P. F. Smith, A. S. Gale - New Analytic Geometry (1912)

Alexan
der Kiwek
NEW
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
BY
PERCEY F. SMITH, PH.D.

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE SHEFFIELD SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL
OF YALE UNIVERSITY
AND
ARTHUR SULLIVAN GALE, PH.D.

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER
GINN AND COMPANY

BOSTON • NEW YORK · CHICAGO LONDON
COPYRIGHT, 1904, 1905, BY
ARTHUR SULLIVAN GALE
COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY
PERCEY F. SMITH
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
912.7
The Athenæum Press

GINN AND COMPANY PRO-
PRIETORS BOSTON U.S.A.
A1527-1
•
:
PREFACE
01
A glance at the Table of Contents of the present volume

will reveal the fact that the subject matter differs in many
respects from that included in current textbooks on analytic
geometry. The authors have recognized the great importance,
in the applications, of the exponential and trigonometric func-
tions, of " setting up " and studying functions by their graphs,
of parametric equations and the locus problem, and of " fitting "
curves to points determined by empirically given data. To meet
this need chapters have been included covering all these topics .
The discussion in Chapter VI of transcendental curves and
equations is intended to be thorough , and tables are provided ,
whenever useful, to lighten the labor of computation. A stu-
Ident loses interest in a function if he is unable to calculate
rapidly its numerical values. The problems of Chapter VIII
provide a large variety of functions arising from applied prob-
lems, and careful " graphing " and measurement of maximum
and minimum values are emphasized . The text of Chapter XII
on Parametric Equations and Loci is unusually complete, and
care is taken to familiarize the student with those curves which
occur in applied mathematics . The study of locus problems
by means of parametric equations is amply illustrated. Chap-
ter XX presents the topic of empirical equations and contains
a wide variety of problems.
The authors have not neglected to provide an adequate and
thorough drill in the use of coördinates and in the employ-
ment of analytic methods . It is acknowledged that this is the
primary aim of analytic geometry. The proofs will be found
iii
336883
iv NEW ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
simple and direct. The chapters devoted to the study of the

conic sections (Chapters X and XI) are brief but contain all
essential characteristics of these important curves . The ex-
amples are numerous , and many are given without answers in
case any useful purpose is served by so doing. The book, like
the authors' " Elements of Analytic Geometry," is essentially a
drill book ; but at the same time all difficulties are not smoothed
out, though the student is aided in making his own way. He
is taught to formulate rules descriptive of methods, and to
summarize the main results . The appearance in the text of
various Rules is designed expressly to encourage the student
in the habit of formulating precise statements and of making
clear to himself each new acquisition.
Acknowledgments are due to Dr. George F. Gundelfinger,
of the department of mathematics of the Sheffield Scientific
School, for many of the problems in the analytic geometry of
space and for many valuable suggestions.
THE AUTHORS
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
FORMULAS AND TABLES FOR REFERENCE

SECTION PAGE
1. Formulas from geometry, algebra, and trigonometry · 1
2. Three-place table of common logarithms of numbers 4
3. Squares and cubes ; square roots and cube roots 5
4. Natural values of trigonometric functions 6
5. Logarithms of trigonometric functions . 6
6. Natural values. Special angles . . . 7
7. Rules for signs of trigonometric functions 7
V CHAPTER II
CARTESIAN COÖRDINATES
∞ 8
8. Directed line 8
9. Cartesian coördinates 9
10. Rectangular coördinates 10
11. Lengths . . 13
12. Inclination and slope . 16
13. Point of division 19
14. Areas . 24
CHAPTER III
CURVE AND EQUATION
15. Locus of a point satisfying a given condition 30

16. Equation of the locus of a point satisfying a given condition 30
17. First fundamental problem 32
18. Locus of an equation . 36
19. Second fundamental problem 37
20. Third fundamental problem . Discussion of an equation 42
V
vi NEW ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
SECTION PAGE
21. Directions for discussing an equation 47
Sign of a quadratic . 49
22. Asymptotes 51
23. Points of intersection 55
CHAPTER IV
THE STRAIGHT LINE
24. The degree of the equation of any straight line . 58

25. Locus of any equation of the first degree 59
26. Plotting straight lines 60
27. Point-slope form · 62
28. Two-point form 63
29. Intercept form 67
30. Condition that three lines shall intersect in a common point 67
31. Theorems on projection • 68
32. The normal equation of the straight line 70
33. Reduction to the normal form . 71
34. The perpendicular distance from a line to a point 74
35. The angle which a line makes with a second line 80
36. Systems of straight lines . . 84
37. System of lines passing through the intersection of two given lines 87
CHAPTER V
THE CIRCLE
388
38. Equation of the circle . 92

39. Circles determined by three conditions 94
CHAPTER VI
TRANSCENDENTAL CURVES AND EQUATIONS

40. Natural logarithms 101
Table of values of the exponential function 104
41. Sine curves 105
42. Addition of ordinates 111
43. Boundary curves 114
44. Transcendental equations . Graphical solution 116
CONTENTS vii
CHAPTER VII
POLAR COÖRDINATES
SECTION PAGE
45. Polar coördinates . 119
46. Locus of an equation 120
47. Rapid plotting of polar equations 125
48. Points of intersection 127
49. Transformation from rectangular to polar coördinates 128
50. Applications. Straight line and circle 130
CHAPTER VIII
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS 1
51. Functions 134
52. Notation of functions 143
CHAPTER IX
TRANSFORMATION OF COÖRDINATES
53. Introduction . 144
54. Translation of the axes 144
55. Rotation of the axes 146
56. General transformation of coördinates 148
57. Classification of loci . 148
58. Simplification of equations by transformation of coördinates 149
CHAPTER X
PARABOLA, ELLIPSE, AND HYPERBOLA

59. The parabola 153
60. Construction of the parabola 157
61. Theorem • 159
62. The ellipse 159
63. Construction of the ellipse 163
64. Theorem . 165
65. The hyperbola . 165
66. Conjugate hyperbolas and asymptotes 170
67. Equilateral or rectangular hyperbola . 173
viii NEW ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
SECTION PAGE
68. Construction of the hyperbola • 173
69. Theorem 175
70. Locus of any equation of the second degree 176
71. Plotting the locus of an equation of the second degree 180
72. Conic sections 185
Systems of conics 188
CHAPTER XI
TANGENTS
73. Equation of the tangent 190
74. Theorem 194
75. Equation of the normal 195
76. Subtangent and subnormal 196
77. Tangent whose slope is given 198
78. Formulas for tangents when the slope is given 200
79. Properties of tangents and normals to conics . 201
CHAPTER XII
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND LOCI

80. Plotting parametric equations . 205
81. Various parametric equations for the same curve 208
82. Locus problems solved by parametric equations 211
83. Loci derived by a construction from a given curve 218
84. Loci using polar coördinates 220
85. Loci defined by the points of intersection of systems of lines • 223
Diameters of conics . 226
CHAPTER XIII
CARTESIAN COÖRDINATES IN SPACE
86. Cartesian coördinates 230
87. Orthogonal projections 233
88. Direction cosines of a line 236
.89. Lengths 238
90. Angle between two directed lines 240
91. Point of division 242
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER XIV
SURFACES, CURVES, AND EQUATIONS

SECTION PAGE
92. Loci in space 245
93. Equation of a surface . First fundamental problem . 245
94. Planes parallel to the coördinate planes 249
95. Equations of a curve . First fundamental problem 249
96. Locus of one equation . Second fundamental problem 253
97. Locus of two equations. Second fundamental problem 253
98. Discussion of the equations of a curve . Third fundamental
problem .. 253
99. Discussion of the equation of a surface. Third fundamental
problem 256
CHAPTER XV
THE PLANE
100. The normal form of the equation of the plane 260
101. The general equation of the first degree 261
102. Planes determined by three conditions . 266
103. The equation of a plane in terms of its intercepts 269
104. The perpendicular distance from a plane to a point 269
105. The angle between two planes · 271
106. Systems of planes • 273
CHAPTER XVI
THE STRAIGHT LINE IN SPACE
107. General equations of the straight line 277
108. The projecting planes of a line 280
109. Various forms of the equations of a line 282
110. Relative positions of a line and plane 287
CHAPTER XVII
SPECIAL SURFACES
111. Introduction 291
112. The sphere 291
113. Cylinders 295
114. The projecting cylinders of a curve 297
X NEW ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
SECTION PAGE
115. Parametric equations of curves in space 300
116. Cones . . 302
117. Surfaces of revolution 304
118. Ruled surfaces 307
CHAPTER XVIII
TRANSFORMATION OF COÖRDINATES . DIFFERENT SYSTEMS

OF COÖRDINATES
119. Translation of the axes 310
120. Rotation of the axes 310
121. Polar coördinates 313
122. Spherical coördinates . 313
123. Cylindrical coördinates 314
CHAPTER XIX
QUADRIC SURFACES AND EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND DEGREE

IN THREE VARIABLES
124. Quadric surfaces 316
125. Simplification of the general equation of the second degree in
three variables 317
126. The ellipsoid 319
127. The hyperboloid of one sheet 320
128. The hyperboloid of two sheets 321
129. The elliptic paraboloid 324
130. The hyperbolic paraboloid 325
131. Rectilinear generators 327
CHAPTER XX
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS
132. Introduction 330
133. Straight-line law 330
134. Laws reduced to straight-line laws 333
135. Miscellaneous laws . 338
136. Conclusion 340
INDEX • 341
NEW ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
CHAPTER I
FORMULAS AND TABLES FOR REFERENCE
1. Occasion will arise in later chapters to make use of the

following formulas and theorems proved in geometry , algebra,
and trigonometry .
1. Circumference of circle = 2 πr.*
2. Area of circle = Tr2.
3. Volume of prism = Ba.
4. Volume of pyramid = Ba.
5. Volume of right circular cylinder = πρα.
6. Lateral surface of right circular cylinder = 2πra.
7. Total surface of right circular cylinder = 2πr (r + a) .
8. Volume of right circular cone = 3 πr²α.
9. Lateral surface of right circular cone = πrs.
10. Total surface of right circular cone = πr (r + 8) .
11. Volume of sphere = π³.
12. Surface of sphere = 4 πr².
13. In a geometrical series,
- 1)
rl - α - a(rn —
1 = am - 1 ; 8 =
r-1 r - 1
a = first term, r = common ratio, l = nth term, s = sum of n terms.
14. log ab = log a + logb. 17. log a == 19. logaα -= 1.
n log a.
α= ==
15. log log a log b. 18. log 1 = 0. 20. log loga.
b a
16. log ann log a .
* In formulas 1-12, r denotes radius, a altitude, B area of base, and s slant
height.
1
2 NEW ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Functions of an angle in a right triangle. In any right triangle one of

whose acute angles is A, the functions of A are defined as follows :
opposite side hypotenuse
21. sin A = csc A = "
hypotenuse opposite side
t
cos A = adjacen side sec A =
hypotenuse
hypotenuse adjacent side
opposite side
tan A = cot A = adjacent side
adjacent side opposite side
From the above the theorem is easily derived :

22. In a right triangle a side is equal to the product of the hypote-
nuse and the sine of the angle opposite to that side, or to the product of
the hypotenuse and the cosine of the angle adjacent B
to that side.
Angles in general. In trigonometry an angle XOA
is considered as generated by the line OA rotating
a
from an initial position OX. The angle is positive
when OA rotates from OX counter-clockwise, and
negative when the direction of rotation of OA is
clockwise.
The fixed line OX is called the initial line, the line OA the terminal line.
Measurement of angles. There are two
A
important methods of measuring angular
magnitude ; that is, there are two unit
angles. Pos
iti Ano
Ang
ve ra
Degree measure. The unit angle is 30 of
le
a complete revolution , and is called a degree.

Ne
g
at
Circular measure. The unit angle is an X

iv
le
Ang
e
angle whose subtending arc is equal to the

radius of that arc, and is called a radian.
The fundamental relation between the unit angles is given by the
equation
23. 180 degrees = π radians (π = 3.14159 ...) .
Or also, by solving this,

π
24. 1 degree - = .0174 ... radians.
180
180
25. 1 radian = = 57.29 degrees.
π
FORMULAS AND TABLES FOR REFERENCE 3
These equations enable us to change from one measurement to another.

In the higher mathematics circular measure is always used , and will be
adopted in this book.
The generating line is conceived of as rotating around O through as
many revolutions as we choose . Hence the important result :
Any real number is the circular measure of some angle, and conversely,
any angle is measured by a real number.
1 1 1
26. cot x = ; secx = ; CSC x = si
tan x COS X nx
sin x COS X
27. tanx = ; cot = sin x
COS X
28. sin2x + cos²x = 1 ; 1+ tan²x = sec²x; 1+ cot2x = csc²x.
29. sin ( x) sinx ; csc ( x) == csc x ;
cos (― x) = cos x ; sec ( x) =
= sec x ;
tan ( x) = — tanx ; cot (— x) ==- cot .
30. sin (π -
— x) = =
sin x ; sin ( + x) = — sin x ;
COS (π- x) == cos x ; cos (π + x) = — cos x ;
tan (π- x) = tanx ; tan (π + x) = tan x.
π π
31. sin - x = cos x ; sin x = cost ;
π
COS -x = sin x ; cos + x =— sin x ;
π-
tan x = cot ; tan + x)=
x -= cot x.
32. sin (2π-- :x) = sin ( — x) = — sin x, etc.

33. sin (x + y) = sin x cổs y + cos x sin y.
34. sin (xy) = sin x cos y cos x sin y.
35. cos (x + y) = cos x cos y - sin x sin y.
36. cos (xy) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y.
tantan y
37. tan (x + y) -
1- tanxtany
tan x - tan y
38. tan (z − y) =
=
1 + tanx tany
2 tan x
39. sin 2x2 sin x cos x ; cos 2 x = cos² x − sin²x ; tan 2 x =
1- tan²x
x COSX Ꮖ 1 + cos x 1. COSX
40. sin =士 ; COS = ; tan = ±
2 2 1 + cos
41. sin²x = - cos 2 x ; cos² x = + cos 2 x.
42. sin A sin B2 cos ( A + B) sin † ( A — B) .
43. cos A-- cos B - 2 sin ( A + B) sin (A — B) .
44. Theorem . Law of cosines. In any triangle the square of a side
equals the sum of the squares of the two other sides diminished by twice
the product of those sides by the cosine of their included angle ; that is,
a2 = b2 + c² - 2 bc cos A.
45. Theorem. Area of a triangle. The area of any triangle equals one
half the product of two sides by the sine of their included angle ; that is,
area = ab sin C = bc sin A = ca sin B.
2. Three-place table of common logarithms of numbers .
N 0 1 2 3 4 567 8 9
1 2 3 4 5
000 041 079 114 146 176 204 230 255 279
2 301 322 342 362 380 398 415 431 447 462
3 477 491 505 518 532 544 556 568 580 591
4 602 613 623 634 643 653 663 672 681 690
699 708 716 724 732 740 748 756 763 771
6 778 785 792 799 806 813 820 826 832 839
7 845 851 857 863 869 875 881 886 892 898
8 903 908 914 919 924 929 934 939 944 949
9 954 959 964 968 973 978 982 987 991 996
10 000 004 009 013 017 021 025 029 033 037
11 041 045 049 053 057 061 064 068 072 076
12 079 083 086 090 093 097 100 104 107 111
13 114 117 121 124 127 130 134 137 140 143
14 146 149 152 155 158 161 164 167 170 173
15 176 179 182 185 188 190 193 196 199 201
16 204 207 210 212 215 218 220 223 225 228
17 230 233 236 238 241 243 246 248 250 253
18 255 258 260 262 265 267 270 272 274 276
19 279 281 283 286 288 290 292 294 297 299
3. Squares and cubes ; square roots and cube roots.
Cube Square Cube No. Square Cube Square Cube

No. Square Root Root Root Root
55555
12345CBOLEST∞
12345678
1 1.000 1.000 51 2,601 132,651 7.141 3.708
4 8 1.414 1.259 52 2,704 140,608 7.211 3.732
9 27 1.732 1.442 53 2,809 148,877 7.280 3.756
16 64 2.000 1.587 54 2,916 157,464 7.348 3.779
125 2.236 1.709 55 3,025 166,375 7.416 3.802
36 216 2.449 1.817 56 3,136 175,616 7.483 3.825
49 343 2.645 1.912 57 3,249 185,193 7.549 3.848
64 512 2.828 2.000 58 3,364 195,112 7.615 3.870
81 729 3.000 2.080 59 3,481 205,379 7.681 3.892
10 100 1,000 3.162 2.154 60 3,600 216,000 7.745 3.914
11 121 1,331 3.316 2.223 61 3,721 226,981 7.810 3.936
12 144 1,728 3.464 2.289 62 3,844 238,328 7.874 3.957
13 169 2,197 3.605 2.351 63 3,969 250,047 7.937 3.979
14 196 2,744 3.741 2.410 64 4,096 262,144 8.000 4.000
15 225 3,375 3.872 2.466 65 4,225 274,625 8.062 4.020
16 256 4,096 4.000 2.519 66 4,356 287,496 8.124 4.041
17 289 4,913 4.123 2.571 67 4,489 300,763 8.185 4.061
18 324 5,832 4.242 2.620 68 4,624 314,432 8.246 4.081
19 361 6,859 4.358 2.668 69 4,761 328,509 8.306 4.101
20 400 8,000 4.472 2.714 70 4,900 343,000 8.366 4.121
21 441 9,261 4.582 2.758 71 5,041 357,911 8.426 4.140
222222222233
22 484 10,648 4.690 2.802 72 5,184 373,248 8.485 4.160

23 529 12,167 4.795 2.843 73 5,329 389,017 8.544 4.179
24 576 13,824 4.898 2.884 74 5,476 405,224 8.602 4.198
25 625 15,625 5.000 2.924 75 5,625 421,875 8.660 4.217
26 676 17,576 5.099 2.962 76 5,776 438,976 8.717 4.235
27 729 19,683 5.196 3.000 vyry 5,929 456,533 8.774 4.254
28 784 21,952 5.291 3.036 78 6,084 474,552 8.831 4.272
29 841 24,389 5.385 3.072 79 6,241 493,039 8.888 4.290
∞∞∞∞
30 900 27,000 5.477 3.107 80 6,400 512,000 8.944 4.308

31 961 29,791 5.567 3.141 81 6,561 531,441 9.000 4.326
32 1,024 32,768 5.656 3.17 4 82 6,724 551,368 9.055 4.344
33 1,089 35,937 5.744 3.207 83 6,889 571,787 9.110 4.362
34 1,156 39,304 5.830 3.239 84 7,056 592,704 9.165 4.379
35 1,225 42,875 5.916 3.271 85 7,225 614,125 9.219 4.396
36 1,296 46,656 6.000 3.301 86 7,396 636,056 9.273 4.414
37 1,369 50,653 6.082 3.332 87 7,569 658,503 9.327 4.431
38 1,444 54,872 6.164 3.361 88 7,744 681,472 9.380 4.447
39 1,521 59,319 6.244 3.391 89 7,921 704,969 9.433 4.464
40 1,600 64,000 6.324 3.419 90 8,100 729,000 9.486 4.481
41 1,681 68,921 6.403 3.448 91 8,281 753,571 9.539 4.497
42 1,764 74,088 6.480 3.476 92 8,464 778,688 9.591 4.514
43 1,849 79,507 6.557 3.503 93 8,649 804,357 9.643 4.530
44 1,936 85,184 6.633 3.530 94 8,836 830,584 9.695 4.546
45 2,025 91,125 6.708 3.556 95 9,025 857,375 9.746 4.562
46 2,116 97,336 6.782 3.583 96 9,216 884,736 9.797 4.578
47 2,209 103,823 6.855 3.608 97 9,409 912,673 9.848 4.594
8888
48 2,304 110,592 6.928 3.634 98 9,604 941,192 9.899 4.610

49 2,401 117,649 7.000 3.659 99 9,801 970,299 9.949 4.626
50 2,500 125,000 7.071 3.684 100 10,000 1,000,000 10.000 4.641
4. Natural values of trigonometric functions .
Angle in Angle in sin COS tan cot

Radians Degrees
.000 0° .000 1.000 .000 ∞ 90° 1.571

.017 1° .017 .999 .017 57.29 89° 1.553
.035 2º .035 .999 .035 28.64 88° 1.536
.052 3° .052 .999 .052 19.08 87° 1.518
.070 4° .070 .998 .070 14.30 86° 1.501
.087 5° .087 .996 .088 11.43 85° 1.484
.174 10° .174 .985 .176 5.67 80° 1.396
.262 15° .259 .966 .268 3.73 75° 1.309
.349 20° .342 .940 .364 2.75 70° 1.222
.436 25° .423 .906 .466 2.14 65° 1.134
.524 30° .500 .866 .577 1.73 60° 1.047
.611 35° .574 .819 .700 1.43 55° .960
.698 40° .643 .766 .839 1.19 50° .873
.785 45° .707 .707 1.000 1.00 45° .785
COS sin cot tan Angle in Angle in

Degrees Radians
5. Logarithms of trigonometric functions.
Angle in Angle in log sin log cos log tan log cot
Radians Degrees
.000 0° 0.000 .... 90° 1.571

.017 1° 8.242 9.999 8.242 1.758 89° 1.553
.035 2º 8.543 9.999 8.543 1.457 88° 1.536
.052 3º 8.719 9.999 8.719 1.281 87° 1.518
.070 4º 8.844 9.999 8.845 1.155 86° 1.501
.087 5° 8.940 9.998 8.942 1.058 85° 1.484
.174 10° 9.240 9.993 9.246 0.754 80° 1.396
.262 15° 9.413 9.985 9.428 0.572 75° 1.309
.349 20° 9.534 9.973 9.561 0.439 70° 1.222
.436 25° 9.626 9.957 9.669 0.331 65° 1.134
.524 30° 9.699 9.938 9.761 0.239 60° 1.047
.611 35° 9.759 9.913 9.845 0.165 55° 0.960
.698 40° 9.808 9.884 9.924 0.086 50° 0.873
.785 45° 9.850 9.850 0.000 0.000 45° 0.785
log sin log tan Angle in Angle in

log cos log cot Degrees Radians
6. Natural values . Special angles .
Angle in Angle in sin COS tan cot sec CSC

Radians Degrees
8
0 0° 0 1 0 1 ∞
1π 90° 1 0 0 ∞ 1
8
180°
8
π 0 1 0 1
8
∞
8
π 270° 1 0 0 1
2π
8
360° 1 1
8
0 0
Angle in Angle in sin COS tan cot sec

Radians Degrees
༔
8
་
ཨ
།
0 0° 0 1 0 ∞ 1
1π 30° 13 √3 √3
Επ 45° + √2 + √2 1 1 √2 √2
100
π 60° 2
Επ 90° 1 0 0 ∞ 1
7. Rules for signs of the trigonometric functions .
Quadrant sin COS tan cot sec CSC
First + +
+
+
+
+
Second -
+
Third +
+
Fourth
+
+
CHAPTER II
CARTESIAN COÖRDINATES
8. Directed line . Let X'X be an indefinite straight line ,

and let a point 0, which we shall call the origin, be chosen
upon it. Let a unit of length be adopted , and assume that
lengths measured from 0 to the right are positive, and to
the left negative.
Then any real number, if taken as the measure of the
length of a line OP, will determine a point P on the line. Con-
versely, to each point -5-4-3-2-1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 + 5 Unit
P on the line will cor- X T
respond a real num-
ber, namely the measure of the length OP, with a positive
or negative sign according as P is to the right or left of
the origin.
The direction established upon X'X by passing from the
origin to the points corresponding to the positive numbers is
called the positive direction
B A A B
on the line. A directed line
is a straight line upon which an origin, a unit of length, and a
positive direction have been assumed.
An arrowhead is usually placed upon a directed line to indi-
cate the positive direction .
If A and B are any two points of a directed line such that
OA = a, OB = b,
then the length of the segment AB is always given by ba;

that is , the length of AB is the difference of the numbers
8
CARTESIAN COÖRDINATES 9
corresponding to B and A. This statement is evidently equiv-

alent to the following definition :
For all positions oftwo points A and B on a directed line, the

length AB is given by
(1) AB = OB - OA,
where O is the origin.
(I) (II) (III) (IV)

0 +3 +6 -4 0 +3 -3 0 +5 -6 -2 0
O AB B 0 A A B B A O
The above definition is illustrated in each of the four figures ,

as follows :
I. AB = OB— OA = 6—3 = + 3 ; BA = OA — OB =3—6 = −3 ;

II. AB = OB - OA = -4-3 = -7 ; BA = 0A - OB = 3— ( − 4) = + 7 ;
III . AB= OB— OA = + 5 - ( - 3) = + 8 ; BA = 0A - OB = —3—5 = -8 ;
IV. AB = OB- OA = -6 - ( - 2) = −4 ; BA = 0A - OB = −2 − ( − 6) = + 4.
The following properties of lengths on a directed line are

obvious :
(2) AB ==- BA.
(3) AB is positive if the direction from A to B agrees with
the positive direction on the line, and negative if in the con-
trary direction .
The phrase " distance between two points " should not be used if
these points lie upon a directed line . Instead, we speak of the length
AB, remembering that the lengths AB and BA are not equal, but that
AB - BA.
9. Cartesian * coördinates. Let X'X and Y'Y be two directed

lines intersecting at 0, and let P be any point in their plane.
Draw lines through P parallel to X'X and Y'Y respectively.
Then, if OM = a , ON = b,
* So called after René Descartes, 1596-1650, who first introduced the idea
of coördinates into the study of geometry.
the numbers a, b are called the Cartesian coördinates of P, a the

abscissa and b the ordinate. The directed lines X'X and Y'Y are
called the axes of coördi-
nates, X'X the axis of
abscissas, Y'Y the axis N
b
of ordinates , and their in-
tersection O the origin.
+1
The coördinates a, b of
+1 α
P are written (a, b) , and X' M M X
the symbol P (a, b) is to
N
be read, " The point P,
P'
whose coördinates are a
and b."
Y
Any point P in the
plane determines two numbers , the coördinates of P. Con-
versely, given two real numbers a' and b ', then a point P' in
the plane may always be constructed whose coördinates are
(a ' , b ') . For lay off OM' a', ON'b', and draw lines parallel
to the axes through M' and N'. These lines intersect at P'
(a' , b ') . Hence
Every point determines a pair ofreal numbers, and, conversely,

a pair of real numbers determines a point.
The imaginary numbers of algebra have no place in this
representation, and for this reason elementary analytic geome-
try is concerned only with the real numbers of algebra.
10. Rectangular coördinates . A rectangular system of coördi-

nates is determined when the axes X'X and Y'Yare perpendicular
to each other. This is the usual case, and will be assumed unless
otherwise stated .
The work of plotting points in a rectangular system is much
simplified by the use of coördinate or plotting paper, constructed
by ruling off the plane into equal squares, the sides being
parallel to the axes.
In the figure several points are plotted , the unit of length

being assumed equal to one division on each axis. The method
is simply this :
Count off from O along X'X a number of divisions equal to
the given abscissa, and then from the point so determined a
(6,7)
(-4,6)
Χ ( 10,0 ) X
(-9,-4) (0, -4)
number of divisions up or down equal to the given ordinate,

observing the
Rule for signs :
Abscissas are positive or negative according as they are laid
off to the right or left of the origin. Ordinates are positive or
negative according as they are laid off above
Y
or below the axis of x.
Second First
Rectangular axes divide the plane into (-,+) (+++)
four portions called quadrants ; these are X' I
numbered as in the figure, in which the Third Fourth
(---) (+ -)
proper signs of the coördinates are also
indicated.
As distinguished from rectangular coördinates, the term
oblique coördinates is employed when the axes are not
perpendicular, as in the figure of Art. 9 . The rule of signs

given above applies to this case also. Note, however, in
plotting, that the ordinate MP is drawn parallel to OY.
In the following problems assume rectangular coördinates
unless the contrary is stated.
PROBLEMS
1. Plot accurately the points (3, 2), (3,2) , ( 4, 3) , (6, 0) , (-5, 0),
(0, 4) .
2. What are the coördinates of the origin ? Ans. (0, 0).
3. In what quadrants do the following points lie if a and b are posi-
tive numbers : ( — a, b) ? (— a, — b) ? (b, — a) ? (a, b) ?
4. To what quadrants is a point limited if its abscissa is positive ?
negative ? if its ordinate is positive ? negative ?
5. Draw the triangle whose vertices are (2, - 1 ) , ( — 2, 5) , ( — 8 , — 4) .
6. Plot the points whose oblique coördinates are as follows, when the
- 7) , ( — 8, 0) ,
angle between the axes is 60° : (2 , − 3) , (3, − 2) , (4, 5) , ( — 6, —
(9, -— 5) , ( — 6, 2).
7. Draw the quadrilateral whose vertices are (0, - — 2) , (4 , 2) , (0 , 6) ,
(— 4, 2) , when the angle between the axes is 60°.
8. If a point moves parallel to the axis of x, which of its coördinates
remains constant ? If parallel to the axis of y ?
9. Can a point move when its abscissa is zero ? Where ? Can it move
when its ordinate is zero ? Where ? Can it move if both abscissa and
ordinate are zero ? Where will it be ?
10. Where may a point be found if its abscissa is 2 ? if its ordinate is
-- 3 ?
11. Where do all those points lie whose abscissas and ordinates are
equal ?
12. Two sides of a rectangle of lengths a and b coincide with the axes
of x and y respectively . What are the coördinates of the vertices of the
rectangle if it lies in the first quadrant ? in the second quadrant ? in the
third quadrant ? in the fourth quadrant ?
13. Construct the quadrilateral whose vertices are ( — 3, 6) , ( — 3 , 0) ,
(3, 0) , (3, 6) . What kind of a quadrilateral is it ? What kind of a quad-
rilateral is it when the axes are oblique ?
14. Show that (x, y) and (x, y) are symmetrical with respect to X'X ;
(x, y) and ( — x, y) with respect to Y'Y ; and (x, y) and ( — x, − y) with
respect to the origin.
15. A line joining two points is bisected at the origin . If the coördinates
of one end are (a, - — b) , what will be the coördinates of the other end ?
16. Consider the bisectors of the angles between the coördinate axes.
What is the relation between the abscissa and ordinate of any point of the
bisector in the first and third quadrants ? second and fourth quadrants ?
17. A square whose side is 2 a has its center at the origin . What will
be the coördinates of its vertices if the sides are parallel to the axes ? if
the diagonals coincide with the axes ?
Ans. (a, a) , (a, —a), (— a, - a), (— a, a) ;
(a √2, 0) , (— a √2, 0) , (0, a √2) , (0, -
— a √2) .
18. An equilateral triangle whose side is a has its base on the axis of
x and the opposite vertex above X'X. What are the vertices of the tri-
angle if the center of the base is at the origin ? if the lower left-hand
vertex is at the origin ?
a αν
Ans . (0, 0) , (a, 0),
', 0), ( −12 , 0), (0, av³);
( 2 2 ).
(a,a√3
11. Lengths. Consider any two given points

P₁ (X,19 Y ), P (X2 Y2).
Then in the figure OM₁ = x₁, OM₂2 = x2, M₁P₁ = Y₁, M₂P2 = Y2
We may now easily prove the important
Theorem. The length l of the line YA
joining two points P₁(x₁ , Y₁ ) , P₂(X2 Y2) P₂(X21Y2)
is given by the formula
(I) _1 = √(x -
− x2) ² + (Y1 -
— Y₂) ².
Proof. Draw lines through P₁ and
P₂2 parallel to the axes to form the X' OM, M₂ X
right triangle P₁SP2·
Then P₁S = OM, — OM₁ = x2 ―
− ×₁
2 2 — M₁P₁1 = Y₂ — Yv
SP₂ = M‚P₂
P,P, = √SP₂2 + P,S" ;

and hence - Q. E. D.
1 = √(x, − x¸) ² + (y₁ — Y₂)².
The same method is used in deriving (I) for any positions of

P₁1 and P₂ ; namely, we construct a right triangle by drawing
lines parallel to the axes through P,1 and P₂. The horizontal
side of this triangle is equal to the difference of the abscissas
of P,1 and P₂, while the vertical side is equal to the difference of
the ordinates . The required length is then the square root of the
sum of the squares of these sides, which gives (I) . A number
of different figures should be drawn to make the method clear .
EXAMPLE
Find the length of the line joining the points (1 , 3) and ( — 5 , 5) .
Solution. Call (1 , 3) P₁ , and ( —5, 5) P2·
Then x₁ = 1 , y₁ = 3,
and X2 5, Y2 = (-5,5)
and substituting in (I) , we have
1 = √(1 + 5)² + (3 − 5) ² = √40 = 2√10. (1,3)
It should be noticed that we are simply
finding the hypotenuse of a right triangle Χ
whose sides are 6 and 2.
Remark. The fact that formula

(I) is true for all positions of the points P, and P, is of funda-
mental importance. The application of this formula to any
given problem is therefore simply a matter of direct substitu-
tion . In deriving such general formulas it is most convenient
to draw the figure so that the points lie in the first quadrant,
or, in general, so that all the quantities assumed as known shall
be positive.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the lengths of the lines joining the following points :
(a) (-4, - 4) and (1 , 3) . Ans. √74.
(b) (-√2, √3) and (√3, √2). Ans . √10.
(c) (0, 0) and Ans. a.

