Cor. 1).
the As ADC, BCD are congruent (§ 49, A).
In particular AC = BD,
i.e., the diagonals are equal.
(2) In the As AOD, COD :
(1) AO = OC (§ 79).
(2) AD = DC (sides of a square).
(3) OD is common.
As AOD, COD are congruent (§49, B).
In particular /AOD = /.DOC.
.”. these are right angles and the diagonals intersect at
right angles.
(3) Since As AOD, COD are congruent.
/ADO = /CDO,
i.e., /-ADC is bisected.
diagonals bisect opposite angles.
81. Properties of the diagonals of parallelograms.
The facts deduced above respecting the diagonals of
different types of parallelograms may be summarised as
follows:
Parallelograms. Bisect each other.
Rectangles. (1) Bisect each other.
(2) Are equal.
Square. (1) Bisect each other.
(2) Are equal.
(3) Are at right angles.
(4) Bisect opposite angles.
Rhombus. (1) Bisect each other.
(2) Are at right angles.
(3) Bisect opposite angles.
 QUADRILATERALS ioi

82. The Trapezium.

The trapezium is a quadrilateral in which two opposite
sides are parallel, but the other sides are not parallel.
In the quadrilateral ABCD (Fig. 83) AB is parallel to
DC but AD and BC are not parallel.
ABCD is a trapezium.
83. The following is a test by which, when the conditions

Fig. 84.

stated are satisfied, a quadrilateral can be declared to be a

parallelogram.
Theorem. A quadrilateral, in which one pair of
opposite sides are equal and parallel, is a parallelo­
gram.
ABCD (Fig. 84) is a quadrilateral in which AB. and CD
are equal and parallel.
Then ABCD is a parallelogram.
In order to satisfy the definition of a parallelogram it is
necessary to prove that AD and BC are parallel.
Construction. Draw the diagonal AC.
Proof. In As ABC, ADC :
(1) AB — CD (given).
(2) AC is common.
(3) ABAC = AACD (alternate Zs).
;. As ABC, ADC are congruent (§49, A).
In particular AACB — ADAC.
But these are .alternate angles when the straight lines
AD and BC are cut by the transversal AC.
AD is parallel to BC. (§ 56, Er)
102 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Since AB is parallel to DC.
by the definition of a parallelogram.
ABCD is a parallelogram.
Note.—-This theorem may also be stated thus : The straight lines
which join the ends of two equal and parallel straight lines are them­
selves equal and parallel.

84. The next two theorems are helpful in proving other

theorems which have useful practical applications.
Theorem. A straight line drawn through the
middle point of one side of a triangle and parallel
to another side bisects the third side.
In Fig. 85.
P is the mid point of the side AB.
PQ is parallel to BC.
& We require to prove :
/v Q is the mid point of AC,
/X
! D
i.e., is AQ = QC.
The following construction is
/
y . X. 7 R necessary to obtain a proof.
/ From C draw CR parallel to
/ AB to meet PQ produced in R.
Proof. The opposite sides of
F1G- 85- the quadrilateral PRCB are
parallel.
.*. PRCB is a parallelogram (Defi).
RC = PB (§ 78)
= AP (given).
In As APQ, CRQ :
(1) AP = RC (proved above).
(2) /-APQ — /-QRC (alternate As).
(3) /.PAQ = /.QCR (alternate As).
As are congruent (§ 49, C).
In particular AQ = QC.
AC is bisected at Q.
 QUADRILATERALS 103
85. Theorem. The straight line joining the middle
points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to
the third side and is equal to one half of it.
The Fig. 86 is the same as in the preceding theorem, but
in this case we are given that:
P and Q are the mid points of two sides of the &ABC.
We require to prove:
(1) PQ is parallel to BC.
(2) PQ = iBC.
The construction is the same as in the preceding theorem,
i. CR is drawn parallel to AB
e.,
to meet PQ produced at R.
Proof. In As APQ, QRC :
(1) A.PAQ = AQCR
(alternate Zs).
(2) AAPQ = AQRC
(alternate Zs).
(3) AQ = QC (given).
As APQ, QRC are con­
gruent (§ 49, C).
In particular AP = RC
and PQ = QR
i.e., PQ = %PR.
But AP — PB (given).
/. FB=7?C.
But by construction PB and RC are parallel.
PRCB is a quadrilateral in which a pair of opposite
sides is equal and parallel.
/. by the Theorem of § 83. PRCB is a parallelogram,
i.e., PQ is parallel to BC.
And since PQ = ^PR.
PQ = |BC.
86. The following theorem is useful in its practical
applications.
io4 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Theorem. If three or more parallel straight lines
make equal intercepts on any transversal they also
make equal intercepts on any other transversal.
In Fig. 87, AB, CD, EF are three parallels. They are
cut by two transversals PQ, RS.
Given that the intercepts on PQ are equal, i.e., AC = CE,

it is required, to prove that the intercepts on RS are equal,

i.e., BD = DF.
Construction. Draw AG parallel to BD,
and CH parallel to DF.
Proof. AGDB and CHFD are parallelograms (Def.).
;. BD=AG
and DF—CH.
In As ACG, CEH :
(1) AC = CE (given).
(2) A.ACG = /.CEH (corresponding angles).
(3) Z.CAG = /LECH (corresponding angles).
As ACG, CEH are congruent.
In particular AG = CH.
But AG = BD,
and CH = DF.
:. BD = DF.
Note.—This theorem is known as “ the theorem of equal intercepts ”.
It is the basis of the diagonal scale.
 QUADRILATERALS 105
87. Construction No. 9.
To divide a given straight line into any number
of equal parts.
This construction problem is solved by the application of
the preceding theorem.

In Fig. 88, AB is any straight line. Suppose it is desired

to divide into (say) three equal parts, i.e., to trisect it.

Method of construction.
Draw a straight line AP making any convenient angle
with AB.
With a pair of dividers or compasses mark off along AP
suitable lengths A X, XY, YZ, which are equal.
Join ZB.
From X and Y draw the straight lines XC, YD, parallel
to ZB.
The straight line AB is trisected at C and D.
Proof. The two transversals AB and AP cut the three
parallel straight lines CX, DY, BZ.
But the intercepts on AP, viz., AX, XY, YZ, are equal.
/.by Theorem of § 86, the intercepts on AB, viz., AC,
CD, DB are equal, i.e., AB is trisected at C and D.
io6 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

^Exercise 8
1. Find the angles of the parallelogram ABCD (Fig. 80)
when:
(a) LADC = 70°.
(&) ADBC = 42° and ABDC = 30°.
2. Construct a square of 3 cm side.
3. (a) Construct a rhombus whose diagonals are 3-6 cm
and 4-8 cm.
(&) The diagonals of a square are 4 cm long. Draw the
square and measure the length of its side.
4. Construct a parallelogram such that its diagonals are
3 cm and 4 cm long and one of the angles between them
is 60°.
5. Construct a parallelogram ABCD when AB = 4 cm,
BC = 3 cm and the diagonal AC is 5 cm. What particular
form of parallelogram is it ? ‘
6. The diagonals of a parallelogram ABCD intersect at
0. Through 0 a straight line is drawn to cut AB and CD
at P and Q respectively. Prove that OP — OQ.
7. ABC is a A. E and F are the mid points of AB and
AC. EF is produced to G so that FG = EF. Prove that
BE is equal and parallel to CG.
8. Draw a straight line 8 cm long and divide it into five
equal parts. Check by comparing their lengths by measure­
ment.
9. ABCD is a trapezium in which AB is parallel to CD.
If AD = BC prove that AADC = ABCD.
 CHAPTER. 12
AREAS OF RECTILINEAL FIGURES
88. Area was defined in § 7 as the amount of surface
enclosed by the boundaries of a figure and there have been
several implicit references to the areas of rectilineal figures
in preceding chapters. For example, when, in § 78 it was
proved that “ a parallelogram is bisected by a diagonal," the
reference was to area only. Again, when it was stated that
" congruent triangles coincide ” the implied meaning is that
not only are corresponding sides and angles equal, but that
the areas of such triangles are also equal.
It is now necessary to consider the methods by which the
areas of rectilineal figures are obtained and, also, how these
areas are measured.

89. Measurement of Area.

The first essential for all measurement is a unit; the unit
of area is obviously going to be related to the unit of length.
The unit of length In SI fs the metre (m), and the logical
unit of area is that of a square which has sides of 1 metre.
This is the square metre (m2).
For smaller measurements the square of any unit may be
used, e.g.: square centimetre (cm2), square millimetre (mm2);
these are the areas of squares having centimetres, etc., as
their side. The same procedure applies to larger areas, but
in addition, there is the are, the area of a square having a
side of 10 m. The usual metric prefixes may also be used
with the are, e.g., the hectare (100 ares).
90. Square centimetres may be seen on squared, or graph
paper. An enlargement of a square centimetre of graph
paper is shown in Fig. 89, and an example to scale is shown
in Fig. 90.
The sides of the square are divided into 10 equal parts,
107
io8 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
each part being thus 0-1 cm. Each division is the side of
a square such as is indicated in the small square at A.
Consequently, in the bottom row, corresponding to the
side AB, there are 10 of these
small squares. Throughout the
whole square ABCD there are 10
such rows, since each side of the
square is also divided into 10
equal parts. Altogether then
there are 10 X 10, i.e., 100 small
squares such as that at A. .
Every small square is therefore
0-01 of a square centimetre. Thus
3 rows contain (10 x 3) of these
and their total area is 0-01 X
30 = 0-3 cm2.
Similarly 7 rows would contain (10 X 7) = 70 small
squares, and the area of the rectangle represented by these
7 rows would be 70 X 0-01 = 0-7 cm2.
91. Area of a Rectangle.
The above example suggests a method for finding the
area of a rectangle. As a more general case let us consider
the rectangle shown in
Fig. 90, which is drawn
on squared paper ruled in
centimetres, the square
ABCD being a square
centimetre. Each centi­
metre is divided into
10 equal divisions, each
a millimetre.
The sides of the rect­
angle AHKL are 4 cm
and 3 cm.
Corresponding to each
centimetre in the side AH
there is a sq. cm above it, i.e., there are 4 cm2 in the row
of squares constructed above each centimetre along AH.
In the whole rectangle ALKH there are 3 such rows.
 AREAS OF RECTILINEAL FIGURES 109
The total number of sq. cm in ALKH = 3 X 4 = 12,
i.e., the area of AHKL = 12 cm2.
If the rectangle were 6 cm by 5 cm, then there would
be 6 cm2 in each row and 5 rows.
Total area = 6x5
= 30 cm2.
This reasoning can evidently be applied to a rectangle
of any size and the result generalised as follows:
Let a = number of units of length in one side of the rect­
angle.
Let b = number of units of length in the adjacent side of
the rectangle.
Then area of rectangle = (a x b) sq. units.
The argument above referred to examples in which the
lengths of the sides of the rectangle are exact numbers of
units of length. With suitable modifications, however, it
can be shown to be true when the lengths of the sides are
fractional.
For example adjacent sides of the rectangle .4 EEG, Fig. 90,
viz., /IE and AG, are 3-5 and 1-5 cm respectively.
These lengths expressed in millimetres are 35 and 15
mm respectively, and each very small square with a side
one millimetre is a square millimetre.
with the same reasoning as above,
Area of AEFG = (35 x 15) mm2
= 525 mm2
= 5-25 cm2.
Similar methods employed in other cases confirm the
truth of the general rule given above.
92. Area of a Square.
Regarding a square as a rectangle with adjacent sides
equal, the above formula for its area can be modified
accordingly.
Thus if b = a.
Then area of square = a x a
= a2 sq. units.
no TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
93. Area of a Parallelogram.
The formula for the area of a parallelogram, the angles
of the figure not being right angles, can be determined as
follows:
Consider the parallelogram ABCD, Fig. 91.
Construction. Draw CP perpendicular to AB.
.From D draw DQ perpendicular to CD to meet BA
produced at Q. DQ is per­
pendicular to BQ.
Proof. If CD be regarded
as the base of the parallelo­
gram, then CP or DQ is the
corresponding altitude or
height of the parallelogram.
It is the distance between the
two parallels AB and DC.
DCPQ is a rectangle and DC and CP are two adjacent
sides.
In As BCP, ADQ :
(1) ACBP = ADAQ (corresponding angles).
(2) ADQA = ACPB (right angles).
(3) CB = DA (§ 78).
As BCP, ADQ are congruent.
quadrilateral ADCP -f- APCB = quadrilateral ADCP
+ AADQ,
e., parallelogram ABCD = rectangle PCDQ.
i.
the area of a parallelogram is equal to the area
of the rectangle with the same base and same
height.
area of parallelogram = base x height.
Corollary. The area of any other parallelogram with the
base DC and having the same height, or lying between the
same parallels, is equal to that of the rectangle PCDQ.
94. The statement in the corollary above can be ex­
pressed formally in the following theorem.
 AREAS OF RECTILINEAL FIGURES m
Theorem. Parallelograms on the same base and
having the same height, or between the same
parallels, are equal in area.
In Fig. 92 PQ and XY are two parallels.
Let AB, a part of PQ, be a base to any two parallelograms,

such as ABCD, ABEF, between the two parallels PQ and

XY.
Draw AL and B K perpendicular to XY.
Then AL = BK.
As in § 93 each of the parallelograms ABCD, ABEF
can be shown to be equal in area to the rectangle ABKL.
the area of ABCD — area of ABEF.
95. If both base and height be constant in parallelograms
such as are described above, the area will be constant.

The base need not be the same base; but the bases must
be equal.
Hence we arrive at :
Theorem. Parallelograms which have equal
bases and lie between the same parallels, i.e., they
have the same height, are equal in area.
iiz TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
In Fig. 93 ABCD, EFGH are parallelograms having equal
bases AB and EF and lying between the same parallels.
If rectangles ABPQ, EFRS be constructed as shown in
figure, these will have the same area.
parallelograms ABCD, EFGH, which are equal in
area to these, must be themselves equal.
96. Area of a Triangle.
Every triangle can be regarded as half of a certain
parallelogram which can be readily constructed. This is
illustrated in Fig. 94. Each of the three types of triangles,

acute angled (a), obtuse angled (&) and right angled (c) is
half of the parallelogram ABCD, the construction of which
is obvious. In the case of the right-angled triangle (c) the
parallelogram assumes the form of a rectangle. In (a) and
(&) AH represents the altitude or height of the triangle and
therefore also of the corresponding parallelogram.
In each case the parallelogram is equal to the rectangle
BCEF, constructed by drawing perpendiculars BF and CE.
Also, each triangle is equal to half of the rectangle, one
of whose sides is the base of the triangle and the other side
the same in length as the height of the triangle.
In both parallelogram and rectangle it has been shown
(§ 93) that :
Area = base X height.
area of A = |(base x height).
If b = length of base
h = altitude
and A = area.
Then A = |bh.
 AREAS OF RECTILINEAL FIGURES 113
97. From the above conclusions the truth of the following
theorems will be apparent without any formal statement
of the proofs.
Theorem. If a parallelogram and a triangle be
on the same or equal bases and between the same
parallels, the area of the triangle is one half that
of the parallelogram.
Theorem. Triangles on equal bases and between
the same parallels are equal in area.
98. Area of a Trapezium.
ABCD is a trapezium (Fig. 95) in which AD is parallel
to BC.
From D and B draw perpendiculars DE and BF to the
opposite side, produced in
the case of DA. Join BD.
The trapezium is divided
by BD into two As ABD,
DBC.
Let h be the distance be­
tween the parallel sides.
Then h is equal to DE and
BF, the altitudes of the As DBC and ApB.
Let AD = a units of length and BC = b.
Area of BDBC = lbh.
Area of BADB — bah.
area of trapezium = %ah + pfe
= |h(a J- b)
= ^(height x sum of parallel sides)
or = height x average of parallel
sides.
Area of a Quadrilateral. Any quadrilateral can be
divided into two triangles, as in the trapezium above. The
sum of the areas of these triangles is equal to the area of
the quadrilateral.
ii4 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

^Exercise 9
Note.—In some of the following exercises the student is expected
to draw the figures to scale and calculate the areas from the measured
lines.
1. Take two set squares of angles 30°, 60°, 90° and place
them together with the hypotenuses coinciding, thus
forming a rectangle. Measure the sides of the rectangle
and find its area. Hence find the area of one of the set
squares.
2. Fig. 96 represents a square tile of side 10 cm. ABCD

Fig. 96.

are the mid points of the sides of the square. Find the
area of the part which is shaded.
3. Find the area of a rectangle 5-8 cm by 4-5 cm.
4. Find the areas of the following triangles:
(a) Base 155 mm, height 70 mm
(J) Base 9’7 m, height 6-7 m
(c) Base 15-4 cm, height 11-4 cm.
5. Construct a triangle with sides 2, 2-5 and 3 cm and
find its area. Check the result by doing it in three ways
and finding the average of your results.
6. Construct an equilateral triangle of side 7 cm and
find its area.
7. The diagonals of a rhombus are 3-6 cm and 1-4 cm.
Find the area of the rhombus.
8. The area of a triangle is 15-6 cm2 and the length of a
base is 6-5 cm. Find the corresponding altitude.
 AREAS OF RECTILINEAL FIGURES ”5
9. Fig. 97, not drawn to scale, represents the side of a
lean-to shed of dimensions as indicated. Find its area.
10. Fig. 98, not drawn to scale, represents the section

Fig. 98.

of an aqueduct of dimensions as indicated. Find the area

of the section.
 CHAPTER 13
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES. THEOREM OF
PYTHAGORAS
99. One of the most important theorems in Geometry
is that connected with a right-angled triangle and known
as the “ Theorem of Pythagoras ”. It is as follows:
Theorem. The area of the square on the hypo­
tenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the
sum of the areas of the squares on the other two
sides.
In Fig. 99 ABC is a right-angled A and BC is its hypo­
tenuse. Squares are con­
structed on the sides..
The Theorem states that :
Square on BC = square
on AB + square on AC.
There are several interest­
ing devices for cutting up
the squares on BA and AC
and fitting them into the
square on BC. But to save
time and space we will pro­
ceed directly to the proof
which the student may find
longer and perhaps more
complicated than previous
Fig. 99. theorems.
Construction. Draw ALM
parallel to BE and CD, and consequently at right angles
to BC arid ED.
This divides the square on BC into two rectangles.
The proof consists in showing that
n6
 RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES. PYTHAGORAS 117
rectangle BLME = square on AB.
(these are shaded) and afterwards
the rectangle CDML = square on AC.
(A) To prove rectangle BLME = square on AB.
To obtain connecting links between these, join AE, HC.
First it is noted that KA and AC are in the same straight
line (§18).
(1) LABE and rectangle BLME are on the same base
BE and between the same parallels BE and AM.
AABE = ^rectangle BLME) (§97).
(2) LHBC and square ABHK are on same base HB and
between the same parallels HB and KC.
AHBC = |(square ABHK).
If it can be proved that AABE = AHBC.
Then rectangle BLME = square ABHK.
(B) To prove AABE — AHBC.
(1) AB — HB (sides of a square).
(2) BE = BC (sides of a square).
(3) /.ABE = AHBC (since each L equals a right
L + /-ABC}.
As ABE, HBC are congruent. (§ 49 A).
rectangle BLME = square ABHK . (1)
In a similar manner by joining AD and BG it may be
proved that the
rectangle CLMD = square ACGE . (2)
By addition of (1) and (2) we get
square on BC = sum of squares on AB and AC.
The student is advised to go through the proof leading
to (2) and write it down.

The above proof has been made somewhat longer by

explanations designed to help the student through it. A
shorter and more usual way of setting it out is given in
Part II (p. 265).
n8 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
100. The converse of the above theorem is also true. It
is as follows:
Theorem. If in a triangle the square on one side
is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two
sides, then the triangle is right-angled.
The proof is omitted in this section of the book, but will
be found in Part II (p. 267).
101. The Theorem of Pythagoras can be expressed in
algebraical form as follows:
In the right-angled triangle ABC (Fig. 100) the sides are
represented by a, b, c as explained in § 44, c being the
hypotenuse.
Then by the Theorem of Pythagoras:
c2 = a2 + b2,
whence c = V a 2 + b2
also a2 = c2 — b2
and a = Vc2 — b2
similarly b = Vc2 — a2.
Hence any one side can be expressed in terms of the other
two.
From these results it is evident that if In two right-angled
triangles, the hypotenuse and one side of each are equal,
the third side will also be equal and the triangles are
congruent.
102. To find the length of the diagonal of a square in terms
of the sides.
Let a = length of a side of the square ABCD (Fig. 101).
Let x = length of the diagonal, DB.
Then x2 — a2 + a2 (Theorem of Pythagoras)
= 2a2.
x = oa/T.
e., the ratio of the diagonal of a square to a side is
I.
'2:1.
It may be noted that the angles CBD, CDB are each 45 .
 RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES. PYTHAGORAS 119
103. To find the height, or altitude, of an equilateral
triangle in terms of the side.
In Fig.202, ABC is an equilateral A.

AD, the perpendicular from A to BC, is the height or

altitude.
Let a = length of each side.
Then CD = ?
Al
In the right-angled LADC, AC2 — AD2 + DC2.
.-. AD2 = AC2 -DC2

._ 3a2
~ 4
ad_YL.

The angles of the AADC are 90°, 60°, 30° (those of one
of the set squares) and the A is one of frequent occurrence.
It should be noted that the ratio of the sides of this A are
.a
‘ 2 a ‘2
or 2:V3 : I.
120 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Area of an equilateral triangle.
From the above triangle:
Area = |5C x AD
— a2 vx 2 a'
Area = X^a2.
4
•Exercise 10
1. Which of the As, with sides as follows, are right-
angled ?
(a) 1-2, 1-6, 2.
(&) 4, 5, 6.
(c) 1, 2-4, 2-6.
(</) 5, 7, 9.
2. Find the lengths of the diagonals of squares whose
sides are:
(a) 1 m, (b) 12 m.
8. Find the altitudes of equilateral As whose sides are:
(a) 1 m, (b) 12 m.
4. The diagonals of a rhombus are 4-6 m and 5-2 m.
Find the lengths of the sides.
5. A man travels 15 km due east and then 18 km due
north. How far is he from his starting point in a straight
line?
6. One side of a rectangular field is 140 m. A diagonal
Is 160 m. Find the length of the other side.
7. A peg is 3 m from the foot of a flagstaff which is 8 m
high. What length of rope, when taut, will be needed to
reach the peg from the top of the flagstaff ?
8. The hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is 6-5 cm
and one side is 2-5 cm. What is the length of the other
side ?
9. Find the altitude of an isosceles triangle in which
each of the equal sides is 10 cm, and the base is 5 cm.
10. (a) Find the area of an equilateral triangle of side 5
 RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES. PYTHAGORAS 121
cm; (b) If the area of an. equilateral triangle is 25V3 cm,
what is the length of each side?
11. A ladder 12 m long rests against a vertical wall of a
house, so that the foot of the ladder is 5 m from the bottom
of the wall. How far up the wall does the top of the ladder
reach?
12. The diagonals of a quadrilateral intersect at right
angles. Prove that the sum of the squares on one pair of
opposite sides equals the sum of the squares on the other
pair.
13. Construct a square so that its area is twice that of a
given square.
14. A rod 3 m in length makes an angle of 30° with its
projection on a horizontal plane. Find the length of its
projection.
 CHAPTER 14
POLYGONS
104. A polygon is a plane rectilineal figure bounded by more
than four straight lines.
Triangles and quadrilaterals are sometimes included
under the term polygon, but it will be used here in the
sense defined above.
A regular polygon is one in which all the sides and all
the angles are equal.
K convex polygon, like a convex quadrilateral, is one in
which no angle is greater than two right angles, i.e., it has no
reflex or re-entrant angle.
The work which follows will be confined to regular
convex polygons.
105. Sides of Polygons.
There is no theoretical limit to the number of sides of a
polygon, but only those with twelve or less are commonly
met with: The names of polygons which are most in use
are as follows:

No. of Sides. Name.

5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
8 Octagon
10 Decagon

The number of angles of a polygon is the same as the

number of sides. Thus a regular hexagon has six equal
angles, as well as six equal sides.
122
 POLYGONS X23
106. Circumscribing Circles of Polygons.
With all regular polygons, circles can be described which
pass through all the angular points or vertices.
Such circles are called circumscribing circles. Examples
are shown in Fig. 103.
To draw the circumscribing circle. If it is required to

(a)Regular Hexagon (b)Regular Pentagon (c)Regular Octagon

Fig. 103.
draw the circumscribing circle of a given regular polygon,
this can be done in two ways.
(1) Draw the perpendicular bisectors of two or more
sides; or
(2) Draw the bisectors of two or more of the angles
of the polygon.
In either case the intersection of the lines so obtained
is the centre of the required circle. In the examples
of Fig. 103 all the lines thus drawn are bisectors of the
angles. Each of these straight lines is a radius of the
circle.
The proof in either case will be clear from previous
work.
Corresponding to each side of a regular polygon is an
isosceles A with its vertex at the centre, 0, of the circum­
scribing circle as shown in Fig. 103. In the case of the
hexagon all these triangles are equilateral.
107. Inscribed Circles.
Circles which are drawn within polygons so as to touch
all the sides are called inscribed circles. They clearly
touch each side at its mid-point.
124 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
To draw the inscribed circle of a given polygon, such as
the hexagon in Fig. 104, find the centre, which is the same
as for the circumscribing circle,
by drawing the perpendicular
bisectors of the sides.
The length of any one of these
perpendiculars from 0 to one of
these mid-points is the radius of the
inscribed circle. For example, in
Fig. 104, OP is the radius of the
inscribed circle.
108. Angles of Regular Polygons.
As stated in § 105 these are all
equal in any regular polygon.
They can be found in various ways.
First method. Consider the pentagon in Fig. 103 (&).
The five isosceles As with sides of the pentagon as bases
and vertices at 0 are clearly congruent, and the angles at
centre are equal. Their sum is four right angles. This is
evidently true for all regular polygons.
For the pentagon each angle at the centre — | of 4
right Zs.

AAOB = = 72°.

/. each of the angles OAB, OBA =1(180° - 72°) = 54°.

AABC == 2 X AOBA = 108°.
Second method. For our example in this case we will
consider the hexagon (Fig. 103 (a)).
In this polygon six equilateral As are formed with sides
of the polygon as bases.
sum of all the angles of these triangles, 6 x 2 = 12
right As.
These include the angles at 0, i.e., 4 right As.
sum of the six angles of the hexagon — (12 — 4) right
As.
— 8 right As.
 POLYGONS 125
. 1 8 ■ 1.4. / o 90°
.. each angle = g right Zs = 8 x -g-
= 120°.
The angle of a regular polygon of n sides.
In general, if a polygon has n sides there are n triangles.
.'. sum of all the angles of the As = 2n right angles.
This includes the 4 right As at the centre.
sum of angles of the polygon = (2n — 4) right As.
, . 2n — 4 . . .
.. each angle = —-— right As.
In the octagon, for example, n — 8.
, . (2 x 8) -4 . .
.. each angle = ------ -------- right As
o
= 135°.
Third method. Exterior angles of a regular polygon.
Let the sides of a regular polygon (Fig. 105) be produced
in the same order.
Exterior angles are thus formed, and these are as many
as there are sides to the
polygon. \
Let n = the number of ; \
sides. \
Then there are n exterior y \
angles. At each angular / \"*/
point the sum of the interior / \J
and exterior angles is 2 right A /
As. /....\ /
for n exterior angles: / \ / '
sum of all the angles = 2n \ , / t
right As. \
but sum of interior angles = \
(2» — 4) right As (see Fig. 105.
above).
sum of exterior angles = 4 right As.
When there are n sides and thus n exterior angles 1
, „ .1 4 rt. As 360°
each exterior angle ==----------—------.
n n
136 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

each Interior angle = 180° — -——.

° n
Thus, for a hexagon each interior angle
= 180°120°.
o

109. Construction No. 10.

To construct a regular polygon on a given straight
line.
This can readily be effected by making use of the angle
properties of polygons which
n have been stated above.
/ Several methods can be em-
/ ployed—-occasionally special
/C methods as in the case of a
/ hexagon—-but the following
general method can always be
■I. f ''----------- used.
A B P Let AB (Fig. 106) be the
Fig. 106. given side of the required
polygon.
Considering the general case let the polygon have n sides.
Method of construction.
Produce AB indefinitely to P.
At B construct an angle which, by calculation, is one of
the exterior angles of the polygon (§ 108, Third Method).
It was there shown that:
360°
Each exterior angle =
360°
at B construct an angle PBQ equal to .
Along PQ mark off BC = AB.
Then BC is a side of the polygon and AABC is one of the
angles of the polygon.
Similarly, another angle equal to PBC can be constructed
 POLYGONS 127
at C and a third side obtained. Thus the whole polygon
can be constructed step by step.
Note.-—It is frequently helpful, having obtained BC, to find the
centre of the circumscribing circle as stated above.

e Exercise 11
1. Find the number of degrees in each of the equal
angles of the following regular polygons : (a) heptagon,
(&) octagon, (c) decagon.
2. If each of the interior angles of a regular polygon is
160°, how many sides are there ?
3. Construct a hexagon with a side of 0-1 m.
(«) What is the radius of the circumscribing circle?
(b) What is the distance between two opposite sides?
(c) Find the area of the hexagon.
4. Construct a regular octagon of side 3 cm.
5. Each of the exterior angles of a regular polygon is
40°. How many sides has it? Find each of the interior
angles.
6. The sum of the exterior angles of a polygon is equal
to the sum of the interior angles. How many sides has the
polygon?
 CHAPTER 15
LOCI
110. Meaning of a Locus.
If a number of points be marked, without any plan, on
a sheet of paper, they will not, in general, lie in any regular
formation, nor will they form any regular geometrical
pattern. If, however, they are placed so as to satisfy a
geometrical condition, they will be seen to lie in a recog­
nisable geometric figure.
A simple example is that of drawing a straight line from
a point A to another point B, by means of a straight edge
or ruler. As the point of the
p K___ L__M pencil moves along the edge of
q . the ruler it can be regarded as
forming a continuous succession
of points, the whole constituting
A B a straight line. All such points
satisfy the condition of lying on
the straight line joining A to B
(see also § 6).
R S A second example is as follows.
Fig. 107. Let AB, Fig. 107, be a fixed
straight line and suppose it is
desired to find all the points in the plane of the paper which
are half an inch from it.
We know that the distance of a point from a straight line
is the length of the perpendicular drawn from the point to
the line. Take any point C on AB and draw CK, per­
pendicular to AB and one centimetre in length. Then the
point K at the end of the line satisfies the condition of
being one centimetre from AB. Similarly, taking other
points on AB, such as D and E and drawing perpendiculars
DL, EM, each one centimetre in length, we obtain the points
L and M, which also satisfy the condition.
It is clear, from previous work, that all such points must
128
 LOCI 129
He on the straight line PQ which is parallel to AB and
equal in length to it. The points P and Q will lie at the
ends of the perpendiculars from A and B respectively.
It is also evident that a straight line RS, drawn parallel
to AB on the other side of it, such that the perpendicular
from any point on AB to it is one centimetre in length, also
contains points which satisfy the condition of being one
centimetre from AB.
Consequently, we conclude that all the points in the plane
which satisfy the condition of being one centimetre from AB lie
on two parallel straight lines, one centimetre from AB, equal in
length to AB, and lying on opposite sides of it.
Further, it will be clear that there are no other points
In the plane of the paper which are distant one centimetre
from AB.
An assemblage of all the points which satisfy a given
condition is called a locus. (Latin, locus =» a place,
position; plural—loci.)
We have also seen that the straight line PQ may be
regarded as the path of a point moving so that it satisfies
the condition of being one centimetre from AB. Hence the
definition:
The path traced out by a point moving so as to satisfy
a fixed condition or law is called the locus of the point.

111. Let us next consider this problem:

What is the locus of points in a plane which are one
centimetre distant from a fixed point?
The answer to this is at once suggested by the definition
of a circle (§21). In that definition we read “ all straight
lines drawn from points on the circumference to a fixed point
within the curve called the centre are equal ”.
Consequently, the answer to the question is that the locus
Is the circumference of a circle, whose centre is at the
fixed point and whose radius is one centimetre.

112. Locus of Points Not in One Plane.

In the above definitions points and lines were specified
as being in one plane. But it will be readily understood that
130 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
there may be points not in the plane, i.e., in space, which
also satisfy the given condition.
In the example of the previous section if the lines are no
longer restricted to one plane, then it will be seen that the
locus in space of points which are at a given distance from a
fixed point is the surface of a ball or sphere. The radius of
the sphere is the specified distance from the fixed point
which is the centre of the sphere.
Similarly, the locus in space of points which are a
specified distance from a fixed straight line (as in § 110)
is the interior surface of a
cylinder, such as a jam-jar or
' The sphere and cylinder will
' \ be more fully dealt with in
Chapter 24.
113. Locus of Points Equi­
distant from Two Fixed Points.
A'"""' ' ■ ® Let A and B be the two fixed
points (Fig. 108).
Construction No. 5 provides
the solution of the problem.
\ There it was proved that any
w point on the perpendicular
Q. bisector of a straight line is
Fig. 108. equidistant from the ends of
the line.
Therefore, join AB and draw as in Construction No. 5
the perpendicular bisector of AB, viz., PQ.
Then, as in the theorem of § 68, any point on PQ is equi­
distant from A and B.
PQ is the required locus.
114. Locus of Points Equidistant from Two Intersecting
Straight Lines.
The answer to this problem is supplied by the Theorem
of §68, following on Construction No. 4.
It is clear that the locus is the bisector of the angle
formed by the intersection of the two straight lines. Thus,
 LOCI 131
in Fig. 72 OP is the locus of points which are equidistant
from the two straight lines OA and OB.
115. The geometrical construction of a locus is seldom as
easy as those stated above. The following example is
somewhat more difficult.
Find the locus of a point which moves so that the sum
of its distances from two fixed points is constant.
The locus may be drawn as follows:

Let P and Q be two fixed points on a piece of paper on a

drawing board.
Fasten two pins firmly at P and Q.
Take a closed loop of fine string or thread and place it
round the pins at P and Q.
With the point of a pencil stretch the string taut, so that
it takes up a position such as X.
If the pencil now be moved, keeping the string taut,
the point at X will travel along a curve. Since the length
of the string is constant, and the distance between P and
Q is constant, the sum of PX and QX must be constant.
Thus, the point moves round a curve so that the sum of
its distances from P and Q is constant.
The resulting curve is an ellipse, which may therefore be
defined as:
132 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
The locus of the point moving so that the sum of its
distances from two fixed points is constant is an ellipse.
Two of the points A and B will lie on the straight line
PQ produced each way.
Bisect AB at 0.
Through 0 draw COD perpendicular to AB.
Then AB and CD are called the major and minor axes
of the ellipse.
P and Q are called the foci.
116. Loci by Plotting Points.
Many loci, as we have seen, can be drawn readily by
mechanical means, e.g., a ruler or compasses, but others,
especially when they lie upon a curve, are obtained by the
method known as plotting points. This means that a
number of points are obtained which satisfy the given
conditions. Such points will, in general, appear to he on
a regular, smooth curve or straight line. They are joined
up by drawing as accurately as possible the curve which
passes through them all.

The parabola.
A very useful example of this method is one which
produces a parabola. A mechanical method of drawing
this curve is possible, but is seldom used. The following
two methods are commonly employed.
(1) Geometrical. In this method we employ a funda­
mental property of a parabola as a locus. It is as follows:
The locus of points whose distances from a fixed point are
equal to the corresponding distances from a fixed straight line
is called a parabola.
This can be drawn most easily by using squared paper
as in Fig. 110.
Let P be the fixed point and XOX' the fixed straight fine,
0 being the point where the perpendicular from P to XOX'
meets that line.
If OP be bisected at A, then A is clearly a point on the
curve, its distance from the fixed straight fine XOX’, viz.,
AO, being equal to AP, its distance from P.
 LOCI 133
Selecting one of the ruled lines perpendicular to OP, such
as BC, with BO as radius and P as Centre, draw an arc of a
circle cutting BC in C. ~
Then PC = OB = CD.
I.e., the distance of C from the fixed point P is equal to
its distance from the fixed line OX.
:. C Is a point on the locus
A similar point can be found on the other side of

D
D

X
h V

Parabola
Fig. 110.

OP. Thus a number of other points may be found on both

sides of OP as an axis and a curve drawn to contain them.
The more points that are plotted the more accurately the
curve can be drawn.
(2) Algebraical.
Students who have studied algebra will be acquainted
with the following, which is a very brief summary of the
treatment of the matter in an algebra text-book (Teach
Yourself Algebra, § 108).
134 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Let OX, OY be two straight lines at right angles to each
other.
Let P be a point in the plane of these lines.
Let y, i.e., PK, be its distance from OX.
Let x, i.e., PL, be its distance from OY.
If the relation between y and x for a series of points be

Y
X p
L I

X’ 0 r; x

Fig. 111.

such that y is always proportional to the square of x, then

the locus of such points is a parabola.
This relation can be expressed by the equation
y = ax2.
This is true for any value of a. Let a = 1.
Then the equation becomes y = x2.
Using this simpler form of the equation, we may proceed
to find the locus of all points which satisfy the condition.
To do this we assign suitable values to x and then calculate
the corresponding values of y. For convenience some of
these are tabulated as follows (other values can be added
by the student):
X 0 0-5 1 IS 2 2-5 3
y 0 025 1 2-25 4 6-25 9
 LOCI 135
Using scales as indicated on OX and OY (Fig. 112),
we proceed to find the points for which the corresponding
values of x and y are those in the table, thus at P
x = 2, y = 4.
It will be seen that these points apparently lie on a
smooth regular curve. This must be drawn by the student.

Parabola
Fig. 112.

that all points on it, besides those plotted, will satisfy the
condition y = x2. This can be checked by taking points
on it, finding the corresponding values of x and y and seeing
if they do satisfy the condition. Further, it will be clear
that there are no points on the plane, not lying on the curve,
which satisfy the condition y x2.
For convenience, different units are employed for x
and y.
The curve is thus the locus of the points, which are such
136 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
that the distance from OX is equal to the square of the
distance from OY.
The student who has a knowledge of elementary algebra
will realise that there is a similar curve on the other side of
OY, corresponding to negative values of x. This agrees
with the curve as drawn by geometrical methods in Fig. 110.
The curve is a parabola.
117. The Hyperbola.
Algebraic expressions, involving two quantities denoted
by, x and y, in which y is expressed in terms of x, can be
represented by curves obtained in a similar way to that
given above. A noteworthy example is the curve which
represents the relation between x and y denoted by the
equation

Using the method of the previous example, the curve

to be obtained may be regarded as the locus of points such
that the distance (y) of each of them from OX is the
reciprocal of the distance (x) from OY.
This curve presents difficulties when x becomes very
large or very small, but they cannot be discussed here.
The student is referred to Teach Yourself Algebra, § 173.
A table of corresponding values of x andy is as follows:

X i J 1 2 3 4

y 4 2 1 i i i

When the curve is drawn through the points obtained

from these it.is as shown in Fig. 113.
A curve similar to that obtained by using the above
values can be drawn for negative values of x.
This curve is known as the hyperbola.
118. The Cycloid.
This curve is the locus of a fixed point on the circum­
 LOCI j37

ference of a circle which rolls along a straight line without

slipping.
The curve, which is one of considerable practical value,
may be observed by making a visible mark on a bicycle
wheel, or garden roller. As the wheel rolls smoothly the

Hyperbola
Fig. 113.

mark will be seen to move along a curve in space. This

curve is the cycloid.
A cycloid may be plotted as follows. Take a solid circular
disc, place it horizontally on a piece of paper and with its
edge touching a fixed ruler or a book a marked point, P,
is made on the paper. Carefully roll the disc along the
edge of the ruler for a short distance, taking care, it does
138 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
not slip. Now make a point on the paper corresponding
to the new position of P. Repeat this and so obtain a
number of similar points; the curve drawn through these
is the cycloid.

Fig. 114 represents the curve, the marked point on the

circle starting from A, reaching the highest point at P.
At B the circle has made one complete rotation, and the
fixed point is back again on the line AB.
119. Intersection of Loci.
When two lines which are the loci of points satisfying
two separate sets of conditions intersect, then the point
or points of intersection satisfy both sets of conditions.
Example I. A and B (Fig. 115) are any two points, PQ
is the perpendicular bisector of AB.
Then PQ is the locus of points equidistant from A and B
(§ 113).
Let C be a third point, and RS the perpendicular bisector
of BC.
Then RS is the locus of points equidistant from B and C.
Let 0 be the intersection of PQ and RS.
Since 0 lies on PQ it must be equidistant from A and B.
Also since 0 lies on RS it must be equidistant from B and
C.
O must satisfy both sets of conditions and is equi­
distant from A, B and C,
i.
e., OA — OB = OC.
 LOCI 139
if a circle be described with O as centre and OA as
radius the circumference will pass through B and C.
The following conclusions may be deduced from the
above:
(I) If AC be drawn then ABC is a triangle and the circle

drawn as described above is the circumscribing circle of the

triangle (see § 106).
(2) Since PQ and RS can intersect in one point only, one
circle only can be described to pass through three points.
(3) The perpendicular bisector of AC must pass through the
centre of the circumscribing circle 0. Consequently the per­
pendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle must be concurrent.
Example 2. The principle of the intersection of loci has
been used previously in a number of examples, without
reference to a locus, as, for example, in the following
problem.
A and B are two points 5 cm apart on a straight line AB.
Find a point which is 4 cm from A and 3 cm from B.
With centre A and radius 4 cm describe a circle (Fig. 116).
With centre B and radius 3 cm describe a circle.
I4o TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
The locus of all points in the plane which are 4 cm from
A is the circumference of a circle, centre A and radius 4 cm.
The locus of all points 3 cm from B is the circumference
of a circle centre B and radius 3 cm.
The intersection of these two circles, viz., C and C are

points which satisfy both conditions, i.e., each of them is

4 cm from A and 3 cm from B. They are thus the vertices
of two triangles ABC and ABC' whose sides are of the
given dimensions, 5 cm, 4 cm and 3 cm.
These As are clearly congruent.
The student will observe that, in principle, this was the
method employed in the construction of a triangle, when
three sides are given {see § 45, B).
 LOCI 141

^Exercise 12
1. Describe the following loci:
(a) The centre of a wheel of radius 1 m which rolls
in a vertical plane over a smooth horizontal surface.
(&) The centre of a wheel of radius 1 m which rolls
round a wheel of radius 2 m.
(c) A runner who runs round a circular track, always
keeping 1 m from the inner edge of the track.
2. A number of triangles on the same base and on the
same side of it are of equal area. What is the locus of their
vertices?
3. On a given straight line as base a number of isosceles
triangles are constructed. What is the locus of their
vertices?
4. On a given straight line, AB, a number of right-angled
triangles are constructed, each with the right angle opposite
to AB. Draw a number of such As and sketch the curve
which passes through the vertices. What does it appear
to be ?
5. AB is a fixed straight line and 0 a point without it.
0 is joined to a point P on AB and PO is produced to Q so
OQ = OP. As P moves along AB, what is the locus of Q ?
6. Ona fixed straight line, AB, a series of isosceles As are
constructed on one side of AB. Let C be one of the vertices.
Produce CA to D, so that CD = CB. What is the locus
ofD?
7. AB is a straight line and P is a point without it. If
P moves so that the perpendicular from it to AB is always
one-half of its distance from A, what is the locus of P?
8. XY is a fixed straight line of indeterminate length.
A part of it, BC, is the base of an equilateral A-ABC. If
the triangle rolls over, without slipping, on XY, until AC
lies on XY, what is the locus described by B ?
9. Two straight lines PQ and XY of unlimited length
intersect at 0 at an angle of 45°. Show how to find points
which are one centimetre from each of the straight lines.
10. POQ is an angle of 60°. Show how to find a point
which is one centimetre from OP and 4 cm from OQ.
 CHAPTER 16
THE CIRCLE. ARCS, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA
120. Arcs and the angles they subtend.
The student is reminded of the conclusions reached in
§§ 21 and 22. There it was pointed out that if a straight line
rotates in a plane about a fixed point at one end of the line
then any point on the rotating line traces the circumference
of a circle, and that any part of this circumference is called
an arc.
Thus when the straight line OA (Fig. 117) rotates to OB
about 0, an arc of the circle, viz.,
< AB is described by A, and A.AOB
/'*K *s corresponding angle through
f \__ / \ * which AB turns.
/ The angle AOB is said to stand
I I on t^’e arc AB. while the arc AB Is
\ U / said to subtend the angle AOB at
\ J the centre of the circle. Both arc
and angle are described by the same
F1g 117 amount of rotation.
If the rotating fine moves through
a further angle BOC equal to AOB, the arc BC is formed
subtending A.BOC at the centre. Clearly since AAOB =
ABOC the arc BC must equal the arc AB. It is reason­
able to conclude that equal angles correspond to equal arcs
and vice versa. This may be expressed in the theorems.
Theorems.
(1) Equal arcs in a circle subtend equal angles at
the centre.
(2) (The converse of the previous theorem.) Equal
angles at the centre of a circle stand upon equal
arcs.
When, as stated above and illustrated in Fig. 117, the
142
 THE CIRCLE. ARCS, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA 143
amount of rotation, and therefore the angle described, is
doubled, the arc is also doubled. If the angle, in the
same way, were to be trebled, the arc would be trebled, and
so for other multiples. It may therefore be concluded
that:
In a circle arcs are proportional to the angles which
they subtend at the centre of the circle.
121. Sector.
That part of a circle which is enclosed by an arc and the
two radii drawn to the extremities of the arc is called a
sector.
• In Fig. 118 the figure AOB is a sector. In a circle of

given radius, the size of the sector is determined by the

angle of the sector, AOB, or by the length of the arc.
Quadrant. If the angle of the sector is a right angle, the
sector becomes a quadrant.
In Fig. 119 the shaded sector is a quadrant.
If two diameters be drawn at right angles, such as AC
and BD, the circle ts divided into four quadrants.
Semicircle. If the angle of the sector be 180°, the sector
becomes a semi-circle, i.e., half a circle, as ABC in Fig. 119.
A semi-circle thus contains two quadrants. An important
practical example is the semi-circular protractor (see
Fig- 21).
Chord. The straight line which joins the ends of an
*44 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
arc of a circle Is called a chord. In Fig. 120, AC is a chord
of the circle in which ABC is an arc. It is also a chord of
the arc ADC.
A diameter is a chord which passes through the centre.
122. Length of the circumference of a circle.
The length of a curve obviously cannot be obtained in
the same way as that of a straight line by means of a
straight edge or ruler. Hence, other
methods must be found.
The length of the circumference of
k/ \p a circle is a matter of great import-
/ \ ance, if only for practical purposes.
| q | To obtain an exact formula for its
I ) calculation we require more ad-
\ / vanced mathematics than is possible
\. *n book, but an approximation
D can readily be found by practical
Chord methods, such as the following.
Fig. 120. Wind a stout thread round a
smooth cylindrical tin or bottle, or
some similar object of which the section is a circle. It is
better to wind it exactly .round three or four times, so
that an average can be taken. Unwind the thread and
measuring the thread by a ruler the length of one round, i.e,.,
of the circumference can be found. Evidently this length
will vary with the diameter of the circle, so the next problem
will be to find the relation between them. The diameter
can be measured by means of a ruler, care being taken to see
that the line measured passes through the centre of the circle.
This can be done more satisfactorily in the case of a jar or
tin by the use of callipers, or by placing the circular object
on its side on the table between two smooth rectangular
blocks, taking care that they are parallel. The distance
between the blocks is evidently the diameter of the circle.
From these measurements the ratio of the length of the
circumference to that of the diameter may be found.
It is better to do this with several objects of varying
diameters, and then take the average of the results. Two
conclusions will be apparent:
 THE CIRCLE. ARCS, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA 145
(1) The value of the ratio cir£ym^erence allowing for
' ' diameter
errors of measurement, is found to be the same in all cases.
If C = circumference
and d = diameter.
C
Then is a constant number.
d
(2) This constant number will probably be found by
the above experiment to lie between 3-1 and 3-2.
If this constant ratio can be determined accurately we
have a rule by which the length of any circumference can
be found when the diameter is known.
The problem of finding the ratio exactly has exercised
mathematicians for many centuries. The Egyptians arrived
at fairly good approximations and the Greeks at more
exact ones. Modem mathematics has, however, found a
method by which it can be calculated to any required degree
of accuracy. Its value to 7 places of decimals is
34415927... This is universally denoted by the Greek
letter re (pronounced “ pie ”).
Thus re = 34415927... to 7 places.
For practical purposes it is usually sufficient to take
re = 34416.
A less accurate value is 3|, i.e., ty.
Since V — 34428... it is dear that if it be so used in
calculations the accuracy of the results cannot, in general, be
depended upon as accurate for more than two significant
figures. The value V1 wiU be sufficient for questions, unless
otherwise stated.
Using this symbol, the results reached above can be
expressed in a formula:
Let C = length of circumference.
d = length of diameter.
r = length of radius.
C
Then 3“”
146 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
or C = nd
or since A = 2/
C ™ 2irr.

123. To Find the Length of an Arc.

The length of an arc of a circle, given the angle subtended
by it at the centre, can readily be
g calculated from that of the whole
circumference by making use of the
f /\ geometric theorem of § 120, viz.:
l / 1a Arcs are proportional to the
I 1A‘ angles they subtend at the centre.
\ 1 In Fig. 121 the arc AB bears the
J same ratio to the whole circumference
that the angle subtended by AB at
Fig. 121. the centre, viz., AOB, bears to a
complete rotation, 360°.
Let a «=• length of arc.
r = radius of circle.
n° = angle subtended at the centre by AB in degrees.
Then as stated above:
a n°

a = T60 x 2irr'
For example, if an arc subtends 72° at the centre of a
circle of radius 2 cm:
72
Then, length of arc — ggg x 2n x 2
4re 4 X 31416
= —— = -----g ■-----
5 5
«= 2-51 cm approx.

124. The Area of a Circle.

Areas bounded by regular curves are, in general, not
easily calculated, except by methods of advanced mathe­
matics. The problem of finding the area of a circle is no
 THE CIRCLE. ARCS, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA 147
exception to this. It was one of the most famous of
geometrical problems for centuries, but was never solved
satisfactorily until modem mathematics found means of
obtaining the area of any figure bounded by a regular curve.
This method is beyond the scope of the present volume.
As was the case with the circumference, however, there
are methods by which the area can be determined ap­
proximately, and one of these is given below.
In the circle drawn in Fig. 122, AB, BC, CD . . . are

the sides of a regular polygon inscribed in the circle; centre

0, and radius r. The arcs corresponding to these sides are
equal. The angular points A, B, C . . . are joined to the
centre, thus forming a series of equal isosceles triangles,
OAB, OBC, OCD . . . (§ 106).
Selecting one of these As, OAB, draw OP perpendicular
to AB. This is the altitude or height of the triangle, and
in each triangle there is a corresponding equal altitude.
Let OP = h.
Then area of AOAB = %AB X h
area of AOBC = %BC x h,
and area of B.0CD — |CZ> X h.
148 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Similarly for all such As corresponding to other sides of
the polygon.
Taking the sum of these areas
ACL-1A d~ AOBC d~ £k0CI) d*■ • • *
= |(XB d- BC + CD . . .) X h
= |(perimeter of polygon) x h . (A)
Suppose the number of sides of the polygon to be greatly
increased. Then the number of isosceles triangles is
increased correspondingly. The result (A) above remains
true, however many may be the number of sides. The
more they are, the smaller become the sides of the polygon
and the corresponding arcs of the circle;
Thus, the greater the number of sides, the more nearly
true are the following:
(1) The sum of the sides of the polygon becomes
approximately equal to the circumference of the circle.
(2) The sum of the areas of the triangles becomes
approximately equal to the area of the circle.
(3) h becomes approximately equal to r.
The differences may be made as small as we choose, by
continuing to increase the number of sides.
But result A above continues to be true.
/. ultimately, it may be argued that, approximately,
Area of circle = | (circumference) x r.
But circumference = 2ttt.
area of circle — | X Itrr x r,
of Area = wr3.
This formula may also be expressed in terms of the
diameter.
If d = diameter
d = 2r.
» f £
•' 2’ ’'
Substituting in the formula above:
Area
 THE CIRCLE. ARCS, CIRCUMFERENCE, AREA 149
125. Area of a Sector of a Circle,
As in the case of the length of an arc, the area of a sector
is proportional to the angle subtended at the centre by the
arc.
if angle of the sector,
Area of sector = x irrA

^Exercise 13
1. In a circle of 5-cm radius, find the lengths of:
(a) the circumference;
(b) the arc of a quadrant;
(c) an arc subtending an angle of 60°;
(d) an arc subtending an angle of 45° (r. = 34416).
2. A circle of radius 4 cm passes through the vertices of
an equilateral triangle. Find the lengths of each of the
arcs opposite to the sides.
3. The diameter of the halfpenny was exactly one inch.
Find (1) the length of its circumference, (2) its area
(rc = 34416).
4. In a circle of radius 5 cm find the lengths of the arcs
whieh subtend at the centre the following angles: 30°,
110°, 125°.
5. Through what distance does a point at the end of the
minute hand of a clock, 3-7 cm long, move between five
minutes past three and a quarter to four.
6. A pendulum, consisting of a small leaden bob, at the
end of a piece of cotton 4| m long, swings 25“ on each side
of the vertical. What is the length of the path traced out
by the bob on a single swing (n = V)?
7. Find the length of the circumference of a circle the
area of which is the same as that of a square of 3 cm side.
8. It was required that the area of the ground covered
by the circular base of a tent should be 100 m2. What
must be the diameter of the base?
9. A wire 15 cm long is bent round to form a circle.
What is the area of the circle?
150 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
10. Find the areas of the following sectors:
(a) Radius 3 cm, angle of sector 60°;
(b) Radius 2-8 cm, angle of sector 25°;
(c) Radius 9 cm, angle of sector 140°;
(d) Radius 2-2 cm, angle of sector 240°.
11. A searchlight a little above the level of the water of
a harbour can turn its rays through an angle of 210°. If
the greatest distance at which objects can be clearly seen
by the help of it is 1 000 m, what is the area of the surface
of the water within which objects can be seen ?
 CHAPTER 17
CHORDS AND SEGMENTS
126. Chord and Segment.
A chord of a circle has been defined in § 121. It may
also be described thus:
If a straight line cuts a circle, that part of it which lies
within the circle is called a chord of the circle. .
A chord divides a circle into two parts, which are called
segments.
In Fig. 123 the chord AB divides the circle into the two
segments APB, AQB. Unless the
chord is a diameter one of the seg­
ments is greater than a semi-circle,
and is called a major segment as
AQB in Fig. 123.
The other is less than a semicircle
and is called a minor segment, as
APB.
The arcs corresponding may be
described as major and minor arcs.
The following theorems concern­
ing chords are of considerable im­
portance.
127. Theorem. The perpendicular bisector of
a chord of a circle passes through the centre.
In Fig. 124 AB is a chord of the circle APB, D is the centre
of the chord and PQ is perpendicular to AB.
Then it is required to prove that PQ must pass through
the centre 0.
Proof. PQ being the perpendicular bisector of AB.
It must be the locus of all points equidistant from A and
B (§ 113).
151
152 teach yourself geometry
But OA — OB since 0 is the centre.
0 must lie on PQ.
128. To find the distance of a chord from the centre of a
circle.
In the circle ABC (Fig. 125) ZB is a chord of known
length.

From the centre 0 draw OP perpendicular to AB.

The length of OP is the distance of the chord AB from O.
To find the length of OP.
Join OA, OB.
A.OAB is isosceles.
perpendicular OP bisects the base AB (§ 62 cor. 3).
In AOPB,
OP2 + PB2 — OB2 (Pythagoras).
OP2 = OB2~PB2 ... (A)
Whence OP can be found.
Employing algebraic symbols.
Let 21 — length of chord.
Then I — length of PB.
Let h = OP.
r = radius of circle.
Substituting in (A)
h2 + l2^r2.(B)
h2 = r2 - P
h = Vr2 - la.
 CHORDS AND SEGMENTS 153
129. Results (A) and (B) above lead directly to the
following theorems.
Theorem. Equal chords in a circle are equi­
distant from the centre.
In the circle ABC (Fig. 126), AB and DE are equal
chords.

Fig. 126.

Required to prove: The distances from the centre, OP

and OQ, are equal.
From (A) in § 128
OP2 + PB2 = OB2
or from (B) in § 128
h2 + I2 = r2
(using the same letters as in § 128).
Now PB or I is fixed, and OB or r is fixed.
.'. OP or h must be fixed, wherever the equal chords are
drawn, i.e., OP = OQ and the two chords are equidistant
from 0.
The converse theorem is obviously true, viz.:
Theorem. Chords of a circle which are equi­
distant from the centre are equal.
130. From Results (A) and (B) of § 128 the following
theorem is readily deduced.
154 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Theorem. The greater of two chords in a circle
is nearer to the centre than the lesser.
In the circle ABC (Fig. 127) the chord DE is greater
than AB. OQ and OP are the corresponding distances from
the centre.
Required to 'brow:
OP > OQ.
Proof. As before,
0P3 + pps == ppa . . . . (A)
or h2 + Is = r2....................... (B)
In this result r remains the same for al! chords.

_ in equation (B), if h be increased, I will diminish, and

vice versa.
for the chords AB and DE,
since QD > PB
OQ < OP,
e., DE is nearer to the centre than AB.
i.
The converse of this also follows from similar reasoning to
the above.
131. Construction No. II.
To find the centre of a given circle.
ABCD (Fig. 128) is a circle of which it is required to find
the centre.
 CHORDS AND SEGMENTS 155
Construction. Draw any two chords, AB and CD.
Draw the perpendicular bisectors of each chord, viz.,
OP and OQ, intersecting at 0.
0 is the required centre of the circle.
Proof. The perpendicular bisector of AB passes through
the centre (§ 127).
Also the perpendicular bisector of CD passes through the
centre.
.'. the point which Is common to both, viz., O must be
the centre.