(a, a√3
2 ).
(d) (a + b, c + a) and (c + a, b + c) . Ans. √(b − c)² + (a -
− b)².
2. Find the lengths of the sides of the following triangles :

(a) (0, 6) , ( 1 , 2) , (3, -— 5) .
(b) (1, 0) , ( 1, - 5) , ( -1, -8).
(c) (a, b), (b, c), (c, d) .
(d) (a, -
— b) , (b, — c) , (c, -
— d) .
(e) (0, y), ( — x, -− y) , ( — x , 0) .
3. Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle whose vertices are
(4, 3) , (2, - 2) , ( 3, 5).
4. Show that the points (1 , 4) , (4, 1) , (5, 5) are the vertices of an
isosceles triangle.
· 2) , (2 √3, -
5. Show that the points (2 , 2) , ( — 2 , - − 2√3) are the
vertices of an equilateral triangle.
6. Show that (3, 0) , (6 , 4) , ( — 1 , 3) are the vertices of a right triangle.
What is its area ?
7. Prove that ( — 4, — 2) , (2 , 0) , (8 , 6) , ( 2 , 4) are the vertices of a
parallelogram . Also find the lengths of the diagonals.
8. Show that (11, 2), (6, 10) , ( — 6, - 5), 1, 7) are the vertices
of a square. Find its area.
9. Show that the points (1 , 3) , (2 , √ē) , (2, −√6) are equidistant
from the origin ; that is, show that they lie on a circle with its center at
the origin and its radius equal to the 10.
10. Show that the diagonals of any rectangle are equal.
11. Find the perimeter of the triangle whose vertices are (a, b) , ( — a, b),
(— a, -
— b) .
12. Find the perimeter of the polygon formed by joining the following
points two by two in order : (6, 4) , (4, — 3) , (0, -
− 1) , ( — 5, 4), ( 2, 1) .
13. One end of a line whose length is 13 is the point (-4 , 8) ; the
ordinate of the other end is 3. What is its abscissa ? Ans. 8 or — 16 .
14. What equation must the coördinates of the point (x, y) satisfy if
its distance from the point (7, -2) is equal to 11 ?
15. What equation expresses algebraically the fact that the point (x, y)
is equidistant from the points (2 , 3) and (4, 5) ?
16. Find the length of the line joining P₁ (≈₁, y₁) and P2 (X2, Y½) when
the coördinates are oblique.
Hint. Use the law of cosines , 44, p. 4.
12. Inclination and slope. The angle between two intersecting

directed lines is defined to be the angle made by their positive
directions. In the figures the angle between the directed lines
is the angle marked 0.
If the directed lines are parallel , then the
angle between them is zero or 180°, according
as the positive directions agree or do not
agree.
Evidently the angle between two directed
lines may have any value from 0 to 180°
inclusive. Reversing the direction of either
directed line changes to the supplement 180 ° - 0. If both
X
directions are reversed, the angle is unchanged.
When it is desired to assign a positive direction to a line
intersecting X'X, we shall always assume the upward direction
as positive.
0 =0
The inclination of a line is the angle be-
tween the axis of x and the line when the
latter is given the upward direction . θ=
απ
This amounts to saying that the inclination is the
angle above the x-axis and to the right of the given line, as in the figure.
The slope of a line is the tangent of its inclination .

The inclination of a line will
ΥΛ
be denoted by the Greek letter a,
a, a , a ', etc. (" alpha," etc.) ; its
slope by m, m , m2, m' , etc., so
that m = tan a, mi = tan a,, etc. αι
The inclination may be any X'
angle from 0 to 180° inclusive .
The slope may be any real num-
Y'
ber, since the tangent of an angle.
in the first two quadrants may be any number positive or nega-
tive. The slope of a line parallel to X'X is of course zero, since
ご
1422
CARTESIAN COÖRDINATES 17-

Vite
the inclination is 0 or 180°. For a line parallel to Y'Y the slope
is infinite.
Theorem. The slope m of the line passing through two points

P₁ (×₁, Y₁) , P2 (x2, y2) is given by
(II) m=
X1 - X2
Proof. In the figure
OM₁ = x19 OM = x
x2, 1=
MP₁₁ M₂P₂ = Y2
Draw PS parallel to OX. Then in the right triangle P₂SP₁

since angle PP₂S
2 = a, we have YA
SP
(1) m = tan a =
P₂S
But SP₁ = M₁P₁1 — M₁S P
S
= M₁P₁— M‚P₂ = Y1 − Y₂ 3 τα
and M₂ M
P₂S = M₂M₁
= OM - OM = x₁— x¸·
Substituting these values in (1 ) gives (II) . Q. E. D.

The student should derive ( II) when a is obtuse. *
We next derive the conditions for parallel lines and for per-
pendicular lines in terms of their slopes .
Theorem. If two lines are parallel, their slopes are equal ; if

perpendicular, the slope of one is the negative reciprocal of the
slope of the other, and conversely.
Proof. Let απ and a2 be the inclinations and m1 and ma the
slopes of the lines .
If the lines are parallel, a₁ = =
* To construct a line passing through a given point P₁ whose slope is a pos-

itive fraction a , we mark a point b units to the right of P₁ and a point P2
b a
a units above S, and draw P₁P2 . If the slope is a negative fraction, then
plot Sa units to the left of P1.
18 NEW ANALYTIC GEOMETRY ,
If the lines are perpendicular, as in the figure,

П
α = + α1
2
= tan a₂ = tan
..m2=
(1 + α )
= -- cot a (by 31 , p. 3)
αρ
1
·
tan a1 (By 26, p. 3)
1
.. m2 Q. E.D.
m₁
The converse is proved by retracing the steps with the
assumption, in the second part, that a, is greater than a
PROBLEMS
1. Find the slope of the line joining (1 , 3) and (2 , 7) . Ans. 4.

2. Find the slope of the line joining (2 , 7) and ( — 4, — 4) . Ans . 1.
3. Find the slope of the line joining (√3, √2) and ( −√2, √3) .
Ans. 2√6- 5.
4. Find the slope of the line joining (a + b , c + a), (c + a, b + c) .
b -a
Ans.
C- b
5. Find the slopes of the sides of the triangle whose vertices are (1 , 1) ,
(-1 , -1) , (√3, -√3) . 1 + √3 1 - − √3
Ans. 1 ,
-
J 6. Prove by means of slopes that ( — 4 , - — 2) , (2, 0) , ( 8 , 6) , (2 , 4) are
the vertices of a parallelogram .
7. Prove by means of slopes that (3 , 0) , (6 , 4) , ( − 1 , 3) are the vertices
of a right triangle.
8. Prove by means of slopes that (0, · 2) , (4, 2) , ( 0, 6) , ( — 4, 2) are
the vertices of a rectangle, and hence, by (I) , of a square .
9. Prove by means of their slopes that the diagonals of the square in
Problem 8 are perpendicular.
10. Prove by means of slopes that ( 10, 0) , (5 , 5) , (5 , --— 5) , ( — 5, 5) are
the vertices of a trapezoid .
11. Show that the line joining (a, b) and (c, -
— d) is parallel to the line
joining ( — a , -
— b) and ( — c, d) .
12. Show that the line joining the origin to (a, b) is perpendicular to
the line joining the origin to (— b, a) .
13. What is the inclination of a line parallel to Y'Y ? perpendicular
to Y'Y?
14. What is the slope of a line parallel to Y'Y ? perpendicular to Y'Y?
15. What is the inclination of the line joining (2 , 2) and (— 2, - 2)?
π
Ans.
4
16. What is the inclination of the line joining ( — 2 , 0) and ( — 5, 3) ?
Ans. 3 п
4
17. What is the inclination of the line joining (3 , 0) and (4, √3) ?
π
Ans.
3
18. What is the inclination of the line joining (3, 0) and (2, √3) ?
2π
Ans.
3
19. What is the inclination of the line joining (0, -
— 4) and ( — √3, — 5) '
12
Ans. •
6
20. What is the inclination of the line joining (0, 0) and (— √3, 1) ?
5п
Ans.
6
21. Prove by means of slopes that (2, 3) , ( 1 , − 3 ) , ( 3, 9) lie on the
same straight line.
22. Prove that the points (a, b + c) , (b , c + a) , and (c, a + b) lie on the
same straight line .
23. Prove that (1 , 5) is on the line joining the points (0 , 2) and (2, 8)
and is equidistant from them.
24. Prove that the line joining (3, — 2) and (5, 1 ) is perpendicular to
the line joining (10, 0) and (13, — 2) .
13. Point of division . Let P, and P,2 be two fixed points on a

directed line. Any third point on the line, as P or P', is said
"to divide the line into
P₁ P P2 P
two segments ," and is
called a point of division . The division is called internal or
external according as the point falls within or without P,P2°
The position of the point of division depends upon the ratio
of its distances from P, and P. Since, however, the line is

directed, some convention must be made as to the manner of
reading these distances. We therefore adopt the rule :
If P is a point of division on a directed line passing through 4
P,1 and P , then P is said to divide PP, into the segments P、P
P,P
and PP,. The ratio of division is the value of the ratio *
PP2
We shall denote this ratio by X (Greek letter " lambda ") ,
that is, P₁P
λ = PP2,
If the division is internal, P,P and PP,2 agree in direction

and therefore in sign, and λ is therefore positive. In external
division A is negative.
-1<λ<0 λ=0 20 λ = ο -λα- 1
The sign of a therefore
P P2
indicates whether the
point of division P is within or without the segment P,P₂;
and the numerical value determines whether P lies nearer P,1
or P.
2* The distribution of A is indicated in the figure.
That is, à may have any positive value between P₁ and P29
any negative value between 0 and −1 to the left of P₁, and any
negative value between - 1 and to the right of P. The
value - 1 for λ is excluded .
Introducing coördinates, we next prove the
Theorem. Point of division . The coördinates (x, y) ofthe point L
of division P on the line joining P₁ (x , y ) , P (x2 y2), such that
the ratio of the segments is
P₁P
=- λ, P
PP2
are given by the formulas

x1 + xxz 41 + λψε και
X
(III) x= " y=
1 +λ O M₁ M M₂2X
1+λ
* To assist the memory in writing down this ratio, notice that the point of
division P is written last in the numerator and first in the denominator.
ᏢᏢ .
Proof. Given λ
PP,2
Draw the ordinates M,P,, MP, and MP . Then, by geometry,

these ordinates will intercept proportional segments on the
transversals PP, and OX ; that is, *
M₁M = P₁P
1
(1) MM PP2
But M₁M = OM -— OM₁ = XX -X19

MM₂2 = OM₂- OM = —
= X2 — X,
P₁P =
and, by hypothesis, λ,
PP,2
X x1
Substituting in (1) , = λ.
x2 - x
Clearing of fractions and solving for x,
x = X1 + XX2.
1+ λ
Similarly, by drawing the abscissas of P , P, and P,2 to the

Y₁ + dy2. Q. E. D.
axis of y we may prove y=
1+λ
Corollary. Middle point. The coördinates (x, y) of the middle

point of the line joining P₁1 (x , y₁) , P2 (x» Y½) are found by taking
the averages of the given abscissas and ordinates ; that is,
(IV) x = 1 (x1 + x2), y = 1 (Y₁ + Y₂) ·

P₁P
For if P is the middle point of PP , then λ = PP2 == 1 , and
substituting λ = 1 in (III) gives (IV) .
To apply (III), mark the point of division P, the extremities
of the line to be divided P, and P₂, and make sure that the value
of a satisfies λ = P₁P ÷ PP₂
* Care must be taken to read the segments on the transversals (since we are
dealing with directed lines) so that they all have positive directions.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the point P dividing P₁ (-1 , 6) , P₂ (3, 0) in the ratio
Solution. By the statement,

(3,0)
P₁P 1 X 0 P₂ X
PP
Hence, applying (III) , x₁ = - 1, y₁ = — 6,
X2 = 3, Y₂ = 0.
x= -1-1.3-7 23, P (-1; 6)
1-1 #
6-1.0 -6
y= 8. P
1-1
Hence P is (- 2} , — 8) . Ans.
The result is checked by plotting . The point P lies outside the seg-
ment P₁P,2 and the length of P₁P is four times that of PP2.
2. Center of gravity of a triangle. Find the coördinates of the point
of intersection of the medians of a triangle whose
vertices are (x1 , Y1) , (X2, Y2) , (X3 , Y3) . A (x1 , y1 )
Solution. By plane geometry we have to find
the point P on the median AD such that AP = =
AD ; that is, AP : PD :: 2 : 1 , or λ = 2.
By the corollary, D is [ (x2 + x3) , { (Y₂ + Y3) ] .
B C
To find P, apply (III), remembering that A (X2 Y2) (X3,Y3)
corresponds to (x₁, y₁ ) and D to (X2, Y2).
This gives x = X1 + 2 · † (X2 + X3) ." y = Y₁ +2 . (Y₂ + Y3)

1+ 2 1+ 2
.. X = } (X1 + X2 + X3), y = } (Y₁ + Y₂ + Yg) . Ans.
Hence the abscissa of the intersection of the medians of a triangle is

the average of the abscissas of the vertices, and similarly for the ordinate.
The symmetry of these answers is evidence that the particular median
chosen is immaterial, and the formulas therefore prove the fact of the
intersection of the medians.
The result just found admits of extension to any polygon, and, with
formulas (IV) , illustrates the fact that the coördinates of centers of
gravity are found by taking average values.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the coördinates of the middle point of the line joining (4, - 6)
and (-2, — 4) . Ans. (1, — 5) .
2. Find the coördinates of the middle point of the line joining
(a + b, c + d) and (a — b , d — c) . Ans. (a, d) .
3. Find the middle points of the sides of the triangle whose vertices
are (2, 3) , (4, -
— 5) , and ( — 3, — 6) . Also find the lengths of the medians.
4. Find the coördinates of the point which divides the line joining
(— 1, 4) and ( — 5, - 8) in the ratio 1 : 3. Ans. (-2, 1) .
(-3, ― 5) and (6, 9) in the ratio 2 : 5. Ans. (— , — 1) .
(2, 6) and ( — 4 , 8) into segments whose ratio is — § . Ans. (-22, 14) .
(— 3, — 4) and (5, 2) into segments whose ratio is -
— . Ans. ( — 19, -
— 16) .
8. Find the coördinates of the points which trisect the line joining
the points ( 2, — 1) and (3, 2) . Ans. (-1 , 0) , ( 3 , 1) .
9. Prove that the middle point of the hypotenuse of a right triangle
is equidistant from the three vertices.
10. Show that the diagonals of the parallelogram whose vertices are
(1, 2), ( — 5, — 3) , ( 7, — 6) , ( 1 , - 11) bisect each other.
11. Prove that the diagonals of any parallelogram bisect each other.
12. Show that the lines joining the middle points of the opposite sides
of the quadrilateral whose vertices are (6, 8) , ( — 4 , 0) , ( — 2 , — 6) , (4, — 4)
bisect each other.
13. In the quadrilateral of Problem 12 show by means of slopes that the
lines joining the middle points of the adjacent sides form a parallelogram .
14. Show that in the trapezoid whose vertices are ( — 8 , 0) , ( — 4 , — 4) ,
(— 4, 4), and (4, -— 4) the length of the line joining the middle points of
the nonparallel sides is equal to one half the sum of the lengths of the
parallel sides. Also prove that it is parallel to the parallel sides.
15. In what ratio does the point ( — 2 , 3) divide the line joining the
points ( 3, 5) and (4 , — 9) ? Ans. 1.
16. In what ratio does the point (16, 3) divide the line joining the
- 5, 0) and (2 , 1) ?
points (— Ans. -- }.
17. In any triangle show that a line joining the middle points of any
two sides is parallel to the third side and equal to one half of it.
18. If (2, 1) , (3, 3) , (6, 2) are the middle points of the sides of a triangle,
what are the coördinates of the vertices of the triangle ?
Ans. ( 1 , 2) , (5, 0) , ( 7, 4) .
19. Three vertices of a parallelogram are (1, 2) , ( — 5 , — 3) , (7, — 6) .
What are the coördinates of the fourth vertex ?
Ans. (1,11 ) , ( -11 , 5) , or (13, -− 1) .
20. The middle point of a line is (6, 4) , and one end of the line is (5, 7) .
What are the coördinates of the other end ? Ans . (7, 1 ) .
21. The vertices of a triangle are (2, 3) , (4, - — 5) , ( — 3 , — 6) . Find the
coördinates of the point where the medians intersect (center of gravity) .
14. Areas . In this section the problem of determining the

area of any polygon, the coördinates of whose vertices are
given, will be solved . We begin with the
Theorem. The area of a triangle whose vertices are the origin,
P₁ (x,19 y ) , and P₂ (x2, Y₂) is given by the formula
(V.) Area of ▲ OPP₂2 = (X₁Y₂ - — X₂Y1) ·
Proof. In the figure let

a = ≤ XOP,19 P2(X2 Y2 )
P(XY )
B (Greek " beta ") = XOP29
℗ (Greek " theta ” ) = ≤ P₁OP2.
(1) 0= ẞ- — α. M2 M₁ X
By 45 , p . 4 ,
(2) Д OPP₂ =
Area ▲ OP₁1 · OP₂2 sin 0
= OP₁ · OP,2 sin (ß — a) (by (1) )
(3) = OPOP (sin ẞ B sin a).
ß cos acos ẞ
(By 34, p. 3)
But in the figure
MaP2 Y2 OM2
X2
9
sin B - =
OP 2
=
cos B = =
OP2 OP2
OP₂
OM
sin a =
M,P - 3/1
" COS α = = X1
OP1 OP₁ OP₁ OP1
Substituting in (3) and reducing, we obtain
Area A OPP = } (x,y₂ - — x¸‚y₁) . Q. E. D.
EXAMPLE
Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are the origin , ( −2, 4) ,
and (— 5, — 1) .
|(-2,4) Y+
Solution. Denote ( -2, 4) by P₁, ( — 5, — 1)
by P2. Then
x₁ = -2, y₁ = 4 , X₂ = -5 , Y₂ = -1 . (1,1)
Substituting in (V) ,
Area = [−2 . ·1 − (− 5) · 4] = 11 .
Then area 11 unit squares.
If, however, the formula (V) is applied by denoting ( -2 , 4) by P2,
and ( — 5, — 1) by P₁ , the result will be -
— 11 .
The two figures for this example are drawn below.
The cases ofpositive and negative area are distinguished by the
Theorem. Passing around the Pa
Ꭱ
perimeter in the order of the
vertices 0, P1, P27
411 11
ifthe area is on the left, as in
Fig. 1, then (V) gives a posi-
tive result; P
FIG. 1 FIG. 2
if the area is on the right, as
in Fig. 2, then (V) gives a negative result.
Proof. In the formula
(4) Area ▲ OP¸P₂

1 2 = { OP₁ · OP₂2 sin 0
the angle is measured from OP, to OP, within the triangle.
Hence is positive when the area P₂ P
lies to the left in passing around P P
the perimeter O, P , P , as in Fig. 1 , 8+
since is then measured counter-
clockwise (p. 2) . But in Fig. 2, 0 is FIG. 1 FIG. 2
measured clockwise. Hence is negative and sin 0 in (4 ) is
also negative . Q. E. D.
We apply (V) to any triangle by regarding its area as made
up of triangles with the origin as a common vertex.
Theorem. The area of a triangle whose vertices are P₁ (x₁, Y₁ ) ,

P2 (X2 Y2) , P3 (X3 , Y3) is given by
(VI) Area ▲ Ð¸Ð₂P3 = { (X₁Y2 — X2Y1 + X2Y3 − X3Y2 + X3Y1 — X1Y3).
This formula gives a positive or negative result according as
the area lies to the left or right in passing around the perimeter
in the order P,1 P,2 P₂3 P P₂
Po Ꭱ
Proof. Two cases must be distin-
guished according as the origin is
within or without the triangle.
Fig. 1, origin within the triangle. P P3
By inspection , FIG. 1 FIG. 2
(5) Area Δ PPP

Ρ Ρ Ρ = ΔΟΡ1Ρ2 + ΔΟΡ Ρ + ΔΟΡΡ19
since these areas all have the same sign.
Fig. 2, origin without the triangle. By inspection,
1
(6) Area Δ Ρ1Ρ Ρ3 = ΔΟΡ 1Ρ 2 + ΔΟΡ Ρ + ΔΟΡΡ 19
since OPP , OPP, have the same sign, but OPP, the opposite
sign, the algebraic sum giving the desired area.
---
By (V) , 1 2 = (x¸¥2 — X2Y1) ,
▲ ƒÐ¸Ð½
ΔΟΡΡ
▲ OPP = (x23 — XzY2) ,
and ΔΟΡ
▲OPP₁Ρ = †( 1 - x₁Y3) .
Substituting in (5) and (6) , we have (VI).
Also in (5) the area is positive, in ( 6) negative. Q. E. D.
An easy way to apply (VI) is given by the following
Rule for finding the area of a triangle. X1 Y1

X2 Y2
First step. Write down the vertices in two columns,
abscissas in one, ordinates in the other, repeating the xs Ys
coördinates of the first vertex. X1 Y1
Second step. Multiply each abscissa by the ordinate of the
next row , and add results. This gives x₁₂ + x2Y3 + X3Y1
x;
Third step. Multiply each ordinate by the abscissa of the next
row, and add results. This gives y₁x2 + Y2x3 + Yzxr
Fourth step. Subtract the result of the third step from that
of the second step, and divide by 2. This gives the required
area, namely formula (VI).
Formula (VI) may be readily memorized by remarking that
the right-hand member is a determinant of simple form, namely
X1 ₁
x₁ Y1 1
Area APPP3 = X2 Y2 1 .
x3 y3 1
In fact, when this determinant is expanded by the usual
rule, the result, when divided by 2, is precisely (VI) .
It is easy to show that the above rule applies to any polygon
if the following caution be observed in the first step :
Write down the coördinates of the vertices in an order agreeing
with that established by passing continuously around the perim-
eter, and repeat the coördinates of the first vertex.
EXAMPLE
Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices are ( 1, 6) , ( — 3, −4) ,
(2, − 2) , ( — 1 , 3) .
634 26
1 6
Solution. Plotting, we have the figure from which we choose -- 1
the order of the vertices as indicated by the arrows. Following -3
the rule : 2
First step. Write down the vertices in order. 1
Second step. Multiply each abscissa by the
ordinate of the next row, and add . This gives
(1,6)
1 × 3+ ( -1x - − 4) + ( − 3 x − 2) + 2 × 6 = 25.
Third step. Multiply each ordinate by the
abscissa of the next row, and add . This gives (-1,3)
t
6x - 1 + 3 x -− 3 + ( − 4 × 2 ) + ( − 2 × 1 ) = — 25.
Fourth step. Subtract the result of the third
step from the result of the second step, and
divide by 2.
25 + 25 = (2 ,-2)
.. Area - 25 unit squares. Ans.
2
The result has the positive sign, since the (-3,-4)
area is on the left.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (2, 3), (1 , 5) ,
(− 1 , −2) . Ans..
2. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (2, 3) , (4 , — 5),
(— 3, — 6) . Ans. 29.
3. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (8, 3) , ( — 2, 3) ,
(4, 5) . Ans. 40.
4. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (a, 0), ( — a, 0) ,
(0, b). Ans. ab.
5. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (0, 0) , (X1, Y1) ,
(X2, Y2). -
Ans . 12 — X2Y1 .
2
6. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are ( a, 1) , ( 0, b) , (c, 1) .
(a -
— c) (b − 1) .
Ans.
2
7. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are ( a, b), (b, a) ,
-c) .
(c, — Ans. (a² — b²) .
✔8. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (3, 0) , (0, 3 √3) ,
(6, 3√3). Ans. 9√3.
9. Prove that the area of the triangle whose vertices are the points
(2, 3) , (5, 4) , ( — 4, 1) is zero, and hence that these points all lie on the
same straight line.
(a, b + c), (b, c + a) , (c, a + b) is zero, and hence that these points all lie
on the same straight line.
(a, c + a), ( — c, 0) , ( — a, c — a) is zero, and hence that these points all
lie on the same straight line .
12. Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices are ( — 2, 3) ,
(— 3, — 4) , ( 5 , — 1) , (2, 2) . Ans. 31 .
13. Find the area of the pentagon whose vertices are (1 , 2) , (3, -
— 1) ,
− 2) , (2 , 5) , (4 , 4) . Ans. 18.
Jo,
14. Find the area of the parallelogram whose vertices are (10, 5) ,
(-2, 5) , (— 5, — 3) , (7, — 3). Ans. 96.
15. Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices are (0, 0) , (5, 0) ,
(9, 11), (0, 3). Ans. 41 .
16. Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices are (7, 0) , ( 11, 9) ,
(0, 5), (0, 0) . Ans. 59.
17. Show that the area of the triangle whose vertices are (4, 6) , (2, -— 4) ,
- 4, 2) is four times the area of the triangle formed by joining the
(—
middle points of the sides.
18. Show that the lines drawn from the vertices (3 , – 8) , ( — 4, 6) ,
(7, 0) to the point of intersection of the medians of the triangle divide
it into three triangles of equal area.
19. Given the quadrilateral whose vertices are (0, 0) , (6, 8) , (10, — 2) ,
(4, -
— 4) ; show that the area of the quadrilateral formed by joining the
middle points of its adjacent sides is equal to one half the area of the
given quadrilateral .
CHAPTER III
CURVE AND EQUATION
15. Locus of a point satisfying a given condition . The curve *

(or group of curves) passing through all points which satisfy
a given condition , and through no other points, is called the
locus of the point satisfying that condition .
For example, in plane geometry, the following results are
proved :
The perpendicular bisector of the line joining two fixed
points is the locus of all points equidistant from these points .
The bisectors of the adjacent angles formed by two lines are
the locus of all points equidistant from these lines.
To solve any locus problem involves two things :
1. To draw the locus by constructing a sufficient number of
points satisfying the given condition and therefore lying on
the locus.
2. To discuss the nature of the locus ; that is, to determine
properties of the curve.
Analytic geometry is peculiarly adapted to the solution of
both parts of a locus problem.
16. Equation of the locus of a point satisfying a given condition .
Let us take up the locus problem, making use of coördinates.
We imagine the point P (x, y) moving in such a manner that
the given condition is fulfilled. Then the given condition will
lead to an equation involving the variables x and y. The
following example illustrates this.
* The word curve " will hereafter signify any continuous line, straight
or curved .
30
CURVE AND EQUATION 31
EXAMPLE
The point P (x, y) moves so that it is always equidistant from

A ( — 2, 0) and B ( — 3 , 8 ) . Find the equation of the locus.
Solution. Let P(x, y) be any point on the locus. Then by
the given condition
YA
(1) PA = PB. B ( 3,8)
But, by formula (I) , p. 13,
-
PA = √(x + 2)² + (y — 0)²,
P
and PB = 1
√(x + 3) ² + (y − 8)².
Substituting in (1) ,
(2) √(x + 2)² + (y − 0)² A(-2,0 ) O

= √(x + 3)² + (y — 8)².
Squaring and reducing,

2x -·16 y + 69 = 0.
(3)
In the equation (3) , x and y are variables representing the

coördinates of any point on the locus ; that is , of any point
on the perpendicular bisector of the line AB. This equation
is called the equation of the locus ; that is, it is the equation of
the perpendicular bisector CP. It has two important and
characteristic properties :
1. The coördinates of any point on the locus may be sub-
stituted for x and y in the equation (3) , and the result will be
true.
1 = P¸B,
For let P₁ (x , y ) be any point on the locus. Then P₁A
by definition. Hence, by formula ( I) , p. 13 ,
(4) √(x¸ + 2)² + y² = √(x¸ + 3)² + (y₁ − 8)²,
or, squaring and reducing,
(5) 2x - 16y, + 69 = 0.
But this equation is obtained by substituting a, and y₁ for x

and y respectively in (3) . Therefore x, and y, satisfy (3) .
2. Conversely, every point whose coördinates satisfy (3) will
lie upon the locus.
For if P₁1 (x , y₁ ) is a point whose coördinates satisfy (3) , then
(5) is true, and hence also (4) holds. Q. E. D.
In particular, the coördinates of the middle point C of A
and B, namely, x = —--2 , y = 4 (IV, p. 21) , satisfy (3) , since
2 (-21) -16 × 4 + 69 = 0.
This discussion leads to the definition :
The equation of the locus of a point satisfying a given condi-
tion is an equation in the variables x and y representing coör-
dinates such that (1) the coördinates of every point on the
locus will satisfy the equation ; and (2) conversely, every point
whose coördinates satisfy the equation will lie upon the locus .
This definition shows that the equation of the locus must be
tested in two ways after derivation , as illustrated in the exam-
ple of this section . The student should supply this test in the
examples and problems of Art. 17.
From the above definition follows at once the
Corollary. A point lies upon a curve when and only when its
coördinates satisfy the equation of the curve.
17. First fundamental problem. To find the equation of a
curve which is defined as the locus of a point satisfying a given
condition.
The following rule will suffice for the solution of this prob-
lem in many cases :
Rule. First step. Assume that P (x, y) is any point satisfying
the given condition, and is therefore on the curve..
Second step. Write down the given condition.
Third step. Express the given condition in coördinates and
simplifythe result. The final equation, containing x, y, and the
given constants of the problem, will be the required equation.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the straight line passing through P₁ (4, -− 1)

3п•
and having an inclination of
4
Solution. First step. Assume P (x, y) any point on the line.
Second step. The given condition, since the
π
inclination a is 3 , may be written
4
(1) slope of P₁P: tan α- 1. P
3π
4
Third step. From (II), p. 17,
(41) X
y+ P
(2) slope of P₁P = tan a = X1 - X2 X- 4
[By substituting (x, y) for (x , y₁ ) , and (4, 1 ) for (X , Y ) . ]

y +1
Therefore, from ( 1) , 1, or
x- 4
(3) = 3 - 0. Ans .
x+y-
2. Find the equation of a straight line parallel to the axis of y and at

a distance of 6 units to the right.
Solution. First step. Assume that P(x, y) Y
is any point on the line, and draw NP per-
pendicular to OY. N P
xy)
Second step. The given condition may be
written
(4) NP = 6.
Third step. Since NP = OM = x, (4) be- 0
comes MX
(5) x = 6. Ans.
3. Find the equation of the locus of a point whose distance from

( 1 , 2) is always equal to 4.
Solution. First step. Assume that P (x, y) is any point on the locus.
Second step. Denoting ( — 1 , 2) by C, the given condition is
(6) PC 4.
Third step. By formula (I ) , p. 13,

PC = √(x + 1)² + (y − 2)² .
Substituting in (6), P (x,y)
√(x + 1 )² + (y — 2)² = 4. C
Squaring and reducing, ( -1,2 )
(7) x² + y² + 2x 4y - 110. 0
This is the required equation, namely,
the equation of the circle whose center is
(− 1 , 2) and radius equal to 4.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equation of a line parallel to OY and

(a) at a distance of 4 units to the right .
(b) at a distance of 7 units to the left.
(c) at a distance of 2 units to the right of (3, 2) .
(d) at a distance of 5 units to the left of (2, — 2) .
2. Find the equation of a line parallel to OX and
(a) at a distance of 3 units above OX.
(b) at a distance of 6 units below OX.
- 3) .
(c) at a distance of 7 units above ( — 2 , −
(d) at a distance of 5 units below (4, - 2).
3. What is the equation of XX' ? of YY' ?
4. Find the equation of a line parallel to the line x = 4 and 3 units
to the right of it ; 8 units to the left of it.
5. Find the equation of a line parallel to the line y --- 2 and 4 units
below it ; 5 units above it.
6. What is the equation of the locus of a point which moves always
at a distance of 2 units from the axis of x ? from the axis of y ? from
the line x = - 5 ? from the line y : 4 ?
7. What is the equation of the locus of a point which moves so as to
be equidistant from the lines x = 5 and x 9 ? equidistant from y == 3
and y = 7?
8. What are the equations of the sides of the rectangle whose vertices
are (5, 2) , (5, 5) , ( —2 , 2) , ( −2, 5) ?
In Problems 9 and 10, P,1 is a given point on the required line, m is

the slope of the line, and a its inclination.
9. What is the equation of a line if
(a) P₁1 is (0, 3) and m = — 3? Ans. 3x + y -− 3 = 0.
(b) P₁1 is ( — 4, — 2) and m = Ans. x -- 3y - 2 = 0.
(c) P₁1 is (-2, 3) and m = Ans. √2x - 2y + 6 + 2 √2 = 0.