^Exercise 14
1. The diameter of a circle is 5 cm long. How far from
the centre is a chord which is 4 cm long?
2. A chord of a circle is 8 cm long and it is 3 cm from the
centre. What is the length of the diameter?
3. In a circle whose radius is 13 cm, a chord is drawn
5 cm from the centre. Find the length of the chord.
4. Find the distance between two parallel chords of a
circle which are 24 cm and 10 cm in length. The radius of
the circle is 13 cm.
5. A is a point on the circumference of a circle centre 0.
Two equal chords AB and AC are drawn. OA is joined.
Prove that OA bisects the angle BAC.
6. A straight line cuts across the circumferences of two
concentric circles (§21), XY is the chord so formed of
the larger circle, and AB is the chord of the smaller circle.
Prove that XA — BY.
7. In a circle of radius 5 cm a number of chords of length
6 cm are drawn. Find the locus of their mid-points.
8. AB and XY, are parallel chords in a circle. Show
that the arc AX equals the arc BY.
9. Draw a circle round a penny and find its centre.
Measure its diameter.
10. Draw an equilateral triangle of 5 cm side. Draw the
circumscribing circle and measure its radius.
 CHAPTER 18
ANGLES IN SEGMENTS
132. Angle In a Segment.
On the arc of the major segment of the circle in Fig. 129,
any point C is taken and joined to A and B, the points in
which the chord of the segment meets
the circumference.
Then the angle ACB Is called the
angle in the segment. It is said to
be subtended by the chord AB.
Similarly, if a point D be taken in
the minor segment the angle ADB is
A ° the angle in that segment.
It will be observed that the angle
in a major segment is an acute angle,
Fig. 129. while the angle in the minor segment
is obtuse.
The angle ACB is also called the angle subtended at the
circumference by the arc ADB, while the angle AOB is
called the angle subtended at the centre by the arc ADB.
There is a very important relation between these angles
which is expressed in the following theorem.
133. Theorem. The angle which an arc of a circle
subtends at the centre is twice that sub­
tended at any point on the remaining part of
the circumference.
There are two cases: (1) If the centre 0 lies within the
angle APB (as Fig. 130) and (2) if 0 lies without the angle
as Fig. 131.
Construction. In each case join PO and produce it to
meet the circumference again in Q.
156
 ANGLES IN SEGMENTS x57
Proof. 1st case.
In M)AP, OA = OP.
LOAP = AOPA.

Fig. 130. Fig. 131.

But exterior AAOQ = sum of interior Z_sOAP,OPA(§QO).
AAOQ = twice AOPA.
Similarly from the AOBP.
ABOQ = twice AOPB.
AAOQ + ABOQ = twice (AOPA + AOPB),
i.
e., ZAOB = twice ZAPB.
2nd case (Fig. 131).
With the same reasoning as above:
AQOB = twice Z-QPB,
and AQOA — twice Z.QPA.
Subtracting ZAOB = twice ZAPB.
A 3rd case arises when the angle
APB is an obtuse angle, i.e., it is an
angle in a minor segment and stands
on a major arc. The angle at the
centre, AOB, is now a reflex angle.
The proof is similar to the foregoing.
Joining P to 0 and producing to
Q, it is proved, as before, that:
AAOQ = twice AAPQ
and ABOQ = twice ABPQ,
adding, reflex ZAOB = twice ZAPB.
158 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
134. Angles in the Same Segment.
In defining an “ angle in a segment ” (§ 132) it was stated
" any ■point C is taken The observant student will
probably have wondered that the term “ the angle in the
segment ” should be employed, since there is no limit to
the number of points that may be taken and so no limit to
the number of angles. In Fig. 133 three points C, D, E
are taken and three corresponding angles formed. But
since, as proved in § 133, the angle at the centre AOB is

double any angle in the segment, because any angle was

taken in the proof, it follows that all the angles in the
segment must be equal. This striking and important fact
may be embodied in a theorem, as follows:
Theorem. Angles in the same segment of a
circle are equal.

135. A special case of this theorem is contained in the

following theorem.
Theorem. The angle in a semi-circle is a right
angle.
In this case the segment is a semi-circle, and therefore
all the angles in the semi-circle are equal. That they are
right angles follows from the fact that the angle at the centre
 ANGLES IN SEGMENTS 15g
in this case, AOB, Fig. 134, is a “straight” angle, i.e.,
equal to two right angles.
Hence, the angle ACB, being a half of this, is a right angle.
This theorem can also be proved very simply as follows:
Join OC.
Then OA = OC A AOAC = AOCA '
also OB = OC. AOBC = AOCB.
AOAC + AOBC = AACB.
But since the sum of the angles of a triangle is two right
angles.
ZACB must be a right angle.
Note.—This theorem should be compared with the explanation
of “ an angle in a segment ” (§ 132).
136. Quadrilateral inscribed in a circle. The following
very important theorem also is easily proved by the
Theorem of § 133.
Theorem. The sum of the opposite angles of a
quadrilateral inscribed in a circle is equal to two
right angles, i.e., the opposite angles are supple­
mentary.
In Fig. 135, ABCD is a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle.

Then AA J- AC = 2 right Zs
and ZB + AD — 2 right Zs.
Proof. Join 0 to B and D.
ABOD(x°) = 2 ABCD, (§ 133)
and reflex LBOD(y°) =2 ABAD. (§133)
i6o TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
ABOD + reflex ABOD — twice {ABCD + ABAD),
but ABOD{x°) + reflex ABOD{y°) = 4 right angles.
ABCD + ABAD = two right angles.
Similarly by joining 0 to A and C it may be shown
AB + AD = 2 right angles.
• Exercise 15
1. In a circle of 6 cm radius cut off a segment which
contains an angle of 40°.
2. On a straight line 2 cm long describe a segment of a
circle which shall contain an angle of 60°. What is the
length of the radius of the circle?
3. A triangle ABC is inscribed in a circle, centre 0. The
AAOB = 90°, AAOC «= 120°. Find the angles of the
triangle.
4. On a straight line AB, 6 cm long, construct a right-
angled triangle of which AB is the hypotenuse and one of
the other sides is 2-4 cm.
5. In a circle of 3 cm radius inscribe a triangle the
angles of which are 60°, 40°, 80°.
6. Two triangles ABC, ABD are on the same base and on
the same side of it. In the first triangle the angles at the
base are 64° and 58°, and in the second triangle 50° and
72°. Show that A, B, D, C lie on a circle.
7. ABC is an isosceles triangle and a straight line DE is
drawn parallel to the base, cutting the equal sides in D
and E. Prove that B, C, D, E lie on a circle.
8. AB and CD are parallel chords of a circle AD and BC
intersect at 0. Prove that OC = OD.
9. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, i.e., it is inscribed in a
circle, and its diagonals intersect at P. If ABPC — 105°,
ABAC = 40° and AADB = 30°. Find ABCD.
 CHAPTER 19
TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE
137. Meaning of a Tangent.
In Fig. 136, the circle ABC, centre 0, is cut by the chord
AB. OP is the perpendicular bisector of the chord. Sup-

Fig. 136.

pose the chord AB to rotate in a clockwise direction about

A as a centre of rotation.
As it rotates the point of intersection B moves round the
circumference to a second position B± and thus is a shorter
distance from A.
At the same time the perpendicular bisector OP rotates,
the point P also approaching A.
As the rotation continues the points P and B approach
closer and closer to A as shown in the positions Ba, Ba.
Ultimately the point B will move to coincidence with
A. Then the straight line AB no longer cuts the circum­
ference in two points. These points coincide and AB now
touches the circle without cutting it, taking up the position
TAT1
161
i6z TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
A straight line which thus meets the circle at one point
but, being produced in either direction, does not meet it
again, is called a tangent to the circle.
In this final position Palso coincides with A, and OP which
has throughout been perpendicular to AB, Is now per­
pendicular to AT, the tangent.
These conclusions can be embodied in the following:
(1) A tangent is perpendicular to the radius
drawn to the point of contact of the tangent with
the circumference.
(2) A straight line which is drawn at right
angles to a tangent to a circle at the point of con­
tact, passes through the centre of the circle.
138. The above results suggest the method of solving the
following construction.
Construction No. 12.
To draw a tangent to a circle at a point on the
circumference.
In Fig. 137 it is required to draw at P a tangent to the
given circle, centre 0.

Join OP.
■At P draw a straight line XY, perpendicular to OP.
Then by the conclusions of § 137 the straight line XY
is a tangent to the circle.
 TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE 163
139. Theorem. The tangents at the extremities
of a chord of a circle are equal.
In Fig. 138 PQ is a chord of the circle, centre 0.

Join P and Q to 0.
At P and Q draw perpendiculars to the radii OP and OQ.
These must intersect, as they are not parallel.
Let T be the point of intersection.
Then PT and QT are tangents at the extremities of the
chord PQ.
Join OT.
In the right-angled As OPT, OQT:
(1) OT is a common hypotenuse;
(2) OP = OQ.
.'. the As are congruent. (§ 101)
In particular TP = TQ
also LOTP = LOTQ
and ATOP = ATOQ.
Hence, from a point outside a circle:
(1) Two equal tangents can be drawn to the circle.
(2) The angle between the tangents is bisected by the
straight line which joins their point of intersection to the
centre.
(3) This straight line also bisects at right angles the
chord which joins the points where they touch the
circle. {The proof of this is left to the student.)
Note.—PQ is called the chord of contact of the tangents TP, TQ.
164 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
It may further be noticed that since As OPT, OQT are
right angles they lie in semi-circles, of which OT is a common
diameter. Hence the points 0, P, T, 0 are cyclic.
This fact enables us to perform the following important
construction.
140. Construction No. 13.
To draw a tangent to a circle from a point with­
out the circle.
From the point P (Fig. 139) without the circle ABC
(centre 0), we require to draw tangents to the circle.

Construction.
Join P to 0.
Bisect OP at Q.
On OP as diameter construct a circle OAPB, centre Q
cutting the given circle at A and B.
Join PA, PB. These are the required tangents, there
being two solutions to the problem.
Proof. Since OAP, OBP are semicircles.
Zs OAP, OBP are right angles (§ 135).
PA and PB are tangents to the circle, ABG
J4I, Circles which Touch One Another.
Two circles touch one another when they meet at a
point, but their circumferences do not intersect.
 TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE 165
There are two possible cases.
(1) Of external contact, as Fig. 140 (a), the circles
being outside one another;

(2) Of internal contact, as Fig. 140 (6), one circle

being inside the other.
Two facts are evident.
(<z) In each case the circles have a common tangent,
QPT, at the point of contact.
(&) The line of centres, AB, or AB produced, must
pass through the
point of contact,
since a tangent is
perpendicular to the
radius at the point
of contact.
142. Construction No. 14.
To inscribe a circle
In a triangle.
An inscribed circle of
a triangle, as of any
rectilineal figure is a circle
to which the sides are tangential, i.e., it touches all
sides.
If PQR be the inscribed circle of the AABC (Fig. 141)
166 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
the method of obtaining the centre 0, and the radius, can
be deduced from §§ 139 and 140. CP and CQ are tangents
from an external point C, and OP = OQ.
0 must lie on the bisector of the APCQ (§ 139).
Similarly, O must lie on BO, the bisector of the ARBQ.
It must also lie on AO, the bisector of the ARAP.
the three bisectors of the angles at A, B and C must
be concurrent and OP = OQ = OR.
/, if a circle be described with 0 as centre and one of
these as radius it must touch the three sides of the A at
P, Q and R.

143. Angles made by a tangent with a chord at the point

of contact.
PQ is a tangent to the circle ABC (Fig. 142). From the
-... point of contact A, a chord AB is
drawn dividing the circle into
I 1B two se&me,lts< 4BC (major seg-
I ment) and ABD (minor segment).
I 0 / I This chord at the point of con-
\ / jn tact makes two angles with the
\ X yf tangent, BAQ and BAP.
~ n When considering the ABAQ,
" a ** the segment which lies on the
other side of the chord AB, i.e.,
G’ ’ the major segment ACB, is called
the alternate segment corresponding to this angle.
Similarly, if we are considering the ABAP the alternate
segment corresponding to it is the minor, i.e., the segment
BDA.
The following theorem shows an important connecting
link between either angle and its alternate segment.
144. Theorem. The angles made by a chord of a
circle with the tangent at an extremity of it are
equal to the angles in the alternate segments.
In Fig. 143 PQ is a tangent to the circle ACBD and AB
is a chord drawn from the point of contact.
 TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE 167
Draw the diameter AOC.
Join BC.
Then ZACB Is an angle in the alternate segment ACB,
corresponding to Z.BAQ.
Required to prove:
(1) ABAQ = AACB.
Note.-—-It must be remembered that AACB is equal to any other
angle which may be drawn in the segment ACB (Theorem, § 134).
What is proved for AACB is also true for any other angle in the
segment.

Proof. ABAQ + ABAC = a right angle

also ABCA + ABAC = a right angle
(since AABC, being the angle in a semi-circle, is a right
angle).
Subtracting LBAC from each:
A ZBAQ = Z.BCA.
(2) Let the point D be taken in the minor segment.
ABDA is the angle in the corresponding alternate seg­
ment to APAB.
it is required to prove ZPAB = Z.BDA.
Now APAB + ABAQ — two right angles
and ABDA + ABCA = two right angles. (§ 136)
But ABAQ was proved equal to ABCA (1st part).
ZPAB = ZBDA.
168 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

•Exercise 16
1. PQ is a straight line which lies without the circle ABC.
Show how to draw a tangent to the circle which is parallel
to PQ. How many such tangents can be drawn?
2. In a circle of radius 3 cm construct a triangle with all
its vertices on the circumference and having two of its angles
50° and 70°.
3. The radius of a circle is 3 cm. From a point 5 cm
from the centre a tangent is drawn to the circle. Find the
length of this tangent.
4. The radii of two concentric circles are 3 cm and 4 cm.
A chord of the outer circle is a tangent to the inner one.
Find the length of the chord.
5. In a circle of 3 cm radius find the locus of the centres
of chords of the circle which are 4 cm long.
6. The angle between two radii of a circle, OA and OB,
is 100°. From A and B tangents are drawn meeting at T.
Find the angle between the tangents.
7. Prove that tangents to a circle at the extremities of
any chord make equal angles with the chord.
8. Two circles are concentric. Prove that the tangents
drawn to the inner circle from any point on the circum­
ference of the outer circle are equal in length.
9. Find the locus of the ends of tangents of the same
length which are drawn to a fixed circle.
10. Find the locus of the centre of circles which touch a
fixed straight line at a given point.
11. Find the locus of the centres of circles which touch
two intersecting straight fines.
12. Construct a triangle with sides 3 cm, 4 cm and 6 cm
in length. Then draw the inscribed circle.
 CHAPTER 20
SIMILAR FIGURES. RATIO IN GEOMETRY
145. Similar triangles.
When the conditions under which triangles are con­
gruent were examined (§47) it was pointed out that
triangles with all three corresponding angles equal were
not necessarily congruent. For this to be the case at least
one pair of corresponding sides must also be equal.
In Fig. 144 are three triangles with corresponding angles

Fig. 144.

equal. The three triangles are of different sizes, but of the

same shape. They are copies, one of another, on different
scales.
Such triangles are called similar triangles.
In Fig. 145 is indicated a method by which a number of
similar triangles can readily be drawn.

POQ is any angle and OAB a triangle formed by drawing

any straight line AB to meet the two arms. From other
points on OQ, such &sD,F,H . . . draw straight lines DC,
169
I/O l ' TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
FE, HG : . . parallel to AB and intersecting OP as shown,
thus forming As ODC, OFE, OHG. . . .
The parallel straight lines AB, CD, EF, GH . . . being
cut by the transversal OQ the corresponding angles at B,
D, F, H . . . are equal.
Similarly, the angles at A, C, E, G . . . are equal.
.". As OAB, OCD, OEF, OGH . . . have corresponding
angles equal.
they are similar triangles.
Triangles which thus have corresponding angles equal
are said to be equiangular to one another.
Hence, the definition of similar triangles may be stated
thus: Triangles which are equiangular to each other are
called similar triangles.
146. Ratios of Lengths.
In arithmetic we learn that one method of comparing two
quantities in respect of their magnitude is to express them
in the form of a fraction, the numerator and denominator
of which state the sizes of the quantities measured in suitable
and the same units. This form of comparison is called a ratio.
Hence, when we speak of the ratio of two straight lines
we mean the ratio of the numbers which express the measures
of their lengths in terms of the same unit. Similarly, by
the ratio of the areas of two triangles we mean the ratio
of the numbers which express these areas in the same
square units.
147. Ratios of the Sides of Similar Triangles.
Fig. 146 shows a number of similar triangles constructed
as in Fig. 145, but the distances OB, BD, DF,FH are equal.
Since the straight lines AB, CD, EF, GH are parallel, then
the lengths of OA, AC, CE, EG are equal (§ 86).
in the similar As OAB, OEF.
OF 3 , OE 3
OB ~ 1 and OA ~ r
. OF OE
•• OB ~ OA’
i.e., these sides are proportional.
 SIMILAR FIGURES. RATIO IN GEOMETRY 1,71
Again, In the similar As OGH, OEF.
O2?_4 r,QG_4
OF ~ 3 0E~ 3‘
. OH OG
’* OF ~ OE'
Also, by drawing straight lines EK, CL, AM parallel to
OQ it may be shown that:
EF _ OF _ 3
AB~OB 1
GH_0H_4
and EF~ OF ~ 3*
Similar conclusions may be reached with respect to other

pairs of the four triangles in the figures. Hence, it is

reasonable to conclude from all the above and similar
results that:
The corresponding sides of similar triangles are
in the same ratio, i.e., the sides are proportional.
For example, in the similar As ABC, DEF in Fig. 144,
AB _BC_AC
DE~EF~ DF'
172 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
148. Fixed Ratios Connected with Angles.
(1) The tangent. There is a special case of the above
conclusions which is of very great practical importance.
Draw any angle as POQ (Fig. 147).
Take a series of points A, C, E, G on one arm OP and
draw AB, CD, EF, GH perpendicular to the other arm OQ.

These straight lines are parallel.

Hence the As OAB, OCD, OEF, OGH are similar, and
the ratios of corresponding sides are equal.
For example,
ab_cj)_ef_gh
OB ~~OD~OF ~OH'
No matter how many perpendiculars are drawn, all such
ratios for this angle, POQ are equal.
With AB, CD, EF, GH as til© perpendiculars, the distances
OB, OD, OF, OH can be spoken of as the distances inter­
cepted on the arm OQ.
Hence, for all such cases it is true to say that the ratio
perpendicular drawn from one arm
distance intercepted on the other arm
Is constant for the angle POQ.
The angle chosen was any angle, consequently a similar
conclusion can be reached for any other angle, i.e.,
For any angle the ratio of the perpendicular
drawn from any point on one arm to the distance,
 SIMILAR FIGURES. RATIO IN GEOMETRY X73
from the vertex, intercepted on the other arm,
is constant for the angle.
This constant ratio is called the tangent of the angle.
Tangent is usually abbreviated to “ tan ”.
Thus, in Fig. 147,
* n/>n CD EF ,
tan POQ - 0B - qD - QF> etc
Every angle has its own particular tangent and can be
identified by it. Tables are constructed giving the tangents
of angles between 0 and 90°, so that when the tangent is
known, the angle corresponding may be found from the
tables, and vice-versa.
For the further treatment of this Trigonometry should
be consulted.
Note.—The term tangent as used above must not be confused
with the tangent to a circle as defined in Chapter 19.
(2) The sine and cosine.
Two other constant ratios connected with an angle are
given by taking the ratios of each of the sides, in turn,
containing the right angle, to the hypotenuse.
In Fig. 147 the ratio of the side opposite the angle to
the hypotenuse is the same for each of the triangles formed.
Clearly
AB _ CD _ EF _ GH _ side opposite
OA OC OE OG hypotenuse'
This ratio is called the sine of the angle (abbreviated to
“ sin ”).
_ AB CD EF
Thus sin POQ — QA — qq ~ qE‘ etc‘
Also, the ratio of the side adjacent to the angle to the
hypotenuse is the same for each of the triangles.
Thus
OB_ OD _ OF _ OH ___ side adjacent
OA ~~ OC OE ~~ OG “ hypotenuse ’
This constant ratio is called the cosine of the angle,
abbreviated to " cos
174 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
OB OD
Thus cos POQ = 7T-. = , etc.
* OA OC
It will be noticed that since the hypotenuse is the greatest
side of the triangle, both sine and cosine must be numerically
less than unity. The tangent, however, may have any
value.
149. Other Similar Figures.
The term " similar ”, in the sense it is used above, is
not confined to triangles. All rectilineal figures, with the
same number of sides, may be similar, provided that they
conform to the necessary conditions stated above for
triangles, viz.:
(a) All corresponding angles must be equal.
(b) Corresponding sides must be proportional.
In the case of triangles, if («) is true, (J) must follow, as
we have seen, so that it is sufficient to know that triangles
are equiangular to one another. But with other rectilineal
figures both conditions must be satisfied, before it can be

A B

Fig. 148.

said that they are similar. If, however, they are equi­
lateral, as with equilateral triangles, the ratios of corre­
sponding sides are the same and corresponding angles must
be equal.
Thus all squares are similar, but rectangles, though
equiangular, are not similar unless the ratios of corre­
sponding sides are also equal. Thus, in Fig. 148, the
rectangles A and B are not similar, since the ratios of
corresponding sides are obviously not equal. But B and C
 SIMILAR FIGURES. RATIO IN GEOMETRY 175
are similar, for the sides of B will be found to be one half
the corresponding sides of C.
Regular polygons, such as hexagons, pentagons, etc., are
similar, but polygons which are not regular may be similar
only if conditions (a) and (i>) are satisfied.
Generally when two figures are similar their “ shapes "
are the same: one is a copy of the other on a different scale.
All drawings and models, when not full size, are drawn
or constructed to scale. When thus drawn or constructed
they are similar. Angles are copied exactly and the ratio of
corresponding distances is that of the scale employed. If,
for example, a model is made on a scale of an inch to a
yard, lengths in the model will in all cases be of the
corresponding length of the original.
Pictures appearing on the cinema screen are greatly
enlarged copies of small photographs on the film, all parts
being enlarged in the same ratio. The pictures are therefore
similar.
The picture of the west front of a cathedral shown in the
frontispiece is similar in every detail to a picture of the
same building which is ten times its size. Both are similar
in appearance to the building itself.

150. Construction No. 15.

To divide a straight line in a given ratio.
Example: Divide the straight line AB (Fig. 149) in the
ratio of 3 : 2.

Fig. 149.
176 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
The solution of the problem depends directly upon Con­
struction No. 9, § 87.
First, divide AB into (3 -f- 2) = 5 equal parts as follows.
From A draw AP at any convenient angle.
Along AP mark off with dividers 5 equal distances.
Join CB. From the points of division on AC draw straight
lines parallel to CB to meet AB.
Then AB is divided into 5 equal parts.
Let DE be the straight line joining the 3rd points from
A on AC and AB.
Let x be the length of each of the equal parts of AB.
Then AE — 3x
and EB — 2.x.
. 4? _ 3x _ 3
• • EB ~ 2.x ~ 2’
A the straight line AB is divided at E In the ratio of
3:2.
Note.—In practice it is necessary to draw CB and DE only.
The method may be generalised thus.
Let it be required to divide the straight line
AB (Fig. 150) in the ratio m: n.

Drawing AP as before, mark off on it (m + n) equal

divisions, the final one being at C.
Join CB.
 SIMILAR FIGURES. RATIO IN GEOMETRY 177
From the mth point of division on AC, viz., D, draw
DE parallel to CB.
AD _m
Then the ratio of
DC ~ n
AE _ m
the ratio of
EB ~ n'
Corollary. Since ACB is a triangle it may be concluded
in general that, if a straight line be drawn parallel to one
of the sides of a triangle, it cuts the other two sides in
the same ratio. See Theorem in § 84, for a special case.

151. Areas of Similar Figures.

The areas of similar figures are proportional to the
squares of corresponding sides.
The simplest example of this principle, and one with
which the student is acquainted, is that of the square.
If the side of a square is doubled the area is increased 4
times.
If it be increased 3 times the area is increased 9 times.
These and similar examples can readily be seen by
observation of Fig. 90.
In general, if the side of a square be increased n times the
area is increased w2 times.
Again, the formula for the area of a circle, viz., A = nr2
indicates that the area is proportional to the square of the '
radius.
Thus, if the radii of two circles are and r2.
Try 2 ry 2
Then ratio of areas = —

Area of a triangle. In Part II a geometrical proof is given

of the theorem that “the areas of similar triangles are
proportional to the squares^sf corresponding sides ” (see
Theorem 64).
178 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

♦Exercise 17
1. In a &ABC, PQ is drawn parallel to BC and cutting
AB and AC in P and Q. AB = 5 cm and AC = 8 cm.
Also, the ratio of AP: PB = 2:3. Find the lengths of
AP, PB, AQ, QC. It PQ *= Q cm, find BC.
2. OA, OB, OC are the bisectors of the angles A, B, C
of a A ABC, 0 being their point of intersection. From a
point P on AO, PQ is drawn parallel to AB, meeting BO in
Q. From Q, QR is drawn parallel to BC, meeting OC in R.
Join PR. Prove that the As ABC and PQR are similar.
3. In a circle two chords AB and CD intersect at 0.
AD and CB are drawn. Prove (Hint.—Join
DB.)
4. Divide a straight line 8 cm long in the ratio 4: 3.
5. Trisect a line which is 10 cm long. If the perimeter of
an equilateral triangle is 10 cm, construct the triangle.
6. The perimeter of a triangle is 14 cm and its sides are in
the ratio of 3 ; 4: 5. Construct the triangle.
7. Two As ABC, DEF are similar and the altitudes from
A and D are 3 cm and 4 cm respectively. If the area of the
smaller triangle is 22-5 cm2, find the area of the larger
triangle.
8. The area of one square is twice that of another. Find
the ratio of their sides.
9. Equilateral triangles are described on the side and
diagonal of a square. Find the ratio of their areas.
10. Construct an angle of 50°. From three points on
one arm draw perpendiculars to the other arm. Hence,
find by measurement in each case the tangent of 50° and
find the average of the three results.
11. Using the results of §§ 101 and 102 find the sine,
cosine and tangent of (1) 30°, (2) 60°, (3) 45°.
 CHAPTER 21
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES OF A TRIANGLE
(This chapter may be omitted by beginners)
152. Extensions of the Theorem of Pythagoras.
In Chapter 13 the very important law, known as the
Theorem of Pythagoras, was established, in which is stated
the relations which exist between the sides of a right-
angled triangle. We now
extend the investigations to
ascertain what similar laws
connect the sides of tri­
angles which are not right-
angled, i.e., they are obtuse-
angled or acute-angled tri-
ancrlpc
In Fig. 151 ABC is a
right-angled triangle, C
being the right angle.
Denoting the sides in
the usual way by a, b, c, then, by the Theorem
Pythagoras, c2 = aa + b1
2.

(1) Obtuse-angled triangles.

With C as centre and CA as radius, describe an arc of a
circle. On the same side as the right angle take a point
A} and join to B and C.
The AAXCB is clearly obtuse and the BAtBC obtuse-
angled. Comparing the sides of this triangle with those
of the A.ABC it is seen that
AjC = AC.
BC is common to each, but AXB is greater than AB.
Denoting A-J3 by q, then cx must be greater than c.
q* > («2 + &a).
179
i8o TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Let X, represent the amount by which cA exceeds
(«2 + 62).
Then C12 = a2 + b» + Xi . . . . (I)
(2) Acute-angled Triangles.
On the arc previously drawn, but on the other side of
AC1 take a point A2, so that AA2CB is an acute angle and
the CA.fiC is an acute-angled triangle.
Denoting A^B by c2 it is clear that c2 is less than c.
/. c22<,(a2 + &2).
Let X2 represent the amount by which it is less.
Then c2a = a2 + b2 - X2 ... (II)
Comparing I and II it is evident that if the values of
Xx and X2 can be found, the relations between the sides of
the obtuse-angled and
acute-angled triangles can
& be definitely established.
In obtaining these
/ values, use will be made
, / h °f some of the methods
and results of elementary
^X*’’**^ ______ / algebra.
® ° C P ® (3) The Obtuse-angled
Fig. 162. Triangle.
To simplify the method
an obtuse-angled triangle is drawn separately, as in
Fig. 152.
From A draw AD perpendicular to BC produced.
Then AD is the altitude or height of the triangle, when A
is a vertex.
Then CD is the projection of AC on BC produced (see
§30).
Let AD — h and CD = p.
Then BD = (a + p}.
Applying the Theorem of Pythagoras to the AABD,
c*=(a + PY + h*.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES OF A TRIANGLE 181
But by Algebra (a + />)a = a2 + Zap + p2 (see
Appendix).
c2 = a2 + Zap + (p2 + h2).
But in AACD b2 = p2 + h2.
Substituting this value for p2 + h2 in the result above.
Then c2 = a2 + Zap + b2 ... (A)
Thus, we find, comparing with (I), that
X, = lap.
(b) Acute-angled triangle.
In the acute-angled AABC (Fig. 153), AD is the per- ’

Fig. 153.
pendicular from A on BC and DC is the projection of AC
on BC.
Using the same letters as before,
Let h = altitude or height
p = projection of AC, i.e. DC.
Then BD = a — p.
From AABD, h2 = c2 - (a — p~)2. (§ 101)
From AACD, h2 = b2 — p2. (§ 101)
c2 — (a ■— p)2 — b2 — p2
and c2 = (a — p)2 -)- b2 — p2.
From Algebra
(a — p)2 = a2 — Zap + p2 (see Appendix).
Substituting
c2 = (a2 — Zap + p2) + b2 — p2
and c2 = a2 + b2 - lap..................................................... (B)
182 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
from (II),
X2 = 2ap.
Summarising the results (A) and (B).
(1) For obtuse-angled triangles
c2 = a2 + ft2 + 2ap ... (A)
(2) For acute-angled triangles
c2 = a2 + 52 - 2«y> .’ . . (B)
Thus (A) and (B) differ only in the sign of the term 2ap.
153. Use of the Formulae in Calculations.
In practice the difficulty in using the above formula for
the evaluation of c is that, in general, neither the value
of h or p is known, and cannot be determined without
further data. Referring to the conditions under which
triangles are fixed, in this case condition (A) for congruent
triangles (§47), it is seen that in the case under considera­
tion, if two sides are known, it is necessary to know the
included angle as well.
To make use of the known angle in the above formula,
we refer back to § 148, in which it was shown that in a right-
angled triangle there are ratios between the sides which
are constant for any given angle. Thus if the angle is
known, we can obtain from tables the values of its sine, cosine
or tangent. In the above case (Fig. 153) it is seen that
CD . p
■7^ i.e. f = cos ACB,
AC b
whence p = b cos C.
Consequently, in formulae (A) and (B) above, p can be
replaced by b cos C.
Thus formula (B) becomes
c2 = a2 4- b2 - 2ab cos C . . . (B)
It is proved in Trigonometry that the cosine of an
obtuse angle is equal to — (cosine of its supplement).
e. in Fig. 152 cos ACB = — cos ACD
i.
Consequently, in formula (A) on substituting
p = — b cos C,
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES OF A TRIANGLE 183
the formula becomes
ca = a2 + b2 — 2ab cos C . . . (A)
Thus, in both the cases of obtuse- and acute-angled
triangles the formula is
ca = a2 + b2 — lab cos C.

154. Example.
The following example illustrates one of the many ways
in which the above formula may be employed practically.
In Fig 154 (not drawn to scale) A, C and B represent the
positions of three towns on
the shore of a harbour. The t ,)n
distance of A from C is 5 '^\^^//////////^/
miles and of B from C 'x /
4 miles. The angle ACB is
75°. What is the distance
of B from A?
(Given cos 75’ «s 0-2588.) q
In practice, distances on ...
land such as AC and BC, ' 54-
are readily, determined by surveying methods and the angle
ACB is found by a theodolite. When these are known a
distance such as AB which is inaccessible for direct
measurement can be determined by using the above formula.
Using the same notation for the sides of the AABC as in
Fig. 153, we substitute in the formula
c2 = a2 + b2 — 2ab cos C.
The values a = 4, b = 5, cos C — 0-2588.
Then = 42 + 5s - 2 X 4 X 5 X 0'2588
= 16 4- 25 - 40 X 0'2588
= 30-648
and e = 5-53 miles (approx.).
For many developments of this useful formula a book on
Trigonometry must be studied.
184 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
155. Area of a Triangle.
Referring to Fig. 153 it will be seen that
Z — sin ACB.
b
h = b sin ACB.
Thus, a way is found for finding the altitude of a triangle
in terms of the given sides and the sine of the included angle.
In § 96 it was found that the area of a triangle can be
expressed in the form
Area = | (base X height)
But, again, h is not always known. If, however, two
sides and the included angle are given the value of h can
be found in terms of the sine of the angle, viz.
h = b sin C.
Substituting in the formula for the area,
Area == fa X b sin C,
or A = |ab sin C.
Example: Find, the area of the triangle ABC when
a = 6-2 cm, b ---7-8 cm and, C =* 52° (sin 52° «= 0-7880).
Since A *= sin C,
substituting A >=> I x 6-2 X 7-8 x 0-7880
«=< 19-1 cm2 (approx.).

^Exercise 18
1. Write down a formula, similar to that in § 153, for
finding the third side of a triangle when the following are
known :
(a) b, c, zLA. (b) a, c, AB.
2. Write down a formula for the area of a triangle similar
to that of § 155 when the elements of the triangle which
are given are as in the previous question.
3. In an acute-angled triangle ABC, find the side c, when
a = 10, b = 11, cos C = 0-3501.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES OF A TRIANGLE 185
4. In an obtuse-angled triangle ABC, find 0 when
a =» 4 cm, 6 = 6 cm, cos C = —0-2501.
5. The sides of a triangle are a = 8 cm, 6 . 9 cm,
c — 12 cm. Find cos C.
6. Find a when b = 19, c = 26 and cos A = 0-4662.
7. Find the third side of a triangle in which a =■ 39 cm,
b =» 53 cm and sin C = 0-8387.
8. Find the area of a triangle ABC when AB =■ 14 cm,
BC =» 11 cm and sin B =» 0-9397.
 CHAPTER 22
SYMMETRY IN GEOMETRY
156. The Meaning of Symmetry.
What is called “ symmetry ” is an essential factor in
most forms of pictorial design. The architect, in designing
the facade of a building, the cabinet-maker in designing a
cabinet or a chair, the potter planning a vase, all make use
of symmetry, under suitable conditions, in some form or
another. By this is meant generally that if a straight line
be drawn down the middle of the design, in which symmetry
is an essential factor, the two parts into which the design
is divided are alike. Any particular form or shape on one
side of the middle line is balanced by the same feature on
the other side.
Symmetry is a feature of mens’ faces, or of most of them.
If an imaginary line be drawn through the centre of the
forehead and down the centre of the bridge of the nose the
two parts of the face on either side are usually identical.
157. Symmetry in Geometrical Figures.
The above examples of symmetry relate to solid objects,
but a more precise form of symmetry is to be seen in many
geometric figures in a plane.
Examples are shown in Fig. 155.
(1) A circle is divided by any diameter into two
parts which are similar. Thus it is said to be sym­
metrical about any diameter, such as AB (Fig. 155 (a)).
(2) Similarly an isosceles triangle (Fig. 155 (6)) is
symmetrical about the straight line AD, which bisects
the vertical angle, and also bisects the base at right
angles (see § 62).
(3) A regular hexagon (Fig. 155 (c)) is symmetrical
about any diagonal, such as AB, or about a straight
x86
 SYMMETRY IN GEOMETRY 187
line such as CD which joins the mid-points of two
opposite sides.
(4) An ellipse is symmetrical, as shown in Fig. 109,
about the major axis AB, or the minor axis CD.

Fig. 155.

158. An Axis of Symmetry.

It has been stated above that there was symmetry about
certain straight lines, e.g., the circle about any diameter.
The straight line about which a figure is symmetrical is
called an axis of symmetry.
A test which may be applied to many geometrical figures
as to their symmetry is that, if they are folded about an
axis of symmetry, the two parts of. the figure coincide.
The parabola in Fig. 112 is a symmetrical curve. This
is also evident from the method of drawing it, which is
briefly referred to in § 116, and which is familiar to those
who have studied the algebraical treatment of graphs.
The following experiment in folding will be found
useful.
Draw the portion of the curve on the right-hand side of
OY (Fig. 112), that is, for positive values of x. Then fold the
paper exactly along OY. Now prick through a number of
points on the curve. On opening out the paper a series of
points appears on the other side of OY which are correspond­
ing points to those made on the curve. The curve drawn
i88 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
through them will be identical with that previously drawn,
and the whole curve will appear as in Fig. 112.
The inference to be drawn is that to every point on one
side of the axis of symmetry there is a corresponding point on
the other side, similarly situated and at the same distance
from the axis of symmetry.

159. Symmetry and the Isosceles Triangle.

The following example in folding illustrates the use that
. may be made of symmetry in
A demonstrating the truth of
k certain geometrical theorems.
• \ Construct a right-angled tri-
' \ angle such as ABC (Fig. 156).
• \ Fold the paper carefully
; \ about AC.
\ Cut out the triangle and then
/ \ open it out. The triangle ABD
n/ \ \n will appear, made up of the
u............. £ 0 two right-angled tssACB.ACD.
■plG 156 Since the As ACB, ACD are
identical, the A.ABD js sym­
metrical about AC as an axis of symmetry (§ 157 (2)).
Consequently,
(1) AD = AB and the t\ABD is isosceles.
(2) AC is the bisector of the vertical angle at A.
(3) AABC = Z.ADC (§ 62).
(4) AC is the perpendicular bisector of BD {see Theorem,
§62).

160. A knowledge of symmetry makes it possible for an

architect or engineer, when preparing working drawings,
to draw half of the figure only, on one side of the axis of sym­
metry. The other half, being identical with it, is frequently
unnecessary, all the details being shown in the half which is

drawn.
 symmetry in geometry 189

>ExerCi5e 19
1. Which of the following figures are symmetrical?
What are the axes of symmetry ? If there are more than
one describe them :
(«) square. (5) rectangle.-
(c) two intersecting (d) a sector of 3 circle.
circles. (/) triangle with angles
(e) trapezium. 45°, 45°, 90°.
(g) triangle with angles (h) a regular Pentagon.
30% 60°, 90°
2. Construct an irregular rectilineal figure, of five sides,
which is symmetrical.
3. How many axes of symmetry are there in an equi­
lateral triangle ? State what they are.
4. Is a rhombus a symmetrical figure ? If so, what is
the axis of symmetry ?
 CHAPTER 23
PARALLEL PLANES
161. If the outside cover of a match-box be examined
it will be noted that the top and bottom faces are two
plane surfaces or planes which are always the same distance
apart, and it is evident that they would never meet,
no matter how far they might be extended. Thus, they
satisfy a condition similar to that which must be fulfilled
by straight lines which are parallel. The planes or surfaces
are said to be parallel.
Another example nearer to hand is that of the two out­
side surfaces of the cover of this book, when it is closed and
laid on the table. These are everywhere the same distance
apart and will not meet if extended in any direction. They
are parallel planes.
Parallel planes may thus be defined in the same way as
parallel straight lines.
Definition. Planes which do not meet when extended in
any direction are called -parallel planes.
All horizontal planes are parallel (see § 28), but this is
not necessarily true for vertical planes. The comer of a
room marks the intersection
of two vertical planes which
meet; but the two opposite
walls are generally parallel
vertical planes.
162. Planes to which the
same straight line Is
perpendicular are par-

In Fig. 157 X and Y rep­

resent two plane surfaces or
planes.
The straight line PQ is perpendicular to both planes (§ 29).
190
 PARALLEL PLANES 191
Then the planes are parallel.
No proof is offered for this statement, but it may reasonably
be regarded as self-evident.

163. Theorem. If two parallel planes are cut by

another plane, the lines of intersection with
those planes are parallel.
Let X and Y (Fig. 158) be two parallel planes. These

are cut by another plane Z which intersects X in AB and

Y in CD.

Required to prove :
AB and CD are parallel.

Proof:
If AB and CD are not parallel they will meet if pro­
duced. Then the planes which contain them must meet if
extended. But this is impossible, since they are parallel.
AB and CD cannot meet and they lie in the same
plane Z.
AB and CD are parallel.
192 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

164. Theorem. If a straight line meets two parallel

planes, it makes equal angles with them.
In Fig. 159 X and Y represent two parallel planes.
ABC is a straight line which meets them at B and C
respectively.
From A draw APQ perpendicular to the two planes and
meeting them in P and Q.

Join BP, CQ.

Then Zs ABP, ACQ are the angles made by ABC with
the two planes (§30). '
Required to prove:
AABP = AACQ
Proof:
ACQ is a plane which meets the parallel planes X and Y
in BP and CQ respectively.
BP and CQ are parallel (§ 163).
They are cut by the transversal ABC.
corresponding angles ABP and ACQ are equal, i.e.,
the straight line ABC is equally inclined to both planes.
 CHAPTER 24
PRISMS
165. Geometrical Solids.
With the exception of Chapters 4 and 23, the geometry
of figures in one plane, i.e., “ plane figures ” has, so far,
been our main consideration. The next three chapters
will be entirely concerned with the geometry of “ solids ”.
The meaning which is attached to the word “ solid ” in
geometry was discussed in § 2, and the student should revise
it now. The final statement of the paragraph is quoted
as a summary.
“ A solid body, from the point of view of Geometry, is
conceived as a portion of space enclosed and bounded by
surfaces and the amount of space so occupied is called its
volume.”
The particular kinds of solids to be considered are what
may be termed “ geometrical solids ", i.e., the surfaces which
bound, or enclose-them, are geometric figures, such as have
been considered in previous chapters.
166. A cross-section of a Solid.
If the trunk of a tree be sawn through, the new surface
which is thus exposed is called a “ cross-section ” of the
trunk. In this case the “ cross-section ” will not be a
regular geometric figure, such as a circle, but will be
irregular in outline.
If however a regular solid, such as a stick of shaving soap,
is cut through, the cross-section will be a regular figure.
If a rectangular wooden block is sawn through the section
will be a rectangle.
167. Prisms.
The rectangular block considered in § 2 is a common
form of a geometrical solid. Fig. 160 represents a solid of
this type.
193
194 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Its boundary surfaces are six in number, consisting of

three pairs of parallel rectangles. Each of these is per-
pendicular to the four planes which
A intersect it.
A cross-section is indicated by the
shaded rectangle ABCD, which inter­
sects four faces.
It is such that the plane of the
section is perpendicular to each of the
Fig. 160. • four plane surfaces which it intersects.
It is therefore parallel to the pair of
parallel end surfaces indicated by X and Y.
Such a section is called a normal section.
Its area will be the same as that of the parallel end
surfaces. Any section which was not parallel would have
a greater area.
When a normal cross-section is always of the same size
and shape the solid is called a prism.
Consequently,
A prism is a solid of uniform normal cross-section.
When this cross-section is a rectangle, the solid is called a
rectangular prism; when it is
a square it is a square prism.
If all six faces are squares
of equal size the solid is a cube.
When all the faces which
meet intersect at right angles,
the solid is called a right prism.
If the faces are not at right Fig. 161.
angles, as in Fig. 161, the
solid is an oblique prism. Cross-sections parallel to the
end faces such as X and Y will be similar figures to them.
Note.—The student may construct an oblique prism by squeezing
the two opposite faces of the cover of a match box, as described
in § 76.

168. Other Forms of Prisms.

The normal cross-section of a prism may be any regular
figure: thus, we may have a triangular prism, in which
 PRISMS 195
the normal cross-section is a triangle. An example is
shown in Fig. 162. Similarly, there may be hexagonal
prisms, pentagonal prisms, octagonal prisms, etc.

169. The Cylinder or Circular Prism.

When the normal cross-section of a prism is a circle the
solid is called a cylinder. Fig. 163 represents a cylinder and
PQ a normal cross-section.
One end, such as ACB, may be regarded as a base. Its
F

Fig. 162. Fig. 163.

plane is parallel to that of the other end DFE; all normal

cross-sections are parallel to both.
Area of the curved surface.
A cylinder made of paper can be constructed as follows.
Take a jam tin or jar, which is cylindrical, and wrap a
piece of suitable paper exactly round it until the opposite
edges of the paper meet. The paper then constitutes a
cylinder. If it be unrolled the paper will be seen to be a
rectangle, one side of which is the same in length as the
height of the cylinder, and the other is equal to the circum­
ference of the cylinder. It is thus evident that the
Area of this rectangle is the same as the area of the curved
surface of the cylinder.
The cylinder in the form of the cylindrical pillar is
prominent in the construction of many great buildings, such
as cathedrals, churches, etc.
ig6 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
170. Area of the whole Surface of a Prism.
With the exception of the cylinder, the faces and bases
of prisms are rectilineal figures, the faces being a series
of rectangles, and the ends regular geometrical figures,
such as the square, triangle, hexagon, etc. The areas of
these have been determined in previous chapters. Conse­
quently, the total area of the surface of a prism is the sum
of the areas of the faces and ends.

171. Area of the whole Surface of a Cylinder.

The total area of the surface of the cylinder is the sum
of the areas of the two ends together with the area of the
curved surface.
In the cylinder represented in Fig. 164
Let r = radius of normal
cross-section.
h — height of cylinder.
-27Irh Area of ends.
Area of each end = wr2.
.'. area of two ends — 2trr2.
-7XrJ
Area of curved surface.
\ ■
Fig. 164. It has been shown above that
this is the area of a rectangle
whose adjacent sides are 2 nr and h.
area of curved surface = 2rrrh.
total area of surface of cylinder
is 2-nT2 + 2irr/l
or 2irr(r + h).

172. Measurement of Volumes of Prisms.

It was stated above (§ 165) that the amount of space
occupied by a solid is called its volume. We must now
examine how this volume is measured.
Unit of Volume. The SI unit of volume is the cubic
metre (m3), i.e., the volume of a cube with sides of one
 PRISMS 197
metre; (notice that each face has an area of 1 m2). The
practical unit is the cubic centimetre (cm®). As before
(§ 89) there are many alternatives available, and, in addi­
tion, there is the litre (I), really a unit of capacity, which is
equal to 100 cm* or 0-001 ms (cf. the are).

173. Volume of a Prism.

In Fig. 165, ABCD represents a rectangle 4 cm by 3 cm.

Fig. 165.

Its area is 12 cm2. On each of these square centimetres,

a cubic cm is placed such as the one which is shaded. There
are twelve of these cm®s in all and the whole solid is a rect­
angular prism whose base is the rectangle ABCD, 4 cm by
3 cm and the height 1 cm.
The volume of the prism is clearly 12 cm®, or area of
base (12 cm®) X height (1 cm.).
If a similar prism of the same dimensions be placed on
top of this the two together form a prism with rectangular
base, 4 cm x 3 cm, and height 2 cm.
The volume now — (4 cm x 3 cm) x 2 cm = 24 cm®.
If a third prism be added, as in Fig. 166,
the volume of the whole = (4 cm x 3 cm) x 3 cm
= (area of base) x height.
A similar result will follow for any number of layers.
In all cases it may therefore be concluded that
198 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
volume of prism «= (area of base) x height.
In this explanation the lengths of the edges are an
exact number of units, but, as was demonstrated in the
case of the area of a rectangle (§91), the result may be shown
to be true when the lengths involve fractions.

174. Prism Law of Volume.

The above rule can readily be shown to hold when the
base is any other rectilineal figure. We may therefore
deduce the rule for the determination of the volume of any
right prism, viz.,
Volume of prism = area of base x height.
This is called prism law of volume.
Since a cross-section perpendicular to the sides, i.e., a
normal section, is identically equal to .the base, the prism
law can be written thus:
Volume of prism =« area of crdss-section X height.
 PRISMS 199
175. Volume of a Cylinder.
Let AB, Fig. 167, represent a side of a regular polygon
inscribed in the circle PQ, which is the base of the cylinder
depicted.
Let ABCD be a lateral side of a right prism which is
inscribed in the cylinder.
When the number of sides of the polygon which is the
base of the prism is large, the straight
line AB will be very nearly equal to an
arc of the circle, and the volumes of the
prism and cylinder will be nearly equal.
If the number of sides of the polygon
inscribed in PQ be greatly increased, and
consequently the number of lateral faces
of the prism similarly increased, the
volume of the prism will be approxi­
mately equal to that of the cylinder.
When the number of sides be in­
creased without limit, we may conclude Fig. 167.
that—
Volume of cylinder = volume of prism.
Using the volume law for Prisms (§ 174)
Volume of cylinder = area of base x height, I.e., the
prism law of volume holds for a cylinder.
Let r — radius of base of cylinder.
Then irz2 = area of base or cross-section.
Let h = height of cylinder.
volume of cylinder = irr2h.

• Exercise 20
1. Find the volume in cubic metres of a uniform rect­
angular beam, 180 m long, the area of whose normal cross­
section is 40 cm2.
2. A rectangular prism is made of metal and is II cm x
9 cm X 7 cm. Find its weight in grams if a cm3 of the
metal weighs 4-18 g.
 200 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
3. A uniform bar, rectangular in cross-section, is 3-8 m
' long, and its cross-section is 2-5 cm2. What is its volume?
4. 1 m8 of lead is hammered out in order to make a
square sheet, 0-2 m thick. What is the area of the square?
5. It is required to make 1 000 cylindrical drums, 3-5 m
high and 3 m in diameter. What is the total amount of
tin required, if 10 per cent is wasted in the cutting? (Take
n = 344.)
6. What volume of jam will be contained by each of the
drums in the previous question when each tin is full? If a
m3 of the jam weighs 0-18 kg, what is the weight of the
jam in each drum when it is full?
7. A cylindrical water drum has a base of diameter 14 m
and its height is 2 m. How many litres of water will it
hold?
8. A cylindrical jar is 50 mm high, and it holds 305 mm3
of water. What is the area of its cross-section ?
9. What would be the cost of painting the curved surface
of four cylindrical pillars, each 8 m high, and whose radius
of cross-section is 0-25 m, at 2|p per m2 ?
10. If the volume of a cylinder be 1-5 m8 and its height
be 3 m, what is the radius of its cross-section?
11. In a hollow cylinder the circles of the cross-section
are concentric. If the internal diameters of these circles
be 2-2 cm and 3-8 cm respectively, and the height be 6-5 cm,
find the volume of the hollow interior.
 CHAPTER 25
PYRAMIDS
176. Construction of a Pyramid.
In Fig. 168, ABCD represents a square with its diagonals
intersecting at 0. OP is drawn perpendicular to the plane
of ABCD. P is any point on this perpendicular and is
joined to the points A, B, C, D.
The result is a solid figure bounded by a square as its

Fig. 168. Fig. 169.

base, and four triangles PAB, PBC, PCD, PDA with a

common vertex P.
This solid is called a pyramid. OP is a central axis and
the length of it is the height of the pyramid.
A section perpendicular to this axis, such as EFGH, is a
similar figure to the base, i.e., in this case, a square.
This is characteristic of all such pyramids. All normal
cross-sections are similar figures.
A paper pyramid, may readily be made by drawing a
square on suitable paper, as ABCD, Fig. 169. On each side
201
202 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
of the square construct isosceles triangles, all of the same
height. The figure should then be cut out and the triangles
folded about their bases and bent over till their vertices
P come together. With a little ingenuity a method may be
devised for keeping the slant edges together.
177. Regular Pyramids.
In the previous section we have seen how a pyramid
may be constructed. We now proceed to give a formal
definition of the solid.
Pyramid.
A pyramid is a solid, one of whose faces is a polygon
(called the base) and the others are triangles having a common
vertex. The bases of these are the sides of the polygon.
The base of a pyramid may be any rectilineal figure,
but when all the sides are equal, i.e., the base is a regular

polygon, or an equilateral triangle, and the straight line

joining the vertex to the centre of the base is perpendicular
to the base, it is called a regular pyramid.
Such pyramids are named after the base. Thus, the
pyramid of Fig. 168 is a square pyramid. If the base is an
 PYRAMIDS 203
equilateral triangle it is called a triangular pyramid, or a
tetrahedron (i.e., having four faces), see Fig. 171 (a).
If the base is a hexagon (Fig, 171 (J)) it is a hexagonal
pyramid. If the slant sides of a tetrahedron are also equi­
lateral triangles it is called a regular tetrahedron. Fig.
171 («) is an example of this particular form of a triangular
pyramid.

178. The Cone.

A cone is a pyramid such that the base and every normal
cross-section is a circle.
When the central axis, OP (Fig. 172 (a)), is perpendicular
to the base the solid is called a right cone.
A cone can be constructed by cutting out a piece of paper
in the shape of a sector, such as PABC (Fig. 172 (Z>)) and

(G)

rolling together the radii PA and PC until C coincides with

A, and PA with PC.
Thus the arc ABC becomes the circumference of the base
of the cone and P becomes the vertex.
When the radius AP and the angle APC are known, the
length of the arc ABC can be calculated (§ 123).
Hence, the length of the circumference of the base being
known, the radius of the base, OA, is found.
AP is also known.
the height of the cone, OP = VAP* — OA2.
204 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
AP is called the slant height of the cone and the angle
APB is the vertical angle.

179. Geometry of a Pyramid.

We next proceed to consider some of the geometric
relations between edges, sides, etc., of a pyramid, basing
the conclusions upon the defini­
tion of a pyramid as given in
§177.
Fig. 173 represents a square
pyramid, AB CD being the square
base and 0, the intersection of
its diagonals, thus being the
centre of the base. OP is the
axis of the pyramid and repre­
sents the height. From con­
siderations of symmetry OP is
evidently perpendicular to the
base.
PA, PB, PC, PD are called
slant or lateral edges, and AB,
BC, CD, DA are base edges.
The following theorems may now be proved:
Theorem (I). The slant edges of a regular
pyramid are equal, i.e., the slant faces are isosceles
triangles.
Consider the slant face PBC (Fig. 173).
Now, OP is perpendicular to the plane of the base.
.". it is perpendicular to every straight line it meets in
that plane (see § 29).
As POB, POC are right angles.
Since the diagonals of a square bisect each other
.-. OB = OC
po2 + ob* = po2 + oc ,2
i.e., PB2 = PC2
PB = PC
and the APBC is isosceles.
 PYRAMIDS 205
Let Q be the mid-point of BC. Join OQ.
Then PQ is called the slant height of the pyramid.
Theorem (2). The slant height of a pyramid is
perpendicular to a base edge.
In As PQB, PQC:
(1) PB = PC (proved above)
(2) BQ = QC (construction)
(3) PQ is common.
As PQB, PQC are congruent.
In particular Z-PQB == ZJPQC.
PQ is perpendicular to BC.
(Compare § 62.)
Definition :
The angle PQO is the -angle between the lateral face
PBC and the base ABCD (§30).
By the use of the above theorems and the Theorem of
Pythagoras the slant height and slant edge of a square
pyramid may be found when the base and height are known.
Similar relations also hold for other regular pyramids.

180. Area of the Surface of a Right Pyramid.

The total surface of any pyramid consists of (1) the area
of the base together with (2) the sum of the areas of the
lateral faces.
(1) Area of the base. The base is a regular recti­
lineal figure the area of which can be found by using
rules previously considered.
(2) Area of lateral faces. As shown in § 179 the
lateral faces are equal isosceles triangles.
In each of these it has been proved that the slant height,
asPQ in Fig. 173, is the height of the corresponding triangle.
Considering the CPBC,
Area of A = |BC X PQ
— | base edge x slant height.
206 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
In the same way the areas of other faces may be found,
sum of areas of lateral faces
— | (sum of sides of base X slant height)
= |(perimeter of base) x (slant height).
181. Area of the Surface of a Cone.
As with pyramids, the total area, of surface of a cone is
the sum of (1) area of circular base and (2) area of the
curved surface.
To find the area of the curved surface.
Let QR (Fig. 174) be a side of a regular polygon with a
large number of sides, inscribed in
p the circle which is the base of the
A cone.
\ Q and R being joined to P, PQR
/S \ may be regarded as one of the
/S \ lateral faces of a pyramid of which
/S \ is one sides of the base.
/a--------- _ \ Suppose the number of sides of
A ( J? _____ the P°tySon to become very large,
q so becomes very small.
” It will then not differ appreciably
Fig. 174. from the corresponding arc of the
surrounding circle.
Let a perpendicular be drawn from P to the middle of
/?<?.
The length of this will be very nearly equal to the slant
height of the cone.
Then area of APQR'is approximately equal to
IQR X (slant height of cone).
as in § 180,
Total area of lateral faces of pyramid equals
Kperimeter of base) x (slant height).
If the number of sides of the polygon be increased without
limit:
(1) the perimeter of the base of pyramid is equal to
the circumference of the base of the cone;
 PYRAMIDS 207
(2) the perpendicular from P to QR is indistinguish­
able from the slant height of the cone.
(3) the lateral surface of the pyramid is equal to the
curved surface of the cone.
Area of curved surface of cone equals
| (circum. of base) x (slant height).
Let r = radius of base.
I = slant height.
h — height.
Then I = Vr2 + h2.
Area of curved surface of cone = |(2nr x I)
— -rrrl
=-■ rtrV r2 -|- h2.
.•. total surface of cone = nr2 + rrrl
= irr(r + I)____
= nr(r 4- yV2 + A2).
182. Volume of a Pyramid.
Fig. 175 represents a cube and its diagonals AF, BG,
CH, DE are drawn intersecting at 0.
208 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Symmetry suggests that they are concurrent. These
diagonals form the slant edges of six pyramids, each of
which has its vertex at O, and one of the faces of the cube
as a base, as for example the pyramid OABEH. The base
of this pyramid is the face ABEH, and the slant edges are
OA, OB, OE, OH.
The six pyramids are clearly all equal in volume. Their
bases being equal and the height of each being the per­
pendicular (not shown) drawn from 0 to the centre of the
base; the length Of this is half that of the side of a
square.
the volume of each pyramid Is one-sixth of the volume
of the whole cube. Thus, it is one-third of the volume of
half the cube, i.e., of the rectangular prism whose base is a
face of the cube, such as ABEH, ana whose height is the
same as that of the pyramid.
Thus, the volume of each pyramid is one-third of a prism
of the same base and the same height,
i.e. volume of pyramid = |(area of base) x height.
We have been dealing with a particular case of a square
pyramid, but the rule can be shown to hold for any
pyramid.
183. Volume of a Cone.
By employing the method demonstrated in § 181 for
finding the curved surface of a cone, it can be shown that
the rule for the volume of a cone is the same as the corre­
sponding one for pyramids.
.”. the rule is
volume of cone
= | volume of a cylinder with equal base and height.
Fig. 176 represents a cone, PABC, and a cylinder,
EABCD, on the same base and having the same height
OP, 0 being the centre of the base.
ABODE may be described as the circumscribing cylinder
of the cone.
Thus, the vol. of a cone is one-third that of the circum­
scribing cylinder.
 PYRAMIDS 209
Let r — radius of base
h = height of cone.
Volume of circumscribing cylinder = w2Zt.
Volume of cone — |irr2h.
184. Frustum of a Pyramid or Cone.
Fig. 177 represents a cone in which DE is a section
parallel to the base.