(d) P₁1 is (0, 5) and m = 2 Ans. √3x - 2 y + 10 = 0.
✓ (e) P₁1 is (0, 0) and m = — } ? Ans. 2x + 3y = 0.
(f) P₁1 is (a, b) and m = 0? Ans. y = b.
(g) P₁1 is ( a, b) and m = ∞ ? Ans. xa .
10. What is the equation of a line if
(a) P1 is (2, 3) and a = 45° ? Ans. x - y + 1 = 0.
(b) P1 is (-1 , 2) and a = 45° ? Ans. x- y + 3 = 0.
(c) P₁1 is (-a, - — b) and a = 45°? Ans. x- y- a.
(d) P₁1 is (5, 2) and a = 60° ? Ans. √3x - y + 25√3 = 0.
(e) P₁1 is (0, - 7) and a =: 60° ? Ans. √3x - y — 7 = 0 .
(f) P₁1 is ( 4, 5) and a = 0°? Ans. = 5.
(g) P₁ is (2, - 3) and a 90° ? Ans. x == 2 .
(h) P1 is (3,3√3) and a = 120° ? Ans . √3x + y = 0 .
(i ) P₁1 is (0, 3) and a 150° ? Ans. √3x + 3y -— 9 = 0.
(j ) P₁1 is (a, b) and a = 135° ? Ans. x + y = a + b.
11. Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the
points
(a) (2, 3) and (— 4, - 5) . Ans. 4x - 3y + 1 = 0.
Hint. Find the slope by (II) , p. 17, and then proceed as in Problem 9.
(b) (2,5) and ( — 1 , 9) . Ans. 14x + 3y — 13 = 0.
(c) - 1 , 6) and (6, - 2) . Ans. 8x + 7y - — 34 = 0.
- 3) and (4, 0) .
(d) (0, − Ans. 3x4 y ---- — 12 = 0.
(e) (8,4) and ( — 1 , 2) . Ans. 2x + 3y - — 4 = 0.
12. Find the equation of the circle with
(a) center at (3, 2) and radius = 4. Ans. x² + y² - 6x4y3 = 0.
(b) center at (12 , — 5) and r = 13. Ans. x² + y² - 24x + 10 y = 0.
(c) center at (0, 0) and radius = r. Ans. x² + y² = r².
(d) center at (0, 0) and r = 5. Ans. x² + y2 = 25.
(e) center at (3 a , 4 a) and r = 5a . Ans. x² + y² — 2 a (3x + 4y) = 0.
(f) center at (b + c, b - c) and r = c.
Ans. x² + y² - — 2 (b + c) x − 2 (b − c) y + 2 b² + c² = 0.
13. Find the equation of a circle whose center is (5, 4) and whose
circumference passes through the point ( — 2, 3) .
14. Find the equation of a circle having the line joining (3, -
— 5) and
(-2, 2) as a diameter.
15. Find the equation of a circle touching each axis at a distance 6 units
from the origin.
16. Find the equation of a circle whose center is the middle point of
the line joining ( -6 , 8) to the origin and whose circumference passes
through the point (2 , 3) .
17. A point moves so that its distances from the two fixed points
(2, - 3) and ( 1 , 4) are equal. Find the equation of the locus.
Ans. 3x - 7 y + 2 = 0 .
18. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining
(a) (2 , 1) , ( — 3, — 3) . Ans. 10x + 8 y + 13 = 0.
(b) (3, 1) , (2 , 4) . Ans. x ·3y + 5 = 0.
(c) ( — 1 , − 1) , (3, 7) . Ans. x + 2y -- 7 = 0.
(d) (0, 4) , (3, 0). Ans. 6x8y + 7 = 0.
(e) (X1 , Y1) , (X2, Y2) .
Ans. 2 (x1 — X2) x + 2 (Y1 − Y2) Y + x2² − x1² + Y½² — Y₁² = 0.
19. Show that in Problem 18 the coördinates of the middle point of the
line joining the given points satisfy the equation of the perpendicular
bisector.
20. Find the equations of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the
triangle (4, 8) , (10, 0) , (6, 2) . Show that they meet in the point (11, 7) .
18. Locus of an equation. The preceding sections have illus-

trated the fact that a locus problem in analytic geometry leads
at once to an equation in the variables x and y. This equation
having been found or being given, the complete solution of the
locus problem requires two things, as already noted in Art. 15
of this chapter, namely :
1. To draw the locus by plotting a sufficient number of
points whose coördinates satisfy the given equation, and through
which the locus therefore passes .
2. To discuss the nature of the locus ; that is , to determine
properties of the curve.
These two problems are respectively called :

1. Plotting the locus of an equation (second fundamental
problem).
2. Discussing an equation (third fundamental problem).
For the present, then, we concentrate our attention upon some
given equation in the variables x and y (one or both) and start
out with the definition :
The locus of an equation in two variables representing coördi-
nates is the curve or group of curves passing through all points
whose coördinates satisfy that equation, * and through such
points only.
From this definition the truth of the following theorem is at
once apparent :
Theorem I. If the form of the given equation be changed in
any way (for example, by transposition, by multiplication by a
constant, etc.) , the locus is entirely unaffected.
We now take up in order the solution of the second and third
fundamental problems.
19. Second fundamental problem.
Rule to plot the locus of a given equation.
First step. Solve the given equation for one of the variables
in terms of the other.†
* An equation in the variables x and y is not necessarily satisfied by the
coördinates of any points. For coördinates are real numbers, and the form of
the equation may be such that it is satisfied by no real values of x and y. For
example, the equation x² + y² +1 = 0
is of this sort, since, when x and y are real numbers, x2 and y2 are necessarily
positive (or zero) , and consequently x2 +y2 + 1 is always a positive number
greater than or equal to 1 , and therefore not equal to zero. Such an equation
therefore has no locus. The expression " the locus of the equation is imagi-
nary " is also used.
An equation may be satisfied by the coördinates of a finite number of points
only. For example , x² + y² = 0 is satisfied by x = 0, y = 0, but by no other real
values. In this case the group of points, one or more, whose coördinates sat-
isfy the equation , is called the locus of the equation.
† The form of the given equation will often be such that solving for one vari-
able is simpler than solving for the other. Always choose the simpler solution.
Second step. By this formula compute the values of the vari-

able for which the equation has been solved by assuming real
values for the other variable.
Third step. Plot the points corresponding to the values so
determined.
Fourth step. If the points are numerous enough to suggest
the general shape of the locus, draw a smooth curve through
the points.
Since there is no limit to the number of points which may
be computed in this way, it is evident that the locus may be
drawn as accurately as may be desired by simply plotting a
sufficiently large number of points .
Several examples will now be worked out. The arrangement
of the work should be carefully noted.
EXAMPLES
1. Draw the locus of the equation

2x - 3y + 6 = 0 .
Solution. First step. Solving for y,
(0,2)
y = 3x + 2.
Second step. Assume values for x and com- (-3,0) 0
pute y, arranging results in the form of the
accompanying table :
Thus , if
x y x y
x = 1 , y = 2.1+ = 2 ,
012
21
r = 2, y = 2.2 + 2 = 31, 0 2
1 23 - 11
etc.
2 83 -2
Third step. Plot the points found . 3 -3 0
Fourth step. Draw a smooth curve 4 -4
423
through these points. etc. etc. etc.
etc.
2. Plot the locus of the equation
y = x² - 2x - 3.
Solution. First step. The equation as given is solved for y.
Second step. Computing y by assuming values of x, we find the table of

values below : 17
*
x y x y
1111
3435
012 3
30
012 3
-3 0
-3 2 5
3 0 3 12
4 5 -4 21
5 12 etc. etc.
6 21
etc. etc.
Third step. Plot the points.

Fourth step. Draw a smooth curve through these points. This gives
the curve of the figure.
x² + y² + 6x - 16 = 0.
Solution. First step. Solving for y,
y = ± √16 -− 6 x — x² .
Second step . Compute y by assuming values of x. For this purpose the
table of Art. 5 will be found convenient.
x y x y
012 367
+4 0 +4
+3 1 ± 4.6
0 ± 4.9
imag. +5
4 66 4 4.9 0
335
5 66 5 4.6
66 -6 +4
66 -7 +3
8 0
- 9 imag.
For example, if x = − 1 , y = ± √16 + 6 − 1 = √21 = ± 4.6,

if x = 3, y = V16-18-9 V- 11,
an imaginary number.
Third step. Plot the corresponding points.

Fourth step. Draw a smooth curve through these points.
The student will doubtless remark that the locus of Example 1, p . 38,
appears to be a straight line, and also that the locus of Example 3, p. 39,
appears to be a circle. This is, in fact, the case. But the proof must be
reserved for later sections.
PROBLEMS
1. Plot the locus of each of the following equations :

(a) x + 2y = 0. ( i ) x = y² + 2y - 3. ( q ) x² + y² = 25.
(b) x + 2y = 3. ( j ) 4 x = y³. (r ) x² + y² + 9x = 0.
(c) 3x - y + 5 = 0. ( k ) 4x = y³ — 1 . ( s ) x² + y² + 4y = 0.
(d) y = 4x². ( 1 ) y = x³ — 1 . (t ) x² + y² - 6x — 16 = 0.
(e) x² + 4y = 0. (m) y. - x3 -- x. (u) x² + y² — 6 y -— 16 = 0.
(*) y = x² - 3. ( n ) y = x³ — x² — 5 . ( v ) 4y = x² -— 8.
(g) x² + 4 y − 5 = 0 . ( 0 ) x² + y² = 4. (w) 4x = y¹ +8.
(h) y = x² + x + 1 . (p ) x² + y² = 9. (x) 4y² = x³ — 1 .
The following problem illustrates the
Theorem. If an equation can be put in the form of a product of variable
factors equal to zero, the locus is found by setting each factor equal to zero
and plotting each equation separately.
2. Draw the locus of 4 x2 - 9 y2 = 0.
Solution. Factoring,
(1) (2x - 3y) (2x + 3 y) = 0.
Then, by the theorem, the locus consists of the straight lines
(2) 2x - 3y = 0, and
(3) 2x + 3y = 0.
Proof. 1. The coördinates ofany point (x1 , y1 ) which satisfy (1) will satisfy
either (2) or (3) .
For if (x1 , y1) satisfies (1) ,
(4) (2 x₁ -
— 3 y₁ ) (2 x₁ + 3 y₁ ) = 0.
This product can vanish only when one of the factors is zero. Hence
either 2 x₁ -
— 3 y₁ = 0,
and therefore (x₁ , y₁ ) satisfies (2) ;
or 2x1 + 3y₁ = 0,
and therefore (x₁ , y₁ ) satisfies (3) .
2. A point (x1 , y1 ) on either of the lines defined by (2) and (3) will also lie
on the locus of (1) .
For if (x1 , y₁ ) is on the line 2x - 3y = 0, then (Corollary, p. 32)
(5) 2x1-3 y₁ = 0.
Hence the product (2x₁ - — 3 y₁ ) (2x₁ + 3y₁) also vanishes, since by (5)
the first factor is zero, and therefore (x1 , y₁ ) satisfies (1) .
Therefore every point on the locus of ( 1 ) is also on the locus of (2) and
(3) , and conversely. This proves the theorem for this example. Q. E.D.
3. Show that the locus of each of the following equations is a pair of

straight lines, and plot the lines :
(a) xy -= 0. ( 1 ) x² y² + x + y = 0.
(b) x2 = 9 y2. (m) x² - 3xy 4 y² = 0.
(c) x² - y² = 0. (n ) x² - xy + 5 x -− 5y = 0.
(d) y² -
— 6y = 7. (0 ) x² — 4 y² + 5x + 10 y = 0.
(e) xy - 2x = 0. (p) x² + 2xy + y² + x + y = 0.
(f) 9 x² -
— y² = 0. (q ) x² + 3 xy + 2 y² + x + y = 0.
(g) x² - 3xy = 0. ( r ) x² — 2xy + y² + 6x − 6 y = 0.
(h) y² + 4xy = 0 . ( s ) 3x² + xy — 2 y² + 6x - 4y = 0 .
(i ) x² -4x - 5 = 0. ( t ) 3x² - 2xy — y² + 5 x -− 5 y = 0.
(j ) xy- 2x² - 3 x = 0. — 5 y² + 2 x -
(u ) x² - 4xy - − 10 y = 0.
(k) - 5xy + 6 y = 0.
y² — (v) x² + 4xy + 4y² + 5x + 10y + 6 = 0.
4. Show that the locus of Ax² + Bx + C = 0 is a pair of parallel lines,

a single line, or that there is no locus according as ▲ = B24 AC is
positive, zero, or negative.
5. Show that the locus of Ax² + Bxy + Cy² = 0 is a pair of intersect-

ing lines, a single line, or a point according as ▲ = B2 4 AC is positive ,
zero, or negative .
6. Show that the following equations have no locus (footnote, p . 37) :

(a) x² + y² + 1 = 0. (e) (x + 1 ) ² + y² + 4 = 0.
(b) 2x² + 3y² - 8. ( f) x² + y² + 2 x + 2y + 3 = 0 .
(c) x² + 4 = 0. (g) 4x² + y² + 8x + 5 = 0.
(d) x + y² + 8 = 0. (h) y + 2x² + 4 = 0.
(i) 9 x² + 4 y² + 18x + 8 y + 15 = 0.
Hint. Write each equation in the form of a sum of squares, and reason as
in the footnote on page 37 .
20. Third fundamental problem. Discussion of an equation.

The method explained of solving the second fundamental prob-
lem gives no knowledge of the required curve except that it
passes through all the points whose coördinates are determined
as satisfying the given equation. Joining these points gives a
curve more or less like the exact locus. Serious errors may be
made in this way, however, since the nature of the curve between
any two successive points plotted is not determined. This objec-
tion is somewhat obviated by determining before plotting cer-
tain properties of the locus by a discussion of the given equation
now to be explained.
The nature and properties of a locus depend upon the form
of its equation, and hence the steps of any discussion must
depend upon the particular problem. In every case , however,
certain questions should be answered. These questions will
now be presented.
· 1. Is the curve symmetrical with respect to either axis of coör-

dinates or with respect to the origin ?
To answer this question we may proceed as in the following

example :
EXAMPLE
Discuss the symmetry of the locus of
(1) x² + 4y² = 16.
Solution. The equation contains no odd powers of x or y;

hence it may be written in any one of the forms
-
(2) (x)² + 4 ( − y ) ² = 16, replacing (x, y) by (x, − y) ;
(3) (− x) ² + 4 (y ) ² = 16, replacing (x, y) by ( − x, y) ;
(4) (−x) ² + 4 ( − y) ² = 16, replacing (x, y) by ( −x, − y).
The transformation of (1) into ( 2) corresponds in the figure

to replacing each point P (x, y) on the curve by the point
Q (x, y). But the points P and Q are symmetrical with

respect to XX', and (1) and (2) have the same locus (Theo-
rem I, p. 37) . Hence the locus
of (1) is unchanged if each (x,y)
point is changed to a second
point symmetrical to the first O
with respect to XX '. There-
fore the locus is symmetrical
with respect to the axis of x.
Similarly, from (3), the locus is symmetrical with respect to
the axis of y, and from (4) the locus is symmetrical with
-
respect to the origin, for the points P (x, y) and S ( −x, − y)
are symmetrical with respect to the origin, since OP = OS.
In plotting the equation we take advantage of our knowl-
edge of the symmetry of the curve by limiting the calcula-
tion to points in the first quadrant, as in the
table. We plot these points , mark off the points x y
symmetrical to them with respect to the axes
OTT 2
4 0
and the origin, and then draw the curve. 3.4 1
The locus is called an ellipse. 2.7 11
The facts brought out in the example are 0
stated in
Theorem II. Symmetry. If the locus of an equation is un-

affected by replacing y by -y throughout its equation, the locus
is symmetrical with respect to the axis of x.
If the locus is unaffected by changing x to -x through-
out its equation, the locus is symmetrical with respect to the
axis of y.
If the locus is unaffected by changing both x and y tox and
-y throughout its equation, the locus is symmetrical with
These theorems may be made to assume a somewhat differ-

ent form if the equation is algebraic in x and y. The locus of
an algebraic equation in the variables x and y is called an

algebraic curve. Then from Theorem II follows
Theorem III . Symmetry of an algebraic curve. If no odd

powers of y occur in an equation, the locus is symmetrical with
respect to XX' ; if no odd powers of x occur, the locus is sym-
metrical with respect to YY'. If every term is of even* degree,
or every term of odd degree, the locus is symmetrical with respect
to the origin.
-4
The second question arises from the following considerations :
Coördinates are real numbers. Hence all values of x which
give imaginary values of y must be excluded in the calculation.
Similarly, all values of y which lead to imaginary values of x
must be excluded. The second question is , then :
2. What values, if any, of either coördinate will give imagi

nary values of the other coördinate ?
The following examples illustrate the method :
EXAMPLES
1. What values of x and y, if any, must be excluded in determining

points on the locus of
(1) x² + 4y² = 16 ? ( x ,y) ( x,y )
Solution. Solving for x in terms
of y, and also for y in terms of x,
0
(2) x = ± 2√4 − - y²,
(3) y= √16 x2. -2 -y
From the radical in (2) we see

that all values of y numerically greater than 2 will make 4 - y²
negative, and hence make x imaginary. Hence all values of y greater
than 2 or less than 2 must be excluded .
Similarly, from the radical in (3) , it is clear that values of x greater
than 4 or less than - 4 must be excluded .
*A constant term is to be regarded as of zero (even) degree, as 16 in (1) , p . 42.

Therefore in determining points on the locus, we need assume for y

values only between 0 and 2 , as on page 43, or values of x between 0 and 4
inclusive .
A further conclusion is this : The curve lies entirely within the rec-
tangle bounded by the four lines
x = 4, x = --4, y = 2 , y == -- 2,
and is therefore a closed curve.
2. What values, if any, of the coördinates are to be excluded in deter-

mining the locus of
(4) y² - 4x + 15 = 0 ?
Solution. Solving for x in terms of y, and also for y in terms of x,
(5) x= (15+ y²) ,
(6) y=± 4x - 15.
From (5) any value of y will give a real value of x . Hence no values
of y are excluded .
(x,y)
x y
1
3 0
4 ±1
44 +2
6 +3 0 (3,0) I X
74 ±4
10 ±5
12 +6
etc. etc.
From the radical in ( 6) all values of x for which 4x - 15 is negative

must be excluded ; that is, all values of x less than 34 .
The locus therefore lies entirely to the right of the line x =: 3 .
Moreover, since no values of y are excluded , the locus extends to infinity,
y increasing as x increases.
The locus is, by Theorem III, symmetrical with respect to the x-axis,
and is called a parabola.
3. Determine what values of x and y, if any, must be excluded in

determining the locus of
(7) 4y = x³.
Solution. Solving for x in terms of y, and also for y in terms of x

(8) x = V4y,
(9) y = tx³.
From these equations it appears that no values
of either coördinate need be excluded .
The locus is, by Theorem III, symmetrical
with respect to the origin. The coördinates in- Mrx y
crease together ; the curve extends to infinity
and is called a cubical parabola.
A
The method illustrated in the examples
is summed up in the
Rule to determine all values of x and y
which must be excluded.
Solve the equation for x in terms of y,
and from this result determine all values
of y for which the computed value of x would be imaginary.
These values of y must be excluded.
Solve the equation for y in terms of x, and from this result
determine all values of x for which the computed value of y
would be imaginary. These values of x must be excluded.
In determining excluded values of x and y we obtain also

an answer to the question :
3. Is the curve a closed curve, or does it extend to infinity ?

The points of intersection of the curve with the coördinate
axes should be found.
The intercepts of a curve on the axis of x are the abscissas of
the points of intersection of the curve and XX'.
The intercepts of a curve on the axis of y are the ordinates
of the points of intersection of the curve and YY'.
Rule to find the intercepts.

Substitute y = 0 and solve for real values of x. This gives the
intercepts on the axis of x.
Substitute x = 0 and solve for real values ofy. This gives the
intercepts on the axis ofy.
The proof of the rule follows at once from the definitions .
The rule just given explains how to answer the question :
4. What are the intercepts of the locus ?
In particular, the locus may pass through the origin , in which

case one intercept on each axis will be zero. In this case the
coördinates (0, 0) must satisfy the equation . When the equa-
tion is algebraic we have
Theorem IV. The locus ofan algebraic equationpasses through

the origin when there is no constant term in the equation.
The proof is immediate.
21. Directions for discussing an equation . Given an equation,

the following questions should be answered in order before
plotting the locus.
1. Is the origin on the locus ?

2. What are the intercepts ?
3. Is the locus symmetrical with respect to the axes or the
origin ?
4. What values of x and y must be excluded ?
5. Is the curve closed, or does it pass off indefinitely far ?
Answering these questions constitutes what is called a general

discussion of the given equation . The successive results should
be immediately transferred to the figure. Thus when the inter-
cepts have been determined , mark them off on the axes. Indicate
which axes are axes of symmetry. The excluded values of x
and У will determine lines parallel to the axes which the locus
will not cross. Draw these lines .
EXAMPLE
Give a general discussion of the equation

(1) x² - 4y² + 16 y = 0.
Draw the locus.
Solution. 1. Since the equation contains no constant term, the origin
is on the curve.
2. Putting y = 0, we find x = 0, the intercept on the axis of x. Putting
x = 0, we find y = 0 and 4 , the intercepts on the axis of y.
Lay off the intercepts on the axes.
YA
=4
(0,4)
y- 2
3. The equation contains no odd powers of x ; hence the locus is

symmetrical with respect to YY'.
4. Solving for x,
(2) x = ± 2 √y² — 4y .
All values of y must be excluded which make the expression beneath
the radical sign negative . Now the roots of y² — 4y = 0 are y = 0 and
y = 4. For any value of y between these roots, y² - 4y is negative . For
example, y = 2 gives 484. Hence all values of y between 0 and
4 must be excluded.
Draw the lines y = 0 and y = 4. The locus does not come between
these lines.
Solving for y,
(3) y = 2 ± √x² + 16.
Hence no value of x is excluded, since x2 + 16 is positive for all
values of x.
5. From (3), increases as x increases, and the curve extends out

indefinitely far from both axes.
Plotting the locus, using (2) , the curve is found to be as in the figure.
The curve is a hyperbola.
Sign of a quadratic. In the preceding example it became necessary
to determine for what values of y the quadratic expression y² - 4 y in (2)
was positive.
The fact made use of is this :
If the sign of a quadratic expression is negative (or positive) for any
one value of the unknown taken between the roots, it is also negative
(or positive) for every value of the unknown between the roots.
This is easily seen graphically. For take any quadratic
(4) Ax² + Bx + C.
Plot the equation
(5) y = Ax² + Bx + C.
The locus of (5) will be a parabola turned upward if A is positive,
downward if A is negative (see Example 2, p . 38) . The intercepts on the
x-axis will be the
roots of (4) . The YA
values of y from
(5) will clearly all
have one sign for A >O
all values of x be- Y
tween the inter- AKO
L
cepts, and the op- A
posite sign for all
other values of x. We see, then, that the values of the quadratic (4) will
have one sign for all values of x taken between the roots, and the opposite
sign for all other values.
To apply this, consider the locus of
(6) y = V0 − 5 -
— 22 .
What values of x must be excluded ? To answer this, find the roots of

6 5x - x2 = 0. They are x = - 6 and 1. Take any value of x
between these roots, for example, x = 0. When = 0 , the quadratic
65xx² equals 6, a positive number. Hence 65x - x² equals a
positive number for all values of x between the roots - 6 and 1. Then
the quadratic is negative for all other values ; hence we must exclude
values of x < - 6 and also x > 1 .
PROBLEMS
1. Give a general discussion of each of the following equations and

draw the locus. Make sure that the discussion and the figure agree.
(a) x2 - 4 y = 0. (n) 9y2 - x³ = 0.

(b) y² - 4x + 3 = 0 . (0 ) 9 y² + x³ = 0 .
(c ) x² + 4y² -— 16 = 0 . (p ) 2xy + 3x — 4 = 0.
(d ) 9x² + y² --
– 18 = 0. (q ) x² + 4 xy + 3y² + 8 = 0.
(e ) x² — 4y² -— 16 = 0. (r) x² + xy + y² -— 4 = 0.
(f ) x2.- 4y² + 16 = 0. (s) x² + 2xy -- 3y² = 4.
(g ) - y² + 4 = 0 .
x² — (t ) 2xy - y² + 4x = 0.
(h) x² y + x = 0. ( u) 3x² −y + x = 0.
(i ) xy 1 4 = 0. (v ) 4y2 2 x - y = 0.
(j ) 9y + x³ = 0. (w) x2 - y² + 6x = 0.
(k ) 4x - y³ = 0 . (x) x² + 4 y² + 8 y = 0.
(1 ) 6x -— y² = 0. (y) 9x² + y² + 18 x − 6 y = 0 .
(m) 5x − y + y³ = 0. (z) 9x² — y² + 18x + 6 y = 0 .
2. Determine the general nature of the locus in each of the following

equations. In plotting, assume particular values for the arbitrary con-
stants, but not special values ; that is, values which give the equation an
added peculiarity. *
(a) y2 = 2 mx. (f) x2 - y2 = a².
(b) x2 - 2 my = m². (g) x² + y² = r².
221233
x2 y2 - (h) x2 + y2 = 2r.
(c) 2 + 1.
a b2 (i ) x² + y² = 2 ry.
(d) 2xy - a². (j ) ay² = x³ .
།
x2 y2 (k) a²y = x³.

(e) a2 02 = 1.
The loci of the equations (a) to (i) in Problem 2 are all of the class
known as conics, or conic sections, - curves following straight lines and
circles in the matter of their simplicity. These curves are obtained when
cross sections are taken of a right circular cone. Various definitions and
properties will be given later. A definition often used is the following :
A conic section is the locus of a point whose distances from a fixed
point and a fixed line are in a constant ratio.
* For example, in (a) and (b) m = 0 is a special value. In fact, in all these
examples zero is a special value for any constant.
3. Show that every conic is represented by an equation of the second

degree in x and y.
Hint. Take YY' to coincide with the fixed line, and draw XX' through the
fixed point. Denote the fixed point by ( p, 0) and the constant ratio by e.
Ans. (1 − e²) x² + y² − 2 px + p² = 0.
4. Discuss and plot the locus of the equation of Problem 3 :
(a) when e = 1 . The conic is now called a parabola (see p . 45) .
(b) when e < 1 . The conic is now called an ellipse (see p . 43) .
(c) when e > 1 . The conic is now called a hyperbola (see p . 48) .
5. A point moves so that the sum of its distances from the two fixed
- 3, 0) is constant and equal to 10. What is the locus ?
points (3, 0) and ( →
Ans. Ellipse 16 x² + 25 y² = 400 .
6. A point moves so that the difference of its distances from the two
fixed points (5, 0) and ( — 5, 0) is constant and equal to 8. What is the
locus ? Ans. Hyperbola 9 x² — 16 y² = 144.
7. Find the equations of the following loci , and discuss and plot them.
(a) The distance of a point from the fixed point (0, 2) is equal to its
distance from the x-axis increased by 2.
(b) The distance of a point from the fixed point (0, - — 2) is equal to
its distance from the y-axis increased by 2.
(c) The distance of a point from the origin is equal to its distance
from the y-axis diminished by 2.
(d) The distance of a point from the fixed point (2, — 4) is equal to its
distance from the x-axis increased by 5. Ans. 2y = x² - 4x — 5.
(e) The distance of a point from the point (3, 0) is equal to half its
distance from the point (6, 0) .
(f) The distance of a point from the point (8 , -
— 4) is twice its distance
from the point (2, — 1) .
(g) One third of the distance of a point from the point (0, 3) is equal to
its distance from the x-axis increased by unity . Ans. x² - 8y2-24y = 0.
(h) The distances of a point to the fixed point ( -1, 0) and to the line
4x - − 5 = 0 are in the ratio § . Ans. 9x2 + 25 y² + 90x = 0.
8. Prove the statement : If an equation is unaltered when x and y are
interchanged, the locus is symmetrical with respect to the line y = x.
Make use of this result in drawing the loci of :
(a) xy = 4. (b) x² + xy + y² = 9 . (c ) x³ + y³ = 1. (d) x² + y² = 1 .
22. Asymptotes . The following examples elucidate difficul-

ties arising frequently in drawing the locus of an equation.
EXAMPLES
1. Plot the locus of the equation x x y
y
(1) xy - 2y - 4 = 0.
24
2
Solution. Solving for y, 0 0
4 1 -4
(2) y= 11 -8
x- 2
14 - 16
We observe at once, if x = 2, y = f = ∞ .
8
This is interpreted thus : The curve ap-
2234
21 16 :
proaches the line x = 2 as it passes off to
...
-
- 10
cof
21
T
infinity. In fact, if we solve (1) for x and 4 etc.
etc.
write the result in the form
2
4
x = 2+ -9 5
y
it is evident that x approaches 2 as y
increases indefinitely. Hence the locus 12 0.4
extends both upward and downward etc. etc.
indefinitely far, approaching in each case
the line x = 2. The vertical line x = 2 is called a vertical asymptote .
∞ 0 (2,0)
In plotting, it is necessary to assume values of x differing slightly

from 2, both less and greater, as in the table.
From (2) it appears that y diminishes and approaches zero as x in-

creases indefinitely. The curve therefore extends indefinitely far to the
right and left, approaching constantly the axis of x. The axis of x
is therefore a horizontal asymptote. *
This curve is called a hyperbola.
In the problem just discussed it was necessary to learn what value x
approached when y became very large, and also what value y approached
when x became very large. These questions, when important, are usually
readily answered , as in the following examples :
2x + 3 •
2. Plot the locus of y= (Fig. 1)
3x - 4
When x is very great, we may neglect the 3 in the numerator (2x + 3)
and the 4 in the denominator (3x - 4) . That is, when x is very large,
2x - 2 2
• Hence y = is a horizontal asymptote .
3x 3 3
The equation shows directly that 3x - 4 = 0 or x = is a vertical
asymptote . Or we may solve the equation for x, which gives
x = 4y + 3
3y - 2
4y - YA
Hence, when y is very large, x =
3y 3
X
2=X
=1
x
x
g
=
y==/
10
+
FIG. 1 FIG. 2
3. The locus of 2x + 3
y=
x² - 3x + 2
is shown in Fig. 2. There are two vertical asymptotes, x = 1 and x == 2,
since the denominator x² - 3x + 2 = (x − 1 ) (x - 2) . A branch of the
* For oblique asymptotes, that is, asymptotes not parallel to either axis,
see Art. 66.
curve lies between these lines. Furthermore, when x becomes large, we

2x 2
may write the equation y = === = 0. Hence the x-axis
x2 x x y
is a horizontal asymptote. A few points of the locus
O 32
are given in the table . Note that different scales are used 0
312
for ordinates and abscissas.
O
The determination of the vertical and hori- - 24
10
Cole ko
13
zontal asymptotes of a curve should be added 5
to the discussion of the equation as outlined in
Art. 21.
PROBLEMS
Plot each of the following, and determine the horizontal and vertical
asymptotes :
1. (a) xy + y 8 = 0. (e) 2xy + 4x - 6y + 3 = 0.
(b) xy + x + 3 = 0. (f) y² + 2xy — 4 = 0.
(c) 2xy + 2x + 3y = 0. (g) xy + x + 2y — 3 = 0.
(d) x² + xy + 8 = 0 . - x² + 2 x = 0 .
(h) xy + y −
2. (a) x²y - 5 = 0. (c) xy² — 4x + 6 = 0.
(b) x²y - y + 2 x = 0. - y + 8 = 0.
(d) x³y —
5 x2 - y2
(e) = x² - 3x (j ) y = (0) 4x =
x² + x y2-9
4x2 y2 8y
(f) y = x2 -- 4 ( k) x = - (p) 12 x = -
У 1 3 y2
x- У 2 x- 2
(g) y = (1 ) x =
3
(q) y =
x+1
x2 4 x2 - 1 x2
=
(h) y x2 1 (m) = 4 - x2 (r) y2:
X 1
(x - 2) (x + 3) x2 3x + 2 x2
(i) y = (n) = x² + 3x + 2 (s) y² =
x² - 3x + 2
(x + 2) (x − 3)
PROBLEMS FOR INDIVIDUAL STUDY

Discuss fully and draw carefully the following loci :
1. y24 xy + x³ = 0 . 5. (y - x)²x² (a²x²) = 0.
2. y2-2xy - 2x² + x³ = 0 . 6. (y -— x²)² — (a² -
— x²) = 0 .
3. y²x² + x¹ - 0. 7. (y — x²) ² -
— x² (α² -— x²) = 0 .
4. (y — x)² - (a² — x²) = 0 . 8. y² (ax) — x³ ·- 0 (the cissoid).
9. y² (ax) -x² (a + x) = 0 (the strophoid) .
10. x4 + 2 ax²y — ay³ = 0.
11. x4 - axy² + y¹ = 0.
12. aty² - a²x² + x6 == 0.
13. ay² - bx4 -— x5 = 0 .
14. a³y2 - 2 abx²y — x5 = 0.
15. y² — (a² — x²) (b² — x²)² = 0 .
16. x3y² - a³x² + ay¹ = 0.
17. x (y -
— x)² — b²y = 0.
18. (x² + y²)2 - a² (x² — y²) = 0 (the lemniscate).
19. (x² - a²)² = ay² (3 a + 2 y).
20. (x2 + y² - 1) y - ax = 0.
21. y2.―― x² -
— x (x -
— 4)² = 0 .
22. (x² + y² - 2 ay)² = a² (x² + y²) (the limaçon) .
23. (x + x²y² + y¹) = x (ax² - 4 ay2).
24. (x2 + y² + 4 ay - a²) (x² - a²) + 4a²y² = 0.
25. (y²x²) (x - 1) (x ) = 2 (y² + x² - 2x)² .
26. (x² + y² + 4 ay -
— a²) (x² — a²) + 4 a²y² = 0 (the cocked hat) .
23. Points of intersection. If two curves whose equations

are given intersect, the coördinates of each point of intersection
must satisfy both equations when substituted in them for the
variables. In algebra it is shown that all values satisfying
two equations in two unknowns may be found by regarding
these equations as simultaneous in the unknowns and solving.
Hence the
Rule to find the points of intersection of two curves whose

equations are given.
Consider the equations as simultaneous in the coördinates
and solve as in algebra.
Arrange the real solutions in corresponding pairs. These will
be the coördinates of all the points of intersection.
Notice that only real solutions correspond to common points
of the two curves, since coördinates are always real numbers.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the points of intersection of

(1) x --7y + 25 = 0, YA
(2) x² + y² = 25. (3,4)
+(1)
Solution. Solving (1) for x, (-4,3)
(3) x = 7y - 25.
0
(7 y — 25)² + y² = 25.
Reducing,
y² — 7y + 12 ==
= 0.`
.. y = 3 and 4.
Substituting in (3) [ not in (2) ],

x = -- 4 and + 3.
Arranging, the points of intersection are (- 4, 3) and (3, 4) . Ans.

In the figure the straight line (1) is the locus of equation ( 1) , and the
circle the locus of (2) .
2. Find the points of intersection of the loci of

(4) 2x² + 3y² = 35,
(5) 3x2 --4y = 0.
(5)
Solution. Solving (5) for x2,
(-2,3) (2,3)
(6) x² = y.
Substituting in (4) and reducing,

9 y² + 8y - 105 = 0.
.. y = 3 and 1 35.
Substituting in (6) and solving ,

7
x= 2 and √ 210.
Arranging the real values, we find the points of intersection are
(+2, 3) , (— 2, 3) . Ans.
In the figure the ellipse (4) is the locus of (4) , and the parabola (5) the
locus of (5).
PROBLEMS
Find the points of intersection of the following loci :
1. 7x - 11y + 1 = 0° x² + y² -
Ans. (3, 3) . 7.
x+y 2= 0 xy = 20 41 ].
Ans. ( ± 5, ± 4) , ( ± 4, ± 5).
2. x + y = 72. Ans. (6, 1).
x - =5] y² = 2px\
8.
- 3x + 21. x² = 2 py
3. У
Ans. (0, 0) , (2p, 2p) .
x + y =4]
Ans. (0, 2) , (-8 , -8 ). 4x² + y² = 5
9.
y2 = 8x
y² = 16x
4. - Ans. ( 1 , 2) , ( 1 , − 2) .
y— x = 0 • }·
Ans. (0, 0) , (16, 16) . x² + y² = 100
x² + y² = a² 10. 9x
5. y2 -
3x + y + a = 0j 2
Ans. (0, -a), ( - 3a 9 4a). Ans. (8, 6) , (8, — 6) .
5
x2 y2 = 16 =
6. 11. x² + y²
x² = 8y= 16 ] . x² = 4 ay 5a²}.
Ans. ( ± 4√2, 4). Ans. (2 a, a), (— 2 a, a) .
Find the area of the triangles and polygons whose sides are the loci
of the following equations :
12. 3x + y + 4 = 0 , 3 x -− 5 y + 34 = 0, 3 x − 2y + 1 = 0. Ans. 36.
13. x + 2y = 5 , 2x + y = 7 , y = x + 1 . Ans . .
14. x + y = α , x ·- 2y = 4a, y — x + 7 α = 0. Ans. 12 a2.
15. x == 0, y = 0, x = 4, y = — 6. Ans . 24.
ab
16. xy = 0, x + y = 0 , x - − y = a, x + y = b. Ans.
2
17. y = 3x - 9, y = 3x + 5, 2y = x -- 6, 2y = x + 14. Ans. 56.
18. Find the distance between the points of intersection of the curves
3x - 2y + 6 = 0 , x² + y² = 9. Ans. 18 V13.
19. Does the locus of y² = 4x intersect the locus of 2x + 3y + 2 = 0 ?
Ans. Yes .
20. For what value of a will the three lines 3x + y2 = 0,
ax + 2y - 3 = 0, 2 x -− y-— 3 = 0 meet in a point ? Ans. a = 5.
21. Find the length of the common chord of x² + y² = 13 and
y² -
= 3x + 3. Ans. 6 .
22. If the equations of the sides of a triangle are x + 7y + 11 = 0 ,
-
3x + y −7 = 0, x − 3 y + 1 = 0, find the length of each of the medians.
Ans. 2√5, √2, √170.
CHAPTER IV
THE STRAIGHT LINE
24. The degree of the equation of any straight line. It will

now be shown that any straight line is represented by an equa-
tion of the first degree in the variable coördinates x and y .
Theorem. The equation of the straight line passing through a
point B (0, b) on the axis of y and having its slope equal to m is
(I) y = mx + b.
Proof. Assume that P (x, y) is any point on the line.

The given condition may be written
slope of PB = m.
Since by (II) , p. 17,
y b
slope of PB =
x
[ Substituting (x, y) for (x1, y₁) and (0, b) for (~2, Y2) . ]
y b
then = m, or y = mx + b.¸ Q. E.D.
x
In equation (I) , m and b may have any values , positive ,

negative, or zero.
Equation ( I) will represent any straight line which inter-
sects the y-axis. But the equation of any line parallel to the
y-axis has the form x a constant, since the abscissas of all
points on such a line are equal. The two forms, y = mx + b
and x = constant, will therefore represent all lines
. Each of
these equations being of the first degree in x and y, we have the
Theorem. The equation of any straight line is of the first
degree in the coördinates x and y.
58
THE STRAIGHT LINE 59
25. Locus of any equation of the first degree. The question

now arises : Given an equation of the first degree in the
coördinates x and y, is the locus a straight line ?
Consider, for example, the equation
(1) 3x - 2y + 8 = 0.
Let us solve this equation for y. This gives

(2) y = 3x + 4.
Comparing (2) with the formula (I) ,

y = mx + b,
we see that (2) is obtained from ( I) if we set m = 3, b = 4.
Now in (I) m and b may have any values. The locus of (I) is ,
for all values of m and b , a straight line. Hence (2) , or (1) , is
the equation of a straight line through (0, 4) with the slope
equal to 3. This discussion prepares the way for the general
theorem .
The equation
(3) Ax + By + C = 0,
where A, B, and C are arbitrary constants, is called the general

equation of the first degree in x and y because every equation of
the first degree may be reduced to that form .
Equation (3) represents all straight lines.
For the equation y = mx + b may be written mx - y + b = 0, which
is of the form (3) if A - m, B 1, Cb ; and the equation x = con-
stant may be written x - constant = 0, which is of the form (3) if A = 1,
B = 0, C constant.
Theorem. The locus of the general equation of the first degree

Ax + By + C = 0
is a straight line.
Proof. Solving (3) for y, we obtain

A C
(4) У x
B B
Comparison with (I) shows that the locus of (4) is the

straight line for which
A C
m = - "
B B
If, however, B = 0, the reasoning fails.
But if B = 0 , (3) becomes
Ax + C = 0,
C
or x =-
A
The locus of this equation is a straight line parallel to the
y-axis. Hence in all cases the locus of (3) is a straight line.
Q. E.D.
Corollary. The slope ofthe line
Ax + By + C = 0
A
is m = that is, the coefficient of x with its sign changed
B
divided by the coefficient ofy.
26. Plotting straight lines . If the line does not pass through
the origin (constant term not zero, p . 47) , find the intercepts
(p. 47) , mark them off on the axes, and draw the line. If the
line passes through the origin, find a second point whose
coördinates satisfy the equation, and draw a line through this
point and the origin.
EXAMPLE
Plot the locus of 3 x - y + 6 = 0 . Find the slope. YA

Solution. Letting y = 0 and solving for x,
x = -- 2 = intercept on x-axis.
Letting x =10 and solving for y,
y = 6 - intercept on y-axis.
The required line passes through the points
(-2, 0) and (0 , 6) .
To find the slope : Comparison with the general
A
equation (3) shows that A = 3, B = − 1 , C = 6. Hence m = — 3.
B
Otherwise thus : Reduce the given equation to the form y = mx + b
by solving it for y. This gives y = 3x + 6. Hence m = 3, b = 6, as before.
THE STRAIGHT LINE : 61
PROBLEMS
1. Find the intercepts and the slope of the following lines, and plot
the lines :
(a) 2x + 3y = 6. Ans. 3, 2 ; m = f.
(b) x - 2y + 5 = 0. Ans. 5, 21 ; m == 1.
(c) 3x - y + 3 = 0. Ans. - 1 , 3 ; m == 3.
(d) 5x + 2y - 6 = 0. Ans. , 3 ; m —— 22.
2. Plot the following lines and find the slope :
(a) 2x -3y = 0. (c) 3x + 2y = 0.
(b) y -4x = 0. (d) x ― 3y = 0.
3. Find the equations, and reduce them to the general form , of the
lines for which
√(a) m = 2, b ==- 3. Ans. 2xy - 3 = 0.
(b) m = — 1, b = 3. Ans. x + 2y — 3 = 0.
(c) m = }, b = 2. Ans. 4x10 y — 25 = 0.
π
(d) a == , b = — 2. Ans. x- y - 2 = 0.
4
3π
(e) α = 4 - , b = 3. Ans. x + y 3 = 0.
Hint. Substitute in y = mx + b and transpose.
4. Select pairs of parallel and perpendicular lines from the following :
L₁y = 2x - 3.
L2:y =--3x + 2. Ans. L₁ || Lò ; L½ 1L .
(a)
Ly - 2x + 7.
L₁:y = x + 4.
(L₁x + 3y = 0.
(b) L₂ : 8x + y + 1 = 0 . Ans. L₁ Lg.
Lg : 9x - 3y + 2 = 0.
( L₁ : 2x - 5y = 8.
(c) L : 5y + 2x = 8. Ans. L2 Lg.
Lg : 35x - 14y = 8.
5. Show that the quadrilateral whose sides are 2x - 3 y + 4 = 0,
3x − y − 2 = 0, 4x - 6y - 90, and 6x - 2y + 4 = 0 is a paral-
lelogram .
6. Find the equation of the line whose slope is - 2 , which passes through
the point of intersection of y = 3x + 4 and y = − x + 4.
Ans. 2xy - 4 = 0.
7. Write an equation which will represent all lines parallel to the line
(a) y = 2x + 7. (c) y - 3x 4 = 0.
(b) y = −x + 9. (d) 2y - 4x + 3 = 0.
8. Find the equation of the line parallel to 2x - 3y = 0 whose
intercept on the Y-axis is - 2. Ans. 2x - 3y - 6 = 0.
9. Show that the following loci are straight lines and plot them :
(a) The locus of a point whose distances from the axes XX' and YY'
are in a constant ratio equal to . Ans. 2x - 3y = 0.
(b) The locus of a point the sum of whose distances from the axes of
coördinates is always equal to 10 . Ans. xy- 10 = 0.
(c) A point moves so as to be always equidistant from the axes of
coördinates . Ans. xy = 0.
(d) A point moves so that the difference of the squares of its distances
from (3, 0) and (0, - 2) is always equal to 8.
Ans. The parallel straight lines 6x + 4y + 3 = 0 , 6x + 4y - 13 = 0.
(e) A point moves so as to be always equidistant from the straight
lines x - 40 and y + 5 = 0.
Ans. The perpendicular straight lines x - y - 9 = 0, x + y + 1 = 0 .
10. A point moves so that the sum of its distances from two perpen-
dicular lines is constant. Show that the locus is a straight line.
Hint. Choosing the axes of coördinates to coincide with the given lines, the
equation is x + y = constant.
11. A point moves so that the difference of the squares of its distances
from two fixed points is constant. Show that the locus is a pair of
straight lines.
Hint. Draw XX ' through the fixed points, and YY ' through their middle
point. Then the fixed points may be written ( a , 0) , ( — a , 0) , and if the " constant
difference " be denoted by k, we find for the locus 4 ax = k and 4 ax =— - k.
from two perpendicular lines is zero . Show that the locus is a pair of
perpendicular lines.
13. A point moves so that its distance from a fixed line is in a constant
ratio to its distance from a fixed point on the line. For what values of the
ratio is the locus real ? What is the locus ?
27. Point-slope form . If it is required that a straight line

shall pass through a given point in a given direction , the line
is determined.
The following problem is therefore definite :

To find the equation of the straight line passing through a
given point P₁1 (x, y₁ ) and having a given slope m.
Solution. Let P(x, y) be any other point on the line. By
the hypothesis , slope PP₁ = m.
y - yi = m .
(1) x - X1 (II, p. 17)
Clearing of fractions gives the formula

(II) y- y₁ = m (x - x₁) .
28. Two-point form. A straight line is determined by two
of its points. Let us then solve the problem :
To find the equation of the line passing through two given
points P₁ (x , y ) , P2 (X2 Y2) .
Solution. The slope of the given line is
12 .
slope PP₁=
1 2
X1 - X2
Let P (x, y) be any other point on the line PP2 Then
y — Y1 .
slope PP₁1 =
x -Xx1
Since P, P₁, and P,2 are on one line, slope PP₁ = slope P₁P2·
Hence we have the formula
y - y₁ - Y₁ - Y₂
(III)
x - x1 X1 - X2
Equation (III) may be written in the determinant form
x У 1
(2) X1 Y1 1 == 0.
X2 Y2 1
For the determinant, when expanded , is of the first degree in x and y.
Hence (2) is the equation of a line . But (2 ) is satisfied when x = x₁ ,
y = y₁, and also when x = X2, y = y2, for then two rows become identical
and the determinant vanishes. Otherwise thus : Comparison of (2) with
the formula at the close of Art. 14 shows that the area of the triangle
PP₁P₂
1 2 is zero. Hence these three points lie on a line.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the line passing through P₁1 (3, -

− 2 ) whose
slope is -1. Y
Solution. Use the point-slope
equation (II) , substituting a₁ = 3 , tan-1 (-1)
Y1 ==-- 2 , m = —
- . This gives X
y + 2 == (x - 3). P(3,-2)
Clearing and reducing,
x + 4y + 5 = 0.
2. Find the equation of the line through the two points P₁ (5, — 1) and
P₂ (2, -− 2) .
Solution. Use the two-point equation (III) , substituting x₁ = 5, y₁ = —1 ,
X2 = 2, y2 == - 2. This gives
y + 1 = -1 + 2 1 0 P
x- 5 5 2 B (5,-1)
Clearing and reducing, (2,-2)
-
x 3y - 8 = 0.
The answer should be checked . To do this, we must prove that the coör-
dinates of the given points satisfy the answer. Thus for P₁, substituting
x = 5, y = — 1 , the answer holds. Similarly for P₂. The student should
supply checks for Examples 1, 3, and 4 . YA
3. Find the equation of the line through
the point P₁1 (3 , -
− 2) parallel to the line
L₁ : 2x - 3y- 4 = 0. ΟΙ
Solution. The slope of the given line
L₁ equals 3. Hence the slope of the re- (3,-2)
quired line also equals (Theorem, p. 17) ,
and it passes through P₁ (3, — 2) . Using
the point-slope equation (II) , we have y + 2
= 3 (x - 3) , or 2x - 3y - 12 = 0.
4. Find the equation of the line through the point P₁ ( − 1 , 3) perpen-
dicular to the line L₁ : 5x - 2y + 3 = 0.
Solution. The slope of the given line L₁
equals . Hence the slope of the required P
-1,3)
line equals - (Theorem, p. 17) . Since we
know a point P₁ ( − 1 , 3) on the line, we
use the point-slope equation (II) , and obtain
y – 3 - − 3 (x + 1 ) , or 2 x + 5 y − 13 = 0.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equation of the line satisfying the following conditions,

and plot the line . Check the answers :
(a) Passing through (0, 0) and (8, 2) . Ans. x4y = 0.
(b) Passing through ( — 1, 1) and (— 3, 1) . Ans. y1 = 0.
(c) Passing through (— - 3, 1) and slope -: 2. Ans. 2xy + 7 = 0 .
(d) Having the intercepts * a =- 3 and b =- 2. Ans. 2x - 3 y — 6 = 0.
(e) Slope --- 3, intercept on x-axis -= 4. Ans. 3x + y — 12 = 0.
(f) Intercepts a = —-3 and b --- 4. Ans. 4x + 3y + 12 :- 0.
(g) Passing through (2, 3) and ( — 2, -— 3) . Ans. 3x - 2y 0.
(h) Passing through (3, 4) and ( —- 4 , — 3) . Ans. xy + 1 = 0.
2. Ans. 2x + y -
-=
(i) Passing through (2, 3) and slope — 7 = 0.
2. Find the equation of the line passing through the origin parallel
to the line 2x — 3y = 4. Ans. 2x - 3y = 0.
3. Find the equation of the line passing through the origin perpen-
dicular to the line 5x + y -
− 2 = 0. Ans. x - 5y = 0.
4. Find the equation of the line passing through the point (3, 2) par-
allel to the line 4x - y - 3 = 0. Ans. 4xy — 10 = 0.
5. Find the equation of the line passing through the point (3,0) per-
pendicular to the line 2x + y − 5 = 0 . Ans. x - 2y -— 3 = 0.
6. Find the equation of the line whose intercept on the y-axis is 5, v
which passes through the point (6, 3) . Ans. x + 3y -— 15 = 0.
7. Find the equation of the line whose intercept on the x-axis is 3,
which is parallel to the line x -4y + 2 = 0. Ans. x4y - 3 = 0.
8. Find the equation of the line passing through the origin and through
the intersection of the lines x - 2y + 30 and x + 2y - 9 = 0.
Ans. x - y = 0.
9. Find the equations of the sides of the triangle whose vertices are
(— 3, 2), (3 , — 2) , and (0, — 1 ) .
Ans. 2x + 3y := 0, x + 3y + 3 = 0, and x + y + 1 = 0 .
10. Find the equations of the medians of the triangle in Problem 9, and
show that they meet in a point.
Ans. x - 0,7 x + 9 y + 3 = 0, and 5x + 9 y + 3 = 0.
Hint. To show that three lines meet in a point, find the point of intersection
of two of them and prove that it lies on the third.
* Intercept on x-axis = a , intercept on y-axis = b . The given points are (3 , 0)
and (0, -2) .
11. Determine whether or not the following sets of points lie on a

straight line :
(a) (0, 0), (1 , 1) , (7, 7) . Ans. Yes.
(b) (2, 3) , ( 4, -- 6), (8, 12) . Ans. Yes.
(c) (3, 4) , (1, 2) , (5, 1). Ans. No.
(d) (3, - 1), ( 6, 2) , ( 3 , 1). Ans. No.
(e) (5, 6) , (3, 1) , (— 1 , —- §) . Ans. Yes.
(f) (7, 6) , (2, 1 ) , ( 6, — 2) . Ans. No.
(g) (3,2) , (6, - — 4) , ( — 5 , 4).
(h) (1 , 0) , (0, 1 ) , (7, - 8) .
(i ) ( 3, - 1) , (6, 2), (8, 3) .
12. Find the equations of the lines joining the middle points of the sides
of the triangle in Problem 9, and show that they are parallel to the sides.
Ans. 4x + 6y + 3 = 0 , x + 3y = 0, and x + y = 0.
13. Find the equation of the line passing through the origin and through
the intersection of the lines x + 2y = 1 and 2x - 4y - 3 = 0.
Ans. x 10 y = 0.
14. Show that the diagonals of a square are perpendicular.
Hint. Take two sides for the axes and let the length of a side be a.
15. Show that the line joining the middle points of two sides of a tri-
angle is parallel to the third .
Hint. Choose the axes so that the vertices are (0,0) , (a , 0) , and (b, c).
16. Two sides of a parallelogram are given by 2x + 3y - − 7 =: 0 and
x − 3 y + 4 = 0. Find the other two sides if one vertex is the point (3 , 2) .
Ans. 2x + 3y -- 12 = 0 and x ― 3y + 3 = 0.
17. Find the equations of the lines drawn through the vertices of the
triangle whose vertices are ( — 3 , 2) , (3 , — 2) , and (0, — 1 ) , which are par-
allel to the opposite sides. Find the vertices of the new triangle.
Ans. 2x + 3y + 3 = 0 , x + 3 y − 3 = 0, x + y − 1 = 0 .
18. Find the equations of the lines drawn through the vertices of the
triangle in Problem 17, which are perpendicular to the opposite sides, and
show that they meet in a point .
Ans. 3x - 2y - 2 = 0,3 x y + 11 = 0, x - y - 5 = 0.
19. Find the equations of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of
the triangle in Problem 17, and show that they meet in a point.
Ans. 3x - 2y = 0, 3 x - y — 6 = 0 , x − y + 2 = 0.
20. The equations of two sides of a parallelogram are 3 x - 4y + 6 = 0

and x + 5y - 10 = 0. Find the equations of the other two sides if one
vertex is the point (4, 9) . Ans. 3x - 4y + 24 = 0 and x + 5y — 49 = 0.
21. The vertices of a triangle are (2, 1) , ( — 2 , 3) , and (4, — 1) . Find
the equations of (a) the sides of the triangle, (b) the perpendicular bisec-
tors of the sides, and (c) the lines drawn through the vertices perpendicu-
lar to the opposite sides. Check the results by showing that the lines in
(b) and (c) meet in a point.
29. Intercept form . A line is determined if its intercepts on

the axes are given . If these intercepts are a on XX' and b on
YY', then the line passes through (a , 0) and (0, 1 ) , and the two-
point form (III) gives (writing x, = a, y, = 0, x = = 0, y₂ = b)
y- 0 b- 0 b
x- a 0- a a
Clearing of fractions , transposing, and dividing by ab, we

obtain
x y
(IV) + = 1.
a b
30. Condition that three lines shall intersect in a common

point . It is shown in algebra that three linear equations in
two unknowns x and y, for example,
(1) Ax + By + C = 0, 4x + By + C₁ = 0, A₂x + By + C₂ = 0,
will have a common solution when and only when the deter-
minant formed on the coefficients vanishes ; that is, when
A B C
(2) A₁1 B₁ C₁ == 0.
A,
A₂2 B
B₂
, C,2
Hence the three lines (1 ) will intersect in a common point

when and only when (2) holds, provided always that the lines
are not parallel, however. But this latter fact may always be
determined by inspection of the equations.
31. Theorems on projection. In preparation for deriving addi-

tional theorems of this and later chapters , some simple facts
in regard to projection will now be discussed .
The orthogonal projection of a point upon a line is the foot of
the perpendicular let fall from the point upon the line.
Thus in the figure
N
M is the orthogonal projection of P
on X'X ;
M
N is the orthogonal projection of P X' MX
on Y'Y;
P' is the orthogonal projection of P '
on X'X. Y
If A and B are two points of a directed line , and M and N
their projections upon a second directed line CD, then MN is
called the projection of AB upon CD.
FIRST THEOREM OF PROJECTION . If A and B are points upon
a directed line making an angle a with a second directed line
CD, then the
projection of the length AB upon CD = AB cos a.
Proof. In the figures

projection of AB upon CD = MN.
B B
--
M ND M
FIG. 1 FIG. 2
Now in Fig. 1 , from the right triangle BAS,
AS AB cos BAS.
But AS = MN, and ▲ BAS = α.

.. MN AB cos a.
In Fig 2 (p. 68) , a is obtuse and MN is a negative number.

Numerically, AS and MN are equal, but they differ in sign ,
AS not being directed . As before, AS = AB cos BAS. But
LBAS = 180° - α. .. cos BAS cos a (30, p . 3 ) .
Hence AS —— AB cos α.
.. MN AB cos α. Q. E.D.
Consider next a broken line made up of directed parts , as in

the figures . The line joining the first and last points of a
broken line is called the closing line .
P₂ PA
P2
Pi
R P3 PM3
C M₁M₂M5 M4 D
C M₁ M₂ M&D P3
FIG. 1 FIG. 2
Thus in Fig. 1 the closing line is P₁P¸

1 ; in Fig. 2 the closing
line is PP
With reference to such broken lines, the following theorem,
of frequent application, holds .
SECOND THEOREM OF PROJECTION. If each segment of a
broken line be given the direction determined in passing continu-
ously from one extremity to the other, then the algebraic sum of
the projections of the segments upon any directed line equals
the projection of the closing line.
Proof. The proof results immediately. For, in Fig. 1,
1 , = projection of P,P₂ ;
MM
MM,3 = projection of PP
2 3;
MM₁
1 = projection of closing line PP
But obviously 2 3 = M₁M¸ ,
M₁M₂2 + M₂M₂
and the theorem follows.
Similarly in Fig. 2. Q. E. D.
Corollary. If the sides of a closed polygon be given the direc-

tion established by passing continuously around the perimeter, the
sum of the projections of the sides upon any directed line is zero.
For the closing line is now zero.
32. The normal equation of the straight line. In the preceding

sections the lines considered were determined by two points or
by a point and a direction. Both of these methods of determin-
ing a line are frequently used in elementary geometry, but we
have now to consider a line determined by two conditions which
belong essentially to analytic geometry . Let AB be any line,
and let ON be drawn from
В
the origin perpendicular to W
AB at C. Let the positive 0X
P
direction on ON be from O
toward N, that is, from the A
B
origin toward the line, and
denote the positive directed N
^N
length OC by p, and the posi- B
tive angle XON, measured, p
ო
as in trigonometry, from OX BX X
as initial line to ON as ter-
minal line, by w (Greek letter " omega " ) . Then it is evident from
the figures that the position of any line is determined by a pair
of values ofp and w, both p and a being positive and w < 360°.
On the other hand, every line which does not pass through
the origin determines a single positive value of p and a single
positive value of which is less than 360°.
The problem now is this : Given for the line AB of the figure
the perpendicular distance OC ( = p ) from the origin and the
angle XOC ( = w) ; to find the equation of AB.
Solution. Let P (x, y) be any point on the given line AB.
Then since AB is perpendicular to ON, the projection of
OP on ON is equal to p. Consider the broken line ODP. The
closing line is OP. By the second theorem of projection (p. 69) ,

the projection of OP on ON is equal to the sum of the projec-
tions of OD and DP on ON. Then
(1) projection of OD on ON + projection of DP on ON = p.

By the first theorem of projec- YA
tion (p. 68), N
(2) projection of OD on
ON = OD cos ∞ = x COS w, and P
w
(3) projection of DP on
X' O x
Π B
ON DP cos W =
= y sin w. Y'
[ For the angle between the directed lines DP and ON equals that
π
between OY and ON - - w.]
2
Substituting from (2) and (3) in (1) ,
(V) x cos y sin w -p = 0. Q. E. D.
This equation is known as the normal equation.