Fig. 176. Fig. 177.

If the part of the cone above this be removed the remain­

ing solid DABCEis called a frustum of the cone.
Similarly, in Fig. 169, if that part of the pyramid above
the section EFGH be removed the remainder is a frustum
of the pyramid. So with other pyramids.
The volume of a frustum can be obtained as the difference
between the volume of the complete solid and the part
removed.
The top part of a funnel is an example of a frustum in
everyday life. Among many other examples are a bucket,
a flower-pot and many lamp-sha.des.
no TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

# Exercise 21
1. A pyramid 12 m high stands on a square base of 6-m
side. Find (a) its volume, (&) its total surface area.
2. Find the volume of a hexagonal pyramid, each side
of the hexagon being 1-5 m, and the height of the pyramid
8 m.
3. Find (a) the total surface area, and (&) the volume,
of a cone of height 9 mm and radius of base 4-5 mm.
4. The area of the curved surface of a cone is 22-4 ma
and the slant height is 8 m. Find the area of the base of
the cone.
5. Find the volume of the pyramid of Fig. 173 when
(1) AB = 3-2 m, OP = 5-1 m.
(2) OQ = 11-7 cm, OP = 10-8 cm.
6. A conical tent is to be constructed to house 10 men,
each of whom must have not less than 20 m3 of air. If the
height of the tent is to be 3 m, what must be the diameter
of the base?
7. A pyramid in Egypt is 450 m high and has a square
base of side approximately 746 m. Find (1) the slant
edge, (2) the slant height, (3) the volume.
8. Each of the sides of the base of a regular hexagonal
pyramid is 2 m long, and the height of the pyramid is
4-5 m. Find, (1) the slant height, (2) the total surface
area of the pyramid.
9. A cylindrical column 4 m in diameter and 6 m high
is surmounted by a cone of the same width and 3 m high.
Find the area of sheet metal required to cover the whole
lateral surface.
10. In a cone whose vertical angle is 60°, two parallel
sections are drawn perpendicular to the axis and at distances
of 3 m and 5 m from the vertex. Find («) the area of the
curved surface, (b) the volume of the frustum so formed.
11. In a square pyramid of base 4 cm side and height
6 cm, a section parallel to the base is made half way between
the base and the vertex. Find the area of the surface of
the frustum thus cut off. Find also its volume.
 CHAPTER 26
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
185. The Cylinder.
If the cover of this book, or a door, be rotated about one
edge which is fixed, every point on the edge which rotates
will trace, in space, a circle or an arc of a circle, the centre
of which is on the fixed edge. Since all
points on the moving edge are the same
distance from the fixed edge, all the circles
will have equal radii. Considering the
rotation of the whole plane surface of the
cover, since it is rectangular in shape, a por­
tion of a cylinder will be marked out in
space, or a complete cylinder, if there is a
complete rotation.
Treating this more generally, in Fig. 178,
OPAB represents a rectangle with one side Fig. 178.
OP fixed. This rectangle rotates round OP
as an axis of rotation. Every point on AB describes a
circle and all such circles, having equal radii, are equal in
area. Consequently a cylinder is marked out in space.
A solid which is thus described by the rotation of a line
or figure about a fixed axis is called a solid of revolution.
The fixed straight line, OP in Fig. 178, about which the
rotation takes place is called the axis of rotation.
A straight line which thus rotates (as AB in Fig. 178)
is called a generating line.

186. The Cone as a Solid of Revolution.

Take a set square, preferably the 90°, 60°, 30° one, and
stand it vertically upright with the shortest side on a piece
of paper. Holding it firmly upright by the vertex, rotate
it round the other side containing the right angle, i.e., the
side opposite to 60°. If this be represented by AOPA in
2II
2i2 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Fig. 179 it will be seen that as this rotates about OP as an
axis of rotation, A, in a complete revolution, will describe
the circumference of a circle ABC. Every point on PA
will also describe a circle with its centre
P on OP. Consequently in a complete
A rotation a cone will be marked out, in
]t \ space; OP, the axis of rotation, will
/p \ be the central axis of the cone, and
/F \ ABC will be its base. The line AP,
/pZ \ i.e., the hypotenuse, is the generating
/ \ l'ne"
an additional illustration, let the
D <—— pencil of a compass be extended, so
„ that the arm which holds it is longer
IG" than the other. If the pointed end be
fixed, as usual, into a horizontal piece of paper, and the arm
held vertically, the two arms will form two sides of a triangle,
such as OP and PA in A0P4 (Fig. 179). On rotating the
compass, as usual keeping OP vertical, the pencil arm will
sweep out a cone, as in the previous experiment.
In both cases the generating line, AP, always makes the
same angle with OP. In the case of the set square this
angle is 30°.
As a practical example, the arm of a crane, when trans­
ferring a suspended load from one point to another, rotating
about a fixed position on the base, marks out a cone in
space. This time the cone is upside down compared with
the previous examples. It will be as AOA' in Fig. 180.

187. The Double Cone.

A genera! treatment of this aspect of the formation of
a cone as a solid of revolution is as follows.
In Fig. 180 let PQ be a fixed straight line of indefinite
length.
Let AB be another straight line, also of indefinite length,
intersecting PQ at 0 and making with it the angle AOQ.
Now, suppose AB to rotate in space around PQ, so that it
continues to intersect it at 0 and the angle AOQ remains
constant for any position of AB. Any points on AB such
 SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION 313
as C and D will trace out in space circumferences of circles
as AB rotates about PQ.
After half a complete rotation AB will be once more in
the plane from which it started
in the position A'B'. C and D
will be at C and D' respectively
and every point on AB will have
marked out a semicircle.
Continuing the rotation, AB,
after another half rotation, will
be back in its original position
in the plane. C and D will be
back to their original positions
and will have described circles
with CC and DD' as diameters,
the planes of which will be per­
pendicular to PQ.
All points on AB will thus de­
scribe circles and the complete
solid so formed will be a double
cone with a common apex at O.
The cones as described are of
indefinite size, since the straight Fig. 180.
lines AB and PQ are of un­
limited length, but cones of definite magnitude are marked out
when a distance on AB is fixed, such as COD. The glass often
used when eggs are boiled is an example of a double cone.
188. The Sphere.
The two diameters AB, PQ of the circle APBQ (Fig. 181)
are perpendicular to one another, 0 being the centre.
Let this circle rotate completely in space round AB as
an axis of rotation.
In a half rotation P will rotate to the position of Q, and
any point C to C. Continuing the rotation P and C will
return to their original positions and the completely
enclosed solid, known as a ball or sphere, will have been
generated. Any point on the circumference ACPB will
describe a circle whose plane is perpendicular to AB.
any section perpendicular to AB is a circle.
214 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Similarly the circle could be rotated about any other
diameter. The same sphere would be formed and in each
of these every section perpendicular to the diameter is a
circle.
It may therefore be concluded that,
Any section of a sphere is a circle.
Great circles. A section which passes through the
centre of a sphere is called
a great circle.
Thus, in Fig. 181 PDQ
and ADB are great circles.
The radius ofa great circle
is always equal to that of the
sphere.
Small circles. All other
sections of a sphere which
are not great circles are
called small circles. In Fig.
181, CEC is an example.
The radius of a small circle
is always less than that of
the sphere and varies according to the distance of the section
from the centre of the sphere.
189. The Earth as a Sphere.
The earth is approximately a sphere, rotating completely
on an axis every twenty-four hours. It is not an exact
sphere, being slightly flattened at the ends of its axis of
rotation. These ends are termed the North and South
Poles (see § 32).
Fig. 182 represents the earth as a sphere, centre 0, NOS
being the axis of , rotation.
N represents the North Pole and S the South Pole.
The circle EABW represents a great circle, perpendicular
to NS and halfway between N and S. It is known as
the equator.
ON and OS represent the north and south directions
from 0 (see § 32) and OE and OW represent the east and
west directions.
 SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION 215
CGHF is a small circle perpendicular to the axis and
therefore parallel to the plane of the equator.
NGBS and NHAS are great circles passing through the
N

Fig. 182.
poles and therefore perpendicular to the planes of the
equator and of the small circle CGHF.
190. Determination of Position on the Earth’s Surface.
The position of a point such as G, on the earth’s surface,
is clearly determined by the intersection of the great circle,
NGBS, and the small circle, CGHF. If these are known
the position of G is known. The problem is, how are these
circles to be identified, on a map or chart?
(I) Latitude. The quadrant arc NGB subtends a right
angle, NOB, at the centre of the sphere. As stated in § 22,
this can be divided into 90 degrees. Corresponding to
each degree on it small circles may be drawn in planes
parallel to the equator.
These small circles are called circles of latitude.
Since an arc of a circle is proportional to the angle which
it subtends at the centre of the'circle (§ 120), if the angle
216 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
BOG can be determined the number of degrees in BG is
known, and the circle of latitude is known. Thus if the
angle BOG be 55°, then the latitude of every point on the
small circle CGHF is 55°, north of the equator.
If therefore the latitude of a ship is found to be 55°
north, we know that the ship lies somewhere along the
small circle CGHF.
Just where it is along this circle is determined if it be
known on which of the great circles, such as NGBS, it is also
placed. This will be investigated in the following section.
(2) Longitude. The great circles passing through the
poles and perpendicular to the equator are circles of
Longitude or Meridians.
For the purpose of identification, the semi-equator is
divided into 180 degrees, and there is a Meridian corre­
sponding to each degree.
There is no meridian which is fixed naturally, as is the
equator from which we may start reckoning. By universal
agreement, however, the great circle or meridian which
passes through Greenwich has been adopted as the zero
circle, and longitude is measured east or west from it. If,
for example, in Fig. 182, the great circle NHAS is the
Meridian of .Greenwich and the angle subtended by the arc
AB is 15°, then the longitude of G is 15° west, since the
angle GKH which measures the arc GH is equal to the
angle BOA, each of these being the angle between the
planes of the two circles (§ 27).
Consequently, the position of G is 55° north latitude,
and 15° longitude west of Greenwich. Thus the position
of G on a chart can be fixed.
As the distances involved are very great, for accurate
measurements, each degree is divided into 60 minutes and
each minute into 60 seconds as in § 22.
The actual determination of the latitude and longitude
lies beyond the scope of this book.
191. Distances Measured on a Sphere.
Suppose it is required to determine the distance between
the two points B and G in Fig. 182. A ship sailing on the
 SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION 217
sea between them could do so by a variety of paths. The
shortest distance between them, however, is the length
of the arc between them on the great circle which passes
through them. In Fig. 182 the arc GB is the shortest
distance between B and G.
The great circle, in this matter, corresponds to the straight
line joining points on a plane (see § 6, Fig. 4).
This is an important matter for the navigator, whether
on the sea or in the air. Before the distance BG can be
determined we must clearly know the length of the great
circle NGBS. This is the circumference of a circle whose
diameter is that of the earth itself. We may use the rule
of §§ 122 and 123, and thus find the arc BG.
192. Surface and Volume of a Sphere.
The methods by which formulae are found for the surface
and volume of a sphere require a greater knowledge of
mathematics than is assumed in this volume.
The formulae are therefore offered without proof.
(1) Area of surface of a sphere.
Let r — radius of sphere.
Then area of surface = •4'irr2.
(2) Volume of a sphere.
Volume of sphere = firr3.
193. Areas and Volumes of Cylinder, Cone and Sphere.
The following connections exist between the areas and
volumes of the above solids in which the diameter of the
sphere is equal to the diameters of the base of the cylinder
and cone and to their heights.
The three solids are shown in Fig. 183, the sphere being
inscribed in the cylinder, i.e., the bases of the cylinder and
cone, and the curved surface of the cylinder touch the
sphere. They are therefore tangential to the sphere.
Let r = radius of sphere.
Then 2r equals (1) diameter of base of cylinder and cone,
and (2) height of cylinder and cone.
218 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Areas of curved surfaces of sphere and cylinder.
(1) Of cylinder = 2rer X 2r = 4w2.
(2) Of sphere = 4nr2.

—-2r-—>
Fig. 183.

I.
e., Areas of curved surfaces of cylinder and inscribed
sphere are equal.
Volumes.
(1) Of cylinder = r.r- x 2r= 2?rr3.
(2) Of sphere = frtr3.
(3) Of cone = i^r2 x 2r= jirr3.
ratio of volumes = 2 : f : j =6:4:2
= 3:2:1.
Thus, the volume of the cylinder = sum of volumes of
Inscribed sphere and cone.

^Exercise 22
1. 'What is the area of the cloth required to cover a
tennis ball of diameter 5 cm? Find also the volume of
the ball.
2. Find the cost of gilding the surface of a spherical ball
of radius 4 m at lOJp per m2. (n — ^.)
3. The metre was originally calculated as one ten-millionth
of the distance from the equator to the pole, measured along
the meridian through Paris. Assuming that this is correct,
 SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION ai<>
and that the earth is a perfect sphere, what is the earth’s
surface area? (Give your answer correct to 10® km2; take
n as V'-)
4. Find the ratio of the surface of a sphere to the surface
of the circumscribing cube.
5. Find the area of the whole surface of a hemisphere of
diameter 10 cm. (Take re «=' 3T416.)
6. A small dumb-bell consists of two spheres of 2| cm
diam., connected by an iron cylinder 6 cm long and 1 cm
diameter. Find its weight if 1 cm8 weighs 0-28 kg.
7. If a right-angled triangle be rotated about its hypo­
tenuse, what is the solid formed?
8. An equilateral triangle of side 60 mm is rotated about
one of its sides. Find the volume of the solid which is
formed in a complete rotation.
9. A sphere of radius 5 m exactly fits into a cubical box.
Find the volume of the space which is unoccupied in the
box.
 PART II

FORMAL GEOMETRY

INTRODUCTION
As was stated on p. xvii, Part II of this book is de­
signed to provide a short course in formal or abstract
geometry. The theorems which comprise it are arranged
so that their sequence provides a logical chain in which
all geometrical facts which are employed in a proof have pre­
viously been proved to be true. In Part I, when theorems were
proved, appeal was frequently made to intuitive reasoning
or to conclusions which emerge from the considerable body
of geometric knowledge which is the common heritage of
modem civilisation.
In a course of formal geometry it is of the first importance
that we should be scrupulously accurate as to the meanings
of any terms which may be employed. Hence the import­
ance of clear, precise definitions, as stated in Part I (§ 4).
These definitions, together with a small number of axioms,
constitute the starting point for logical mathematical
reasoning, and should precede the formal study of the sub­
ject. But as these have already been stated and discussed
in Part I they will not be repeated now, though it is desirable
in a few cases to remind the student of them by quoting
some of them.
Some of the proofs which will appear in Part II, have
been given, substantially, in Part I, but are repeated so
that they may take their logical position in the chain of
theorems which constitute the system of geometric
reasoning.
Constructions which appeared in Part I will not be found
in Part II. A number of new ones, however, which are
dependent for their proof upon theorems in Part II, are
included.
220
 INTRODUCTION 221
The student after studying a theorem is strongly urged
to test his mastery of it by reproducing the proof from
memory. It is also advised that he should attempt to
solve the exercises, or " riders ”, which will be found at the
end of each section.
A few of the proofs of theorems, such as Nos. 1-3, hardly
seem to merit inclusion, as their truth is apparent, especially
since they have been studied in Part I, but they are included
so that the sequence of proofs may be complete.
Outside the scope of this book, the theorems proved must
not be referred to by number, but only by name (Th. of
Pythagoras) or by their result (Angles in a triangle—not
Th. 10).
 SECTION I
ANGLES AT A POINT
Theorem I
If one straight line meets another straight line
the sum of the two adjacent angles on one side of
it is two right angles.

Given. OC meets the straight line AB at 0.

To prove. Z.AOC + /.BOC — two right Zs.
Construction. From 0 draw OD perpendicular to AB.
Proof. AAOC = Z.AOD + /-COD.
Adding /.BOC to each,
/.AOC + /BOC = /.AOD + /.COD + /J30C.
But /.COD + LBOC = LBOD
= a right Z.
LAOC + LBOC = LAOD + LBOD,
e.,
i. ZAOC + ZBOC = two right Zs.

222
 ANGLES AT A POINT 223

Theorem 2
(Converse of Theorem 1)
If at a point in a straight line two other straight
lines on opposite sides of it make the two adjacent
angles together equal to two right angles, these
two straight lines are in the same straight line.

Given. CD meets the straight lines AC and CB at C, so

that
Z.ACD + ABCD = two right Zs.
To prove. AC and CB are in the same straight line.
Construction. Produce AC to any point E.
Proof. Since CD meets the straight line AE at C,
AACD + ADCE = two right Zs (Th. 1)
but AACD -j- ADCB = two right Zs (given}.
AACD + ADCE = AACD + ADCB.
Subtracting the AACD from each side.
/. ADCE = ADCB.
CE and CB must coincide,
but ACE is a straight line (constr.}
ACS is a straight line.
224 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 3
If two straight lines, intersect, the vertically
opposite angles are equal.

Given. The straight lines AB, CD intersect at 0.

To prove. AAOD = ABOC
and AAOC - ABOD.
Proof.Since AO meets CD at 0,
AAOC + AAOD = 2 right As (Th. 1)
and since CO meets AB at 0,
AAOC + ABOC = 2 right As (Th. 1)
A AAOC + AAOD = AAOC + ABOC.
From these equals take away AAOC.
Z.AOD = Z.BOC.
Similarly it may be proved that
Z.AOC = ABOD.

< Exercise 23
1. In Fig. 186 prove that the bisectors of the angles
BOD, AOD are at right angles.
2. In Fig. 186 prove that the straight lines which bisect
the angles AOC, BOD are in the same straight line.
3. An angle AOB is bisected by OC. CO is produced to
D and AO is produced to E. Prove that the ACOB =
ADOE.
4. The line OX bisects the angle AOB, XO is produced
to Y. Prove AAOY = ABOY.
 SECTION 2
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES. EXTERIOR ANGLES
Theorem 4
Two triangles are congruent if two sides and the
included angle of one triangle are respectively
equal to two sides and the included angle of the

Fig. 187.
Given. ABC, DEF are two triangles such that
AB = DE
AC — DF
included ABAC = AEDF.
To prove. As are congruent.
Proof. Apply the AABC to the ADEF so that
(1) The point A falls on D.
(2) AB lies along DE.
Since AB — DE (given)
the point B falls on E.
Since AB lies along DE, and AA = AD,
AC must lie along DF.
And since AC = DF,
the point C falls on F.
Since only one straight line can join two points,
BC coincides with EF.
all the sides of AABC coincide with the corresponding
sides of A DEF.
AABC is congruent with ADEF.
Note.—This method of proof is called " superposition "—i.e., we
test if two figures are congruent by applying one to the other.
225
226 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Modem mathematicians have raised objections to this as a method
of proof. However, no other satisfactory method of proving this
theorem has been evolved.

Theorem 5
If one side of a triangle be produced, the exterior
angle so formed is greater than either of the interior

Given. In LABC, BC is produced to D.

To prove. Ext. AACD is greater than either of the
interior opposite As ABC or BAG.
Construction. Let E be the mid point of AC. Join BE.
Produce BE to F making EF = BE.
Join FC.
Proof. In As ABE, FCE:
(1) AE — EC (constr.)
(2) BE = EF (constr.}
(3) AAEB = AFEC (Th. 3)
As are congruent (Th. 4)
In particular A.EAB = AECF.
But LACD > AECF.
AACD > ABAC.
To prove /LACD > A ABC.
If AC be produced to G and BC bisected, it can similarly
be proved that
ext. ABCG > int. A ABC.
But ABCG = AACD (Th. 3)
/. AACD > AABC.
AACD is greater than either of the interior opposite
angles.
 CONGRUENT TRIANGLES. EXTERIOR ANGLES 227
•Exercise 24
1. ABC is an isosceles A of which A is the vertex. BA
and CA are produced to P and Q respectively so that
AQ = AP. Join BQ and CP. Prove that these straight
lines are equal.
2. OA and OB are two equal straight lines and OC bisects
the angle between them, X is any point on OC. Prove
that XA = XB.
3. In Fig. 188 (Th. 5) prove
(1) ABEC > ABAC.
(2) AFCD > AEFC.
4. Prove that from a point outside a straight line only
one perpendicular can be drawn to the line.
5. Prove that the diagonals of a square are equal.
6. The mid-points of the sides of a square are joined up
in succession to form a quadrilateral. Prove that this
quadrilateral is a square.
 SECTION 3
PARALLELS
Definition. Parallel straight lines are such that, lying in
the same plane, they do not meet however far they may be
■produced in either direction.
Note.—The method of proof employed in Theorem 6 which follows
is known as “ Reductio ad absurdum This form of proof assumes
that the theorem to be proved is untrue. When this leads to a
conclusion which is either geometrically absurd or contrary to the
data, it follows that the assumption cannot be true. Consequently
the truth of the theorem is established.

Theorem 6
If a straight line cuts two other straight lines so
that the alternate angles are equal, then the two
straight lines are parallel.

Given. The straight lines AB, CD are cut by a trans­

versal PQ at R and S and
ZJBRS — ARSC (alternate angles, § 54).
To prove. AB and CD must be parallel.
Proof. If AB and CD are not parallel, then, if produced
in either direction, they must meet. {Def.).
228
 PARALLELS 229
Let them be produced towards B and D so that they
meet in X.
Then XRS is a triangle.
One of its sides XS is produced to C, and LRSC is an
exterior angle of the A.
ARSC > interior AXRS (Th. 5)
But we are given that /.XRS — /.RSC.
the assumption that the straight lines AB and CD
will meet has led to a conclusion which is contrary to the
hypothesis, viz., /.BRS = /.RSC.
it cannot be true that, with this hypothesis, AB
and CD will meet when produced towards B and D.
In the same way it can be shown that the straight lines
will not meet when produced towards A and C.
since they will not meet when produced in either
direction, by definition
AB and CD are parallel.
830 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 7
If a straight li ne cuts two other straight li nes so that
(I) two corresponding angles are equal;
or (2) the sum of two interior angles on the
same side of the transversal is equal to two
right angles:
the two straight lines are parallel.

Fig. 190.
Given. The transversal PQ cuts the straight lines AB,
CD, at R and S and
(1) corr. Zs PRB, RSD are equal;
or. (2) ABRS + ARSD = 2 right Zs.
To prove. AB is parallel to CD in each case.
Proofs. (1) APRB = AARS. (Th. 3.)
AARS = ARSD,
and these are alternate angles.
AB is parallel to CD (Th. 6.)
(2) AARS + ABRS = 2 rt. Zs (Th. 1)
but ARSD -j- ABRS = 2 rt. Zs (given)
AARS + ABRS = ARSD + ABRS.
Since ABRS is common to both, on subtracting it
AARS = ARSD.
But these are alternate angles,
AB is parallel to CD (Th. 6)
 PARALLELS 231
Playfair’s Axiom. Two straight lines which intersect
cannot both be parallel to the same straight line.
Like all axioms this cannot be proved to be true, but it
is self-evident and in accordance with our experience. It
is necessary to assume its truth in order to prove
Theorem 8.
Theorem 8
(Converse of Theorems 6 and 7)
If a straight line cuts two parallel straight lines:
(1) alternate angles are equal;
(2) corresponding angles are equal;
(3) the sum of two interior angles on the
same side of the transversal is equal to two
right angles.

Given. AB and CD are two parallel straight lines, PQ

is a transversal.
To prove. (1) alt. AARS = alt. ARSD.
(T) core. APRB = corr. ARSD.
(3) ABRS + ARSD = 2 right As.
Proof. (1) If AARS be not equal to ARSD, draw a
straight line ERF making AERS = ARSD.
But, these are alternate angles,
. ERF is parallel to CD (Th. 6)
But it is given that AB is parallel to CD, i.e., two inter­
secting straight lines ERF and AB intersecting at R are
both parallel to CD.
232 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
But this is contrary to Playfair’s axiom.
.'. the assumption that AARS is not equal to ARSD
cannot be true,
i.
e., ZARS = ZRSD.
(2) Since AARS = APRB (Th. 3)
and AARS = ARSD (proved, above)
ZPRB = ZRSD.
(3) Since AARS + ABRS = 2 rt. Zs (Th. 1)
and AARS = ARSD (proved above)
A ZBRS + ZRSD = 2 rt. Zs.

Theorem 9
Straight lines which are parallel to the same
straight line are parallel to one another.

Given. AB and CD are each parallel to XY.

To prove. AB is parallel to CD.
Construction. Draw a transversal PQ cutting the straight
lines AB, CD and XY in R, S, T respectively.
Proof. Since AB is parallel to XY,
A APRB = ARTY (corr. As, Th. 8)
Because CD is parallel to XY,
ARSD = ARTY (corr. As, Th. 8)
.-. APRB = ARSD.
But these are corresponding angles,
AB is parallel to CD (Th. 7)
 PARALLELS 233
• Exercise 25
1. AB and CD are two parallel straight lines and a
transversal PQ is perpendicular to AB. Prove that it is
also perpendicular to CD.
2. AB and CD are two parallels and PQ cuts them at
R and S. ABRS and ARSC are bisected by RL and SM
respectively. Prove RL is parallel to SM.
3. Two straight lines AB, CD bisect one another. Prove
that AC is parallel to BD and AD is parallel to BC.
4. In a A ABC, AABC = AACB. A straight line
parallel to BC cuts AB and AC at P and Q. Prove that
AAPQ = AAQP.
5. ABC, DEF are two congruent As, with AB — DE,
BC = EF, etc. P and Q are the mid-points of AC and
DF. Prove BP — EQ.
6. The sides AB, AC of the AABC are bisected at D and
E. From these points perpendiculars are drawn to the
sides and they meet in 0. Join OA, OB, OC, and prove
that these straight lines are equal.
 SECTION 4
ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE AND POLYGON
Theorem 10
The sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to
two right angles.

Given. ABC is any triangle.

To prove. Sum of its Zs = 2 right Zs.
Construction. Produce one of its sides, say BC, to D.
From C draw CE parallel to BA.
Proof. AB is parallel to CE, and AC cuts them.
/. ABAC = AACE (alt. As, Th. 8)
Also AB is parallel to CE and BC cuts them.
AABC = AECD (corr. As, Th. 8)
♦Adding ABAC + AABC = AACE + AECD.
Add AACB to both sides.
Then
ABAC + AABC + AACB = AACE + AECD + AACB
= 2 right Zs (Th. 1)
/. sum of angles of the A = 2 right Zs.
Note.—For corollaries to this very important theorem see § 60 of
Part I.
It may be specially noted, however, that in the step marked above
with an asterisk, it is proved that
An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two in­
terior opposite angles.

234
 ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE AND POLYGON 235

Theorem 11
The sum of all the interior angles of a convex
polygon, together with four right angles, is equal
to twice as many right angles as the figure has
sides.

Given. Let ABCDE be a polygon of n sides.

To prove. Sum of angles at A, B, C, D, E + 4 right Zs
= 2w right Zs.
Construction. Let 0 be any point within the polygon.
Join 0 to the angular points A, B, C, D, E.
Proof. The polygon is composed of as many As as there
are sides, i.e., with n sides there are n As.
And sum of the Zs of each triangle = 2 right Zs. (Th. 10.)
sum of the angles of the n As = 2n right Zs.
But this sum is made up of
(1) the int. Zs of the polygon;
(2) the angles at 0;
and the angles at 0 = 4 right Zs.
all the int. Zs + 4 right Zs = 2n right Zs.
Note.—In the case of regular polygons (§ 105, Part I) this result
may be expressed algebraically as follows:
Let x° = each of the equal angles of a regular polygon of n sides'.
Then nx° + 360° = 180» or as shown in § 108, Part I.
236 TEACH YOURSFLF GEOMETRY

Theorem 12
If the sides of a convex polygon are produced in
the same sense, the sum of all the exterior angles
so formed is equal to four right angles.

Fig. 195.