When p = 0, however, AB passes through the origin, and the
rule given above for the posi- Y N
tive direction on ON becomes
3
meaningless. From the fig-
ures we see that we can X
choose for w either of the B B
angles XON or XON'. When
p = 0 we shall always suppose that w < 180° and that the posi-
tive direction on ON is the upward direction .
33. Reduction to the normal form . In Art. 25 it appeared that
the slope of any line could be found after its equation was
reduced to the form y = mx + b . If now the equation of any
line can be reduced to the normal form (V) , we shall be able to
find the perpendicular distance p from the origin to the line,
as well as the angle ய
w which this perpendicular makes with OX.
To reduce a given equation
(1) Ax + By + C = 0 ·
to the normal form, it is necessary to determine w and p so that

the locus of (1) is identical with the locus of
(2) x cos y sin w- P = 0.
This is the case when corresponding coefficients are propor-

tional. * Hence we must have
COS w sin w ༧.
A B C
Denote the common value of these ratios by r ; then

(3) cos w = rA,
(4) sin wrB, and

-− p = rc.
(5)
To find r, square (3) and (4) and add ; this gives

sin² + cos² = r² ( A² + B²) .
But sin2w + cos2w = 1 ; (28, p. 3)
and hence r² (4² + B²) = 1 , or
1
(6) r=
± √A² + B²
Equation (5 ) shows which sign of the radical to use ; for

since p is positive, r and C must have opposite signs.
Substituting the value of r in (3) , (4) , and (5) ,
A B C
COS W " sin 1 = P
± √√² + B² ± √√² + B²
Hence (2) becomes

A B C
(7) x+ Y +. = 0,
± √A² + B² ± √A² + B² ± √Ã² + B²
* The proof of this obvious fact is left to the student.

which is the normal form of (1) . The result of the discussion

may be stated in the following
Rule to reduce Ax + By + C = O to the normal form.
Find the numerical value of √Ã² + B² and give it the sign
opposite to that of C. Divide the given equation by this number.
The result is the required equation.
For example, to reduce the equation
(8) 3x -- y + 10 = 0
to the normal form , divide the equation by √10, since A = 3, B – 1,
√A² + B² = √10 , and this radical must be given the negative -sign,
since C ( = 10) is positive . The normal form of (8) is accordingly
3 1
x+ y = √10 = 0.
√10 √10
3 1
Here cos w " sin w = p = √10 = 3.1+.
V10 10
If C0, then p = 0, and hence w < 180° (p. 71) ; then

sin w is positive, and from (4) r and B must have the same signs.
The advantages of the normal form of the equation of the
straight line over the other forms are twofold. In the first
place, every line may have its equation put in the normal form ;
whether it is parallel to one of the axes or passes through the
· origin is immaterial. In the second place, as will be seen in the
following section , it enables us to find immediately the perpen-
dicular distance from a line to a point.
PROBLEMS
1. In what quadrant will ON (see figure on page 70) lie if sin w and
cos are both positive ? both negative ? if sin w is positive and cos w
negative ? if sin w is negative and cos w positive ?
2. Find the equations and plot the lines for which
(a) w = 0, p = 5. Ans. x == 5.
3п
(b) w = 9 p = 3. Ans. y + 3 = 0.
π
(c) w = p = 3. Ans. √2x + √2y - 6 = 0.
2π
(d) w = p == 2. Ans. x −√3y + 4 = 0 .
3
7π
(e) w = p = 4. Ans. √2x - √2y - 8 = 0.
4
3. Reduce the following equations to the normal form and find p and w :
(a) 3x + 4y- 2 = 0. Ans . p = , w = cos- 1 = sin- 1 .
(b) 3x - 4y - 2 = 0. Ans . P = 3, w = cos- s- 113 = sin- 1 ( − 1) .
(c) 12x - 5y = 0. Ans. P = 0, w = cos- 1 (−13 ) = sin- 1 5
(d) 2x + 5y + 7 = 0.
7 2 5
Ans. p = :, w = cos- 1 sin-1
+ √29 -V29 V29
(e) 4x - 3 y + 1 = 0. Ans. p = } , w = cos− 1 ( − ) = sin- ¹g .
(f) 4 x -
− 5y + 6 = 0.
6 5
Ans. p = , w = COS- 1 sin-1
+ V41 ( 1 ;)=) +
(g) x - 4 = 0. (h) y 3 = 0. (i ) x + 2 = 0. (j ) y + 4 = 0.
4. Find the perpendicular distance from the origin to each of the
following lines :
(a) 12x + 5y — - 26 = 0. Ans. 2 .
(b) x + y + 1 = 0. Ans . √2.
(c ) 3x - 2y - 1 = 0. Ans. 13.
(d ) x + 4 = 0.
(e) y - 5 = 0.
π 3π 3п
5. Derive (V) when (a) << π ; (b ) π < w < ; (c) < w < 2π ;
π 2 2
(d) p = 0, and 0 < w <
2
6. For what values of p and w will the locus of (V) be parallel to the
x-axis ? the y-axis ? pass through the origin ?
7. Find the equations of the lines whose slopes equal - 2 , which are
at a distance of 5 from the origin.
Ans. 2√5x + √5 y - − 25 = 0 and 2√5x + √5 y + 25 = 0 .
8. Find the lines whose distance from the origin is 10, which pass
through the point (5, 10) . Ans . y = 10 and 4x + 3y - : 50.
9. Write an equation representing all lines whose perpendicular dis-
tance from the origin is 5.
34. The perpendicular distance from a line to a point . The
positive direction on the line ON drawn through the origin
perpendicular to AB is from 0 to AB (Art. 32). The positive
direction on ON will now be assumed to determine the positive

direction on all lines perpendicular to AB. Hence the perpen-
dicular distance from the line AB to the point P,1 is positive
if P,1 and the origin are on opposite sides of AB, and negativė
if P,1 and the origin are on the same side
of AB. Thus in the figure the distance
W
from AB to P₁1 is positive, and from AB X'
to P,2 is negative.
Let us now solve this problem : Given P₂
the equation of any line AB and a point
P₁ ; to find the perpendicular distance from YB
AB to P
Solution. Assume that the equation of AB is in the normal

form
YA N
(1) x cos ∞ + y sin w
E
= 0.
Let the coördinates of
P₁1 be (x , y ) and denote
the perpendicular dis-
tance from ABto P₁1 by d. Р d7 Y₁
In the figure project the
broken line ODP₁ upon X' O X1
the normal ON. Then
Y'
since OP is the closing
line, by the second theorem of projection (p . 69) , projection of
OP₁1 on ON = projection of OD on ON + projection of DP, on ON.
From the figure,
projection of OP₁1 on ON = OE = p + d.
By the first theorem of projection (p. 68),

projection of OD on ON := OD cos ∞ = x,
1 COS w,
projection of DP₁1 on ON = DP₁1 cos (5-0)

= y₁ sin w.
Hence p + d = x₁cos @ + Y₁ sin w,

and therefore d = x₁ cos @ + Y₁ sin W - p. Q. E. D.
In words : The perpendicular distance d is the result ob-

tained by substituting the coördinates of P, for x and y in the
left-hand member of the normal equation (1) .
Hence the
Rule to find the perpendicular distance d from a given line to

a given point.
Reduce the equation of the given line to the normal form
(Art. 33), place d equal to the left-hand member of this equa-
tion, and then substitute the coördinates of the given point for x
and y. The result is the required distance.
The sign of the result will show if the origin and the given
point are on the same side (d is negative) or opposite sides
(d is positive) of the line.
The perpendicular distance d from the
1N
line Ax + By + C0 to the point (x₁, y₁ )
will be, by this rule, equal to
W
Ax₁ + By₁ + C
(2) d=
± √A² + B²
B
the sign of the radical being opposite to
the sign of C.
When the given line AB passes through the origin, the posi-
tive direction on the normal ON is the upward direction.
Hence the rule just stated will give a positive result for d when
the perpendicular drawn from the line to the point has the
upward direction, and a negative result in the contrary case.
Thus in the figure the distance to P₁1 is positive and to P₂ is
negative.
Formula (2) may be used to find the perpendicular distance ,
but it is recommended that the rule be applied instead.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the perpendicular distance from the line 4 x -
− 3 y + 15 = 0 to
the point (2, 1) .
Solution. The equation is reduced to the
normal form by dividing by −√16 + 9 == 5.
Placing d equal to the left-hand member thus
d
obtained,
4x - 3y + 15
1
d=
3
-5 3 (2,1)
10
8 - 3+ 15
Substituting x = 2, y = 1, then d
= 4.
-- 5
Hence the length of the perpendicular distance is
4 and the point is on the same side of the line as the origin.
2. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles formed by the lines
L₁ : x + 3y - 6 = 0,
L₂ : 3x + y + 2 = 0.
Solution. Let P₁1 (x1 , y₁ ) be any point on the bisector L. Then, by
geometry, P₁ is equally distant from the given lines. Thus, if
d₁ = distance from L₁ to P₁,
and d2 = distance from L₂ to P1,
then d₁ and d₂ are numerically equal. Since, however, P₁1 is on the same
side of both lines as the origin, d₁
YA
and d₂ are both negative. Hence
for every point on the bisector Lg, LA
(1) d₁ = d₂.
By the rule for finding d,
-6
d₁ = 9
√10
di
3x₁₁ + 2 P(x1 , y1)
d2 =
=
-V10 d2
Substituting in (1) and reducing,
(2) x₁ + y₁ - 1 = 0 .
Dropping the subscripts in or- L
der to follow the usual custom of
having (x, y) denote any point on the line, we have for the equation of
(3) Lg : x + y − 1 = 0. Ans.
For any point on the bisector L4 the distances d₁ and d, will be equal
numerically but will differ in sign. Hence, along L4,
(4) d₁ = d₂.
Proceeding as before, the equation of L4 is found to be
(5) L4 : xy + 4 = 0. Ans.
We note that (3) and (5) represent perpendicular lines.
Regarded as a formal process, equations (3) and (5) of the bisectors
are found by reducing the equations of L₁ and L, to the normal form and
then adding and subtracting these equations .
PROBLEMS
1. Find the perpendicular distance from the line

- 7) .
(a) x cos 45° + y sin 45° - √2 = 0 to (5, — Ans. — 2√2.
(b) x - ty - 10 to (2, 1) . Ans..
(c) 3x + 4y + 150 to ( 2, 3) . Ans. 21 .
49
(d) 2x - 7y + 80 to (3, — 5) . Ans.
+ V53
12
(e) x - 3y = 0 to (0, 4). Ans.
+ V10
2. Do the origin and the point (3, —
- 2) lie on the same side of the
line x y + 1 = 0 ? Ans. Yes.
3. Does the line 2x + 3y + 2 = 0 pass between the origin and the
point ( 2, 3) ? Ans. No.
4. Find the lengths of the altitudes of the triangle formed by the

lines 2x + 3y = 0, x + 3y + 3 = 0, and x + y + 1 = 0.
3 6
Ans. 9 and √2.
V13 V10
5. Find the length of the altitudes of the triangles whose vertices are
(a) (7, 8) , (-8, 4) , ( 2 , - 10) .
(b) (8,0), (0,8) , ( 3, -3) 3)..
(c) (5, 4), ( 4, - 5) , (0, 8) .
6. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles formed by
3x4y + 1 = 0 and 4x + 3y −1 = 0.
Ans. 7xy = 0 and x + 7y - − 2 = 0.
7. Find the locus of all points which are twice as far from the line
12x + 5y1 = 0 as from the y-axis. Ans. 14x - 5 y + 1 = 0.
8. Find the locus of points which are k times as far from 4x - 3y + 1 = 0

as from 5x - 12y = 0. Ans. (52 — 25 k) x - (3960 k) y + 13 = 0.
9. Find the bisectors of the angles formed by the lines in Problem 8.

Ans. 77x99 y + 13 - = 0 and 27 x + 21 y + 13 = 0.
10. Find the distance between the parallel lines
y = 2x + 5, Ans.
(a) { - 2x - 3. √5
y = - 3x + 1 , 3
Ans.
(b) { —— 3x + 4. √10
(2x - 3y + 4 = 0, Ans.
(c) 4 x -- 6y + 9 = 0. 2 √13
y = mx + 3, 6
(d) Ans.
= mx - 3. √1 + m²
11. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles of the following
triangles, and prove that these bisectors meet in a common point :
(a) x + 2y - 5 = 0, 2 x − y — 5 = 0, 2x + y + 5 = 0.
(b) 3x + y -− 1 = 0, x - 3y - 3 = 0, x + 3y + 11 = 0.
(c) 3x + 4y - 220, 4x - 3y + 29 = 0, y - — 5 = 0.
(d) x + 2 = 0, y - 3 = 0, x + y = 0.
(e) x = 0, · y = 0, x + y + 3 = 0.
12. Find the bisectors of the angles formed by the lines 4x - 3y - 1 = 0
and 3x4y + 2 = 0, and show that they are perpendicular .
Ans. 7x - 7y + 10 and x + y - 3 = 0.
13. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles formed by the lines
5x12y + 10 = 0 and 12 x 5y + 15 = 0.
14. Find the locus of a point the ratio of whose distances from the lines
4x - 3y + 4 0 and 5x + 12 y -80 is 13 to 5. Ans. 9x + 9 y −4 = 0.
-
15. Find the bisectors of the interior angles of the triangle formed by
the lines 4x - 3y = 12, 5x – 12 y − 4 = 0, and 12x - 5 y -— 13 = 0.
Show that they meet in a point.
Ans. 7x - 9y - 160, 7 x + 7y90, 112 x 64 y - 221 = 0.
16. Find the bisectors of the interior angles of the triangle formed by
the lines 5 x - 12 y = 0 , 5 x + 12 y + 60 = 0, and 12 x - − 5y - — 60 = 0.
Show that they meet in a point.
Ans. 2y + 5 = 0, 17 x + 7y = 0, 17 x 17 y 60 = 0.
17. The sides of a triangle are 3x + 4y - 12 = 0 , 3 x - — 4y = 0, and

4x + 3y + 24 = 0. Show that the bisector of the interior angle at the
vertex formed by the first two lines and the bisectors of the exterior angles
at the other vertices meet in a point.
18. Find the equations of the lines parallel to 3x + 4y - 10 = 0, and

at a distance from it equal numerically to 3 units.
Ans. 3x + 4y = 5 or 1 .
35. The angle which a line makes with a second line. The angle
between two directed lines has been defined (Art. 12) as the
angle between their positive directions. When a line is given
by means of its equation, no positive
direction along the line is fixed. In order Li
to distinguish between the two pairs of La
equal angles which two intersecting lines.
La
make with each other, we define the
angle which a line makes with a second line
to be the positive angle (p . 2) from the
second line to the first line.
Thus the angle which L, makes with L,2 is the angle 0. We
speak always of the " angle which one line makes with a second
line," and the use of the phrase " the angle between two lines "
should be avoided if those lines are not directed lines.
Theorem. If m、 and m2 are the slopes of two lines , then the

angle 0 which the first line makes with the second is given by
m2
(VI) tan 0 = m1
1 + m₁mq
Proof. Let a, and a, be the inclinations of L, and L,2 respec-

tively. Then, since the exterior angle of a triangle equals the
sum of the two opposite interior angles , we have
(Fig. 1) = or Ꮎ - αι -α
- Ө = π + (α₁ − α₂).
(Fig. 2) α2 = π or
And since (30, p. 3) , tan ( + x) = tanx,

we have, in either case,
tan 0 = tan (α, -α )
tan α1 tan a2 .
= (By 38, p. 3)
1 + tan a₁ tan α2
YA L1 / L2 L2 /L1
п-ө
α και και κα
FIG. 1 FIG. 2
But tan a, is the slope of L,, and tan a, is the slope of L₂;
hence, writing tan a₁ = m19 tan α2 = m₂, we have (VI).
―
In applying (VI) we remember that m, slope of the line
from which is measured in the positive direction . (The Greek
letter used here is named " theta.")
EXAMPLES
1. Find the angles of the triangle formed by the lines whose equa-
tions are
L : 2x - 3y- 6 = 0, M
M : 6x - y - 6 = 0,
N: 6x + 4y- 25 = 0.
Solution. To see which angles formed by the L
given lines are the angles of the triangle, we plot B
the lines, obtaining the triangle ABC.
Let us find the angle A. In the figure, A is
measured from the line L. Hence in (VI) , m₂ =
slope of L = 3, m₁ = slope of M = 6.
283 16
... tan A = = and A = tan-118.
1+ 4 15
Next find the angle at B. In the figure, B is measured from N. Hence

1 π
m₂ = slope of N = − } , m₁ = slope of L = 2. Hence ma == " and B =
2
m1
Finally, the angle at C is measured from the line M. Hence in (VI)
m2 = slope of M = 6, m₁ = slope of N ——
-- 6 15
... tan C - = 9 and C = tan- 115
-9 16
π π
We may verify these results. For if B then A = - C ; and
2
1
hence (31 , p . 3 ; and 26, p. 3) tan A = cot C which is true for
the values found. tan C'
2. Find the equation of the line through (3, 5) which makes an angle
π
of with the line x - y + 6 = 0.
3
Solution. Let m₁ be the slope of the required line . Then its equation
is by (II) , Art. 27,
(1) y — 5 = m₁ (x − 3) .
3
The slope of the given line is m₂ = 1 , and since
the angle which ( 1) makes with the given line is (3,5)
11
π
" we have by (VI ) , since = = 60°,
3 3
π m1 - 1
tan
3 1+ mi
or √3 =
= m₁ - 1
1 + mi
1+ √3
Whence m1 = (2 + √3) .
Substituting in (1) , we obtain

y − 5 = − (2 + √3) (x − 3) ,
or (2 + √3) x + y − (11 + 3 √3) = 0.
In plane geometry there would be two solutions of this problem, - the
line just obtained and the dotted line of the figure. Why must the latter
be excluded here ?
In working out the following problems the student should first draw
the figure and mark by an arc the angle desired , remembering that this
angle is measured from the second line to the first in the counterclock-
wise direction.
888
PROBLEMS
1. Find the angle which the line 3x - y + 20 makes with

2x + y − 2 = 0 ; also the angle which the second line makes with the
first, and show that these angles are supplementary. 3п π
Ans. 9
4 '4
2. Find the angle which the line
(a) 2x - 5y + 1 = 0 makes with the line x —:2y + 3 = 0.
(b) x + y + 1 = 0 makes with the line x --y + 1 = 0.
(c) 3x − 4y + 2 = 0 makes with the line x + 3y - — 7 = 0.
(d ) 6x - 3y + 3 = 0 makes with the line x = 6.
(e) x - 7y + 10 makes with the line x + 2y - 4 = 0.
In each case plot the lines and mark the angle found by a small arc.
Ans. (a) tan- ¹ (— ½) ; (b) ; (c) tan- 1 ( ) ; (d ) tan− 1 (— } ) ;
(e) tan-1 ( ).
3. Find the angles of the triangle whose sides are x + 3 y − 4 = 0,

3x - 2y + 1 = 0, and x --y + 3 = 0.
Ans. tan- 1 (- 11 ) , tan- 1 (3) , tan- 1 (2) .
Hint. Plot the triangle to see which angles formed by the given lines are
the angles of the triangle.
4. Find the exterior angles of the triangle formed by the lines
- 0, y = 2, x — 4 y + 3 = 0.
5x -− y + 3 =
Ans. tan- 1 (5) , tan- 1 ( − 1 ) , tan- 1 (— ) .
5. Find one exterior angle and the two opposite interior angles of
the triangle formed by the lines 2x - 3y − 6 = 0 , 3 x + 4 y − 12 = 0,
x - 3y + 6 = 0. Verify the results by formula 37 , p . 3.
6. Find the angles of the triangle formed by 3x + 2y− 4 = 0 ,

x - 3y + 6 = 0, and 4x - 3y - 10 = 0.
7. Find the equation of the line passing through the given point and
making the given angle with the given line.
π
(a) (2, 1) ,, 2x 3y + 2 = 0. Ans. 5xy — 9 = 0.
3π
(b) (1 , − 3), 4 , x + 2y + 4 = 0. Ans. 3x + y = 0.
(c) (x1, Y1) , P, y = mx + b . Ans. yy1 = m + tan o ·(x − x₁) .

m tan o
36. Systems of straight lines . An equation of the first degree

in x and y which contains a single arbitrary constant will repre-
sent an infinite number of lines, for the locus of the equation
will be a straight line for any value of the constant, and the
locus will be different for different values of the constant.
The lines represented by an equation of the first degree
which contains an arbitrary constant are said to form a system.
The constant is called the parameter of the system.
Thus the equation y = 2x + b , where b is an arbitrary con-
stant, represents the system of lines having the slope 2 ; and
the equation y - 5 = m (x − 3) , where m is an arbitrary con-
stant, represents the system of lines passing through (3 , 5) .
The methods already explained suffice for solving problems
involving straight lines, but shorter methods result in some
cases by using systems of lines, as will now be explained.
Given the line
(1) 3x + 2y 4 := 0.
Now every line of the system
(2) 3x + 2y = k
is parallel to (1) , for the slopes of (1) and (2) are equal.
Again, every line of the system
(3) 2x - 3y = k
is perpendicular to (1) ; for the slope of (3 ) = 3 , the negative

reciprocal of the slope of (1).
Note that the coefficients of x and y in ( 1 ) and ( 2) are the
same, while the coefficients in (1) and (3) are interchanged and
also the sign of one of them is changed .
Next, consider the line
y - 2 = 3 (x + 2) .
It passes through the point (-2, 2). Now every line of the
system
(4) y - 2 = k (x + 2)
passes through this point, since the equation is satisfied by its

coördinates for all values of k.
Again, all the lines in the system
(5) x cos ky sin k -
-5= 0
are at a distance of five units from the origin.
The value of the parameter k will depend upon the condition
imposed upon the line (2) , (3) , (4) , or (5) .
Thus, if (2) must pass through (1 , − 3) , these coördinates
must satisfy (2), and hence
3-6 = k. k =- 3.
That is, the equation of the line passing through (1, − 3) and
parallel to 3x + 2y - 4 = 0 is 3x + 2y + 3 = 0.
Again, if (4) must form with the coördinate axes a triangle
of unit area, we set one half the product of its intercepts equal
to 1. Hence
1 - 2k
( -2 ) (2 k + 2) = 1 ,
k
5k
or k² + + 1 = 0.
2
... k2= , − d.
Substituting these values in (4) , we obtain
2x + y + 2 = 0, x + 2y - 2 = 0,
both lines satisfying the above conditions.
Again, if (5) must pass through the point (10, 0), then
√3
10 cos k = 5, cos k = , sink = ± √1 — cos² k
2
and substitution gives the two lines
x ± √3 y −10 = 0.
In general, we may say this : In finding the equation of a
straight line defined by two conditions, we may begin by writing
down the equation of the system of lines which satisfy one of
these conditions, and then determine the value of the parameter
so as to meet the second condition.
PROBLEMS
1. Write the equations of the systems of lines defined by the conditions :
(a ) Passing through (— 2, 3) .
(b ) Having the slope - .
(c ) Distance from the origin is 3.
(d ) Having the intercept on the y-axis =--3.
(e ) Passing through (6, — 1) .
(f ) Having the intercept on the x-axis = 6.
(g ) Having the slope .
(h) Having the intercept on the y-axis = 5.
(i ) Distance from the origin - 4.
(j ) Having one intercept double the other.
(k) Sum of the intercepts = 4.
(1 ) Length intercepted by the coördinate axes = 3.
(m) Forming a triangle of area 6 with the coördinate axes.
2. Determine k so that
(a) the line 2x - 3y + k = 0 passes through ( — 2, 1) . Ans. k = 7.
(b) the line 2 kx 5y + 3 - O has the slope 3. Ans. k = 15.
c) the line x + y -
− k := O passes through (3, 4) . Ans. k = 7.
(d) the line 3x 4y + k = 0 has intercept on the x-axis = 2.
Ans. k —— 6.
(e) the line x 3 ky + 40 has intercept on the y-axis :——- 3.
Ans. k $.
(f) the line 4x - 3y + 6k0 is distant three units from the origin .
Ans. k = 2.
(g) the line 2x + 7y - k = 0 forms a triangle of area 3 with the
coördinate axes. Ans. k = 2√21.
3. Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point
(a) (0, 0) and is parallel to x 3y + 4 = 0. Ans . x - 3y = 0.
(b) (3, -
− 2) and is parallel to x + y + 2 = 0. Ans. xy - 1 = 0.
(c) (→ 5, 6) and is parallel to 2x + 4 y −3 = 0 . Ans. x + 2y --— 7 = 0 .
(d) ( → 1 , 2) and is perpendicular to 3x - 4y + 1 = 0.
Ans. 4x + 3y — 2 = 0.
(e) - 7, 2) and is perpendicular to x -3y + 4 = 0 .
Ans. 3x + y + 19 = 0.
4. The equations of two sides of a parallelogram are 3x - 4y + 6 = 0
and x + 5y - 100. Find the equations of the other two sides if one
vertex is the point (4 , 9) . Ans . 3x - 4y + 24 = 0 and x + 5 y — 49 = 0 .
5. Find the equation of the straight line at a distance of three units

from the origin, and which in addition satisfies the condition given :
(a) Parallel to the line 2x + y − 2 = 0 . Ans. 2x + y ± 3 √5 = 0 .
(b) Perpendicular to the line x + y −1 = 0 . Ans . x + y ± 3 √2 = 0.
(c) Passing through the point (0, 8) . Ans. ± √7x + 3 y - − 12 = 0 .
(d) Passing through the point ( 1 , 5) .
(e) Forming a triangle with the coördinate axes whose area is 9.
3п
(f) Making an angle of with the line x + 2y + 4 = 0.
Ans . 3x + y ± 3 √10 = 0 .
6. Find the equation of the straight line parallel to the line
3x + 4y - 7 = 0, and satisfying the additional condition given :
(a) Passing through the point (2, — 6) .
(b) Forming a triangle of area 2 with the coördinate axes.
(c) Forming a triangle of perimeter 5 with the coördinate axes.
(d) The middle point of the intercepted part has unit abscissa.
(e) At a distance of three units from the origin.
(f) One unit nearer to the origin .
7. Find the equation of the line passing through the point (3, -2)
and satisfying the additional condition :
(a) Parallel to the line x -7y -— 8 = 0.
(b) Perpendicular to the line 3 x -
− 5y = 7 .
(c ) Passing through the point (4, 1) .
(d) Having the intercept ( — 7, 0) .
(e) The sum of its intercepts is 6 .
Ans. x - 3y - 90, y + 2 x − 4 = 0.
(f) The given point bisects the part intercepted by the coördinate axes.
(g ) Making an angle of 45° with the line 2x - 3y + 2 = 0 .
8. Find the equation of the line parallel to the line 3x + 4y — 15 = 0,
such that the point (2 , −4) shall lie midway between the two lines.
Ans. 3x + 4y + 35 = 0.
9. Find the equation of the straight line which forms a triangle of
area 2 with the coördinate axes, and whose intercepts differ by 3 .
•
37. System of lines passing through the intersection of two
given lines. Given the two lines
(1) L₁ : x + 2y - 5 = 0,
(2) L2: 3x - y - 2 = 0.
L
Consider the system of lines whose equation is

(3) x + 2y - 5 + k (3 x - y2) = 0,
where k is an arbitrary number.
It is easy to see that the line (3) will pass through the in-
tersection of the given lines L, and L.2 In fact, by solving (1)
and (2) for x and y, we find x = 1, y = 2, and these values
satisfy (3) .
Note that the equation (3) is formed from the left-hand mem-
bers of (1) and (2) by multiplying one of them by the parameter
k and adding. The method of forming (3) shows at once that
the line it represents must pass through the intersection of the
given lines.
Problems requiring the equation of a line which passes
through the intersection of two given lines are often much
shortened by forming the equation of the system (3) and de-
termining k to meet the given condition . The advantage of
this method is that we do not need to know the coördinates of
the point of intersection of L,1 and L₂
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the line passing through P₁1 (2, 1) and the
intersection of L₁ : 3x — 5y — 10 = 0 and L½ : x + y + 1 = 0.
Solution. The system of lines passing through the intersection of the
given lines is represented by
3x - 5y - 10 + k (x + y + 1 ) = 0.
If P₁ lies on this line, then
65-10k (2 + 1 + 1 ) = 0 ;
whence k= .
Substituting this value of k and sim-
plifying, we have the required equation
21x11 y - 31 = 0.
2. Find the equation of the line passing through the intersection of
L₁ : 2x + y + 1 = 0 and L₂ : x - 2y + 1 = 0 and parallel to the line whose
equation is L : 4x - 3y - 7 = 0.
Solution. The equation of every line through the intersection of the

first two given lines has the form 2x+y + 1 +kx -2ky + K =0
2x + y + 1 + k (x − 2 y + 1) = 0,
or (2 + k) x + (1-2 k) y + (1 + k) = 0.
2+k
The slope of this line is - • This
1-2 k
must equal the slope of L ; that is, § . L2
2+k =
, or k = 2.
1-2 k
Substitúting and simplifying, we obtain
4x - 3y + 3 = 0 . Ans.
Solve the following problems without finding the point of

intersection of the two lines given.
PROBLEMS

2x - 3y + 2 = 0 and 3x4y2 = 0, and which
(a) passes through the origin ;
(b) is parallel to 5x - 2y + 3 = 0 ;
(c) is perpendicular to 3x - 2y + 4 = 0 .
Ans. (a) 5x - 7y = 0 ; (b) 5 x 2 y — 50 = 0 ; (c) 2x + 3y — 58 = 0.
2. Find the equations of the lines which pass through the vertices.
of the triangle formed by the lines 2x - 3y + 1 = 0, x − y = 0, and
3x + 4y - 2 = 0, which are
(a) parallel to the opposite sides ;
(b) perpendicular to the opposite sides.
Ans. (a) 3x + 4 y − 7 = 0 , 14 x ― 21 y 20, 17 x — 17 y + 5 = 0 ;
(b) 4x - 3y -− 1 = 0, 21x + 14 y - 10 - = 0, 17 x + 17 y -− 9 = 0.
3. Find the equation of the line passing through the intersection
of x + y − 2 = 0 and x − y + 6 = 0_and_through the intersection of
2x − y + 3 = 0 and x 3y + 2 = 0. Ans. 19x + 3y + 26 = 0.
Hint. The systems of lines passing through the points of intersection of the
two pairs of lines are
x + y − 2 + k (x − y + 6) = 0,
and 2 x −y + 3 + k' (x − 3 y + 2) = 0.
These lines will coincide if the coefficients are proportional ; that is, if
1+k 1- k - 2 + 6k
2 + k' -1-3k 3 + 2k'
Letting r be the common value of these ratios, we obtain
1 + k = 2r + rk',
1- k - r - 3rk',
and -2 + 6k3r + 2 rk'.
' From these equations we can eliminate the terms in rk' and r, and thus find
the value of k which gives that line of the first system which also belongs to
the second system .
2x + y - 8 = 0 and 3x + 2y = 0 and
(a) parallel to the y-axis. Ans. x - 16 = 0.
(b) parallel to the x-axis. Ans. y + 24 = 0.
5. The equations of the sides of a parallelogram are x + 3y + 2 = 0,
x + 3y — 8 = 0, 3x — 2 y = 0, 3x - 2y - 160 . Find the equations
of the diagonals.
6. Find the equations of the lines through the point of intersection of
the two lines x + 3 y − 10 = 0 , x − y = 0, which are at unit distance from
the origin. Ans. x - 1 0, 4x - 3y + 5 = 0.
7. Find the equations of the lines through the point of intersection of
the two lines 7x + 7 y − 24 = 0 , x − y = 0 , which form with the coördi-
nate axes a triangle of perimeter 12.
Ans. 4x + 3y 12 = 0 ; 3x + 4 y − 12 = 0.
REVIEW. TRIANGLE PROBLEMS

1. In the following problems the coördinates of the vertices of a triangle
are given . Find (1) the equations of the sides, (2) the equations of the
perpendicular bisectors of the sides, (3) the equations of the medians,
(4) the equations of the lines drawn from the vertices perpendicular to
the opposite sides, (5) the equations of the lines drawn through the vertices
parallel to the opposite sides, (6) the lengths of the three medians, (7) the
lengths of the three altitudes, (8) the area, (9) the three angles, (10) the
equation of the circumscribed circle.
(a) (8, 2), (6, 6), ( 1, 5). (f) (0, 4) , (6, 2) , (4, — 5) .
(b) ( — 4, 5) , ( — 3 , 8) , (4, 1) . (g) ( 3, 3) , ( — 2, 0) , (5, — 7) .
(c) (4 , 13) , (16, 5) , ( — 1 , — 12) . (h) (0, 2), (8, 0), (5, 5).
(d) (2, 4) , (8, 4) , (6, 0) . (i ) (3, 1) , (3, - 5) , (0, 2).
(e) (4, 0), (2, 4), ( 5, 3). (j ) (-1 , 15) , (11 , 7) , ( 6,10) .
2. In the following problems the coördinates of the vertices of a triangle

are given. Find (1) the equations of the sides, (2) the equations of the
perpendicular bisectors of the sides, (3) the equations of the bisectors of
the interior angles, (4) the equation of the circumscribed circle, (5) the
equation of the inscribed circle.
(a) (8, 1) , (2, 4), (— 2, -
— 4) .
(b) (6, 30) , (36, - 10) , ( 24,10).
(c) (3, 3), (— 3, 6) , ( — 7, — 2) .
(d) (0, 32) , (30, — 8 ) , ( — 30, — 8) .
3. In the following problems the equations of the sides of a triangle
are given. Find (1) the angles, (2) the equations of the bisectors of the
interior angles, (3) the equations of the bisectors of the exterior angles,
(4) the equation of the inscribed circle.
(a) 4x - 3y- 4 = 0 , 3x + 4 y — 80, 5x – 12 y — 60 = 0.
(b) 5x + 12y - 24 = 0, 12x + 5y + 70, 5x - 12 y 48 0.
(c) 5x - 12y —- 42 - 0, 12x + 5y - 2 = 0, 5x + 12 y ― 66 = 0.
(d) 12x + 5y + 50 -= 0 , 5 x − 12 y -
− 81 = 0, 5x + 12 y − 33 = 0 .
(e) 4x - 3y + 25 = 0 , 5 x − 12 y + 1 = 0,3x + 4y- 5 = 0.
(f) 5x + 12 y — 123 = 0, 12 x + 5y + 21 = 0,5x - 12 y 270.
(g) 5x - 12 y - 30, 12 x + 5y + 24 = 0, 5 x + 12 y − 75 = 0.
(h) 12x + 5y + 50 = 0, 5x + 12 y − - 16 = 0, 5 x — 12 y — 16 – 0.
CHAPTER V
THE CIRCLE
38. Equation of the circle. Every circle is determined when

its center and radius are known .
Theorem. The equation of the circle whose center is a given

point (a, B) and whose radius equals r is
(I) (x -
− a)² + (y —ẞ)² = r² .
Proof. Assume that P (x, y) is any point on the locus.
If the center (a, ß) be denoted by C , the given condition is
PC = r.
By (I) , p. 13, PC = √(x − α)² + (y - B)².