Given. ABC ... is a convex polygon of n sides, having

its sides AB, BC, CD . . . produced in the same sense
(in this case, clockwise, see § 15) to M, N, 0 . . . forming
exterior angles MAB, NBC, OCD . . .
To prove. Sum of ext. Zs,
MAB + NBC + OCD + . . . = 4 right Zs.
Proof. At each vertex A, B, C . . .
the ext. Z + int. Z = 2 right Zs (Th. 1}
/. for all the n vertices
sum of int. Zs + sum of ext. Zs = 2n right Zs.
But
sum of int. Zs + 4 right Zs = 2n right Zs (Th. 11)
/. sum of ext. Zs = 4 right Zs.
 ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE AND POLYGON 237

•Exercise 26
1. A straight line cuts two parallel straight lines; prove
that the bisectors of two interior angles on the same side
of the line are at right angles.
2. ABC is a right-angled triangle with LA a right angle.
If AD is drawn perpendicular to BC prove that LDAC =
LABC.
3. In a LABC, the side BC is produced to P and the
bisector of the LBAC meets BC in 0. Prove that LABC +
LACP = twice LAOP.
4. ABC is a right-angled triangle and A is the right
angle. The sides of the A are produced in the same sense.
Prove that the sum of the exterior angles at B and C is
three times the exterior angle at A.
5. From the vertex B of the LABC, BX is drawn per­
pendicular to AC, and from C, CY is drawn perpendicular
to AB. Prove LABX = LACY.
6. A pentagon has one of its angles a right angle, and the
remaining angles are equal. Find the number of degrees
in each of them.
7. If the angles of a hexagon are all equal, prove that the
opposite sides are parallel.
 SECTION 5
TRIANGLES (CONGRUENT AND ISOSCELES)
Theorem 13
Two triangles are congruent if two angles and a
side of one are respectively equal to two angles
and a side of the other.

Fig. 196.

Given. ABC, DEF are As in which

(1) AABC = ADEF.
(2) AACB = ADFE.
(3) BC = EF.
To prove. As ABC, DEF are congruent.
Proof. (1) Since AABC + AACB = ADEF + ADFE.
and the sum of the angles of the A is 2 right Z.s,
Remaining ABAC = AEDF.
(2) Let the AABC be placed on the ADEF so that BC
lies along EF. Then B coincides with E and C
with F.
Since AABC = ADEF,
BA will lie along ED, and A must lie on ED or ED
produced.
Also, since AACB = ADFE,
CA will lie along FD, and A must lie on FD or FD
produced.
A must lie on the intersection of ED and FD, i.e.,
at D.
Since B falls on E, C on F and A on D,
AABC coincides with ADEF.
As ABC, DEF are congruent.
238
 TRIANGLES (CONGRUENT AND ISOSCELES) 239

Theorem 14
If two sides of a triangle are equal the angles
opposite to these sides are equal.

Given. In the AABC, AB — AC.

Toprove. AABC = AACB.
Construction. Let AD be the straight line which bisects
the ABAC, and meets BC at D.
Proof. In As ABD, ACD :
(1) AB = AC (given)
(2) AD is common to both As
(3) ABAD = ACAD (constr.)
As ABD, ACD are congruent (Th. 4)
In particular AABC = AACB.
Corollary. If the equal sides of an isosceles triangle be
produced as in Fig. 198, the exterior angles so formed are
equal.
These angles are supplementary to the angles at the base
which have been proved equal above.
Note.—For further corollaries, see § 62, Part I.
240 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 15
[Converse of Theorem 14)
If two angles of a triangle are equal the sides
opposite to these are also equal.

Fig. 199.

Given. ABC is a triangle in which AABC — A ACD.

To prove. AB == AC.
Construction. Let AD be the bisector of ABAC, meeting
BC in D.
Proof. In As ABD, ACD :
(1) AABD = AACD (given)
(2) ABAD = ACAD (constr.)
(3) AD is a side of each A.
As ABD, ACD are congruent (Th. 13)
In particular AB = AC.
 TRIANGLES (CONGRUENT AND ISOSCELES) 241

Theorem 16
If in two triangles the three sides of the one are
respectively equal to the three sides of the other,
the triangles are congruent.

Given. ABC, DEF are As in which AB = DE, BC =

EF, AC = DF.
To prove. The As ABC, DEF are congruent.
Proof. Let BC and EF be sides which are not the shortest
in the As.
Apply EABC to EDEF so that B falls on E, and BC
along EF.
Since BC = EF, C must coincide with F.
Let the EABC be placed so that the vertices A and D
lie on opposite sides of EF, A being at G.
Join DG.
Since EG = BA, and BA = ED.
ED = EG.
Similarly, FD = FG.
As EGD, FGD are isosceles.
In EEGD, LEGD = EEDG (Th. 13)
Similarly, LFGD = LFDG (Th. 13)
Adding LEGD + LFGD = LEDG + LFDG,
i.
e., LEDF = LEGF.
242 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
But ABAC = AEGF (const/.)
ZBAC = Z.EDF.
In As ABC, DEF :
(1) AB = DE (given)
(2) AC = DF (given)
(3) ABAC = AEDF (proved)
As ABC, DEF are congruent (TA. 4)

Theorem 17
Two right-angled triangles are congruent if the
hypotenuse and a side of one triangle are
respectively equal to the hypotenuse and a side of
the other.

Given. As ABC, DEF are right-angled at C and F

hypotenuse AB = hypotenuse DE
and AC — DF.
To prove. As ABC, DEF are congruent.
Construction. Produce EF to G making FG = BC.
Join DG.
Proof. Since EFG is a straight line, and ADFE is a
right A.
;. ADFG is a right Z.
In As ABC, DGF :
(1) AC = DF (given)
(2) BC — FG (constr.)
(3) AACB = ADFG (right As)
As ABC, DGF are congruent (Th. 4)
In particular, AB = DG, AABC = ADGF.
 TRIANGLES (CONGRUENT AND ISOSCELES) 243
But AB = DE (given)
DE = DG.
ADEG is isosceles.
ADEF = ADGF.
But ADGF = AABC.
A DEF = AABC.
In As ABC, DEF :
(1) AC = DF (given)
(2) AACB = ADFE (given)
(3) AABC — ADEF (proved)
As ABC, DEF are congruent (Th. 13)
• Exercise 27
1. Prove that the straight line which joins the vertex of
an isosceles triangle to the mid-point of the base, (1) bisects
the vertical angle, (2) is perpendicular to the base.
2. Two isosceles As have a common base. Prove that
the straight line which joins their vertices, produced, if
necessary, (1) bisects both vertical angles and (2) bisects
the base at right As.
3. Two circles intersect. Prove that the straight line
joining their points of intersection is bisected at right
angles by the straight line which joins their centres.
4. ABC, DEF are two acute-angled As, in which AB =
DE, AC = DF, and the perpendicular from A to BC is
equal to the perpendicular from D to EF. Prove that the
As ABC, DEF are congruent.
5. ABC is an equilateral A and on its sides the equilateral
As, ABD, BCE, ACF are constructed. Prove that DA,
AF are in the same straight line, as are also DB, BE and
AC, CF. Prove also that the ADEF which is thus formed
is equilateral.
6. In any AABC, equilateral As ABD, ACE are con­
structed on the sides AB and AC. Prove that BE = CD.
7. From any point 0 on BD, the bisector of an angle
ABC, a straight line is drawn parallel to BA or BC. Prove
that the triangle formed in each case is isosceles.
8. From a point 0 on AD, the bisector of an angle BAC,
perpendiculars OE and OF are drawn to AB and AC re­
spectively. Prove that OE = OF.
 SECTION 6
INEQUALITIES
Theorem 18
If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the greater
side has the greater angle opposite to it.

Given. In the AABC, AC > AB.

Toprove. AABC > AACB.
Construction. From AC cut off AD = AB.
Join BD.
Proof. In AABD, AB = AD (constr.)
AABD = AADB.
In ABDC ext. AADB > int. ABCD. (Th. 5.)
A AABD > ABCD.
Much more therefore is
Z.ABC > Z.ACB.

244
 INEQUALITIES 245

Theorem 19
(Converse of Theorem 18)
If two angles of a triangle are unequal, the greater
angle has the greater side opposite to it.

Given. In AABC, AABC > AACB.

To -prove. AC > AB.
Proof. If AC is not greater than AB it must either be
equal to AB or less than it.
(1) If AC = AB.
Then AABC = AACB. (Th. 14.)
But this is impossible, since AABC is given greater than
AACB.
AC is not equal to AB.
(2) If AC < AB.
Then AABC < AACB. (Th. 18.)
But this is contrary to what is given.
AC is neither equal to AB nor less than it.
AC > AB.
246 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 20
Of all the straight lines which can be drawn to
a given straight line from a given point without it
the perpendicular is the least.

Fig. 204.

Given. 0 is a point lying without the straight line AB.

Draw OP perpendicular to AB.
Let OQ be any other straight line drawn from 0 to AB.
T0 prove. OP < OQ.
Proof. In Z0PQ, ext. Z.0PB > int. Z.0QP.
But Z.OPQ = Z.0PB (right Z.s}
:. Z.0PQ > Z.OQP.
But in the ZOPQ the greater angle has the greater side
opposite to it (Th. 19).
:. oq > op,
i.e., OP < OQ.
 INEQUALITIES 247

Theorem 21
Any two sides of a triangle are together greater
than the third.

Given. ABC is any triangle.

To prove. Any two of its sides are together greater than
the third; for example,
AB + AC > BC.
Construction. Produce BA to any point E.
From AE cut off AD = AC.
Join DC.
Proof. In AACD, AD = AC (constr.)
AACD = AADC. (Th. 14)
But ABCD > ACD,
ABCD > ABDC,
BD > BC. (Th. 19)
But since AD = AC (constr.)
BD = BA -f- AD
= BA + AC,
BA + AC > BC.
Similarly any other two sides can be proved greater
than the third.
248 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

^Exercise 28
1. A point D is taken inside a triangle ABC, and joined
to B and C. Prove ABDC > ABAC.
2. In the triangle ABC the bisectors of the angles ABC,
ACB meet in 0. If AB is less than AC, prove that OB is
less than OC.
3. AZ) is the median of the AABC drawn from A. Prove
that AD is less than half the sum of AB and AC.
4. In the isosceles AABC, AB = BC. AB is produced
to any point 0. D is any point on the bisector of the
AABC. Prove that CB + OB < CD + OD.
5. AD is the bisector of the angle BAC of the AABC and
it meets BC in 0. Show that if AB > AC, then AAOB >
AAOC.
6. A point 0 is taken within the equilateral AABC such
that OB > OC. Prove AOBA> AOCA.
7. Prove that the sum of the diagonals of a quadrilateral
is greater than half the sum of the sides.
8. ABCD is a quadrilateral in which AB < BC and
ABAD < ABCD. Prove AD > CD.
 SECTION 7
PARALLELOGRAMS
Definition. A ■parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose
opposite sides are parallel.
Theorem 22
(1) The opposite sides and angles of a parallelo­
gram are equal.
(2) Each diagonal bisects the parallelogram.

Given. ABCD is a parallelogram and AC is a diagonal.

To prove. (1) Opposite sides equal, i.e., AB — DC,
AD = BC.
(2) Opposite Zs equal, i.e., AA DC = AABC,
ABAD = ABCD.
(3) The diagonal AC bisects the parallelo­
gram.
Proof. In As ABC, ADC :
(1) ABAC = ADCA {alt. As, AB is parallel to
CD, Th. 8)
(2) AACB = ADAC {alt. As, AD is parallel to
BC, Th. 8)
(3) AC is common to both As.
As ABC, ADC are congruent {Th. 13)
In particular AB = DC, AD = BC.
ZADC = ZABC.
Each A is one half of the parallelogram, in area.
Similarly, it may be shown that ABAD = ABCD, and
that the other diagonal, BD, bisects the parallelogram.
249
 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 23
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each
other.

O
o/
o
Fig. 207.

Given. ABCD is a parallelogram, AC and BD are its

diagonals intersecting at'O.
To prove. AO = OC, BO = OD.
Proof. In As AOD, COB :
(1) AOAD = AOCB {alt. As, Th. 8)
(2) AODA = AOBC {alt. As, Th. 8)
(3) AD = BC {Th. 22)
As AOD, COB are congruent.
In particular AO = OC,
BO = OD.
 PARALLELOGRAMS 251

Theorem 24
(Converse of Theorems 22 and 23)
A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if
(I) its opposite sides are equal,
or (2) its opposite angles are equal,
or (3) its diagonals bisect one another.

Fig. 208.

Part (1) Given. ABCD is a quadrilateral in which

AB = DC, AD = BC.
To prove. ABCD is a parallelogram, i.e., AB
is parallel to CD, AD is parallel to BC.
Construction. Joint BD.
Proof. In As ABD, BCD :
(1) AB = DC (given)
(2) AD — BC (given)
(3) BD is common.
/. As ABD, BCD are congruent (Th. 16)
In particular AADB = ADBC.
But these are alternate angles.
AD is parallel to BC.
Similarly AB is parallel to CD.
ABCD is a parallelogram (Def.)
Part (2). Given AADC — AABC
and ADAB = ABCD.
To prove. ABCD is a parallelogram.
252 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Proof. Denoting the angles of the parallelogram by
LA, LB, LC, LD.
LA + LB + LC + LD = 4 right Ls.
But LA — LC and LB = LD.
Substituting,
2 LA + 2 LB = 4 right Ls.
.'. LA + LB = 2 right Ls.
I.e., AD and BC, being cut by AB,
sum of interior Ls = 2 right Ls.
.’. AD is parallel to BC {Th. 7)
Similarly it may be proved that AB is parallel to DC,
ABCD is a parallelogram {Def.}

Part (3). Given. Diagonals AC, BD bisect one another

at 0, i.e., AO = OC, BO = OD.
To prove. ABCD is a parallelogram.
Proof. In As AOB, COD :
(1) AO =0C.
(2) BO — OD.
(3) LAOB = LCOD {Th. 3)
As AOB, COD are congruent. {Th. 4)
In particular alt. LABO = alt. LODC.
AB is parallel to DC. {Th. 7}
Similarly it may be shown that
AD is parallel to BC.
ABCD Is a parallelogram. {Def.}
 PARALLELOGRAMS 253

Theorem 25
The straight lines which join the ends of two
equal and parallel straight lines towards the same
part are themselves equal and parallel.

Fig. 210.

Given. AB is equal and parallel to CD.

They are joined by the straight lines AC, BD.
To prove. AC is equal and parallel to BD.
Construction. Join BC.
Proof. In As ABC, BCD :
(1) AB = CD (given)
(2) BC is common.
(3) AABC = ABCD (alt. As, Th. 8)
As ABC, BCD are congruent. (Th. 4)
In particular AC = BD
and AACB = ADBC.
AC is parallel to BD. (Th. 7)
254 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 26
A straight line drawn through the middle point
of one side of a triangle and parallel to another
side, bisects the third side.

Given. From P, mid point of AB, a side of the AABC,

PQ is drawn parallel to BC, meeting AC in Q.
To prove. AC is bisected at Q, i.e.,
AQ = QC.
Construction. From C draw CR, parallel to AB to meet
PQ produced at R.
Proof. PR is parallel to BC (given)
CR is parallel to AB (constr.)
PRCB is a parallelogram (def.)
RC = PB — AP (given)
In As APQ, QR.C :
(1) AP = RC. (proved)
(2) AAPQ = AQRC (alt. As, AP is parallel to RC)
(3) APAQ = AQCR (alt. As, AP is parallel to RC)'
As APQ, QRC are congruent (TA. 13)
In particular AQ = QC
i.
e., AC is bisected at Q.
 PARALLELOGRAMS 255

Theorem 27
The straight line joining the middle points of
two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side
and equal to half of it.

Fig. 212.

Given. P and Q are the mid points of AB, AC, sides of

the AABC.
To prove. (1) PQ is parallel to BC.
(2) PQ = IBC.
Construction. Through C draw CR parallel to BP to meet
PQ produced at R.
ProoJ. In As APQ, QRC;
(1) APAQ = AQCR (alt. As, AB is parallel to CR)
(2) AAPQ = AQRC (alt. As, AB is parallel to CR)
(3) AQ = QC (given)
As APQ, QRC are congruent. (Th. 13)
In particular AP = RC and PQ = QR.
But AP—PB.
PB = RC,
and PB is parallel to RC.
.’. PR and BC are equal and parallel (Th. 25)
But PQ = QR.
PQ = {PR
= |BC.
PQ is parallel to BC and equal to half of it.
256 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 28
If three or more parallel straight lines make equal
intercepts on any transversal they also make equal
intercepts on any other transversal.

Fig. 213.

Given. AB, CD, EF are parallel straight lines.

PQ and RS are transversals.
AC = CE.
To prove. Intercepts on RS are equal, i.e., BD = DF.
Construction. Draw AG parallel to BD.
Draw CH parallel to DF.
Proof. Quads. AGDB, CHFD are parallelograms
(gwen and constr.}
AG = BD, CH = DF.
Since AG and CH are both parallel to RS.
they are parallel to one another (Th. 9)
in As ACG, CEH :
(1) AC = CE (given)
(2) /ACG = /.CEH (corr. /s, Th. 8)
(3) /CAG = LECH (AG is parallel to CH, Th. 8)
As ACG, CEH are congruent. {Th. 13)
In particular AG = CH.
But AG = BD, and CH = DF.
BD = DF.
 PARALLELOGRAMS 257

•Exercise 29
1. ABCD is a parallelogram. From A and B perpen­
diculars AP, BQ are drawn to meet CD or CD produced.
Prove AP — BQ.
2. E and F are the mid points of AB and AC, two sides
of the AABC. P is any point on BC. AP cuts EF at Q.
Prove that AQ = PQ.
3. E and F are the mid points of the sides AB and CD
respectively of the parallelogram ABCD. Prove that
AECF is a parallelogram.
4. ABCD is a parallelogram and its diagonals intersect
at O. Through 0 a straight line is drawn cutting AB in
P and CD in Q. Prove that OP = OQ.
5. Prove that in any quadrilateral the straight lines
joining the mid points of the sides form a parallelogram.
6. ABCD is a parallelogram. The bisectors of the angles
A and C meet the diagonal BD in P and Q respectively.
Prove that the As APB, CQD are congruent.
7. In the quadrilateral ABCD, AB = CD; also AABC =
ABCD. Prove that AD and BC are parallel.
8. A AABC is right-angled at B. An equilateral ABCD
is constructed on BC. Prove that the straight line drawn
from D parallel to AB, bisects AC.
 SECTION 8
AREAS
Area of a rectangle. In Part I, § 91, the rule for finding
the area of a rectangle was determined. This is assumed
as fundamental in the theorems which follow, as also the
meaning of altitude.
Theorem 29
The area of a parallelogram is equal to that of a
rectangle having the same base, and the same alti­
tude, or between the same parallels.

Fig. 214.
Given. The rectangle ABCD and the parallelogram EBCF
have the same base BC and are between the same parallels
AF, BC, i.e., they have the same altitude which is equal to
AB or DC. (There are two cases as shown by the two figures.)
To prove. Area of parallelogram EBCF = area of rect.
ABCD.
Proof. In As ABE, DCF :
(1) LAEB = LDFC (corr. Zs, BE, CF parallel)
(2) A.BAE = Z-CDF {corr. Ls, AB, DC parallel)
(3) AB — DC {opp- sides of rectangle)
As ABE, DCF are congruent.
Considering the whole figure ABCF, if the equal As
258
 AREAS 259

ABE, CDF are subtracted in turn from it, the remaining

figures must be equal
i.e., parallelogram EBCF = rect. ABCD.
Corollary (I). The area of a parallelogram is measured
by the product of the measures of the lengths of Its base and
its altitude.
Corollary (2). Parallelograms on equal bases and of equal
altitudes are equal in area, the area of each being measured
as stated in Cor. (I).
Corollary (3). Parallelograms on the same base and
between the same parallels, or having equal altitudes, are
equal in area.
260 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 30
The area of a triangle is equal to one half of the
area of a rectangle on the same base and between
the same parallels, or, having the same altitude.

Fig. 215.

Given. The EABC and rect. ABDE are on the same base
AB and he between the same parallels AB and EC.
To prove. Area of A = | area of rectangle.
Construction. From A draw AF parallel to BC.
Proof. Since FC is parallel to AB (given)
and AF is parallel to BC (constr.)
ABCF is a parallelogram and AC is a diagonal.
EABC = i parallelogram ABCF (Th. 22)
But parallelogram ABCF = rect. ABDE in area (Th. 29)
AABC = | rect. ABDE.
Corollary I. The area of a triangle is equal to one half
the product of the measures of its base and altitude,
or . Area = | (base X altitude).
Corollary 2. Triangles on the same base, or on equal
bases and haying the same altitude are equal in area.
Corollary 3. If triangles with the same area have the
same or equal bases, their altitudes are equal.
 AREAS 261

Theorem 31
Triangles of equal area, which stand on equal
bases, in the same straight line, and on the same
side of it, are between the same parallels.

Given. ABC, DEF are As of the same area, standing on

equal bases BC, EF, in the same straight line, PQ.
Join AD.
To -prove. AD is parallel to PQ.
Construction. Draw AG, DH perpendicular to PQ.
Proof. Since As ABC, DEF have equal areas and stand
on equal bases.
.'. their altitudes are equal {Th. 30, Cor. 3)
i.e., AG = DH.
Since AG and DH are perpendicular to PQ.
.'. AG is parallel to DH,
i.e., AG and DH are equal and parallel.
;. AD and PQ are parallel {Th. 25)
262 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 32
If a triangle and a parallelogram stand on the
same base and are between the same parallels,
the area of the triangle is half that of the parallelo­
gram.
DC E

A B
Fig. 217.

Given. Parallelogram ABCD and LABE stand on the

same base AB and are between the same parallels AB and
DE.
To prove. Area of LABE = half the area of parallelo­
gram ABCD.
Construction. Join AC.
Proof. AB and DE are parallels.
area of LACB — area of LAEB (Th. 30, Cor. 2)
But LACB = | parallelogram ABCD. (Th. 22)
AABE = | parallelogram ABCD.
 AREAS 263

Construction No. 16. To construct a triangle

equal in area to a given quadrilateral.
Given. ABCD is a quad­
rilateral.
It is required to construct
a triangle equal in area to it.
Construction. Join AC.
From D draw DP parallel
to AC and meeting BA pro­
duced in P.
Join PC.
PCB is the required tri­
angle.
Proof. AACD = PAC in area {Th. 30, Cor. 2)
To each add the AACB.
APCB — quad. ABCD.
Corollary. The effect of the above construction is to
reduce the number of sides of the given figure by one.
This process can be extended to rectilineal figures of any
number of sides.

For example the pentagon ABCDE (Fig. 219), by the same

method as that given above can be reduced to an equivalent
quad. PBCD.
Then repeating the process, at the next stage this quadri­
lateral is reduced to the equivalent triangle, PDQ.
264 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

•Exercise 30
1. ABCD is a parallelogram. Through a point 0 on the
diagonal AC, EOG and FOH are drawn parallel to AB and
BC, respectively, E being on AD and F on AB. Prove
that the parallelograms EOHD, FOGB are equal in area.
Note.—These parallelograms are called the “ complements ” of the
parallelograms about the diagonal AC.
2 Show that a median of a triangle divides it into two
triangles which are equal in area.
3. In a quadrilateral ABCD, 0 is the mid point of AC.
Show that the quadrilaterals ABOD, CBOD are equal in
area.
4. 0 is any point on the diagonal BD of the parallelogram
ABCD. Prove that EOAB — txOBC.
5. Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram divide it
into four triangles of equal area.
6. ABCD is a parallelogram. A straight line is drawn
parallel to the diagonal BD, and cutting BC and CD in
P and Q. Prove that the As ABP, ADQ are equal in area.
7. ABCD is a parallelogram in which AB and CD are the
longer pair of sides. Show how to construct on AB a
rhombus equal in area to the parallelogram.
8. The sides AB and BC of the parallelogram ABCD are
produced to X and Y respectively. Prove that ECDX =
EADY in area.
9. Construct a regular hexagon of 3 cm side. Then con­
struct a triangle equal in area to it. Find the areas of the
two figures separately and so check your working.
 SECTION 9
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES

Theorem 33
(Theorem of Pythagoras)
The area of the square on the hypotenuse of a
right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the
areas of the squares on the two sides which contain
the right angle (see § 99).

Fig. 220.

Given. ABC is a right-angled triangle, A A the right angle.

To prove. Sq. on BC = sq. on AB + sq. on AC.
Construction. On BC, AC and AB construct the squares
BCDE, ACGF, ABHK.
Draw ALM parallel to BE and CD, meeting
BC in L, and DE in M.
Join AE and CH.
265
266 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Proof.
Stef 1. Zs BAC and BAK are right Zs.
KA and AC are in the same straight line.
Similarly BA and AF are in the same straight line.
Stef 2. AHBA = AEBC (right As)
Add AABC to each.
.-. AHBC = AABE.
Step 3. In As ABE, HBC :
(1) AABE = AHBC (proved above)
(2) AB = HB (sides of square)
(3) BE = BC (sides of square)
As ABE, HBC are congruent (Th. 4)
Step 4. The square ABHK and EHBC are on the
same base, HB, and between same parallels, HB
and KC.
’. area of sq. ABHK — twice area of AHBC
(Th. 32)
Also rectangle BEML and EABE are on the same
base BE and between same parallels BE and AM.
area of rect. BEML — twice area of AABE
(Th. 32)
Step 5. But EHBC = EABE.
:. rect. BEML = sq. ABHK.
Similarly by joining AD and BG it may be shown
that
rect. LCDM = sq. ACGF.
Step 6.
rect. BEML -f- rect. LCDM — sq. ABHK 4- sq. ACGF,
i.e., sq. BCDE == sq. ABHK + sq. ACGF
or sq. on BC = sq. on AB -j- sq. on AC.
 RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES 267

Theorem 34
(Converse of Theorem 33)
If the square on one side of a triangle is equal to
the sum of the squares on the other two sides,
then the angle contained by these two sides is a
right angle.

Given. ABC is a triangle in which

AB2 = AC2 + CB2.
To prove. AACB is a right angle.
Construction. Construct a APQR such that PQ = AC,
APQR is a right angle, QR = BC.
Proof. Since APQR is a right angle
PR2 = PQ* + QR2 (Th. 33)
Since PQ = AC, and QR = BC
PR2 = AC2 + BC2,
but AB2 = AC2 + BC2 (given),
PR2 = AB2
and PR = AB.
In As ABC, PQR:
(1) PR = AB (proved)
(2) PQ = AC (constr.)
(3) QR — BC (constr.)
;. As ABC, PQR are congruent (TA. 16)
In particular AACB = APQR.
But APQR is a right angle (constr.)
AACB is a right angle.
268 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

^Exercise 31
1. Prove that the sum of the squares on the sides of a
rectangle is equal to the sum of the squares on its diagonals.
2. ABC is any triangle and AD is the perpendicular
drawn from A to BC.
Prove that AB2 — BD2 = AC2 — DC2.
3. ABC is a right-angled triangle with C the right angle.
On AC and CB the squares AQPC, CRSB are constructed.
Join BQ, AS. Prove that BQ2 - AS2 = AC2 - BC2.
4. If ABCD is a rhombus prove that
AC2 + BD2 = 4AB2.
5. ABCD and PQRS are two squares. Show how to
construct a square which is equal to the difference of their
areas.
6. B is the right angle in a right-angled triangle ABC.
Any point P is taken on BC. Prove that
AP2 + BC2 = BP2 + AC2.
7. On a straight line BC two equilateral As ABC, DBC
are constructed on opposite sides of BC. Join AD. Prove
that the square on AZ) is equal to three times the square
on BC.
8. Any point 0 is taken within a rectangle ABCD. Prove
that
OA2 + OC2 = OB2 J- OD2.
 SECTION 10
EXTENSIONS OF THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS
Theorem 35
Note.—Before proceeding to the two following theorems the
student is advised to revise Part I, § 152. The proofs given below
are algebraical.
In an obtuse-angled triangle the square on the
side opposite to the obtuse angle is equal to the
sum of the squares on the sides containing the obtuse
angle plus twice the rectangle contained by either
of these sides and the projection on it of the other.
Given. ABC is a tri­
angle with an obtuse angle
at C.
AD is, the perpendicular
from A to BC produced.
Let AD —h, and CD —p.
Then p is the projection
of AC upon BC (§ 30)
Let a, b, c, in units of
length, represent the sides
of the triangle (§ 44)
To prove. AB2 = AC2 + BC2 + 2BC . CD
or c2 = a2 + b2 + 2ap.
Proof. BD = BC + CD — a + p.
Since ABD is a right-angled triangle
AB2 = BD2 + AD2 (Th. 33)
Substituting c2 = (a + p)2 + h2.
By algebra (a + p)2 = a2 + ‘lap + p2 (See also Appen­
dix A)
c2 = a2 + 2ap + p2 + h2.
But AC2 = CD2 + AD2 (Th. 33)
or b2 = p2 + h2.
Substituting c2 = a2 lap + b2
or c2 = a2 + b2 + 2ap.
Expressing this in geometric form
AB2 = AC2 + BC2 4- 2BC . CD.
26.9
270 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 36
In any triangle the square on the side opposite
to an acute angle is equal to the sum of the squares
on the sides containing that acute angle less twice
the rectangle contained by one of those sides and
the projection on it of the other.

Fig. 223.