· . √(x − x)² + (y — ß)² = r.
Squaring, we have (I). Q. E.D.
Corollary. The equation ofthe circle whose center is the origin
(0, 0) and whose radius is r is
x² + y² = r².
If (I) is expanded and transposed, we obtain
(1) x² + y² − 2xx - 2 By + a² + ß² — p² = 0.
The form of this equation is clearly
x² + y² + terms of lower degree = 0.
In words : Any circle is defined by an equation of the
second degree in the variables x and y, in which the terms ofthe
second degree consist of the sum of the squares of x and y.
Equation (1) is of the form
(2) x² + y² + Dx + Ey + F = 0,
where
(3) D = − 2 x, E 2B, and Fa² + B² — p².
92
THE CIRCLE 93
Can we infer, conversely, that the locus of every equation

of the form (2) is a circle ? To decide this question transform
(2) into the form of (I) as follows : Rewrite (2) by collecting
the terms in x and the terms in y thus :
(4) x² + Dx + y² + Ey =
: =- F.
Complete the square of the terms in x by adding ( D)² to

both sides of (4), and do the same for the terms in y by adding
( E) to both members.
Then (4) may be written
-
(5) (x + { D)² + (y + } E) ² = { (D² + E² — 4 F) .
In (5) we distinguish three cases :
If D² + E² - 4 F is positive, (5) is in the form (I) , and hence
the locus of (2) is a circle whose center is ( -D, — § E) and
whose radius is r = Yk√D² + E² -− 4 F.
If D² + E² — 4 F = 0, the only real values satisfying (5) are
x= D, y = E (footnote, p. 37) . The locus, therefore, is
the single point ( D, - E) . In this case the locus of (2)
is often called a point circle, or a circle whose radius is zero .
If D² + E² − 4 F is negative, no real values satisfy (5) , and
hence (2) has no locus.
The expression D² + E² 4 F is called the discriminant of (2) ,
and is denoted by (Greek letter " Theta "). The result is
given by the
Theorem. The locus of the equation
(II) x² + y² + Dx + Ey + F = 0 ,
whose discriminant is = D² + E2-4 F, is determined as follows :
When is positive, the locus is the circle whose center is
( D, - E) and whose radius is r = · √D² + E² − -4 4F
F== {{ √®,
When is zero, the locus is the point circle ( -
— § D , — § E) .
When is negative, there is no locus.
Corollary. When E = 0, the center of (II) is on the x-axis, and
when D = 0, the center is on the y-axis.
EXAMPLE
Find the locus of the equation x² + y² 4x + 8y - 5 = 0.
First solution. The given equation is of the form (II) , where
D = −4, E = 8, F = — 5,
and hence
= 16 + 64 + 20 = 100 > 0.
The locus is therefore a circle O
whose center is the point (2, -
— 4)
and whose radius is√100 = 5.
Second solution. The problem (2,-4)
may be solved without applying the
theorem if we follow the method by
which the theorem was established .
Collecting terms,
(x² - 4x) + (y² + 8 y) = 5.
. Completing the squares,
(x² - 4x + 4) + (y² + 8 y + 16) = 25.
Or , also, (x -
− 2)² + (y + 4)² = 25.
Comparing with (I) , a = 2, B 4, r = 5.
The equation Ax² + Bxy + Cy² + Dx + Ey + F = 0 is called
the general equation of the second degree in x and y because it con-
tains all possible terms in x and y of the second and lower de-
grees . This equation can be reduced to the form ( II ) when and
only when A = C and B = 0. Hence the locus of an equation
of the second degree is a circle only when the coefficients of x²
and y' are equal and the xy-term is lacking.
39. Circles determined by three conditions . The equation of any
circle may be written in either one of the forms
- -
(x − x) ² + (y — B)² = 1·²,
or x² + y² + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
Each equation has three arbitrary constants. To determine

these constants three equations are necessary. Such an equa-
tion means that the circle satisfies some geometrical condition .
Hence a circle may be determined to satisfy three conditions.
THE CIRCLE 95
Rule to determine the equation of a circle satisfying three

conditions.
First step. Let the required equation be

-
(1) (x − a)² + (y − ß)² = 1²,
or
(2) x² + y² + Dx + Ey + F = 0,
as may be more convenient.
Second step. Find three equations between the constants a, ß,
and r [ or D, E, and F ] which express that the circle (1) [ or (2) ]
satisfies the three given conditions.
Third step. Solve the equations found in the second step for
a, B, and r [ or D, E, and F ] .
Fourth step. Substitute the results of the third step in (1 ) [ or
(2) ] . The result is the required equation.
In some problems, however, a more direct method results by
constructing the center of the required circle from the given
conditions and then finding the equations and points of inter-
section of the lines of the figure.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the circle passing through the three points
P₁ (0, 1) , P2 (0, 6) , and P¸ (3 , 0) .
First solution. First step . Let the re- YA
quired equation be
P
(3) x² + y² + Dx + Ey + F = 0 . (0,6
Second step. Since P1, P29 and P lie 21
2
on (3), their coördinates must satisfy (3) .
Hence we have
(4) 1+ E + F = 0, (0,1)
P
(5) 366 EF = 0,
0 P(3,0)
and
(6) 9+ 3D+ F = 0.
Third step. Solving (4) , (5) , and (6) , we obtain
E = -7, F = 6, D : - 5.
Fourth step. Substituting in (3) , the required equation is

x² + y² -
— 5x - 7y + 6 = 0.
The center is (3 , 1 ) , and the radius is√2 - 3.5.
Second solution. A second method which follows the geometrical con-
struction for the circumscribed circle is the following. Find the equations
of the perpendicular bisectors of P₁P₂2 and P‚Ð¸ 1 . The point of intersec-
tion is the center. Then find the radius by the length formula.
2. Find the equation of the circle passing through the points P₁ (0, - 3)
and P2 (4, 0) which has its center on the line x + 2y = 0.
First solution. First step. Let the required
Y
equation be
(7) ´x² + y² + Dx + Ey + F = 0 .
Second step. Since P₁1 and P₂ lie on the locus (4,0)X
of (7), we have
(8) 9-3 EF = 0, (0, -3)
and
(9) 164 D F = 0.
D E
The center of (7) is
is (-2, -1) , and since it lies on the given line,
+2 = 0,
(一 )
or
(10) D + 2E = 0.
Third step . Solving (8) , (9) , and (10) ,
D = −¹ , E = } , F = -24 .
Fourth step. Substituting in (7) , we obtain the required equation,
x² + y² - 4x + 7y24 = 0,
or 5x25 y² - 14x + 7y -— 24 = 0.
The center is the point (3, - ), and the radius is√29 .
Second solution. A second solution is suggested by geometry, as follows :
Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of P₁P2 . The point of
intersection of this line and the given line is the center of the required
circle. The radius is then found by the length formula.
THE CIRCLE 97
3. Find the equation of the circle inscribed in the triangle whose

sides are
AB : 3x - 4y 190 ,
(11) BC : 4x + 3y — 17 = 0,
CAx + 7 = 0.
Solution. The center is the point of intersection of the bisectors of the
angles of the triangle. We therefore find the equations of the bisectors
of the angles A and C.
Reducing equations (11) to
the normal form,
3x4y - 19 -
(12) AB : 0;
5
BC:4x + 3y - 17 - 0 ;
5
CA : x + 7 = 0.
1
Then, by Example 2, Art.

34, the bisectors are
3x-4y - 19 = x+ 7
(13) AD :
5 1'
or 2x y + 4 = 0, B
CE: 4x + 3y17 = x + 7
5 -
or 3x + y + 6 = 0.
The point of intersection

of AD and CE is (-2, 0) .
This is therefore the center
of the inscribed circle. The
radius is the perpendicular
distance from any of the lines (11) to ( -2, 0) . Taking the side AB,
then, from (12),
- -
r = 3 ( −2) — 4 (0) — 19 =- 5.
5
Hence, by (I) , the equation of the required circle is
(x + 2)² + (y − 0)² = 25, or x² + y² + 4x - - 210. Ans.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equation of the circle whose center is
(a) (0, 1) and whose radius is 3. Ans. x² + y² — 2 y — 8 = 0.
(b) (-2, 0) and whose radius is 2. Ans. x² + y² + 4x = 0.
(c) (-3, 4) and whose radius is 5. Ans. x² + y² + 6x -— 8 y = 0.
(d) (x, 0) and whose radius is a. Ans. x² + y² — 2 xx = 0.
(e) (0, B) and whose radius is ß. Ans. x² + y² — 2 ßx 0.
(f) (0, — ẞ) and whose radius is p. Ans. x² + y² + 2 ßx = 0.
2. Draw the locus of the following equations :
(a) x² + y² - 6x — 16 = 0. (f ) x² + y² − 6x + 4 y − 5 = 0.
(b) 3x² + 3y² - 10x - 24 y = 0. (g) (x + 1)² + (y — 2)² = 0.
(c ) x² + y² = 8x. (h) 7 x² + 7 y² ― 4 x - y = 3.
(d) x² + y² - 8x - 6y + 25 = 0. (i ) x² + y² + 2ax + 2by + a² + b² = 0 .
(e ) x² + y² -
— 2 x + 2y + 5 = 0. (j ) x² + y² + 16x + 100 = 0.
3. Show that the following loci are circles, and find the radius and the
coördinates of the center in each case :
(a) A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances from
(3, 0) and ( — 3, 0) always equals 68. Ans. x² + y² = 25.
(b) A point moves so that its distances from (8, 0) and (2, 0) are always
in a constant ratio equal to 2. Ans . x² + y² = 16.
(c) A point moves so that the ratio of its distances from (2, 1) and (—4, 2)
is always equal to 1. Ans. 3x² + 3y² - 24x 4y = 0.
(d) The distance of a moving point from the fixed point ( — 1 , 2) is twice
its distance from the origin . 2√5
Ans. α = , B 3, r =
3
(e) The distance of a moving point from the fixed point (2 , - — { ) is half
its distance from the fixed point (0, 3) .
(f) The square of the distance of a moving point from the origin is
proportional to the sum of its distances from the coördinate axes.
(g) The square of the distance of a moving point from the fixed point
(-4, 3) is proportional to its distance from the line 3x - 4y - — 5 === 0.
(h) The sum of the squares of the distances of a point from the two lines
x - 2y = 0, 2 x + y − 10 = 0, is unity.
4. Find the equation of a circle passing through any three of the fol-
lowing points :
(0, 2) (3, 3) (6, 2) (7, 1) (8, -2) (7, -
— 5)
(6, - - -
6) (3,7) (0 , - 6) ( −1 , − 5) ( — 2, — 2) (− 1 , 1)
Ans. x² + y² — 6x + 4y -— 12 = 0.
THE CIRCLE 99
5. Find the equation of the circle which

(a) has the center (2 , 3) and passes through (3, 2) .
Ans. x² + y² - 4 x 6 y 13 = 0.
(b) has the line joining (3, 2) and ( — 7, 4) as a diameter.
Ans. x² + y² + 4 x - − 6y -
− 13 = 0.
-
(c) passes through the points (0, 0) , (8 , 0) , (0, — 6) .
Ans. x² + y² — 8 x + 6 y = 0. ↳
(d) passes through (0, 1) , (5, 1 ) , (2, -
— 3) .
Ans. 2x2 + 2 y² — 10x + y − 3 = 0.
(e) circumscribes the triangle (4, 5) , (3 , - -
− 2) , (1 , — 4) .
(f) has the center ( — 1 , — 5) and is tangent to the x-axis.
Ans. x² + y² + 2x + 10 y + 1 = 0.
(g) has the center (3, -— 5) and is tangent to the line x- 7y + 2 = 0.
Ans. x² + y² .- 6x + 10y + 2 = 0.
(h) passes through the points (3, 5) and ( — 3, 7) and has its center on
the x-axis. Ans. x² + y² + 4x - — 46 = 0.
(i) passes through the points (4, 2) and ( — 6, - 2) and has its center
on the y-axis . Ans. x² + y² + 5 y — 30 = 0.
(j) passes through the points (5, 3) and (0, 6) and has its center on
the line 2x - 3 y — 6 = 0. Ans. 3x² + 3y² - 114x64y + 276 = 0.
(k) passes through the points (0, 2) , ( —- 1 , 1 ) and has its center in the
line 3y + 2x = 0. Ans. x² + y² - — 6x + 4y -
— 12 = 0.
(1) circumscribes the triangle x - - 6 = 0, x + 2y = 0, x - 2y = 8.
Ans. 2x² + 2 y² - — 21 x + 8y + 60 = 0.
(m) is inscribed in the triangle (0, 6) , (8 , 6) , (0, 0) .
Ans. x² + y² -- — 4x - 8y + 16 = 0.
(n) passes through ( 1 , 0) and (5, 0) and is tangent to the y-axis.
Ans. x² + y² - — 6x ± 2 √5y + 5 = 0.
(0) passes through the points ( — 3, − 1) , ( 1 , 1) and is tangent to the
line 4x + 3y + 25 = 0.
6. Find the equations of the inscribed circles of the following triangles :

(a) x + 2y - 5 = 0, 2xy - 5 0, 2x + y + 5 = 0.
(b) 3x + y 1 = 0, x- 3y - 3 = 0, x + 3y + 11 = 0 .
(c) 3x + 4y- 22 = 0, 4x - 3y + 29 = 0, y - 5 = 0.
(d) x + 2 *** 0, y - 3 = 0, x + y = 0.
(e) x = 0, y = 0, x + y + 3 = 0.
7. What is the equation of a circle whose radius is 10, if it is tangent

to the line 4x + 3y - 70 = 0 at the point whose abscissa is 10 ?
In the proofs of the following theorems the choice of the axes of

coördinates is left to the student, since no mention is made of either
coördinates or equations in the problem. In such cases always choose
the axes in the most convenient manner possible.
8. A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances from
two fixed points is constant. Prove that the locus is a circle.
two fixed perpendicular lines is constant. Prove that the locus is a circle.
10. A point moves so that the ratio of its distances from two fixed
points is constant. Determine the nature of the locus.
Ans. A circle if the constant ratio is not equal to unity, and a straight
line if it is.
11. A point moves so that the square of its distance from a fixed point
is proportional to its distance from a fixed line. Show that the locus
is a circle.
CHAPTER VI
TRANSCENDENTAL CURVES AND EQUATIONS
In the preceding chapters the emphasis has been laid chiefly

on algebraic equations ; that is, equations involving only powers
of the coördinates. We now turn our attention to equations
such as
y = log x, y = 2*, x = sin y,
which are called transcendental equations, and their loci, tran-

scendental curves.
40. Natural logarithms . The common logarithm of a given

number N is the exponent x of the base 10 in the equation
(1) 102 = N ; that is, x = log10 N.
A second system of logarithms , known as the natural system ,

is of fundamental importance in mathematics. The base of this
system is denoted by e, and is called the natural base. Numer-
ically to three decimal places, the natural base is always
(2) e = 2.718 .
The natural logarithm of a given number N is the exponent y

in the equation
(3) ey:= N; that is, y = log, N.
To find the equation connecting the common and natural

logarithms of a given number, we may take the logarithms of
both members of (3) to the base 10, which gives
(4) log10 ey = log₁10 N, or y log₁0

10 € = log₁0 N. (16, p. 1)
(5) ... log₁10 N = log₁e • log, N (using the value of y in (3)) .

101
The equation shows that the common logarithm of any number

equals the product of the natural logarithm by the constant
loge . This constant is called the modulus = M) of the com-
mon system. That is (Table, Art. 2) ,
1
(6) M = log₁e = 0.434 ; also M = 2.302.
We may summarize in the equations,

Common log = natural log times 0.434 ,
(A) Natural log = common log times 2.302 .
These equations show us how to find the natural logarithm

from the common logarithm , or vice versa.
Exponential and logarithmic curves . The locus of the equation
(7) y = ex
is called an exponential curve. From the preceding we may

write (7) also in the form
(8) x = log, y = 2.302 log10 y.
The locus of (7) is therefore the curve whose abscissas are

the natural logarithms of the ordinates. Let us now discuss
and plot (7) . (Figure, p . 103.)
Discussion. Since negative num- x y x y
bers and zero have no logarithms,
y is necessarily positive. More- 0 1 0 1
over, x increases as y increases. 1
1 e = 2.7 1 = .37
The coördinates of a few points e
on the locus are set down in the -
2 e2 = 7.4 = .14
table . The discussion and figure €2
illustrate the fact that etc. etc. etc. etc.
loge 0 - - ∞ .
For clearly, as y approaches zero, x becomes negatively larger and larger,

without limit. Hence the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
If the curve is carefully drawn, natural logarithms may be measured
off. Thus, by measurement in the figure, if
y = 4, x = 1.38 = log. 4.
TRANSCENDENTAL CURVES AND EQUATIONS 103
More generally, the locus of

(9) y = ekx
where k is a given constant, is an exponential curve. The dis-
cussion of the difference of this locus from that in the figure is
left to the reader. AY
The locus of the equation
(10) y = log₁0 x,
which is called a logarithmic curve,
differs essentially from the locus of
(7) only in its relation to the axes .
In fact, both curves are exponential
or logarithmic curves , depending upon
the point of view.
The locus of (10) is given in the
figure below. Clearly, since log100 =
--∞ , the y-axis is a vertical asymp-
tote. The scales chosen are
unit length on XX ' equals 2 divisions ,
unit length on YY' equals 4 divisions.
(0,1)
(10,1)
(3.1, 12 )
O (1,0)
( 1,-1)
Compound interest curve. The problem of compound interest intro-

duces exponential curves. For, if r = rate per cent of interest, and n =
number of years, then the amount ( = A ) of one dollar in n years, if
the interest is compounded annually , is given by the formula
A = (1 + r)".
For example, if the rate is 5 per cent, the formula is

(11) A = (1.05)" .
If we plot years as abscissas and the amount as ordinates, the corre-
sponding curve will be an exponential curve. For, by Art. 2 , log101.05 = .021 .
Hence, from (A) , loge 1.05 = 2.302 times .021
= .048 (to three decimal places) .
Hence , by (3), e.048 - 1.05, and the equation (11) becomes
(12) A = e.048 n 9
which is in the form of (9) ; that is, k = .048.
For convenience in plotting exponential curves accurately
the following table is inserted.
Table of values of the exponential function e*.
.0 .1 .2 .3 .4
x
ex e-x ex e-x ex e-x ex e-x ex e-x
0 1.00 1.00 1.11 0.90 1.22 0.82 1.35 0.74 1.49 0.67
1 2.72 0.37 3.00 0.33 3.32 0.30 3.67 0.27 4.06 0.25
2345
2 7.39 0.14 8.17 0.12 9.03 0.11 9.97 0.10 11.0 0.09
3 20.1 0.05 22.2 0.05 24.5 0.04 27.1 0.04 30.0 0.03
4 54.6 0.02 60.3 0.02 66.7 0.01 73.7 0.01 81.5 0.01
148 0.01 164 0.01 181 0.01 200 0.00 221 0.00
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9
x
ex e -x ex e-x ex e-x ex e-x ex e -x
0 1.65 0.61 1.82 0.55 2.01 0.50 2.23 0.45 2.46 0.41
1 4.48 0.22 4.95 0.20 5.47 0.18 6.05 0.17 6.69 0.15
2 12.2 0.08 13.5 0.07 14.9 0.07 16.4 0.06 18.2 0.06
3 33.1 0.03 36.6 0.03 40.4 0.02 44.7 0.02 49.4 0.02
4 90.0 0.01 99.5 0.01 110 0.01 122 0.01 134 0.01
5 245 0.00 270 0.00 299 0.00 330 0.00 365 0.00
For example, to find the value of e2.3, we look in the column with the
caption x for the value 2 and then pass to the right under the caption .3.
The value sought is found in the column under er to be 9.97. The next
value to the right of this under e- x is e- 2.3 -
= 0.10.
PROBLEMS
Draw the loci of each of the following :
1. y = ex. 4. y = e- 2x. 7. y = xe- x
2. y = ex 5. y = 2e- x. 8. 8 = t2e- t.
3. y = e2x. 6. y = 2e¯x 9. v = 2e-1"
11. y = 2 log10x.
12. y = loge (1 + x).
13. y = 2 log10 .
14. y= log10√x.
15. y= loge (1 + ex) .
X
16. s= log10 (1 + 2t) .
10. y = ex². 17. v= loge (1 + 1²) .
PROBABILITY CURVE 18. x = log10 (1 − y) .
41. Sine curves . As already explained (p . 2) , the two com-

mon methods of angular measurement, namely circular measure
and degree measure, employ as units of measurement the radian
and the degree respectively. The relation between these units is
180
1 radian = 57.29 degrees ,
or
π
(1) π
1 degree = 0.0174 radians or 180
in which π 3.14 (or 22 approximately) , as usual.

114.59
57.29
180
°
06
Degrees
0°
1.57
Radians
20
Equations (1) may be written

(2) Tradians = 180 degrees.
π π
Thus radians = 90°, radians = 45 °, etc. The two scales
4
laid off on the same line give the figure.
* If the shape only of the curves 1-10 is desired , we may replace e by the
approximate value 3.
106 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
NEW ANALYTIC
In advanced mathematics it is assumed that circular measure

is to be used. Thus the numerical values of
πX
COS
πX 6
sin 2 x, x tan "
4 2x
for x = 1, are as follows :
sin 2 x = sin 2 radians - sin 114°.59 = 0.909,
ПХ π
x tan = 1. tan radians = tan 45° = 1 ,
4 4
ПХ Π
COS COS radians)
6 6 cos 30° -
0.433.
2x 2 2
Let us now draw the locus of the equation
(3) У = sin x,
in which, as just remarked, x is the circular measure of an angle.
YA
y =1
A B 2п
3πT
2
Solution. In making the calculation for plotting, it is convenient to

choose angles at intervals of, say, 30°, and then find x , the circular measure
of this angle, in radians, and y from the Table of Art . 4 .
Angle in x Angle in x
degrees radians y degrees radians y
0 0 0 0 0 0
30 .52 .50 30 .52 .50
60 1.04 .86 - 60 - 1.04 .86
90 1.56 1.00 90 - 1.56 - 1.00
120 2.08 .86 - 120 - 2.08 .86
150 2.60 .50 - 150 - 2.60 .50
180 3.14 0 - 180 - 3.14 0
Thus, for 30°, y = sin 30° = .50 . For 150°, y sin 150°= sin (180° — 30°) =
sin 30° = .50 (30, p. 3) .
To plot, choose a convenient unit of length on XX' to represent 1 radian,
and use the same unit of length for ordinates. The divisions laid off on
the x-axis in the figure are 1 radian, 2 radians, etc. Plotting the points
(x, y) of the table, the curve APOQB is the result.
The course of the curve beyond B is easily determined from the
relation
sin (2π + x) = sin x.
Hence y = sin x = sin (2 + x) ;
that is, the curve is unchanged if x + 2π be substituted for x. This means,
however, that every point is moved a distance 2π to the right. Hence
the arc APO may be moved parallel to XX' until A falls on B, that
is, into the position BRC, and it will also be a part of the curve in its
new position. This property is expressed by the statement : The curve
y = sinx is a periodic curve with a period equal to 2π. Also , the arc
OQB may be displaced parallel to XX′until O falls upon C. In this
way it is seen that the entire locus consists of an indefinite number of
congruent arcs, alternately above and below XX'.
General discussion . 1. The curve passes through the origin, since (0, 0)
satisfies the equation.
2. In (3), if x = 0, y = sin 0 = 0 = intercept on the axis of y .
Solving (3) for x,
(4) x = arc sin y.
In (4), if y = 0,
x = arc sin 0 = nπ, n being any integer.
Hence the curve cuts the axis of x an indefinite number of times both
on the right and left of O, these points being at a distance of π from
one another.
3. Since sin ( x) = —sin x, changing signs in (3),
- y = — sin x,
or - y = sin ( x) .
Hence the locus is unchanged if (x, y) is replaced by ( − x, − y) , and
the curve is symmetrical with respect to the origin (Theorem II , p. 43) .
4. In (3), x may have any value, since any number is the circular
measure of an angle.
In (4), y may have values from - - 1 to +1 inclusive, since the sine of
an angle has values only from -- 1 to +1 inclusive.
5. The curve extends out indefinitely along XX′ in both directions,
but is contained entirely between the lines y = + 1 , y = − 1 .
The locus is called the wave curve, from its shape, or the sine curve,
from its equation (3) : The maximum value of y is called the amplitude.
Again, let us construct the locus of
πX
(5) y = 2 sin
3
Solution. We now choose for x the values 0, 1 , 1 , 11 , etc. , radians, and
arrange the work of calculation as in the table.
x πχ πχ π.Χ
sin y
radians radians degrees 3
O TO HO HO HO KO
0 0 0 0 0
1 Επ 30 .50 1.00
။ နို
1 60 .86 1.72
11 π 90 1.00 2.00
‫سرته‬
2 π 120 .86 1.72

21 Επ 150 .50 1.00
3 π 180 0
The figure represents a sine curve of period 6 and amplitude 2. For

the curve crosses the x-axis at intervals of 3, and the maximum value of
y equals 2.
2
1.
3 -2
2 3X
Equation (5 ) is of the form

.
y = a sin kx.
The amplitude in this case equals a. To find the period, set
2π
kx = 2π. Solving for x, x = = period.
k
As it is important to sketch sine curves quickly, the follow-

ing directions are useful :
1. Find the amplitude and the period .
2. Choose the same scales on both axes.
3. Lay off points on XX' at intervals of a quarter-period.
The highest and lowest points are at the odd quarter-periods.
The intersections with XX' are at the even quarter-periods.
PROBLEMS
Plot the loci of the equations :

1. *y cosx (see figure) . 11. y tanx.
+1 П 3π
2 П 2
П
·
2 -1 π
X
2. y = sin 2x.
3. y = cos 2 x.
4. y = sin } .
5. y = cos } . 12. y secx.
Пх
>
6. y = cos
3
Пх
7. y = sin
4
TX 1 13π 11 2T
8. y = 3 cos π 12
4 X
TX
9. y = 3 sin •
5
πX •
10. y = 2 sin
2
* The cosine curve differs from the sine curve only in the position of the
y-axis. The highest and lowest points occur at half-periods and the intersec-
tions with OX at odd quarter-periods.
πX . 17. y = cotx. 21. y secx .

13. y = tan
4 πX
• 22. y cscx .
14. ญ 2 tan x. 18. y = cot
4 TX
πω 23. ข = sec
15. y = 2 tan πX 4
3 19. y 4 cot
6
πX πX
16. ข = 3 tan 24. y = csc
4 20. y cscx. 4
25. x = sin y. Also written y arc sin x or sin-1x, and read " the
angle whose sine is x.
Y
26. x 2 cosy, or y = arc cos x.
27. x = tan y, or y = arc tan x (see figure) . Hπ
28. x =- 2 sin πу.
29. x = cosπу.
X
30. y arc tan x.
31. y 2 arc cosx. -π
The locus of the equation
πX π
(6) У = 2 sin +
3 6
π
is also a sine curve. For, by taking the coefficient of x, namely 3
બ્લુ
outside the parenthesis , (6) becomes
= 2 sin
π =
(7) y= +
3 2
Now set x + = x '. Substituting in ( 7 ) , the latter becomes

πα
(8) y = 2 sin
3
But this is equation (5) except that x' takes the place of x.
Hence to draw the locus of (6), proceed thus : Mark the point
x= - (or x' = 0) on the x-axis. Using this point as the new
origin , plot the locus of equation (8) .
The figure obtained is obviously precisely that on page 108,
if the y-axis is moved to the right a distance equal to §.
Observe that the period of (6) is determined , as before, by
the coefficient of x. The added term
(7) simply affects the
intercepts on the x-axis .
PROBLEMS
Plot the curves :
1. y = sin (x + 1) . 7. y = sin ( x + } ).
2. y = 2 cos (2 x -− 1) . π
8. y = cos(x +
πX (2+ 풍).
3. y = 2 sin +
3 9. sa sin (kx + π) .
4. y = 2 sin ( 2πж + 10. x 2 cos TY

2( ) 5
TX 2 π TY --- π
5. y = 3 cos 11. x = sin
2 3 3
TX πί
6. y = tan + 12. sa cos + B).
B
P
42. Addition of ordinates. When the equation of a curve has

the form
y = the algebraic sum of two expressions,
as, for example , y = sin x + cos x, y = x + sin²x, s = et + et,
etc., the principle known as addition of ordinates may with ad-
vantage be employed . For example, to construct the locus of
ПХ 1
(1) y== 2 sin 4 + "
we employ the auxiliary curves

πX
(2) Y₁ = 2 sin
4
(3) Y₂ = x.
Plot these curves one below the other, keeping the y-axes in a
straight line. The same scales must be used in both figures.
The locus of ( 2) is the sine curve of Fig. 1 , p. 112. The locus
of (3) is the straight line in Fig. 2.
The ordinates of Fig. 1 are now added to the corresponding
ones in Fig. 2 , attention being given to the algebraic signs.
The derived curve A,B, OBA,22 has the equation
ПХ 1
(4) y = Y₁ + Y₂ =
= 2 sin
4
+ x
as required. The locus winds back and forth across the line
y= x, crossing the line at x = 0, ± 4, ± 8, ± 12, etc.; that
is, directly under the points where the sine curve in Fig. 1 crosses
the x-axis.
2+
1+
10 2 3
FIG. 1
B2
Y
2-
Bi
FIG. 2
PROBLEMS
Draw the following curves and calculate y accurately for the given
value of x :
1. y = cos x + } x. x = 1. ex + e- x
6. y = x= .
x2
2. y sin 2x + x = 1.
10 7. y exsin 2 x. x = -1.
3. y = sin x + cos x. x = -- 1. et -- e-t
8. y = x = 3.
1 πX 2
4. y = x - 3 sin x = 2.
T
3
x2 TX 9. yet cos 4x. x = ½ π.
5. y = 4 cos . x = -- 2 .
16 4 =
10. y sin x + sin 2x. x = 0.8.
TX ПХ α x
11. y = sin + cos x=- e¯a) .
20. y = (ea + ea x == 2a.
4 3
12. y sin ax + cos ax. x = 1% a .

13. y = 2 sin x + 5 cos x. x = 0.5.
14. y = 2 sin 2x + 3 cos x . x = 2 .

15. y = sin ax + sin bx.
α
16. y = √9 - x² + sin 2πx. x = 21.
X
17. y = ex + 4x² . x = — 2.4.
2 πX The locus in Problem 20 is called
18. y = log10 + sin 3 • x == 2 . the catenary (see figure) . The shape
of the curve is that assumed by
πX a heavy flexible cord freely sus-
19. y = 2√x
2√ + -/2COS
√x+1 +
2 pended from its extremities.
The student may have observed from the preceding exam-

ples the truth of the following
Theorem. The curve obtained by adding corresponding ordi-
nates of sine curves with the same period is also a sine curve
with equal period.
For example, consider the equation
2 πt 2 πt
(5) y = a sin + a + b sin + B
P a)+ ( P
in which a , ẞ, and P are constants . The period of both sine
curves equals P. Expand the right-hand member by the rule
2 πt
(33, p. 3) for sin (x + y) and collect the terms in sin Р
2 πt
and cos Then equation (5) assumes the form
Р
2 πt 2 πt B
(6) y = A sin + B cos
P Р
where A and B are constants, independent of t. A

Let us now introduce the angle y of the right triangle whose legs
are A and B. Let the hypotenuse √² + B² = C . Then B⇒C ' sin y,
AC cos y. Substituting these values in (6) gives

2 πt 2 πt
= C sin
(7) Y
y = c ( sin Р cos y + cos P sin1y
y)) = ( 1 (2πt + y).
This is a sine curve with period P and amplitude C = √Ã² + B².