Given. In any triangle there are at least two acute

angles; consequently there are two cases (shown in Fig. 223
(1) and (2)):
(1) when all the angles are acute;
(2) when one angle is obtuse.
Draw AD (denoted by h) perpendicular to BC or BC
produced in (2).
Then CD (denoted by />) is the projection of AC on BC,
or BC produced.
In Fig. 223 (1) BD = a - />; in Fig. 223 (2) BD = p - a.
To prove. AB2 = AC2 + BC2 - 2BC . CD
or c2 — a2 + b2 — 2ap.
Proof. Considering the right-angled t\ABD.
AB2 = BD2 + AD2. {Th. 33)
in (1) c2 = (a — p)2 + h2
In (2) c2 = (p — a)2 + h2
 EXTENSIONS OF THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS 271
From algebra (a — />)2 = (p — a)2
~ a2 4- p2 — 2ap (See Appen­
dix A)
in (1) and (2) c2 = a2 — 2ap 4- p2 4- h2.
But from AADC
p2 -\-h2 = b2 (Th. 33)
on substitution c2 = a2 + b2 — lap
or in geometric form AB2 = AC2 + BC2 — 2 . BC . CD.

• Exercise 32
1. Prove that the sum of the squares on two sides of a
triangle is equal to twice the sum of the square on half the
third side and twice the square on the median which bisects
that side. (Apollonius’ Theorem.)
(Hint. Drop a perpendicular to the third side from the
opposite vertex and use Theorems 35 and 36.)
2. ABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB = AC. CD
is the perpendicular drawn from C to the opposite side.
Prove that
BC2 = 2AB . BD.
3. ABC is an acute-angled triangle and BE, CF are alti­
tudes. Prove that
AF . AB = AE . AC.
4. In the parallelogram ABCD, prove that
AC2 + BD2 = 2AB2 4- 2BC2.
5. In a AABC, D is the mid point of BC. Find the
length of the median AD when AB = 4 cm, BC = 5 cm, and
AC = 6 cm. (Ans. 4-38 cm, approx.)
(Hint. Use the Theorem of Apollonius, mentioned
above.)
 SECTION II
CHORDS OF CIRCLES
Theorem 37
(1) The straight line which joins the centre of a
circle to the middle point of a chord (which is not
a diameter) is perpendicular to the chord.
Conversely :
(2) The straight line drawn from the centre of
a circle perpendicular to a chord, bisects the chord.
(1) Given. 0 is the centre and
AB a. chord of a circle.
0 is joined to D the centre of AB.
To prove. OD is perpendicular to
AB.
Construction. Join OA, OB.
Proof. In As OAD, OBD:
(1) OA — OB (radii)
(2) AD = DB (given)
(3) OD is common.
.’. As OAD, OBD are congruent (Th. 16)
In particular LODA — LODB.
.'. OD is perpendicular to AB.
Converse:
(2) Given. OD is perpendicular to AB.
To prove. AB is bisected at D, i.e., AD = DB.
Proof. In As OAD, OBD:
(1) OA = OB (radii)
(2) OD is common.
(3) Zs ODA, ODB are right Zs.
.'. As OAD, OBD are congruent. (Th. 17)
In particular AD = DB.
Corollary. The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes
through the centre of the circle.
272
 CHORDS OF CIRCLES 273

Theorem 38
One circle and one only can be drawn through
three points not in the same straight line.

Fig. 225.

Given. A, B and C are three points not in the same

straight line.
To prove. One circle and one only can pass through A,
B and C.
Construction. Join AB and BC.
Draw the perpendicular bisectors of these straight lines,
i.e., PE and QD.
Since A, B, C are not in the same straight line, the per­
pendicular bisectors of AB and BC are not parallel and
therefore must meet.
Let them meet at 0.
Proof. Since PE is the perpendicular bisector of BC, all
points equidistant from B and C lie on it. (Proof as in § 70.)
Similarly all points equidistant from A and B be on the
perpendicular bisector QD.
0 is a point, and the only point in which these per­
pendicular bisectors intersect.
I.e., 0 is a point, and the only point which is equidistant
from A,B and C.
.'. 0 is the centre of a circle, radius OB, which will pass
through the points A, B and C. Also there is no other
circle which passes through these points.
274 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 39
(1) Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from
the centre.
Conversely:
(2) Chords which are equidistant from the centre
of a circle are equal.

(1) Given. AB, DE are equal chords of a circle ABC,

centre 0.
OP, OQ are perpendiculars on the chords from 0 and
therefore are the distances of the chords from 0.
To prove. OP — OQ.
Construction. Join OA, OE.
Proof. EQ = ^ED and AP = ±AB (Th. 37)
and AB = DE (given)
.-. EQ=AP.
In AsOAP.OEQ:
(1) OE = OA (radii)
(2) EQ — AP (-proved)
(3) A.OQE = COPA (right Zs)
/. As OAP, OEQ are congruent (Th. 17)
In particular OP = OQ,
i.e., the chords are equidistant from the centre.
 CHORDS OF CIRCLES 275
Converse:
(2) Given. OP = OQ.
To prove. AB = DE.
Proof. In AsOAP, OEQ:
(1) OE = OA (radii)
(2) OP = OQ (given)
(3) EOQE = AOPA (right As)
As OAP, OEQ are congruent. (Th. 17)
:. EQ = AP.
But ED = 2EQ and AB = 2AP.
AB = ED.

{^Exercise 33
1. OA and OB are two chords of a circle which make
equal angles with the straight line joining 0 to the centre.
Prove that the chords are equal.
2. Show how to construct in a given circle a chord AB
which passes through a given point 0 within the circle and
is bisected at the point.
3. From a point A on the circumference of a circle equal
chords AB and AC are drawn. If 0 be the centre of the
circle prove AOAB — AOAC.
4. Two circles intersect at P and Q. Prove that the
straight line joining the centres of the circles bisects the
common chord PQ at right angles.
5. P is a point on a chord AB of a circle. Show how to
draw through P a chord equal to AB.
6. Two circles intersect at P and Q. Through these
points parallel straight lines APC, BQD are drawn to meet
the circles in A, B, C, D. Prove that AC = BD.
7. Two concentric circles are cut by a chord ABCD which
intersects the outer circle in A and D and the inner in B
and C. Prove that AB — CD.
 SECTION 12
ANGLE PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE
Theorem 40
The angle which an arc of a circle subtends at
the centre is twice that which it subtends at any
point on the remaining part of the circumference
of the arc.

Fig. 227.

Given. AB is an arc of the circle A BP.

LAOB is the angle subtended by the arc at the centre 0.
LAPB is the angle subtended by the arc at P any point
on the remaining part of the circumference.
To prove. LAOB = twice LAPB.
There are three cases :
(1) When centre 0 lies within the LAPB.
(2) When centre 0 lies without the LAPB.
(3) When LAOB is a reflex angle and LAPB is
obtuse.
Construction. Join PO and produce it to meet the circum­
ference at Q.
Proof.
Case 1. In LOAP, OA =OP\ LOAP = LOPA.
But ext. LAOQ = LOAP + LOPA
(Th. 10, note)
LAOQ = twice LOPA . . (I)
276
 ANGLE PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE 277
Similarly from &OPB,
ABOQ = twice AOPB . . (II)
Adding (I) and (II).
AAOQ + ABOQ = twice {AOPA + AOPB).
ZAOB = twice ZAPB.
Case 2. With the same reasoning as above, but
subtracting I from II.
ABOQ — AAOQ = twice AOPB — twice AOPA.
ZAOB = twice ZAPB.
Case 3. As before.
AAOQ = twice AAPQ.
ABOQ = twice ABPQ.
Adding Reflex ZAOB = twice ZAPB.

Theorem 41
Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.

Given. The angles may be acute as in (1) or obtuse as

in (2). The proof below applies to both cases.
In the circle ABCD, centre 0, the arc APB subtends any
two angles in the segment, viz., ACB, ADB.
To prove. AACB = AADB.
Construction. Join OA, OB.
Proof. AAOB = twice AADB {Th. 40)
Also AAOB = twice AACB {Th. 40}
ZADB = ZACB.
278 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 42
(Converse of Theorem 41)
If a straight line subtends equal angles at two
points on the same side of it, then these two points
and the points at the extremities of the line lie on
a circle.

Fig. 229.

Given. AB is a straight line and P and Q are two points

on the same side of it such that AAPB — AAQB.
To prove. A, B, Q, P lie on the circumference of a circle,
i.e., the points are cyclic.
Construction. One of the angles BAP, BAQ must be
greater than the other.
Let ABAP be > ABAQ.
Then AQ will lie within the ABAP.
Draw the circle which passes through A, B and P (Th. 38).
Then, since AQ lies within the angle BAP, the circle must
cut AQ (Fig. 229 (1)) or AQ produced (Fig. 229 (2)) at some
point R.
Join BR.
Proof. Because A, P, R, B are cyclic, in either case
and As APB, ARB are in the same segment.
AAPB = AARB (Th. 41)
But AAPB = AAQB (given}
A . AARB = AAQB.
 ANGLE PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE 279
This is impossible since one of the angles is the exterior
and the other the interior angle of the LBRQ.
the assumption that the circle does not pass through
Q has led to an absurdity and cannot be true.
/\, B, P and Q lie on the circumference of a circle.

Theorem 43
The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.

Given. AB is a diameter of the circle ACB, 0 is the centre

and ACB any angle in the semi-circle.
To prove. AACB is a right angle.
Construction. Join OC.
Proof. OA — OC (radii of circle, ACB)
LOAC = LOCA (Th. 14)
Also OB = OC
LOBC = LOCB
LOAC + LOBC = LOCA + LOCB
= LACB.
But, since the angles of LACB equal 2 right Ls.
LACB = one-half of two right Ls.
I.e., Lf\C& is a right L.
Note.—See also Part I, § 135.
z8o TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 44
The sum of the opposite angles of a quadrilateral
inscribed in a circle is equal to two right angles,
i.e., the opposite angles are supplementary.

Fig. 231.

Given. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, i.e., it is in­

scribed in the circle ABCD, centre 0.
To prove. ABCD + ABAD = 2 right As.
and AABC + AADC — 2 right As.
Construction. Join 0 to B and D.
Proof. ABOD(x°) = twice ABCD (Th. 40)
reflex AB0D(y°) = twice ABAD (Th. 40)
.'. ABOD + reflex ABOD = twice (ABCD + ABAD).
But
ABOD + reflex ABOD — 4 right As.
Z.BCD + BAD = 2 right As.
Similarly by joining OA, OC it may be proved that
A ABC J- ZADC = 2 right As.
Corollary. If a side of cyclic quadrilateral be produced,
the exterior angle so formed is equal to the interior opposite
angle.
 ANGLE PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE 281

Theorem 45
(Converse of Theorem 44)
If the sum of a pair of opposite angles of a quadri­
lateral is equal to two right angles, i.e., the angles
are supplementary, the quadrilateral is cyclic.

Given. ABCD is a quadrilateral in which a pair of op­

posite Zs, BAD, BCD is equal to two right angles.
To frove. The quadrilateral ABCD is cyclic.
Proof. A circle can be described to pass through the
three points B, A, D (Th. 38).
If this does not pass through C the circumference must
cut DC, or DC produced at some point P.
Join BP.
ABPD is a cyclic quadrilateral.
ABPD is supplementary to ABAD (Th. 45)
But ABCP is supplementary to ABAD (given)
.-. ABCP = ABPD,
i.e., the exterior angle of the ABCP is equal to the interior
opposite angle.
But this is impossible (Th. 5)
.'. the assumption that the circle which passes through
B, A, D does not pass through C has led to an absurdity.
.'. the circle which passes through B, A, D must pass
through C,
i.e., quad. ABCD is cyclic.
Note.—If the circle cuts DC produced, the fig. will be as in Fig,
229 (2) and the proof is similar to that above.
282 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 46
In equal circles, or in the same circle, if two arcs
subtend equal angles
(I) at the centre,
or (2) at the circumferences,
they are equal.

Given. Two circles of equal radii APBG, CQDH, centres

E and F having
(1) equal angles AEB,CFD at the centre
or (2) equal angles APB, CQD at the circumference.
To prove. The arcs on which these angles stand, viz.,
AGB, GELD are equal.
Proof. (1) Apply the circle APB to the circle CQD so
that the centre E falls on the centre F and AE along CF.
Since Z.AEB = LCFD, EB will he along FD. Also,
the radii are equal.
A must fall on C and B on D.
the arc AGB must coincide with the arc CHD,
i.e., arc AGB = arc CHD.
(2) When angles at the circumference APB, CQD are
given equal.
Then, since angles at the centre are double those at the
circumference.
AAEB = Z.CFD.
by the first part of the proof
arc AGB = arc CHD.
 ANGLE PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE 283

Theorem 47
{Converse of Theorem 46)
In equal circles, or the same circle, if two arcs
are equal; they subtend equal angles at the centre
and at the circumference.

Fig. 234.

Given. Two equal circles APBG, CQDH, centres E and

F, in which
arc AGE = arc CHD.
To prove. (1) AAEB = ACFD.
(2) Z.APB = Z.CQP.
Proof. (1) Apply the circle APBG to circle CQDH, so
that E falls on F, and EA lies along FC.
Since radii of the circle are equal. A falls on C.
Also, since arc AGB = arc CHD.
circumferences coincide.
B falls on D, and EB coincides with FD., i.e., A.AEB
coincides with ACFD.
ZAEB = ZCFD.
(2) To prove Zs APB, CQD equal.
Now LAPB = ILAEB {Th. 40)
and LCQD = %LCFD {Th. 40)
But /-AEB — /-CFD {proved above}
ZAPB = ZCQD.
284 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

♦Exercise 34
1. Prove that any parallelogram which is inscribed in a
circle is a rectangle.
2. From a point 0 without a circle two straight lines
OAB, OCD are drawn cutting the circumference in A, B,
C, D. Prove AOAD = AOCB.
3. A AABC is inscribed in a circle. 0, the centre of the
circle, is joined to D, the mid point of BC. Prove that
ABOD = ABAC.
4. In a AABC, perpendiculars AD and BE are drawn to
the opposite sides. If 0 be the point of intersection, prove
that ADOC = ADEC.
5. AB is a fixed straight line and P and Q are fixed points
without it. Find a point on AB at which the straight line
PQ subtends a right angle.
6. Two circles intersect at A and B. From B two
diameters BX and BY are drawn cutting the circles at X
and Y. Prove that XAY is a straight line.
7. A AABC is inscribed in a circle, centre 0. The straight
line which bisects the angle AOC, when produced, meets
BC at D. Prove that AODB is a cyclic quadrilateral.
8. In the AABC, AD is drawn perpendicular to BC.
AE is a diameter of the circle ABC. Prove that the
As ABD, AEC are equiangular.
 SECTION 13
TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE
Definition. A tangent to a circle is a straight line which
meets the circle at one point, but being produced, in either
direction, does not meet it again (see Chap. 19, Part I).

Theorem 48
(1) The straight line which is drawn per­
pendicular to a radius of a circle at the point yvhere
it meets the circumference is a tangent to the circle.
Conversely:
(2) A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the
radius drawn through the point of contact.

(1) Given. 0 is the centre of a circle and OA is a radius.

The straight line PQ is perpendicular to OA AA.
To prove. PQ is a tangent to the circle.
Proof. Let B be any other point on PQ. Join OB.
In &OAB, AOAB is a right angle.
.'. AOBA is less than a right angle.
OB > OA (Th. 18)
.*. B lies outside the circle.
Similarly it may be shown that any other point on PQ
except A lies outside the circle.
285
286 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
PQ meets the circumference at A and being produced
does not cut it, i.e., it does not meet it at another point.
PQ is a tangent to the circle (Def.}
Converse:
(2) Given. PQ is a tangent to the circle at A.
To prove. PQ is perpendicular to OA.
Proof. If OA is not perpendicular to PQ draw OB per­
pendicular to it.
Then LOBA is a right angle.
LOAB is less than a right angle.
OB is less than OA.
But OA is a radius.
B lies within the circle.
/. AB if produced must cut the circle again.
But this is impossible since PQ is a tangent (given)
OA must be perpendicular to PQ.
Corollary I. The perpendicular to a tangent at its point
of contact with the circumference passes through the centre.
Corollary 2. At any point on the circumference of a
circle, one, and only one, tangent can be drawn.
 TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE 287

Theorem 49
Common tangent
Definition. For definitions see Part I, § 141.
If two circles touch one another the straight line
joining their centres, produced if necessary, passes
through their point of contact.

Given. Two circles, centres A and B touch at P.

The contact may be external as in Fig. 236 (a) or internal
as in Fig. 236 (6).
To prove. A, P and B are in the same straight line.
Construction. Draw the common tangent QT.
Since the circles touch they have a common tangent.
Proof. AP and BP are each perpendicular to QT (Th. 48)
/. Zs QPA, QPB are right angles.
AP and PB are in the same straight line (Th. 2)
i.e., A, P and B are in the same straight line.
288 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 50
If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an
external point.
(1) The tangents are equal.
(2) They subtend equal angles at the centre
of the circle.
(3) They make equal angles with the straight
line joining the external point to the centre.

Given. From a point T without the circle, centre 0,

tangents TA, TB are drawn, touching the circle at A
and B.
OA, OB, OT are joined.
Toprove. (1) TA = TB
(2) AAOT = A.B0T {angles subtended at O)
(3) AATO = LBTO.
Proof. In As TAO, TBO:
(1) OB = OA {radii)
(2) OT is common
(3) AOAT = AOBT {right As, Th. 48)
As TAO, TBO are congruent {Th. 17)
In particular:
(1) TA = TB.
(2) ZAOT = Z.BOT.
(3) ZATO = ZBTO.
 TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE 289

Theorem 51
If a straight line touches a circle and, from the
point of contact, a chord is drawn, the angles which
the chord makes with the tangent are equal to the
angles in the alternate segments of the circle.

Given. PQ is a tangent to the circle ABC at A ; AB is

any chord.
To prove. (1) ABAQ = angle in alternate segment ABC.
(2) ABAP = angle in alternate segment ADB.
Construction. Draw the diameter AOC, . 0 being the
centre.
Take any point D on arc AB.
Join CB, BD, DA.
Proof. AACB = any other angle in segment ABC
(Th. 41)
AADB = any other angle in segment ABD.
It is only necessary therefore to prove:
ABAQ = AACB.
ABAP = AADB.
(1) AABC is right angled (Th. 43)
ABCA J- ABAC — a right A (Th. 10, Cor.)
but ABAQ + ABAC = a right A. (Th. 48)
.-. ABAQ = ABCA.
290 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
/. ZBAQ = angle in alternate segment ABC.
(2) ADBC is a cyclic quadrilateral.
AADB + AACB = 2 right Zs {Th. 44)
also APAB + ABAQ — 2 right Zs.
APAB 4- ABAQ = AADB + AACB.
But AACB = ABAQ ^proved above)
Subtracting these equal angles
APAB = AADB
e.,
i. ZPAB = angle in alternate segment ADB.
 TANGENT CONSTRUCTIONS

Construction No. 17
To construct an exterior common tangent to
two circles of unequal radii.

Given. Two circles, centres 0 and P, the circle with 0

as centre having the larger radius.
Required. To draw an exterior tangent to the circles.
Construction. Describe a circle, with centre 0, and radius
OQ equal to the difference of the two radii.
From P draw a tangent PQ to that circle.
Join OQ and produce it to meet the outer
circle in T.
From P draw PS parallel to OT, meeting
the circumference at S.
Join ST.
To prove. ST is a common tangent to the two circles.
Proof. Thus OQ = OT - PS
i.e., OQ + PS = OT
but OQ + QT = OT
PS = QT
Also PS is parallel to QT.
PQTS is a parallelogram (Th. 25)
But Z-PQT is a right Z.
Zs QTS and PST are right Zs.
291
292 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
I.e., ST is perpendicular to radii of the two circles at
their extremities.
ST is a tangent to both circles. (Th. 48)
Note.—Since two tangents can be drawn from P to the smaller
circle, a second tangent to both circles may be constructed in the
same way, on the other side as shown in Fig. 239.

Construction No. 18
To construct an interior common tangent to
two circles.

Given. Two circles, centres 0 and P.

Required. To draw an interior tangent to these two
circles.
Construction. With centre 0 and radius equal to the
sum of the two radii draw a circle.
From P draw a tangent, PQ, to this circle.
Join OQ, cutting the inner circle at T.
From P draw PS parallel to OQ.
Join ST.
ST is the required tangent.
The proof is similar to that of the exterior common
tangent, Constr. No. 17, and two solutions are possible as
shown in Fig. 240.
 TANGENT CONSTRUCTIONS 293
Construction No. 19
On a given straight line to construct a segment
of a circle to contain a given angle.

Fig. 241.

Given. AB is the given straight line and P the given

angle.
Construction. At A construct the ABAC equal to P.
From A draw AE perpendicular to AC.
Draw DF the perpendicular bisector of
AB, cutting AE at 0.
With centre 0 and radius OA describe
the circle AGBH.
Then the segment AHB is the segment
required.
Proof. Since 0 lies on the perpendicular bisector of AB
OB=OA. (Th. 38)
.'. the circle passes through B, and AB is a chord of the
circle.
Since AOAC is a right angle, AC is a tangent to the
circle.
.'. ACAB — the angle in the alternate segment AHB
(Th. 51)
but ACAB = Z_P. (Constr.)
/. the segment AHB is the segment required.
294 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

>Exercise 35
1. The four sides of a quadrilateral ABCD are tangential
to a circle. Prove that AB + CD = BC + AD.
2. The four sides of a parallelogram are tangential to a
circle. Prove that all the four sides are equal.
3. Show how to draw two tangents to a circle so that they
may contain a given angle.
4. A chord AC of a circle ABC is produced to P. From
P a tangent PB is drawn. Prove APCB = AABP.
5. Two circles, centres A and B, touch one another.at C.
Through C a straight line PCQ is drawn cutting the circles
at P and Q. Prove that the radii AP and BQ are parallel.
6. Show how to draw a circle which shall touch a given
circle and a given straight line.
7. Tangents to a circle are drawn at the ends of a diameter
AB. Another tangent is drawn to cut these at C and D.
Prove that CD = AC + BD.
8. Two tangents, OA and OB, to a circle are at right angles
to one another. AC is any chord of the circle and BD is
drawn perpendicular to it. Prove that BD — CD.
9. From a point T without a circle, centre 0, tangents
TP and TQ are drawn touching the circle at P and Q. OP
is produced to meet at R the straight line TR which is per­
pendicular to QT. Prove OR — RT.
10. Two circles touch internally at A. A chord BC of
the larger circle is drawn to touch the inner circle at D.
Prove that ABAD — ACAD.
 SECTION 14
CONCURRENCIES CONNECTED WITH A
TRIANGLE
I. Perpendicular bisectors of the sides

Theorem 52
The perpendicular bisectors of the three sides
of a triangle are concurrent (see Part I, § 119).

Fig. 242.
Given. OD and OE are the perpendicular bisectors of
the sides BC and CA of the TABC, and they intersect at 0.
Let F be the mid point of AB. Join OF.
Toprove. OF is perpendicular to AB.
Proof. In As BDO, CDO:
(1) BD = DC (given}
(2) OD is common.
(3) Z.ODB = A.ODC (given)
As BDO, CDO are congruent.
In particular OB = OC.
Similarly from the As AEO, CEO, it may be proved
that OC = OA
but OC = OB (proved)
OA = OB.
295
296 TEAtH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

In As AOF, BOF:
(1) OA = OB {proved)
(2) OF is common.
(3) AF — BF (constr.)
As are congruent.
In particular Z.OFA = Z.OFB.
OF is perpendicular to AB.,
the three perpendicular bisectors of the sides meet
In O.
Note.—Since OA = OB = OC, O is the centre of the circumscribing
circle of the AABC (see also Part I, § 49).
 CONCURRENCIES 297
2. Bisectors of the angles
Theorem 53
The bisectors of the three angles of a triangle
are concurrent.

Fig. 243.
Given. OB and OC are the bisectors of the Z.s ABC,
ACB of LABC.
Join OA.
To prove. OA bisects the angle BA C.
Construction. Draw OD, OE, OF perpendicular to BC,
CA and AB, respectively.
Proof, in As ODC, OEC:
(1) LOCD = /-OCE (given)
(2) LODC = LOEC (constr.)
(3) OC is common.
As ODC, OEC are congruent.
In particular OD = OE.
Similarly, As ODB, OFB may be proved congruent, and
OD = OF.
But OD = OE (proved),
/. OE = OF.
In As AOE, AOF:
(1) OE = OF (proved)
(2) AO. is common.
(3) LAEO = LAFO (right Ls by constr.)
As are congruent.
298 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
In particular ZOAE = ZOAF.
/. OA is the bisector of ZB AC.
The inscribed and escribed circles of a triangle
In the above proof OD, OE, OF were proved equal.
Therefore a circle described with 0 as centre, and one of
them as radius will pass through the three points. Also,
since each of them is perpendicular to a side at the extremity
of the line, the three sides are tangential. The circle so
constructed is called the inscribed circle of the triangle.
The whole problem was treated from a different point
of view in § 142.
The escribed circles.
To obtain the inscribed circle the interior angles were

Fig. 244.
 CONCURRENCIES 299
bisected and the bisectors were concurrent. Let us now
construct the bisectors of the exterior angles. Produce
the sides AB and AC through suitable distances to D
and E.
Bisect the exterior Z.s EBC, BCD. Let the bisectors
meet at I±. Draw I±P perpendicular to BC. The length
of this can be proved, as above, to be equal to perpendiculars
drawn from Zx to BE and CD.
If, therefore, a circle be described with Zx as centre, and
IXP as radius it will touch BC, and the other two sides
produced. This circle is an escribed circle. Similar circles
can be described by bisecting other exterior angles and Z2, Z3
are the centres of two other escribed circles. There are
thus three escribed circles to a triangle. It may easily
be proved that AIX bisects the interior angle BAC. Conse­
quently each of the centres Ilt I2, I3 is the intersection of
the bisectors of two exterior angles and the opposite interior
angle.
The student, as an exercise, should prove that ZjZ2,
Z2Z3, I3IV are straight lines and form a triangle.
300 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
3. Medians
Theorem 54
The three medians of a triangle are concurrent.

Given. E and F are the mid points of the sides BC, AC

of the EABC.
The straight lines AE, BF intersect at G.
Join CG and produce it to meet AB at D.
To prove. D is the mid point of AB, i.e., AD = DB.
Construction. Produce CD to H making GH = CG.
Join AH, BH.
Proof. In the EACH, FG joins the mid points of the
sides AC, HC.
FG is parallel to AH {Th. 27)
i.e., GB is parallel to AH.
Similarly from the EBCH, it may be shown that
AG is parallel to BH.
AGBH is a parallelogram.
.-. AD = DB (Th. 23)
Notes. (1) The point G is called the centroid of EABC.
It is the centre of gravity of a triangular
lamina in the form of the EABC
(2) Since GD = iGH.
Then GD = ^CG.
GD = JCD.
Similarly EG — %AE and FG = $BF.
 CONCURRENCIES 301

4. Altitudes
Theorem 55
The perpendiculars drawn from the vertices of a
triangle to the opposite sides are concurrent.

Fig. 246.
Given. In AABC, AE, BF, CD are perpendiculars
drawn from the vertices A, B, C to the opposite sides, i.e.,
they are altitudes drawn from the three vertices.
To prove. AE, BF, CD are concurrent.
Construction. Through the vertices A, B, C draw
straight lines parallel to the opposite sides CB, AC, AB
respectively, to form the AGHK.
Proof. Quadrilateral GACB is a parallelogram (Constr.j
AG = CB (Th. 22)
Similarly ABCK is a parallelogram
and KA = CB
KA = AG.
Since CB and KG are parallel and AE is perpendicular
to CB.
AE is the perpendicular bisector of GK.
302 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Similarly BF and CD are the perpendicular bisectors of
GH and KH respectively.
I.e., AE, BF and CD are the perpendicular bisectors of
the sides of the EGHK.
AE, BF and CD are concurrent (Th. 52)

0Exercise 36
1. Show how to construct a triangle, having given the
lengths of the three medians.
[Hint.—Construct the parallelogram AGBH in Fig. 245.]
2. Construct a triangle, given the middle points of the
sides.
3. Prove that any two medians of a triangle are greater
than the third.
4. The sides AB, AC of a triangle ABC are produced.
Show that the bisectors of the exterior angles at B and C
and the interior angle at A are concurrent.
5. Prove that the perimeter of any triangle is greater
than the sum of the medians.
 SECTION 15
RATIO IN GEOMETRY
Division of a straight line in a given ratio
In Part I, Chap. 20, the meaning of a ratio in connection
with the comparison of the lengths of straight lines was
briefly examined: it was pointed out that by the ratio of
the lengths of two lines is meant the ratio of the numbers
which express the measures of the lengths of the lines in
terms of the same units. If therefore a straight line AB

A------ •----------- *-----*............. ■ ■■ B

(1)

C
A----------------------------------- ■------------------- B
<........... - m----------- >+--- n
(2)
Fig. 247.