Q.E.D.
The curve resulting from the addition of ordinates of sine
curves with unequal periods is, however, not a sine curve.
43. Boundary curves . In plotting the locus of an equation
of the form
(1) y = product of two factors
one of which is a sine or cosine, as, for example,
πt
y == ex sin x, or s = t2 cos
4'
much aid is obtained by the following considerations :

For example, consider the locus of
ПХ
(2) У = e - sin
2
We now make the following observations :

1. Since the numerical value of the sine never exceeds unity,
the values of y in (2) will not exceed in numerical value the
value of the first factor e- *. Moreover, the extreme values of
sin are +1 and -1 respectively. Hence y has the extreme
values e- 1x and ez ** .
Consequently, if the curves
-1x and У
(3) y= e
are drawn, the locus of (2) will lie entirely between these curves.
They are accordingly called boundary curves. x
y
Draw these curves. The second is obviously
symmetrical to the first with respect to the 0 1
2.61
x-axis. To plot, find three points on the first
4 e- 1 = .37
curve, as in the table. (Use the Table, p . 104.)
2. When sinπα = 0, then in (2) y = 0, since the first fac-

tor is always finite. Hence the locus of (2) meets the x-axis in
the same points as the auxiliary sine curve
(4) y = sinπX.
3. The required curve touches * the boundary curves when the
second factor, sin πx, is +1 or -1 ; that is , when the ordinates
of the auxiliary curve (4) have a maximum or minimum value.
Hence draw the sine curve (4) . The period is 4 and the
amplitude is 1. This curve is the dotted line of the figure.
ΥΛ
y=ex
y= −e¯‡x
The discussion shows these facts :

The locus of(2) crosses XX' at x = 0, ± 2, ± 4, ± 6, etc. , and
touches the boundary curves (3) at x = ± 1 , ± 3 , ± 5 , etc.
We may then readily sketch the curve, as in the figure ; that
is, the winding curve between the boundary curves (3).
4. For a check remember that the ordinate of ( 2) is the
product of the ordinates of the boundary curve y = e- and
the sine curve (4) . In the figure, for example, the required
curve lies above XX' between x = 0 and x = 2 , for the ordinates
of y = e- and of the sine curve are now all positive. But
between x = 2 and x = 4 the required curve lies below XX' , for the
Ꮖ
ordinates of y = e- and the sine curve now have unlike signs.
* The discussion shows merely that the curve (2) reaches the boundary
curves. Tangency is shown by calculus.
PROBLEMS
Draw the following loci and calculate y accurately for the given
values of x :
Ꮖ sinx
1. y = - sin x. x = 2 ; 1π. 11. y = inz (=1sinz). x = 0.1.
4 x x
x2 sin 2x
2. y = cos 2 x. x = 1 ; π. 12. y = • x = 0.1 ; 1 .
16 2x
x TX COS X
13. y = • x = 1 ; π.
3. y = sin x = 3 ; 1. x
3 3
sin x
x2 TX 14. y = x = 0.2 ; π.
4. y = COS x = 3 ; 21. x2
10 5
πX
sin
5. y e- sin x. x = 1π ; { π. 4
15. y x = 0.1 ; 2.
6. y ex cos 2 x. x = 1π ; 2 . Xx
πX
7. y = esin • x = - 2 ; 3. 1
4 16. y = sin x cos 2 x . x = { π .
8. y = ex COS πX • x = 3 ; - 1. 1
17. y = x + sin - x.
2
9. y = 4e- 10 cos x2 1 1
18. y = COS - X - COS - X .
4 2 4 2
πX πί
10. y = ae a2x COS α).
+a 19. y = e sin te sin
P
20. Draw the two loci obtained (1) by adding and (2) by multiplying
the ordinates in the following pairs of curves :
x2
y = 2 + 16
Sy = x - π, (c) { y = e¯ï
(a) y = sinx. - sin TX. (e) Пх •
y = cos
3
x2 16 - x2
x y=3+ 9 y=
= e³, 16 8
(b) (d) πX (f) πX
= COS πX . У = si n • y = cos •
2 2
44. Transcendental equations . Graphical solution . The solution

of certain equations of frequent occurrence may be simplified
by using graphical methods.
Consider the equation

y = cot x
(1) cotx = x, or cotx ― x = 0. x
Degrees radians y
To find values ofx (in radians)
for which this equation holds. 0 0 ∞
To aid in determining the 10 .174 5.67
roots , let us draw the curves 20 .342 2.75
30 .524 1.73
(2) y = cot x and У = x. 40 .698 1.19
Now the abscissa of each point 45 .785 1.000
50 .873 .839
of intersection is a root of equa-
60 1.047 .577
tion (1) , for, obviously, at each 70 1.222 .364
point of intersection of the curves 80 1.396 .176
(2) we must have cot x = x ; that 90 1.571 .0
is, equation (1) is satisfied.
In plotting it is well to lay off carefully both scales (degrees
and radians) on OX.
3+
y=x
90°
10° 20° 30°40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 180 190 200 X
Radian
Number of solutions. The curve y:= cot x consists of an

infinite number of branches congruent to AQB of the figure.
The line y = x will obviously cross each branch. Hence the

equation (1) has an infinite number of solutions.
Smallest solution . From the figure this solution lies between
45° and 50°, or, in radians, between x = .785 and x = .873.
Hence the first significant figure of the smallest root is 0.8.
Interpolation is necessary to determine subsequent figures .
For this purpose arrange the work thus, using the preceding
table. cot x cotx x
x (radians)
.873 .839 -.034
.785 1.000 +.215
difference +.088 -- .249
We wish to know what change in x above .785 will produce

a decrease in cotx — x equal to .215 ; that is , make cotx x
equal to zero. Call this change z. Then, by proportion ,
2 - .215
= ..z = .076
.088 .249
Hence x = .785 + .076 = .86 (to two decimal places ).
PROBLEMS
Determine graphically the number of solutions in each of the following,
and find the smallest root (different from zero) .
1. cosxx. Ans. One solution ; x = 0.74.
2. sin 2x = x. Ans. Three solutions ; x = 0.97.
3. tan x = x. Ans. Infinite number.
4. sin x = x. Ans. Three. ·
5. sin x = x². Ans. Two .
6. cos x == x² . Ans. Two.
7. tan x == x². 13. 3 sin x = 2 cos 4x. 19. ex tan x.
8. cotx = x². x 20. sin x = log10x.
14. 2 sin = cos 2 x.
x 2
9. cos x= 21. cos x = log10x.
3 15. sin 3x = cos 2 x.
10. tan x = 1--x. 16. e- xx. 22. tan x = log10x.
-
11. cos x = 1. x. 17. ex = sin x. 23. e- x = logex.
12. 3 sin x cos x -1. 18. ex cos x. 24. e- x² = x².
CHAPTER VII
POLAR COÖRDINATES
45. Polar coördinates . In this chapter we shall consider a

second method of determining points of the plane by pairs of
real numbers. We suppose given a
fixed point 0, called the pole , and
a fixed line OA, passing through 0,
called the polar axis. Then any point
P determines a length OP = p (Greek
letter " rho ") and an angle AOP = 0.
The numbers ρ and are called the
polar coördinates of P. P is called the
radius vector and the vectorial angle. The vectorial angle @ is
positive or negative as in trigonometry. The radius vector is
positive if P lies on the
105° 90° 75
terminal line of 0, and 120° 60°
negative if P lies on that 45°
135
line produced through
150 6,60 -30°
the pole O.
Thus in the figure the 165 -15°
radius vector of P is
180° 6180)
positive, and that of P' A
is negative. 195 -345
It is evident that
210 2π 330°
every pair of real num- 3
225° 315°
bers (p, 0) determines a
240°이 300°
single point, which may 255° 270° 285°
be plotted by the
Rulefor plotting a point whose polar coördinates (p, 0) are given.
119
First step. Construct the terminal line of the vectorial angle 0,

as in trigonometry.
Second step. If the radius vector is positive, lay off a length
OP = p on the terminal line of 0 ; if negative, produce the termi-
nal line through the pole and lay off OP equal to the numerical
value of p. Then P is the required point.
In the figure on page 119 are plotted the points whose polar
coördinates are (6, 60°) , (3,

(3 , 5 )) ,, ( — 3, 225 °) , (6, 180 °) , and
2π
B
(T, 3
0
18 °+0
Every point determines an infi-
nitenumber ofpairs ofnumbers (p, 0).
Thus , if OB = P, the coördinates
of B may be written in any one of 360 +0
80
the forms (p, 0) , ( − p , 180 ° + 0), 0-1 °
(p, 360° + 0) , ( − p, 0 — 180°) , etc.
Unless the contrary is stated , we shall always suppose that
O is positive, or zero, and less than 360° ; that is , 0 ≤ 0 < 360°.
PROBLEMS
1. Plot the points (4, 45°) , ( 6, 120°), ( — 2, 2 ), (4, 1) , ( — 4, — 240 °) ,

(5, π).
2. Plot the points (6, 1 7) , (— 4, π) , (6 , 0) , (— 6, 0) .
4 , ( −2, ± T), (3, π)
3. Show that the points (p, 0) and (p, - e) are symmetrical with respect
to the polar axis.
4. Show that the points (p, 0) , ( — p, 0) are symmetrical with respect
to the pole.
5. Show that the points ( — p, 180° -
— Ø) and (p, 0) are symmetrical with
respect to the polar axis.
46. Locus of an equation . If we are given an equation in the
variables p and 0, then the locus of the equation is a curve such that
1. Every point whose coördinates (p , 0) satisfy the equation
lies on the curve.
POLAR COÖRDINATES 121
2. The coördinates of every point on the curve satisfy the

equation.
The curve may be plotted by solving the equation for p and
finding the values of p for particular values of until the
coördinates of enough points are obtained to determine the
form of the curve.
The plotting is facilitated by the use of polar coördinate
paper, which enables us to plot values of by lines drawn
through the pole and values of p by circles having the pole as
center. The tables on page 6 are to be used in constructing tables
of values of ρ
p and 0.
EXAMPLES
(1) p = 10 cos 0.
Solution. The calculation is made by assuming values for 0 , as in the
table, and calculating p, making use of the natural values of the cosine
given in Art. 4. For example, if
0 = 105°, p = 10 cos 105° = 10 cos ( 180° 75°) : 10 cos 75° - 2.6.
105 90°
75°
120° 60°
135 45
p=10 cos 0
150° -30°
Ρ
105° - 2.6 165 -15°
0 10
15° 9.7 120° -5
180-
30° 8.7 135° - 7
45° 7 150° - 8.7 195 345°
60° 5 165° 9.7
75° 2.6 180° - 10 210 330°
90° 0 315°
240 300°
255 270° 285°
The complete locus is found in this example without going beyond 180°
for . The curve is a circle (Art. 50) .
Since cos ( 0) = cos 0 (29, p. 3) , equation (1) may be written.
ρ = 10 cos ( 0) ; that is, for every point (p, 0) on the locus there is also
a second point (p, - 6) on the locus. Since these points are symmetrical
with respect to the polar axis, we have the result : The locus of (1) is
symmetrical with respect to the polar axis.
2. Draw the locus of

(2) p² =
= a2 cos 20.
Solution. Before plotting, we make the following observations :
1. Since the maximum value of cos 20 is 1, the maximum value of p is a,
and the curve must be closed.
2. When cos 20 is negative, p will be imaginary. Now cos 20 is nega-
tive when 20 is an angle in the second or third quadrant. That is, when
90° < 20 < 270°, that is, 45° < 0 < 135°,
p is imaginary. There is no part of the curve between the 45° and 135°
lines.
3. We may change to - ✪ in (2) without affecting the equation, and
hence the locus is symmetrical with respect to the polar axis.
The complete curve is obtained if is given values from 0° to 45°, as in
the table.
135° 45°
150° -30°
p² = a² cos 20
0 20 cos 20 165 15°
Ρ
0 0 1 τα 180°
A
15° 30° .866 ± .93 a
30° 60° .500 1.7 a 195 -345°
45° 90° 0 0
210 330°
225 315°
The complete curve results by plotting these points and the points
symmetrical to them with respect to the polar axis. The curve is called
a lemniscate. In the figure a is taken equal to 9.5.
3. Discuss and plot the locus of the equation

(3) p = a sec² 0.
For convenience we change the form of the equation. Using (26) , p. 3,

a
p=
cos20
Then by (41), p. 4, cos² 0 = + cos 0. Hence the result :
2a
Р=
1 + cos 0
p= 2 (1+ cos 0)
Ө cos 1+ cos 0 P 0 cos e
| 1+ cos • P
24
0 1 2 1 105° -.259 .741 2.7
15° .966 1.966 1.02 120° -.500 .500
30° .866 1.866 1.07 135° -.707 .293 6.7
45° .707 1.707 1.2 150° -.866 .134 14
60° .500 1.500 1.3 165° -.966 .034 50
75° .259 1.259 1.6 180° -1
8
0
90° 0 1 2
Solution. Before plotting, we note

1. The curve is symmetrical with respect to the polar axis, since
may be replaced by - 0. 90°
2. p becomes infinite 105°
120° 60°
when 1+ cos = 0, or
-
cos = 1, and hence 13 5 -45°
Ө = 180°. The curve re- 150° -30°
cedes to infinity in the
direction = 180°. 165 -15°
3. p is never imaginary.
On account of 1 the 180°- Α
table of values is com-
195 -345°
puted only to 0 = 180°, and
the rest of the curve is ob- 210 330°
tained from the symmetry
225о 315
with respect to the polar
axis. Take a -= 1. The locus 240 300°
is a parabola .
255 270° 285°
Before plotting polar equations , the student should establish

such simple facts as result from a discussion, as illustrated above.
PROBLEMS
Plot the loci of the following equations :
1. Р = 10.
2. 0 == 45°.
3. p = 16 cos 0.
4. p cos 0 = 6.
a a
5. p sin 0 = 4. X
4
6. ρ
1- cos 0
8
7. ρ
2 Cos
8
8. ρ 15. pa (1 cos 0) .
1-2 cos 0 CARDIOID
9. p = a sin 0. Y
10
10. P =
1 + tan 0
11. p² sin 20 = 16.
12. p² cos 20 = a². X
13. P cosa sin² 0.
16. p² - a² sin 2 0.
TWO-LEAVED ROSE LEMNISCATE
-b--
P
Ꮎ
·at M
14. p a sec ± b. b < a. 17. p = b a cos 0. b < a.

CONCHOID OF NICOMEDES LIMAÇON
18. Plot the conchoid (Problem 14) for b = a ; b > a.

19. Plot the limaçon (Problem 17) for b > a.
47. The student should acquire skill in plotting polar equa-

tions rapidly when a rough diagram will serve.
For example, to draw the locus of
(1) p = a sin 30,
we proceed as follows :
Let increase from 0° . Follow the variation of p from (1) as 30
describes the successive quadrants.
When 30 varies from 0° to 90° 90° to 180° 180° to 270° 270° to 360° 360° to 450° 450° to 540°
then 0 varies from 0° to 30° 30° to 60° 60° to 90 90°to 120° 120° to 150° 150° to 180°
and p varies from 0 to a a to 0 0 to - a - a to o 0 to a a to 0
For example, when 30 varies from 270° to 360° , that is, is an angle in
the fourth quadrant, then p is negative and increases from - a to 0.
Now draw the radial lines
120,° 90°
corresponding to the inter-
vals of ; that is, 0°, 30°, 60°,
90°, 120°, 150°, 180°. 150 -30 °
Noting the variation of
a
p, we sketch the curve as
follows :
180°
The curve starts from the A
pole in the direction 0°,
crosses the 30° line perpen-
dicularly at p = a, returns to
and passes through the pole
on the 60° line, crosses the
90° line produced at ρ == a,
returns to and passes through
the pole on the 120° line (produced) , crosses the 150° line at p = a, and
returns to the pole on the 180° line .
This gives the complete locus . The pencil point has moved continu-
ously without abrupt change in direction, and has returned to the original
position and direction.
The curve is called the three-leaved rose.
PROBLEMS
Draw rapidly the locus of each of the following equations :
1. p = a cos 30. 3. P = a cos 20.

3 Y 4
2
α 1
X α α
X
THREE-LEAVED ROSE FOUR-LEAVED ROSE
2. p = a sin 20.
4. pa sin 40 .
Y
Y
X
-X
α
3 2
2
FOUR-LEAVED ROSE EIGHT-LEAVED ROSE
5. p = a cos 4 0. 10. p = a cos (0 + 45°) . 14. pa sin 60.

6. pa sin 50. 15. p = a sin² 0 .
11. p a sin ( +
(0+ 1).
7. pa cos 5 0. 16. p a cos² 10 .
12. p = a sin † 0 .
8. p = a ( 1+ sin () . Ө 17. p = a sin³ } 0.
13. p = a cos
9. p = a(1 + cos ) . 3 18. p = a cos³ } 0.
48. Points of intersection . By a method analogous to that used

in rectangular coördinates we find the coördinates of the points
of intersection of two polar curves by solving their equations
simultaneously. This is best done by eliminating p, which will
give rise in general to a transcendental equation in which
can be solved either by inspection or by the graphical method
employed in Art. 44 .
The following example will illustrate the method.
EXAMPLE
Find the points of intersection of
(1) p = 1 + cos 0 , (1) (2)
1
(2) ρ
2 (1- cos 0)
Solution. Eliminating p,
1
1+ cos 0 == 9
2 (1- cos 0)
or 1- cos20 = 1,
√2 •
cos = 士
2
.. 0 - ± 45°, ± 135°.
Substituting these values in either equation, we obtain the following
four points ,
( 1+ , + 45 °) , ( 1 , +135 ).
The result checks in the figure . The locus of ( 1) is a cardioid ; of (2) ,
a parabola .
PROBLEMS
Find the points of intersection of the following pairs of curves and

check by drawing the figure :
1. {4p cos 0 = 3, 4. p = √3, 2 p = sec²
2 p = 3. ρ - 2 sin 0.
7.
2.
2. 5. ρ = cos 0,
- 3 cos
{4pcos0=3,0. ρ - 3 sec 0. 3p 4 cos 0,
2p = 3, ρ = 1+ cos 0, 8. Ө
3. 6. 2 p cos2 = 1.
== 3 sin 0. 2 p = 3.
128 NEW ANALYTIC GEOMETRY .
- sin 0, ρ 5- 2 sin 0,
9.
= cos 20. 13. 6
P=
Ans. (1, 30°) , (1 , 150°) . 1 + sin 0
- -- 2 cos 0,
10. { P = 1 + cos 0, 14. 8
\ p (1 + cos 0) = 1 . ρ-
Ans. (1,90°) . 3 + 2 cos 0
- sin 0), 15. [ p² = 9 cos 20,
11. [p = 2 (1 = √6 cos 0.
p(1 + sin 0) = 1 .
Ans. (2 V2, 45°), 16. [p² = sin 20,
p = √2 sin 0.
(2 F√2, ± 135°). = cos 30,
17. ρ
ρ = 4 (1+ cos 0) , 2 p = cos0.
12.
p (1- cos 0) = 3. 18. p = 0,
Ans. (6, ± 60°) , (2 , ± 120°) . p = cos 0.
49. Transformation from rectangular to polar coördinates . Let

OX and Oy be the axes of a rectangular system of coördinates ,
and let O be the pole and OX the polar axis of a system of
YA
X X
FIG. 1. FIG. 2
P
polar coördinates. Let (x, y) and (p , 0) be respectively the rec-
tangular and polar coördinates of any point P. It is necessary
to distinguish two cases according as p is positive or negative.
When ρ is positive (Fig. 1) we have, by definition ,
x
COS = sin 0 - y
-"
P Р
whatever quadrant P is in.
Hence
(1) x == p cos 0, y = p sin 0.
When p is negative (Fig. 2) we consider the point P' sym-

metrical to P with respect to 0, whose rectangular and polar
coördinates are respectively (-x, - − y) and (— p, 0). The radius
vector of P ', - p, is positive, since p is negative, and we can
therefore use equations (1) . Hence for P'
- x = - ρ cos 0, -y p sin 0 ;
and hence for P
x = ρ cos 0, y = p sin 0,
as before.
Hence we have the
Theorem. Ifthe pole coincides with the origin and the polar
axis with the positive x-axis, then
x = p cos 0,
(I)
y = p sin 0,
where (x, y) are the rectangular coördinates and (p, 0) the polar
coördinates of any point.
Equations (I) are called the equations of transformation from

rectangular to polar coördinates. They express the rectangular
coördinates of any point in terms of the polar coördinates of
that point and enable us to find the equation of a curve in polar
coördinates when its equation in rectangular coördinates is
known, and vice versa.
From the figures we also have
y
p² = x² + y², Ө =tan -1 -9
x
(2) y x
sin = Cos -
± √x² + y² ± √x² + y²
These equations express the polar coördinates of any point in

terms of the rectangular coördinates. They are not as con-
venient for use as ( I) , although the first one is at times very
convenient.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the circle x² + y² = 25 in polar coördinates.
Solution. From the first equation of (2) , we have at once p² = 25 ; hence
p = 5, which is the required equation . It expresses the fact that the
point (p, ) is five units from the origin .
2. Find the equation of the lemniscate (Ex . 2 , p . 122 ) p² -
= a² cos 20 in
rectangular coördinates.
Solution. By 39, p. 4, since cos 20 = cos20 - sin² 0,
p² = a² (cos² 0 - sin²0) .
Substituting from (2),
x2 y2
x² + y² = a2
+ y² x² + y²
.. (x² + y²) ² = a² (x² — y²) . Ans.
50. Applications . Straight line and circle .
Theorem. The general equation of the straight line in polar
coördinates is
(II) P(A cos + B sin 0) + C = 0,
where A, B, and C are arbitrary constants.
Proof. The general equation of the line in rectangular coördi-
nates is
Ax + By + C' = 0.
By substitution from ( I) we obtain (II) . Q. E.D.
Special cases of (II) are p cos 0 = a, p sin 0 = b, which result respectively
when B = 0, or A = 0 ; that is, when the line is parallel to OY or OX.
In like manner we obtain from (II),
p. 93, the
Theorem. The general equation ofthe Ꮎ
r
circle in polar coördinates is
(III) p² + p (D cos 0 + E sin 0) + F = 0 ,
where D, E, and F are arbitrary constants.
We may easily show further that if the pole is on the cir-
cumference and the polar axis is a diameter, the equation of
the circle is
ρ = 2 r cos 0,
where is the radius of the circle.
5
For if the center lies on the polar axis, or x-axis, E = 0,

and if the circle passes through the pole, or origin, F = 0. The
abscissa of the center equals the radius ,
D
and hence ― = r, or D:= -- 2 r. Substi- r
2
tuting these values of D, E, and F in (III)
gives p 2 r cos 0 = 0. r
This result is easily seen also directly
from the figure on page 130.
Similarly, if the circle touches the polar axis at the pole, the
equation is p2r sin 0.
Theorem. The length l of the line joining two points P₁ (P₁, ₁)
and P2 (P202) is given by
2
(IV) 1² = p² + p²² -
− 2 P₁P₂ cos (0₁ — 0½) .
Proof. Let the rectangular coördinates of P,1 and P₂2 be re-
spectively (x , y₁ ) and (x , y ) . Then by ( I), p. 129,
- P₁ cos 0₁, x₂ = P₂ cos 02,
x₁= 29
19 y₂ = p, sin 0 .
P1 sin 0₁,
Y₁ = P₁
But - -
1² = (x, − x¸) ² + (Y₁ − Y₂)²,
and hence l² = (p₁ cos 0₁ ―
— p₂ cos 0 )² + (p₁ sin 0,1 − P₂ sin 0₁)².
Removing parentheses and using 28 and 36, p. 3, we ob-
tain (IV) . Q. E.D.
Formula ( IV) may also be derived directly from a figure by
using the law of cosines (44 , p. 4) .
PROBLEMS
1. Find the polar coördinates of the points (3 , 4) , ( — 4, 3) , ( 5, — 12) , (4, 5) .
п
2. Find the rectangular coördinates of the points (5,7 ) (-2,37) ,
(3, π).
3. Transform the following equations into polar coördinates and plot
their loci :
(a ) x - 3y = 0. Ans. 0 tan- 1 .
(b) y² + 5x = 0. Ans. P - - 5 cot cosec 0.
(c ) x² + y² = 16. Ans. P = ± 4.
(d) x² + y². ax = 0. Ans. P = a cos 0.
(e) 2xy = 7. Ans. p² sin 20 = 7.
(f) x² --
— y² = a². Ans. p² cos 20 = a².
(g) W - p = 0.
x cos w + y sin w― Ans. p cos (0— w) — p = 0.
4. Transform equations 1 to 18 , p. 124, into rectangular coördinates.
LOCUS PROBLEMS
The locus should be drawn in each case (see the figures below) .
1. Find the locus of a point such that
(a) its radius vector is proportional to its vectorial angle .
Ans. The spiral of Archimedes , p = α0.
X X
p²0 = a².
LITUUS
p = a0.
SPIRAL OF ARCHIMEDES
a
X
ρθ = a. log p = αθ.
HYPERBOLIC OR RECIPROCAL LOGARITHMIC OR EQUIAN-
SPIRAL GULAR SPIRAL
(b) its radius vector is inversely proportional to its vectorial angle.

Ans. The hyperbolic or reciprocal spiral, p = a.
(c) the square of its radius vector is inversely proportional to its
vectorial angle. Ans. The lituus, p²0 = a².
(d) the logarithm of its radius vector is proportional to its vectorial
angle. Ans. The logarithmic spiral , log p - αθ.
Theorem on the logarithmic spiral. When two points, P₁1 and P2, have
been plotted on a logarithmic spiral, points between them on the locus
may be constructed geometrically by the following theorem :
If the angle POP₁1 is bisected, and if on this bisector OP, is laid off equal
to a mean proportional between OP₁and OP2, then P3 is on the locus.
Proof. By hypothesis, since P₁1 and P,3 are on
the curve log p =· αθ,
(1) log p₁ = a₁1 and log p₂ = a02.
Adding and dividing by 2,
Pa (PaO2)
log P₁ + log P2 = αa (0₁ ± 0²) ,, or
101 + 02 P (P3-03 )
(2) log VP1P2
√P₁₂ = a (º¹¹¹²) . ( 14 and 17, p. 1 ) .
2 P (P1,01)
If P3 is (P3, Ø3) , then, by construction ,
1 x
02-03 = 03-01, or 03 = : 0 +02
, and P3 =
Hence, by (2), log på = a03 , and P3 is also on the locus. Q.E.D.
PROBLEMS FOR INDIVIDUAL STUDY

Plot carefully the following loci :
1. p = a sin + b sec 0. 10. ρ = cos 30+ cos +1.
11. P = cos 30+ cos 20.
2. (p - 2)² = a² cos
20.
12. P = cos 30 - sin 20.
3. p = a (cos 2 0 + sin 2 0) . Ө
a 13. P = a sin³
3
4. ρ = a cos 20+ sec 0.
α 14. P = a cos²
5. ρ = a sin 20+ 2 sec 0.
15. p² cos 0 = a² sin 30.
6. p = a cos 20+ b cos 0. 2 cos 0
16. p² = +1.
7. p = a sin 20+ b cos 0. cos 20
8. p = a cos 20 + b (sin @ + 1) . 2 cos 20
17. p² +1 .
9. p = a cos 30 - b cos 0. cos + 2
CHAPTER VIII
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
51. Functions. In many practical problems two variables

are involved in such a manner that the value of one depends
upon the value of the other. For example, given a large num-
ber of letters, the postage and the weight are variables, and
the amount of the postage depends upon the weight. Again, the
premium of a life-insurance policy depends upon the age of the
applicant. Many other examples will occur to the student.
This relation between two variables is made precise by the
definition :
A variable is said to be a function of a second variable when

its value depends upon the value of the latter and is determined
when a definite value is assumed for the second variable.
Thus the postage is determined when a definite weight is as-
sumed ; the premium is determined when a definite age is assumed.
Consider another example :
Draw a circle of diameter 5 in. An
indefinite number of rectangles may
be inscribed within this circle. But A
the student will notice that the entire
rectangle is determined as soon as a
side is drawn. Hence the area of the X
rectangle is a function of its side.
Let us now find the equation ex-
pressing the relation between a side and the area of the rectangle.
Draw any one of the rectangles and denote the length of its
base by x in. Then by drawing a diagonal (which is , of
134
course, a diameter of the circle) , the altitude is found to be

equal to (25 — x²) . Hence if A denotes the area in square
inches, we have
- x²)¹.
A = x (25 —
(1)
This equation gives the functional relation between the func-
tion A and the variable x. From it we are enabled to calculate
the value of the function A corresponding to any value of the
variable x. For example :
if x = 1 in., 4 = (24) = 4.9 sq. in.;
if x = 3 in., A = 12 sq. in.;
if x = 4 in. , A = 12 sq. in. ; etc.
To obtain a representation of the equation (1) for all values
of x , we draw a graph of the equation. This we do by draw-
ing rectangular axes and plotting
the values of the variable (x) as abscissas,
the values ofthe function (A ) as ordinates.
Any functional relation may be graphed in this way. We
must, however, first discuss the equation (1) .
The values of x and A are positive from the nature of the
problem.
The values of x range from zero to AA
12f
Squarse
5, inclusive.
11-
inche
The student should now choose a 10.

suitable scale on each axis and draw
1654321
the graph. In this case, unit length

on the axis of abscissas represents
1 in . , and unit length on the axis of
ordinates represents 1 sq. in. These
two unit lengths need not be the same. 2 3
Inches
What do we learn from the graph ?
1. If carefully drawn , we may measure from the graph the
area of the inscribed rectangle corresponding to any side we
choose to assume .
2. There is one horizontal tangent. The ordinate at its

point of contact is greater than any other ordinate. Hence
this discovery : One of the inscribed rectangles is greater in area
than any of the others ; that is, there is a maximum rectangle.
In other words, the function defined by equation (1) has a
maximum value.
Careful measurement will give for the base of the maximum
rectangle, x = 3.5, and for the area, A = 12.5 . These results,
as may be shown by the methods of the differential calculus ,
are, in fact, correct to one place of decimals. The maximum
rectangle is a square ; that is, of all rectangles inscribed in a
given circle, the square has the greatest area.
The fact that a maximum rectangle exists can be seen in
advance by reasoning thus : Let the base x increase from zero
to 5 in. The area A will then begin with the value zero and
return to zero. Since A is always positive, the graph must
have a " highest point. " Hence there is a maximum value of
A, and therefore a maximum rectangle.
Take one more example : A wooden box, open at the top, is
to be built to contain 108 cu. ft. The base must be square.
This is the only condition. It is evi-
dent that under this condition any
number of such boxes may be built, h
and that the number of square feet
of lumber used will vary accordingly.
If, however, we choose any length for Xx
a side of the square base, only one x
box with this dimension can be built,
and the material used is determined . Hence the material used
is a function of a side of the square base.
Let us now find the functional relation between the number
of square feet of lumber necessary and the length of one side
of the square base measured in feet.
Consider any one box.
Let M = amount of lumber in square feet,

x = length of side of the square base in feet,
and h = height of the box in feet.
Then area of base = x² sq. ft. ,
and area of sides = 4 hx sq. ft.
Hence M= x² + 4 hx.
But a relation exists between h and x, for the value of M
must depend upon the value of x alone. In fact, the volume
equals 108 cu. ft.
108
Hence hx² = 108, and h =
x2
Therefore
432
(2) M = x² +
x
This equation enables us to calculate the number of square

feet of lumber in any box with a given square base which has
a capacity of 108 cu. ft. The calculation is given in the table :
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 20 etc. feet
8
M∞ 433 220 153 124 111 108 111 118 421 etc. sq. ft .
Thus, if x = 1 ft., M = 433 sq. ft.;

if x = 4 ft. , M = 124 sq. ft.;
if x = 8 ft., M = 118 sq. ft.; etc.
The student should now graph equation (2), choosing units
thus :
unit length on the axis of abscissas represents 1 ft.;
unit length on the axis of ordinates represents 1 sq . ft.
We must, however, choose a very small unit ordinate, since the
values of M are large.
A preliminary discussion of (2) shows that x may have any
value (positive ).
What do we learn from the graph ?