(Fig. 247 (1)) be divided into two parts at C and AC contains

5 units of length while BC contains 3 of the same units,
the ratio of the lengths of the two lines is 5 : 3. The whole
line AB contains 5 + 3, i.e., 8 of these units, all of them
equal to one another. Thus if the whole line be divided
into 8 equal parts AC will contain 5 of them while CB
contains 3. This may be expressed in the form
<4C_5
BC ~ 3'
In general, if in Fig. 247 (2) AC contains m units of length
• AC
and BC n units, then the ratio . Again if AB be
BC n °
divided into m + n equal parts, AC will contain m of these
and BC n.
The division of a line in a given ratio may be extended.
Thus, in Fig. 248 (1) the point P is said to divide AB
internally in the ratio AP : PB.
3°3
3o4 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
If the line be produced to any point P (Fig. 250 (2)) the
line AB is said to be divided externally in the ratio AP : PB.
It will be noticed that in each case the segments of the
line are measured from P, the point of division, to the two
ends of the line, A and B.
This division of a. line into m or n equal parts is readily
comprehended when m and n are integers. It is equally so
if m and n are exact decimal fractions. For example if
m = 3'4 and n = 1’3, so that m + n = 4’7, we may express
the ratio 3-4 : 1'3 in the equivalent form of 34 :13. Thus
P
A--------------- - '■ ........ B
0)

Fig. 248.
the lines may be divided in this ratio as above, but the
units will be each one-tenth of those previously employed.
The reasoning remains the same.
Incommensurables. But cases arise when it is not
possible to express the ratio of two quantities by the use of
exact, definite integers.
For example if the side of a square be a units of length,
we know, by the use of the Theorem of Pythagoras that a
diagonal is aVl units of length (see § 102, Part I). Thus
the ratio of a diagonal of a square to a side is V2 : I.
Now, vz2 is what is called an irrational number, i.e., it
cannot be expressed exactly in the form of a fraction or a
decimal. Its value can be found by arithmetic to, say,
four significant figures when it is T414, but there is no limit
to the number of places to which it may be worked. Thus
the ratio V2 :1 can be expressed as 1-414 :1 approximately.
Consequently a straight line cannot be divided exactly
into -\/2 equal parts.
 RATIO IN GEOMETRY 305
Similarly the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its
diameter is denoted by the symbol ic (see § 122, Part I).
But the value of it cannot be determined exactly though it
may be found to any required degree of accuracy. To 6
significant figures r. — 3T4159...
Quantities such as in the above examples, the ratios of
which cannot be expressed by exact integers, are said to be
Incommensurable.
In considering proofs involving ratios, it has hitherto
been assumed that the numbers used are not incommensur-
ables, and the same assumption will be made in proofs
which follow in this section. Otherwise these would be
too difficult for the student at this stage in his study of
mathematics.

Geometrical representation of irrational

numbers
It is of interest to note that, in the case of an irrational
number such as V2, although it cannot be expressed
arithmetically in an exact form, it is possible theoretically
to represent it exactly by the length of a straight line. In

Fig. 249, ABCD is a square whose side is one unit in length.

Then the length of the diagonal BD is V2 units. If AB be
3<j6 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
produced to P and BP be made equal to BD, then the
length of BP is x/2 units. Thus
BP : BA = V2 :1
or AP is divided at B in the ratio V2 : 1. The exactitude
secured depends on the accuracy of the instruments used
and the skill of the draughtsman.
Straight lines which represent other irrational numbers
may similarly be obtained by the use of right-angled triangles
and the application of the Theorem of Pythagoras to them.
For example, in Fig. 249 the length of CP is V3 inches.
But, it is not possible to obtain a straight line the length
of which is exactly it units.
Proportional. If each of two straight lines is divided in

the same ratio, they are said to be divided proportionally.

For example in Fig. 250, if
AD _AE
DB ~ EC
then the sides of the i\ABC, AB and AC are divided
proportionally at D and E.
d c
From the equality of ratios -g = other quantities which
are proportional and which are closely related to them can
be derived, as follows!
a c
Given T=-
b d
Then (1) - =
' 7 a c
 RATIO IN GEOMETRY 3<>7

also (2)f + l=^ + l

or (I —b c -J- d
b d ’
Similarly, w b - d
a _ c A- d
and w a — b c-d'
These may be illustrated from Fig. 250.
AD AE
Given
DB ~ EC'
DB EC
Then by (1) AD ~ AE
AD + DB _AE + EC
and by (2) DB ~ EC
AB AC
or DB ~ EC'
AB AC
Similarly,
AD ~ AE'
Mean proportional. If a, b, c are numbers such that
a b
b~c
or ac = bi
or b = Vae.
Then b is called a mean proportional between a and a
308 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 56
If a straight line is drawn parallel to one side of a
triangle, the other sides are divided proportionally.

(1) (2) (3)

Fig. 251.

Given. ABC is a triangle in which PQ is drawn parallel

to AB cutting AC in P and BC in Q, either internally as in
(1) or externally as in (2) or (3).
-TA PC _QC
To prove. pA —
Proof. Let P divide CA in the ratio m s n,

Let PC be divided into m equal parts.

Let PA be divided into n equal parts.
Then the parts in PC and PA are all equal. (See p. 303.)
From each point thus obtained on PC and PA, suppose
a straight line be drawn parallel to AB.
These lines thus divide QC into m equal parts and QB
into n equal parts.
Each of the parts in QC is equal to each of the parts in
QB. (Th. 28.)
• QC — ™
” QB~ n
 RATIO IN GEOMETRY 3®9
FC _ m
but
PA ~ n
, PC _ QC
• • PA ~ QB'
Thus CA and CB are divided proportionally at P and Q.
Corollary. It may be proved in the same way that
CP _ CQ CA _ CB
CA ~ CB and PA - QB'
(See also p. 307.)

Theorem 57
(Converse of Theorem 56)
If two sides of a triangle are divided in the same
ratio, the straight line joining the points of division
is parallel to the third side.

Given. In tsABC,
To prove. PQ is parallel to BC.
Construction. Draw PR parallel to BC.
D , PA QA . . ,
Proo/. PB~QC ^ven^
AR AC
= (1) (^-56, Cor.)
3io TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Since PR is parallel to BC.
. -42? . 4C „.
*" PB — RC " !
Comparing (1) and (2).
AC _ AC
QC ~ RC"
QC=RC.
R and Q must coincide.
Thus PQ and PR coincide.
But PR is parallel to BC (const?.}
PQ is parallel to BC.

Theorem 58
If two triangles are equiangular, their corre­
sponding sides are proportional.
Such triangles are similar (see Part I, §§ 145-147).

Given. ABC, DEF are equiangular having AA = AD,

AB = AE, AC -AF.
To prove. The sides of the As are proportional, i.e.,
ab _bc _ca
DE ~ EF ~ FD"
 RATIO IN GEOMETRY 31
Construction. From AB cut off AP = DE, and froi
AC, AQ = DF.
Join PQ.
Proof. In As APQ, DEF:
(1) AP — DE (const?.)
(2) AQ = DF (constr.)
(3) AA = AD . (given)
As APQ, DEF are congruent.
AAPQ = ADEF.
But AABC = ADEF (given)
AAPQ = AABC.
PQ is parallel to BC (Th. 7)

••• 0-k.^co,.}

But AP = DE and AQ = DF (proved)

. AB AC
“ DE ~ DF'
Similarly it may be proved that
AC _BC
DF ~ EF'
,, ,. AB BC CA ,, ,
' the ratios DE -™, FD are all equal.
EF ^5=. 1
As ABC, DEF are similar.
3X2 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 59
(Converse of Theorem 58)
If the corresponding sides of two triangles are
proportional the triangles are equiangular and
therefore similar.

Given. In As ABC, DEF, yrv. = ==. =

Un nr Ur
To prove. AA = AD, AB = AE, AC = AF.
Construction. At E and F, on the side opposite from D
make AFEP — AABC, AEFP = AACB; then EP and
FP meeting at P form the CPEF.
Proof. As ABC, PEF are equiangular by construction.
. AB BC _Q.
••• pe = ef [Th-58)
but = S?

■ 48 _AB
*’ PE ~ DE'
PE = DE.
Similarly, PF = DF.
 RATIO IN GEOMETRY 3i3
In As DEF, PEF:
(1) PE = DE.
(2) PF = DF.
(3) EF is common.
As DEF, PEF are congruent. (Th. 13)
In particular ADEF = APEF
ADFE = APFE.
But APEF = AABC (constr.j
ZDEF = Z.ABC.
Similarly, APFE = AACB
•. ADFE = AACB
and remaining AEDF = ABAC.
As ABC, DEF are equiangular.

Theorem 60
If two triangles have an angle of one triangle
equal to an angle of the other and the sides about
these equal angles proportional, the triangles are
equiangular.

Given. In As ABC, DEF,

AB _AC
ABAC = AEDF and
DE ~ DF'
To prove. As ABC, DEF are equiangular,
i.e., AB = AE, AC = AF.
3T4 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
Construction. From AB, AC, cut off AP and AQ equal
respectively to DE and DF.
Join PQ.
Proof. In As APQ, DEF:
(1) AP = DE (constr.)
(2) AQ = DF (constr.)
(3) APAQ = AEDF (given)
/.As APQ, DEF are congruent. (Th. 4)
In particular AAPQ = ADEF
AAQP = ADFE.
c. AB AC . . .
Since DE = DF &ve”)

and , DE — AP (constr.)
also DF — AQ. - (constr.)
. AB _AC
" AP~ AQ'
PQ is parallel to BC (Th. 57)
/. AAPQ = AABC
and ' AAQP = AACB.
But AAPQ = ADEF (proved)
and AAQP — ADFE (proved)
AABC = ADEF
and AACB = ADFE.
As ABC and DEF are equiangular.
Note. The student should compare this Theorem with
Theorem 4.
 RATIO IN GEOMETRY 3i5

Theorem 61
In a right-angled triangle, if a perpendicular is
drawn from the right angle to the hypotenuse, the
triangles on each side of the perpendicular are
similar to the whole triangle and to each other.

Given. AABC, right angled at C.

CD is perpendicular to the hypotenuse AB.
To prove. As CAD, CDB, ABC are similar.
Proof. In As ACB, ADC,
AACB = AADC (right As)
ACAD is common.
AABC =± AACD. (Th. 10)
As ACB, ADC are equiangular and similar.
Similarly it may be proved that
As ACB, DCB are equiangular and similar,
the three As CAD, CDB, ABC are similar.
Corollary I. The square on the perpendicular is equal
to the rectangle contained by the segments of the base.
Since As ACD, BCD (Fig. 256) are similar.
. AD _ CD
* * CD ~ DB’
AD.DB = CD2.
Corollary 2. The perpendicular CD is a mean propor­
tional between the segments of the base.
3i6 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 62
(a) The Internal bisector of an angle of a triangle
divides the opposite side internally in the ratio of
the sides containing the angle bisected.
(b) The external bisector of an angle of a triangle
divides the opposite side externally in the ratio of
the sides containing the angle bisected.

(a) Given. AD bisects an internal angle BAC of the

AABC, and meets BC at D (Fig. 257 (a)).
„ a BD BA
Toprove. DC = AC'

Construction. From C draw CE parallel to AD to meet

BA produced in E.
Proof. EC is parallel to AD, and BE cuts them.
ABAD = ABEC (corr. z«)
Also EC is parallel to AD and AC cuts them.
ADAC = AACE (alt. As)
But ABAD — ADAC (given)
ABEC = AACE.
AE = AC.
Since AD is parallel to EC.
, BA __ BD rr,
• • AE " DC ^Th‘ 56)
 RATIO IN GEOMETRY 3i7
and AE — AC.
. BA _ BD
' • AC - DC
(b) Given. In Fig. 257 (b), AF bisects the external
/.CAP and meets BC produced at F.
„ . FB BA
To prove. FC = AC-

Proof. The proof follows the same method as in (a) by

drawing EC parallel to AF and proving AE = AC.
Then in EBAF,
FB _AB
FC ~ AE’
and since AE = AC,
• *[J _AB
•• FC “ AC’
3i8 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Theorem 63
If two chords of a circle intersect, within or
without the circle, the rectangle contained by the
segments of one is equal to the rectangle contained
by the segments of the other.

Given. The chords AB, CD, intersect at 0 within the circle

in Fig. 258 (1) and without in Fig. 258 (2). The latter is
a case of external division (see p. 304). •
To prove. Rect. OA . OB = rect. OC . OD (in both cases)
Construction. Join BC, AD.
Proof. In As AOD, COB:
LOAD = LOCB (Th. 41)
LAOD = LCOB in (1), same angle in (2).
third angles in each are equal, i.e., As AOD, COB are
equiangular and similar.
. OA _OD
•• OC ~ OB'
rect. OA . OB = rect. OC . OD.
Corollary. In (2) it may be noticed that if OBA were
to rotate in an anti-clockwise direction about 0, A and B
would approach one another. Ultimately OBA would
become the tangent OT.
Then the rect. OA . OB becomes OT*,
e.,
i. rect. OC . OD = OTa.
 RATIO IN GEOMETRY 319

Theorem 64
The areas of similar triangles are proportional
to the squares of corresponding sides.

Fig. 259.

Given. As ABC, DEF are similar.

™ , Area of EABC BCa
T°^Ove- Aiea of EDEF ~ EF
*'

Construction. Draw AP perpendicular to BC and DQ

perpendicular to EF.
These are the altitudes corresponding to
the sides BC, EF.
Proof. In As ABP, DEQ :
(1) /ABP = ADEQ (given)
(2) /.APB = ADQE (right Zs)
(3) /.BAP = AEDQ (Th. 10)
As ABP, DEQ are equiangular and similar.
. AJ> _AB_
*• DQ~DE’
but gg = gg (given, similar As)
ap_bc
DQ ~ EF'
320 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
XT Area of EABC %BC . AP „A r
N°w’ AreaolaOET = pFTD? <T‘- C"' *>
_BC AP
' “ EF * DQ'

But DQ = EF (proved}
Area of EABC _ BC BC
•• Area of EDEF ~ EF X EF
_BC
~ EF2'

®Exercise 37
1. ABCD is a quadrilateral in which AB is parallel to
CD. The diagonals intersect at P. Prove
AP _BP
AC ~ BD'
2. Three straight lines OP, OQ, OR are cut by two parallel
straight lines in A, B, C and D, E, F, respectively. Prove
that
AB _ DE
BC ~ EF‘
3. ABCD is a parallelogram and DC is bisected at E.
If BE meets AC in 0, prove that OC = %A0.
4. ABC is a right-angled triangle with the right angle at
A. From A draw AD, perpendicular to BC. Prove
BD AB2
DC ~ AC2'
5. In the EABC a straight line is drawn from A to meet
BC in D. On AD any point 0 is taken. Prove
EAOB_ BD
EAOC ~ DC
 RATIO IN GEOMETRY 321
6. ABC is a triangle and BE, CF are altitudes drawn from
B and C respectively. Prove that
FE _ AF
BC ~ AC’
7. C is a point on a straight line AB. On AC and CB
equilateral As ACD, CBE are constructed on the same side
of AB. The straight line joining D and E is produced to
meet AB produced at F. Prove
FB _FC
BC ~ CA'
8. AB is a chord of a circle; AT and BT are tangents
drawn from A and B. If 0 is the centre of the circle prove
that
Area of AABT _ AT2
Area of AOAB ~ OA2'
 SECTION 16
CONSTRUCTIONS
Construction No. 20
To construct a fourth proportional to three given
straight lines.

Fig. 260.

Given, a, b, c are the measures of the lengths of three

straight lines P, Q, R.
Required. To find a line whose length, x, is such that
a _c
b ~ x'
Construction. Draw two straight lines OX, OY, of suit­
able length and containing any suitable angle.
Along OX mark OA = a units and AB — & units.
Along OY mark OC = c units.
Join AC.
From B draw BD parallel to AC.
Then CD will represent x units.
Proof. Since AC and BD are parallel.
. OA _ OC
• ’ AB ~ CD (Th" 56)
a_c
i.e. b ~ x‘
\ the length of CD is the fourth proportional required.
322
 CONSTRUCTIONS 323

Construction No. 21
To divide a given straight line internally and
externally in a given ratio.

Given. AB is a straight line which it is required to divide

(1) internally and (2) externally in the ratio of the lines P
and Q of lengths a and Z>.
Construction. From A draw a straight line AX of
indefinite length making any angle with AB. From AX
cut off AC equal to P, i.e., a units in length.
(1) For internal division from CX mark off CD= b
units.
(2) For external division from CA mark off CD = b
units.
In each case join DB.
From C draw CE parallel to DB to meet AB at E,
internally in Fig. 261 (1) and externally in Fig. 261 (2).
E is the point of division in each case.
Proof. In each figure EC is parallel to the side BD of
the CABD.
AE : EB = AC : CD (Th. 56)
But AC : CD = a : b.
AE : EB = a : b.
324 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

Construction No. 22
To construct a straight line whose length is the
mean proportional between the lengths of two
given straight lines.

Given. P and Q are straight lines whose lengths are a

and b units.
Required. To find a straight line of length x units such
that
a x . ,
x- = tb or x2 = ab.
Construction. Draw a straight line of suitable length.
Along it mark off AB = a units, BC = b units.
On AC as diameter draw a circle, centre 0.
Through B draw a chord DE perpendicular to AC.
BD is the line required.
Proof. Rect. AB . BC — rect. BD . BE (Th. 63)
AB _BE
t.e., BD - B(..
But BD — BE.
• ^B -BD
* * BD~ BC’
 CONSTRUCTIONS 325
and AB .BC = BDa
or - = 1 and x2 = ab.
x b
Corollary. This construction also provides the solution
of the problem:
To construct a square equal to a given rectangle.
BD is the side of a square which is equal to the rectangle
whose adjacent sides are AB and BC.
 APPENDIX A
GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF
ALGEBRAICAL IDENTITIES
The following algebraical identities, which in preceding
pages have been employed in the proofs of geometrical
theorems, can be illustrated by the use of geometric figures
as shown below. Geometrical proofs are, however, omitted.
(I). x(a + b + c) = xa + xb + xc
A rectangle such as xa corresponds to each product.
The rectangle corresponding
a b c to x(a + b + c) is represented
by the whole rectangle.
X xa xb xc Those corresponding to the
products xa, xb, xc, are indi­
<-—(a+ 5+ c cated. The sum of these is ob­
Fig. 263. viously equal to the whole rect­
angle.
The corresponding geometrical theorem is as follows:
If there be two straight lines one of which is undivided and
the other is divided into any number of -parts, then the rect­
angle contained by the two straight lines is equal to the sum
of the rectangles contained by the undivided line and the parti
of the divided line.
.
(2) (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
Area of whole figure = (a + b)2 a___ b
units of area.
Area of parts = (a2 + b2 + ab + a* ab
ab) units.
Geometrical equivalent. If a
straight line be divided into any two ab & b
parts, the square on the whole line is
equal to the sum of the squares on the
two parts plus twice the rectangle
Fig. 264.
contained by these two parts.
326
 APPENDIX A 327
.
(3) (a - b)2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab

ja....... >
Fig. 265.

Examination of Fig. 265 will make clear that it repre­

sents the algebraical identity stated above and the
geometrical equivalent which follows.'
Geometrical equivalent. The square on the difference of
two straight lines is equal to the sum of the squares on the two
lines less twice the rectangle contained by these lines.
 APPENDIX B
SECTIONS OF A CONE AND CYLINDER
It has previously been shown that the normal sections of
a cylinder and cone are circles. Oblique sections of these
solids produce other curves which are of considerable
interest and importance. These curves are as follows:
(I) Ellipse. Oblique sections of both cylinder and cone
produce the curve known as the ellipse. Examples of
these are shown in Fig. 266 (a) and (b).

(a)

Fig. 266.

The student has probably observed that a perspective

view of the circle appears as an ellipse and is drawn as such
in the bases of the cone and cylinder not only in Fig. 266,
but in all drawings in which they appear in this book.
In the case of the cylinder, whatever the angle made by the
plane of the section with the central axis the curve is always
a circle or an ellipse. But in the cone the curve may be a
328
 APPENDIX ,B 329
circle, ellipse, parabola or hyperbola according to the
angle made by the section with the central axis.
When the section meets the curved surface of the solid
throughout as in Fig. 266 (a) it produces an ellipse. But
other cases occur as shown below.
(2) The parabola. When the oblique section of the
cone is parallel to the slant height, or a generating line, as in
Fig. 267 the curve is a parabola. PQ, which is the axis of
the curve {see Fig. 112) is parallel to OA in Fig. 267 and

Fig. 267. Fig. 268.

consequently will never meet it. If therefore the cone be
regarded as a solid whose generating line is unlimited in
length (§187) the parabola will stretch tq an infinite
distance in one direction. The general shape of the curve
is indicated in Figs. 110 and 112.
(3) The hyperbola. When the section is oblique but
does not conform to either of the above conditions, the
curve is a hyperbola. It appears as shown in Fig. 268.
In the case of the unlimited cone the curve will stretch to
an infinite extent and will not be bounded in extent by the
curved surface of the solid.
If however the cone is a complete double one (§ 187) the
section will evidently cut the other cone.
Consequently there will be two parts or branches of the
curve and they will be identical in shape. The form of
these is shown in Fig. 113.
 ANSWERS
• Exercise I (p. 43)
1. (1) Acute, (2) obtuse, (3) acute, (4) obtuse, (5) obtuse, (6)
adjacent
2. (a) f of a right angle, or 72°; (5) f of a right angle, or 162’
3. (a) 521°, 44° 46', 17’ 20'
(6) 68’, 25’ 30', 158’ 45'
4. 124°; 56’
5. BOC; DOB; COA; DOA
6. Each angle is the complement of /-BOB
7. A = 40°; B = 110°
10. (1) 120’; (2) 270’; (3) 720’
11. (1) 60°; 180°; 25’

# Exercise 2 (p. 54)

1. 45’ 2. 90° 3. W. by N.
4. W.S.W. 5. 1121’ 6. Due E.
7. 32’40' 8. 33° (or 97°)

* Exercise 3 (p. 65)

1. 4-6 cm; 99’; 45’ (all approx.)
2. 51’, 59’, 70° (approx.) sum = 180’
3. 90°; 3-8 cm, 4-4 cm
6. (1) Yes (A); (2) no; (3) no; (4) yes (C); (5) yes (C)
7. C = 29’ or 151°
8. As AOD, COB are congruent (Theor. A). CB «= AD
9. As in No. 8, AD = CB; also As AOC, AOD are congruent
(Theor. A). AC = AD
10. As AOC, AOD are congruent (Theor, A). CO == OD

•Exercise 4 (p. 75)

1. Corresponding angles: PXB, XYD; PXA, XYC; QYD,
YXB; QYC, YXA
Alternate angles AXY, XYD; BXY, XYC
Interior angles BXY, XYD; AXY, XYC
2. Following angles are 60°: AXY, XYD, QYC
Following angles are 120°: PXA, BXY, XYC, QYD
3. PXA = 60°; BXY = 60’; DYX = 120°; QYD - 60°;
PXB = 120°
4. ABC = 55°; BAC = 85°; ACB = 40’
5. ACD - 68°; ABD 68°; CDB = 112°; CAB = 112°,
6. /ABC = corresponding Z-DQR — corresponding /-DEF
8. 80’
330
 ANSWERS 33i

♦Exercise 5 (p. 80)

1. (a) 68’, (6) 53°, (c) 44’, (<Z) 112°
2. 70°, 70’ 3 72’
4. 60’ 5. 30°, 60’, *90
0. 45’, 45’ 7. 35°, 55°, 35‘
8. 60’, 60’, 70’ 9. 55’, 45’
10. 66’, 50’, 74’
♦Exercise 6 (p. 84)
1. (a) 67J°, (&) 35°, (c) 45°
2. (a) 80°, (6) 116°, (c) 90’
3. (a) A = 84°, C = 48°
(6) B and C each equals 50’
(c) B — 70°, A = 40’
4. 36°, 72°, 72°
5. 40°, 40°, 100’
6. 50° 50°, 80’ 9. 115’
10. One fourth. All the triangles are congruent
♦Exercise 8 (p. 106)
1. (a) 70° 70’, 110°, 110°; (5) 72’, 72°, 108’, 108’
8. 2-8 cm 5. Rectangle
♦Exercise 9 (p. 114)
2. 50 cm1 3. 28-1 cm
*
4. (a) 542-5 *cm
; (&) 32-495 m2; (c) 87-78 *cm
5. *
2-48 cm 6. 21-2 cm
*
7. 2-52 cm2 8. 4-8 cm
9. 12-96 m2 10. 144 m*
♦Exercise 10 (p. 120)
1. Yes; (6) no; (c) yes; (<f) no
2. (a) V2 m; (6) 12 V2 m 3. (a) -g- m; (&) 6V3 m
4. 3-47 m 5. 23-43 km
6. 77-5 m 7. 8-54 m
8. 6 cm 9. 9-68 cm
10. (a) 10-82 cm’; (6) 10 cm
11. 10-9 m (approx.) 14. 2-6 m
♦Exercise 11 (v. 1271
1. (a) 128|°; (6) 135°; (c) 144’ 2. 18
8. 0-1 m; (6) 0-17 m (approx.); (c) *
m
5. 5. 9; 140’ 6. 4
332 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

0 Exercise 12 (p. 141)

1. (a) A straight line parallel to the horizontal surface
(6) The circumference of a circle of radius 3 tn
(c) The circumference of a circle, concentric with that of the
track
2. A straight line parallel to the base
3. A straight line perpendicular to AB and bisecting it
4. A semi-circle
5. A straight line parallel to AB
6. A straight line perpendicular to AB and drawn from B.
7. A straight line, the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle
8. The arc of a circle radius BC and centre C

^Exercise 13 (p. 149)

1. (a) 31-416 cm, (6) 7-854 cm, (c) 5-236 cm, (d) 3-927 cm
2. 8-378 cm
3. (1) 3-1416 in; (2) 0-785 sq. in
4. (1) 2-618 cm; (2) 9-59 cm; (3) 10-9 cm
5. 15-5 cm 6. 3-93 m
7. 10-6 cm 8. 11-3 m
9. 17-9 cm1
10. (a) 5-71 cm2; (6) 1-71 cm!; (c) 98-9689 cm; (d) 10-14 cm
*
11. 1-43 km2

^Exercise 14 (p. 155)

1. 1-5 cm 2. 10 cm
3. 24 cm 4. 7 cm or 17 cm
7. A circle concentric withthe given circle and of radius 4 cm

^Exercise 15 (p. 160)

2. 1-15 cm 3. 45°, 60°, 75’
9. 95°

# Exercise 16 (p. 168).

1. Two. 3. 4 cm 4. 2V7 cm
5. A concentric circle of radius V5 cm 6. 80°
9. A concentric circle.
10. A straight line perpendicular to the given straight line at the
given point
11. Two straight lines at right angles to one another and bisecting
the given angles
 ANSWERS 333
j Exercise 17 (p. 178)
1. AP = 2 cm, PB -= 3 cm, AQ = 3-2 cm, QC = 4-8 cm, BC =
15 cm
7. 40 cm2 8. V2": 1
9. 1: 2 .10. 1-19
Sine Cosine Tangent
V3 1
30° J V3
2
1 1
45“ V2 V2 1
V3 V3
60’ 1
2

•Exercise 18 (p. 184)

. 1. (a) a* = 62 4- c2 — 2bc cos A
(6) 62 = a2 -j- c2 — 2ac cos B
2. (a) Area = J5c sin A
(b) Area => jac sin B
3. c = 12 4. c — 4 cm
5. cos C = 0-0069 6. 19
7. 19 cm (approx.) 8. 72-4 cm2 (approx.)

•Exercise 19 (p. 189)

1. (a) Yes, with 4 axes of symmetry, diagonals and straight line
joining bisecting pairs of opposite sides at right angles
(6) Yes, two axes, the straight lines bisecting pairs of opposite
sides at right angles
c) Yes; straight line joining the centres

Id) Yes; radius bisecting the angle of the sector

e) No; unless the two non-parallel sides are equal
f) Yes; perpendicular bisector of the right angle. Triangle
(g) No
is isosceles
(A) Yes; straight lines drawn from an angular point per­
pendicular to the opposite side
3. Three axes; the straight lines bisecting the angles
4. Yes; the two diagonals
334 TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY

• Exercise 20 (p. 199)

1. 72 m8 2. 2 897 g approx.
3. 950 cm8 4. 5 000 m8
5. 0-052 *km approx. 6. 24-73 m3; 4-15 kg approx.
7. 3 000 1 approx. 8. 61 mm’
9. 31p approx. 10. 0-16 m approx.
11. 49 cm3 approx.

•Exercise 21 (p. 210)

1. (a) 144 m8; (6) 184-4 m *
2. 15-6 m8
3. (a) 205-95 mm’; (b) 190-9 mm8
4. 2-5 m’
5. (1) 17-4 m8; (2) 32-4 cm8
6. 7-98 m
7. (1) 690 m. (2) 580 m, (3) 83 500 000 m8 (approx.)
8. 4-39 m; 36-7 m’ 9. 98 m’
10. (1) 33-5 m’, (2) 34-2 m
*
11. 38 cm’; 28 cm8
• Exercise 22 (p. 218)
1. 39-4 cm’; 16-32 cm8 2. £21-12
3. 509 x 10’ km’ 4. 4: 7
5. 235-6 cm’ 6. 5-9 kg
7. A double cone, with a common base, and different heights.
8. 54 OOOtt mm3
9. 476 m3 (approx.)
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