1. If carefully drawn, we may measure from the graph the
number of square feet of lumber in any box which contains
108 cu. ft. and has a square base.
M
2. There is one horizontal
Square
tangent. The ordinate at its 400
feet
point of contact is less than
any other ordinate. Hence this 300
discovery: One ofthe boxes takes 200
less lumber than any other ; that
108.
is, M has a minimum yalue. This 1001
point on the graph can be deter-
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 X
mined exactly by calculus , but Feet
careful measurement will in this
case give the correct values , namely, x = 6, M = 108. That is,
the construction will take the least lumber (108 sq. ft. ) if the
base is 6 ft. square .
The fact that a least value of M must exist is seen thus.
Let the base increase from a very small square to a very large
one. In the former case the height must be very great, and
hence the amount of lumber will be large. In the latter case,
while the height is small, the base will take a great deal of
lumber. Hence M varies from a large value to another large
value, and the graph must have a " lowest point."
In the following problems the student will work out the
functional relation , draw the graph, and state any conclusions
to be drawn from the figure. Care should be exercised in the
selection of suitable scales on the axes, especially in the scale
adopted for plotting values of the function (compare p. 137).
The graph should be neither very flat nor very steep. To
avoid the latter we may select a large unit of length for the
variable. The plot should be accurate and the maximum and
minimum values of the function should be measured and calcu-
lated, additional values of the variable being used , if necessary.
PROBLEMS
1. Rectangles are inscribed in a circle of radius 2 in. Plot the
perimeter P of the rectangles as a function of the breadth x.
Ans. P = 2x + 2 ( 16 -
— x²) ‡.
2. Right triangles are constructed on a line of length 5 in . as hypote-
nuse . Plot (a) the area A and (b) the perimeter P as a function of the
length x of one leg.
Ans. (a) A = ‡ x (25 — x²)¹ ; (b) P = x + 5 + (25 − x²)‡.
3. Right cylinders * are inscribed in a sphere of radius r. Plot as func-
tions of the altitude x of the cylinder, (a) the volume V of the cylinder,
(b) the curved surface S.
(4 r²x
Ans. (a) V ==4 (4 ) -- x³) ; (b) S = πx (4 r² — x²) ‡.
4. Right cones * are inscribed in a sphere of radius r. Plot as func-

tions of the altitude x of the cone, (a) the volume V of the cone, (b) the
curved surface S. П
Ans. (a) V = (2 rx² - x³) ; (b) S = π (4 r²x² — 2 rx³) ‡.
3
5. Right cylinders are inscribed in a given right cone. If the height
of the cone is h and the radius of the base r, plot (a) the volume V of
the cylinder, (b) the curved surface S, (c) the entire surface T, as
functions of the altitude x of the cylinder.
πr2x 2 πrx
Ans. (a) V = h2 (h - x)² ; (b) S = h (h - − x) ;
2 πη -
(c) T =
h2 (h − x) [rh + (h − r) x] .
6. Right cones are circumscribed about a sphere of radius r. Plot as
a function of the altitude x of the cylinder, the volume V of the cone.
r2x2
Ans. V = Επ
X- 2r
7. Right cones are constructed with a given slant height L. Plot as
functions of the altitude x of the cone, (a) the volume V of the cone,
(b) the curved surface S, ( c) the entire surface T.
Ans. (a ) V = } π ( L²x - − x³) ; (b) S = π L (L² — x²) ‡.
8. A conical tent is to be constructed of given volume V. Plot the
amount A of canvas required as a function of the radius x of the base.
Ans. A = (π²x6 + 9√2)
x
* Use formulas 5-9, p . 1.
9. A cylindrical tin can is to be constructed of given volume V. Plot

the amount A of tin required as a function of the radius x of the can.
2V
Ans. A = 2πx² + •
x
10. An open box is to be made from a sheet of pasteboard 12 in.
square by cutting equal squares from the four corners and bending up
the sides. Plot the volume V as a function of the side x of the square
cut out. Ans. V = x (12 — 2 x)².
11. The strength of a rectangular beam is proportional to the product
of the cross section by the square of the depth . Plot the strength S as a
function of the depth x for beams which are cut from a log 12 in. in
diameter. Ans. Skx= (144 -
— x²) .
12. A rectangular stockade is to be built to contain an area of 1000
sq. yd. A stone wall already constructed is available for one of the
sides. Plot the length L of the wall to be built as a function of the length
x of the side of the rectangle parallel to the wall . Ans. L = 2000 + x.
x
13. A tower is 100 ft. high. Plot the angle y subtended by the tower
at a point on the ground as a function of the distance x from the foot of
the tower. 100
Ans. y tan- 1. x •
14. A tower 55 ft. high is surmounted by a statue 10 ft. high. If an

observer's eyes are 5 ft. above the ground , plot the angle y subtended by
the statue as a function of the observer's distance x from the tower.
60 50
Ans. y tan- 1. x tan- 1
X
15. A line is drawn through a fixed point (a, b) . Plot as a function of
the intercept on XX' ( = x) of the line, the area A of the triangle formed
with the coördinate axes. bx2
Ans . A =
2 (x - a)
16. A ship is 41 mi . due north of a second ship . The first sails south
at the rate of 8 mi . an hour, the second east at the rate of 10 mi . an hour.
Plot their distance d apart as a function of the time t which has elapsed
since they were in the position given. Ans . d = ( 164ť² + 656 t + 1681 )*.
17. Plot the distance e from the point (4, 0) to the points (x, y) on the
parabola y² = 4x . Ans. e =· (x² — 4x + 16) ¹.
18. A gutter is to be constructed whose cross section is a broken line
made up of three pieces, each 4 in. long, the middle piece being horizon-
tal, and the two sides being equally inclined . (a) Plot the area A of
a cross section of the gutter as a function of the width x of the gutter

across the top. (b) Plot the area A as a function of the angle of incli-
nation of the sides to the horizontal .
Ans. (a) A = † (x + 4) (48 + 8 x − x²) ¹ ; (b) A = 8 (sin 20 + 2 sin () .
19. A Norman window consists of a rectangle surmounted by a semi-
circle . Given the perimeter P, plot the area A as a function of the width x.
1 1 π
Ans. A = x P - x2 - x2.
2 2 8
20. A person in a boat 9 mi . from the nearest point of the beach
wishes to reach a place 15 mi . from that point along the shore . He can
row at the rate of 4 mi. an hour and walk at the rate of 5 mi . an hour.
The time it takes him to reach his destination depends on the place at
which he lands . Plot the time as a function of the distance x of his
landing place from the nearest point on the beach. √81 + x² 15 - x
Ans. Time = +
4 5
21. The illumination of a plane surface by a luminous point varies
directly as the cosine of the angle of incidence, and inversely as the
square of the distance from the surface. Plot the illumination I at a
point on the floor 10 ft. from the wall as a function of the height x of a
gas burner on the wall. kx
Ans . I =
(100+ x²)
22. A Gothic window has the shape of an equilateral triangle mounted
on a rectangle. The base of the triangle is a chord of the window. The
total length of the frame of the window is constant. Express, plot, and
discuss the area of the window as a function of the width.
23. A printed page is to contain 24 sq. in. of printed matter. The top
and bottom margins are each 1 in. , the side margins 1 in. each. Express,
plot, and discuss the area of the page as a function of the width .
24. A manufacturer has 96 sq. ft. of lumber with which to make a
box with a square base and a top. Express, plot, and discuss the contents
of the box as a function of the side of the base.
25. (a) Isosceles triangles of the same perimeter, 12 in ., are cut out of
rubber. Express, plot, and discuss the area as a function of the base.
(b) Isosceles triangles of the same area, 10 sq. in., are cut out of rubber.
Express, plot, and discuss the perimeter as a function of the base.
26. Small cylindrical boxes are made each with a cover whose breadth
and height are equal. The cover slips on tight. Each box is to hold
cu. in. Express, plot, and discuss the amount of material used as a
function of the length of the box.
27. A circular filter paper has a diameter of 11 in . It is folded into a

conical shape. Express the volume of the cone as a function of the angle
of the sector folded over. Plot and discuss this function .
28. Two sources of heat are at the points A and B. Remembering that
the intensity of heat at a point varies inversely as the square of the distance
from the source, express the intensity of heat at any point between A
and B as a function of its distance from A. Plot and discuss this function .
29. A submarine telegraph cable consists of a central circular part,
called the core, surrounded by a ring. If x denotes the ratio of the radius
of the core to the thickness of the ring, it is known that the speed of
1
signaling varies as x2 log Plot and discuss this function.
x
30. A wall 10 ft. high surrounds a square house which is 15 ft. from
the wall . Express the length of a ladder placed without the wall, resting
upon it and just reaching the house, as a function either of the distance
of the foot of the ladder from the wall , or of the inclination of the ladder
to the horizontal . Plot and discuss this function.
31. The volume of a right prism having an equilateral triangular base
is 2. Express its total surface as a function of the edge of the base.
Plot and discuss .
32. A letter Y stands a ft. high and measures b ft. across the top .
Express the total length of the leg and two arms as a function of the
length of the leg. Plot and discuss.
33. The sum of the perimeters of a square and a circle is constant.
Express their combined areas as a function of the radius of the circle.
Plot and discuss .
34. A water tank is to be constructed with a square base and open top,
and is to hold 64 cu . yd . The cost of the sides is $1 a square yard, and
of the bottom $2 a square yard . Plot and discuss the cost.
35. A rectangular tract of land is to be bought for the purpose of lay-
ing out a quarter-mile track with straightaway sides and semicircular
ends . In addition a strip 35 yd . wide along each straightaway is to be
bought for grand stands, training quarters, etc. If the land costs $200
an acre, plot and discuss the cost of the land required .
36. A cylindrical steam boiler is to be constructed having a capacity
of 1000 cu. ft . The material for the side costs $2 a square foot, and for
the ends $3 a square foot. Plot and discuss the cost.
37. In the corner of a field bounded by two perpendicular roads a
spring is situated 6 rd . from one road and 8 rd . from the other. How
should a straight road be run by this spring and across the corner so as
to cut off as little of the field as possible ?
Ans. 12 and 16 rd. from the corner.
38. When the resistance of air is taken into account, the inclination of
a pendulum to the vertical is given by the formula
Ө = αe- kt cos (nt + €).
Plot as a function of the time t.
52. Notation of functions. The symbol ƒ (x) is used to de-

note a function of x, and is read " ƒ of x." In order to distin-
guish between different functions , the prefixed letter is changed,
as F (x), (x) (read “ phi of x "), ƒ
" (x) , etc.
During any investigation the same functional symbol always
indicates the same law of dependence of the function upon the
variable. In the simpler cases this law takes the form of a
series of analytical operations upon that variable. Hence, in
such a case, the same functional symbol will indicate the same
operations or series of operations, even though applied to
different quantities . Thus , if
f(x) = x² - 9x + 14,
then ―
f(y) = y² 9y + 14.
Also f(a) a² - 9a + 14,
ƒ(b + 1 ) = (b + 1 ) ² − 9 (b + 1 ) + 14 = b² — 7 b + 6,
-
f(0) = 02 9.0 + 14 = 14,
ƒ(-1)= (- 1 ) -9 ( -1 ) + 14 = 24,
ƒ(7) = 729.7 + 140, etc.
PROBLEMS
1. Given (x) = log10x . Find (2) , (1), (5) , (a -− 1) , 6 (b²) ,
(x + 1), (√x).
2. Given (x) = e2x. Find (0) , ø (1) , ø ( − 1 ) , ø (2y) , ø ( — x) .
3. Given f(x) = sin 2x . Find ƒ

ƒ(T) ,ƒ (+) , ƒ( − π) , ƒ(− x), ƒ(■ — x),
f( π- A), ƒ( π + B).
4. Given 0 (x) = cos x . Prove
x
(x) + 0 (y) = 20
: 0 (x + 1) o (* - ") .
CHAPTER IX
TRANSFORMATION OF COÖRDINATES
53. When we are at liberty to choose the axes as we please

we generally choose them so that our results shall have the
simplest possible form. When the axes are given , it is impor-
tant to be able to find the equation of a given curve referred
to some other axes. The operation of changing from one pair of
axes to a second pair is known as a transformation of coördinates.
We regard the axes as moved from their given position to a new
position and we seek formulas which express the old coördi-
nates in terms of the new coördinates .
54. Translation of the axes . If the axes be moved from a first
position OX and OY to a second position O'X ' and O'Y' such that
O'X ' and O'Y' are respectively par-
Y
allel to OX and OY, then the axes
are said to be translated from the N
N
first to the second position . ό
Let the new origin be O ' (h, k) B (h, k) M' X
and let the coördinates of any
point P before and after the
translation be respectively (x, y) M
and (x ', y') . Then, in the figure,
OA = h, OM = x, O'M ' = x',
OB = k, MP = y, M'P = y'.
Projecting OP and OO'P on OX, we obtain (Art. 31)
OM := OA + O'M' ;
•' . x = x ' + h.
Similarly, y = y' + k.
144
TRANSFORMATION OF COÖRDINATES 145
Hence the
Theorem. Ifthe axes be translated to a new origin (h, k) , and

if (x, y) and (x ', y') are respectively the coördinates of any point
P before and after the translation, then
x = x' + h,
(I)
y = y' + k.
Equations (I) are called the equations for translating the axes .
To find the equation of a curve referred to the new axes when
its equation referred to the old axes is given , substitute in the
given equation the values of x and y given by (I) and reduce.
EXAMPLE
Transform the equation
x² + y² - 6x + 4y - 12 = 0
when the axes are translated to the new origin (3, -— 2) .
Solution. Here h 3 and k -- 2,
so equations (I) become
x = x + 3, y = y' - — 2.
Substituting in the given equation,
we obtain
(x' + 3)² + (y' — 2) ² — 6 (x′ + 3 ) 01 (3,2 )
+4 (y' - 2) ---
— 12 = 0,
or, reducing, x'² + y′2 = 25.
This result could easily be fore-
seen. For the locus of the given
equation is a circle whose center is
(3,2) and whose radius is 5. When
the origin is translated to the center the equation of the circle must necessa-
rily have the form obtained .
PROBLEMS
1. Find the new coördinates of the points (3, - 5) and (-4, 2) when
the axes are translated to the new origin (3, 6) .
2. Transform the following equations when the axes are translated to
the new origin indicated and plot both pairs of axes and the curve :
(a) 3x - 4y = 6, (2 , 0) . Ans. 3x - 4 y' = 0.
(b ) x² + y² − 4 x − 2 y = 0 , ( 2 , 1 ) . Ans. x² + y'² = 5.
(c) y² - 6x + 9 = 0, (1 , 0). Ans. y'26x'.

(d) x² + y² - 10, ( 3,2) . Ans. x'² + y'² - 6x′ - 4 y′ + 12 = 0.
(e) y² — 2 kx + k² = 0,
= 0, (1 , 0) . Ans. y'22kx'.
(f ) x² — 4y² + 8x + 24y - 20 = 0 , ( - 4,3) . Ans . x'² — 4 y'² = 0.
3. Derive equations (I) if O' is in (a) the second quadrant ; (b) the
third quadrant ; (c) the fourth quadrant.
55. Rotation of the axes. Let the axes OX and OY be rotated .

about through an angle to the positions OX' and OY'.
The equations giving the YA
coördinates of any point r''
referred to OX and OY in
terms of its coördinates re- y'
are M'
ferred to OX ' and OY'
called the equations for ro-
tating the axes . X
Theorem. The equations for rotating the axes through an
angle 0 are
x = x' cos - y' sine,
(II)
y = x' sin @ + y' cos 0.
Proof. Let P be any point whose old and new coördinates

are respectively (x, y) and (x', y') . Draw OP, and draw PM'
perpendicular to OX'. Project OP and OM'P on OX.
The projection of OP on OX = x. (Art. 31 )

The projection of OM' on OX = x' cos 0. (Art. 31)
The projection of M'P on OX = y'cos ( +0) (Art. 31)

-
=-
= — y ' sin 0. (By 31 , p. 3)
But by Art. 31,
projection of OP = projection of OM' + projection of M'P.

.. x = x' cos 0 -
- y' sine.
‫من‬
In like manner, projecting OP and OM'P on OY, we obtain
y = x' cos 0
(
(표2-
— — •)
) + y' cos ♦
= x'sin + y' cos 0. Q. E. D.
If the equation of a curve in x and y is given, we substitute
from (II) in order to find the equation of the same curve referred
to OX' and OY'.
EXAMPLE
Transform the equation x2 y2 = 16 when the axes are rotated
through 45°.
Solution . Since Y
1 1
sin 45° - =
and cos 45° =
equations (II) become 4

x' + y'
x = x'y '
, y= X
√2 2
Substituting in the given
equation, we obtain
x' 2 'x' + y^` 2
== 16 ,
or, simplifying, x'y' + 8 = 0.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the coördinates of the points (3, 1) , ( — 2, 6) , and (4, — 1 ) when
11
the axes are rotated through •
2
2. Transform the following equations when the axes are rotated through
the indicated angle . Plot both pairs of axes and the curve.
П
— y = 0; •
(a) x - Ans. y' = 0.
4 π
(b) x² + 2xy + y² - 8 ; Ans. x24.
π
(c) y² = 4x ; Ans. x24y' .
2 π
(d) x² + 4xy + y² = 16 ; Ans. 3x2 -- y'² = 16.
(e) x² + y² = r² ; 0. Ans. x2 + y'² = r².
π
(f) x² + 2xy + y² + 4 x ·- 4y = 0 ; - 4 Ans. √2y'² + 4x′ = 0.
(g) 3x² - 4xy — 1 = 0 ; arc tan 2. Ans. x2 4 y'² + 1 = 0.
―
(h) x² + 3 xy -
− 3 y² = 2 ; arc tan } . Ans. 3x27y'2 4.
(i) x² + 3xy + 5 y² = 11 ; arc tan 3. Ans. 11x2 + y²² == 22.
(j ) 3x² - 3xy - y2 = 5 ; arc tan 3.
(k) x² + 4 xy + 4 y² + 12 x − by 0; arc tan 2.
56. General transformation of coördinates . If the axes are
moved in any manner, they
may be brought from the old r↑
position to the new position
bytranslating themtothe new
origin and then rotating them
through the proper angle. NO (h, k) X"
Theorem. If the axes be

translated to a new origin(h,k)
and then rotated through an
angle 0, the equations of the transformation of coördinates are
´x = x' cos 0 -
— y' sin 0 + h,
(III)
\ y = x' sin 0 + y' cos 0 + k.
Proof. To translate the axes to O'X " and O'Y" we have,
by (I) , x = x" + h,
y = y " + k,
where (x ", y" ) are the coördinates of any point P referred to
O'X" and O'Y".
To rotate the axes we set, by (II) ,
x" = x' cos — y' sin 0,
y":= x'sin + y' cos 0.
Substituting these values of x" and y' , we obtain (III) . Q.E.D.
57. Classification of loci . The loci of algebraic equations
are classified according to the degree of the equations. This
classification is justified by the following theorem, which
shows that the degree of the equation of a locus is the same,
no matter how the axes are chosen.
Theorem. The degree ofthe equation of a locus is unchanged

by a transformation of coördinates.
Proof. Since equations (III ) are of the first degree in x ' and
y', the degree of an equation cannot be raised when the values
of x and y given by ( III) are substituted . Neither can the
degree be lowered; for then the degree must be raised if we
transform back to the old axes , and we have seen that it cannot
be raised by changing the axes. *
As the degree can neither be raised nor lowered by a trans-
formation of coördinates, it must remain unchanged. Q.E.D.
58. Simplification of equations by transformation of coördinates .

The principal use made of transformation of coördinates is to
simplify a given equation by choosing suitable new axes . The
method of doing this is illustrated in the following examples.
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify the equation y² -
— 8 x + 6 y + 17 = 0 by translating the axes.
Solution. Set x = x + h and y = y' + k.
This gives (y + k)² -
— 8 (x′ + h) + 6 (y' + k) + 17 = 0, or
(1) y'2-8x + 2k | y' + k² | † = 0 .
+6 - 8h
+ 6k
+ 17
If, now, we choose for h and k such numbers that the coefficient of y'
shall be zero, that is,
(2) 2k + 6 = 0,
and also the constant term shall be zero, that is,
(3) k28h6k + 17 = 0,
the transformed equation is simply
(4) y'2 - 8x' = 0.
* This also follows from the fact that when equations (III) are solved for
x' and y', the results are of the first degree in x and y.
† These vertical bars play the part of parentheses. Thus 2k + 6 is the coeffi-
cient of y' and k² − 8 h + 6 k +17 is the constant term . Their use enables us to
collect like powers of x' and y' at the same time that we remove the parentheses
in the preceding equation.
From (2) and (3) we obtain h = 1 , k - 3, and these are the coördinates
of the new origin .
The locus may be readily plotted by draw-
ing the new axes and then plotting (4) on
these axes.
A second method often used is the fol-
lowing :
Rewrite the given equation, collecting the 0
terms in y,
(5) (y² + 6y) == 8x - 17.
Complete the square in the left-hand 0 (1,-3) Χ
member,
(6) (y² + 6y + 9) = 8x · 17 +9 - 8x - 8.
Writing this equation in the form
(7) (y + 3)² = 8 (x − 1) ,
it is obvious by inspection that if we substitute
in this equation
(8) x = x + 1 , y = y' - — 3,
the transformed equation is y'2 = 8x'. But equations ( 8) translate the
axes to the new origin ( 1 , - 3) , as before.
2. Simplify x² + 4 y² - 2x - 16y + 10 by translating the axes.
Solution. Set x = x + h and y = yk. This gives
(9) x² + 4y² + 2 h | x' + 8k | y' + h² = 0.
-2 - 16 + 4k2
-2h
-- 16 k
+1
Let us choose the new origin so that in (9) the coefficients of x' and y'
shall be zero ; that is, so that
(10) 2h 20 and 8k - 16 = 0.
From (10), h = 1 , k = 2, and these values substituted in (9) give the
transformed equation
(11) x² + 4y² = 16 .
The locus of the given equation is now readily drawn by constructing
parallel axes through (1 , 2) and plotting equation (11) on these axes.
A second method is the following :
Collect corresponding terms in the given equation thus :
(12) (x² − 2 x) + 4 (y² — 4 y ) = — 1 .
Complete the squares within the parentheses, adding the corresponding

numbers to the right-hand member,
(13) (x² − 2 x + 1 ) + 4 (y² − 4 y + 4)
=-1 + 1 + 16 = 16.
Writing (13) in the form
- 1 )² + 4 (y — 2)² = 16,
(x − O' (1,2)
it is obvious by inspection that by O
substituting
(14) x = x + 1, y = y' + 2 ,
the simple new equation x'² + 4 y′2 = 16 results. But equations (14) trans-
late the axes to the new origin (1 , 2) , the same as in the first method .
3. Remove the xy-term from x² + 4xy + y² = 4 by rotating the axes.
Solution. Set x = x' cos - y' sin 0 and y = x' sin 0 + y' cose, whence
cos20 x'2 - 2 sin cos 0 x'y' + sin² 0 y'2 = 4,
+ 4 sin 0 cos +4 (cos20 - sin20) - 4 sin cos 0
+ sin² + 2 sin cos0 + cos²0
or, since 2 sin cos0 = sin 20 and cos² - sin² = cos 20,
(15) (1 + 2 sin 20) x²² + 4 cos 20 · x'y' + (1 − 2 sin 2 0) y'² = 4 .
The new equation is to contain no x'y'-term. Hence, setting the
coefficient of x'y' equal to
zero,
cos 20 =: 0.
π π
.. 20 = and Ө =
2 4
Substituting in (15),
π π
since sin 1, the trans-
2
formed equation is
3x2 -
— y'² = 4.
The locus of this equation
is the hyperbola plotted on
the new axes in the figure.
These examples show
that it is often wise not to
plot the locus of an equation as it stands, but rather to endeavor first
to simplify by transformation to new axes.
PROBLEMS
1. Simplify the following equations by translating the axes . Plot both

pairs of axes and the curve.
(a) x² + 6x + 4y + 8 = 0 , Ans. x2 + 4y' = 0.
(b) x2 4y + 8 = 0. Ans. x'2:= 4y'.
(c) x² + y² + 4x - 6 y - − 3 = 0. Ans. x2 + y'² = 16.
(d) y2 - 6x10y + 19 = 0. Ans. y'26x'.
(e) x2 y² + 8x - 14 y 35 = 0. Ans. x2 - y'² - = 2.
(f) x² + 4y² - 16x + 24y + 84 = 0. Ans. x24 y'² = 16.
(g) y³ + 8x - 40 - 0. Ans. 8x + y'³ = 0.
2. Remove the xy-term from the following equations by rotating the

axes. Plot both pairs of axes and the curve .
(a) x² — 2xy + y² = 12 . Ans. y'26.
(b) x² - 2xy + y² + 8 x + 8 y = 0. Ans. √2y² + 8x' = 0 .
(c) xy = 18. Ans. x'2 y'² = 36.
(d) 25 x² + 14 xy + 25 y² = 288 . Ans. 16x2 + 9 y'² = 144 .
e) 3x² - 10xy + 3y² = 0. Ans. x2-4y'² = 0.
3. Translate the axes so that each of the following equations is trans-

formed into a new equation without any terms of the first degree in the
new coördinates. Draw the locus.
(a) x² - 4xy + 6 y = 0. Ans. h3, k = 4 .
(b) y² - 2xy + 3x = 0. (e ) 3x² - xy - y² + 4x = 0.
(c) x² + xy + y² + 6x = 0. (f) 2xy + 6x - 8 y = 0.
(d) x² - xy + 2 y² + 6 y = 0. (g) 3xy + 4y 2 = 0.
CHAPTER X
PARABOLA, ELLIPSE, AND HYPERBOLA
59. The parabola . Consider the following locus problem.

A point moves so that its distances from a fixed line and a
fixed point are equal. Determine the nature of the locus.
Solution . Let DD' be the fixed DI YA
line and F the fixed point. Draw N
M x P (x,y)
the x-axis through F perpendicular
to DD' . Take the origin midway
between F and DD'.
P→
Let
F(2,0)
(1) distance from F to DD' = p.
FP-MP
Then, if P (x, y) is any point on
the locus ,
(2) FP = MP. DI
But FP = √(x − 3 p)² + y², MP = MN + NP = } p + x.

√(x − & p) ² + y² = } p + x.
Squaring and reducing,
(3) y = 2 px.
The locus is called a parabola. The fixed line DD' is called the
directrix, the first point F, the focus . From (3) , it is clear that
the x-axis is an axis of symmetry. For this reason , the x-axis
is called the axis of the parabola. Furthermore, the origin is on
the curve. This point, midway between focus and directrix, is
called the vertex.
153
Theorem. If the origin is the vertex and the x-axis the axis
of a parabola, then its equation is
(I) y² = 2 px.
Thefocus is the point(2,0) , and the equation of the directrix

p.
is x =−2/ 2
A discussion of (I) gives us the following properties of the

parabola in addition to those already obtained.
1. Values of x having the sign opposite to that of p are
to be excluded. Hence the curve lies to the right of YY'
when p is positive and to the left when p is negative.
2. No values of y are to be excluded ;
hence the curve extends indefinitely up
and down.
ལ།
The chord drawn through the focus
parallel to the directrix is called the
X' X
F(2,0)
latus rectum. To find its length, put
x = p in (I) . Then y = ± p , and the
length of the latus rectum = 2p ; that
is, equals the coefficient of x in (I) .
It will be noted that equation (I) contains two terms only ;
namely, the square of one coördinate and the first power of the
other. Obviously, the locus of
x² = 2py
is also a parabola, and thus we have the

Theorem. If the origin is the vertex and the y-axis the axis
of a parabola, then its equation is
(II) x² = 2 py.
The focus is the point (0,2) and the equation of the directrix
Р
is y 2
Equations (I) and (II) are called the typical forms of the
equation of the parabola.
. PARABOLA, ELLIPSE, AND HYPERBOLA 155
Equations of the forms
Ax² + Ey = 0 and Cy² - Dx = 0,
where A, E, C, and D are different

from zero, may, by transposition and
division, be written in one of the
forms (I) or (II).
To plot a parabola quickly from Fo
р
its typical equation , its position (above X' O y=-1/2 X
or below XX ', to the right or left of D Y' D
YY') is best determined by discussion
of the equation. The value of 2p is found by comparison
with (I) or (II) , and the focus and directrix are then plotted.
EXAMPLES
1. Plot the locus of x2 + 4y = O and plot the focus and directrix .
Solution. The given equation may be written

x2 4y.
The y-axis is an axis of symmetry ; positive values of y must be ex-

cluded . Hence the parabola lies below the x-axis. The table gives a few
points on the curve.
A
y =1
x y O
X
0 0 F0,-1
+2 -
+4 4
Comparing with (II) , p = 2. The focus is therefore the point

(0, - 1) and the directrix the line y = 1. The length of the latus
rectum is 4. Every point on the locus is equidistant from (0, — 1) and
the line y = 1.
2. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is (4, -2) and
directrix the line x = 1.
Y D
Solution. Inthe figure, by definition,
(1) FP PM. M
P (x,y)
But FP = √(x − 4)² + (y + 2)²,
Y
and PM = x- — 1.
0 -X-
Substituting in ( 1 ) and reducing,
(2) y² - 6x + 4y + 190. Ans. V F (4,-2)
If the axes are translated to the ( -2
vertex (5, - 2) as a new origin, that is, FP=MP
if we substitute in (2) x = x′ + ½ and
yy - 2, the equation reduces to
the typical form y'² - 6x' = 0.
A second and useful method is the
following : YA D
Draw the axis VX' of the parabola
and the tangent VY at the vertex.
Referred to these lines as temporary
axes, the equation must have the
typical form
X
(3) y² = 6x,
since p = 3. F (4,-2)
Now translate the temporary axes so
that they will coincide with the given
axes. The coördinates of O referred to
the temporary axes are ( - — § , 2) . Sub-
stituting in (3) x = x' — § , y = y′ + 2, and
reducing, we obtain the equation (2) .·
PROBLEMS
1. Plot the locus of the following equations . Draw the focus and
directrix in each case and find the length of the latus rectum.
(a) y² = 4x. (d) y² — 6x = 0.
(b) y² + 4x = 0. (e) x² + 10 y = 0.
(c) x2 - 8y = 0. (f ) y² + x = 0.
2. Find the equations of the following parabolas :
(a) directrix x = 0, vertex (3, 4) . Ans. (y - 4) = 12 (x -− 3) .
(b) focus (0, -3) , vertex (2, - 3). Ans. y² + 8x + 6y - 7 = 0.
PARABOLA, ELLIPSE, AND HYPERBOLA 157
(c) directrix y = 1 , focus (2, ― 2) . Ans. x² - 4x - 6y + 7 = 0.

(d) directrix x + y = 0, focus (2, 2) .
Ans. x2-2xy + y² - — 8x - 8y + 16 = 0.
(e) directrix x + 2y -−1 = 0, focus (0, 0) .
Ans. (2x - y)2 + 2x + 4y - 1 = 0.
3. Transform each of the following equations to one of the typical
forms (I) or (II) by translation of the axes. Draw the figure in each case.
(a) y² + 4x + 4y - 2 = 0. Ans. y'2 + 4x ′ = 0.
(b) x² + 6x + y − 2 = 0. Ans. x2 + y' = 0 .
(c) x² + 3x + 4 y −1 = 0 .
(d) y² + 3x + 8 y - 0.
(e) 2x² + 5y + 4 = 0. (i ) 2 y² + 3 x - 8 = 0.
(f) y² + 6x - 9 = 0. (j ) 5x² + 10 y + 12 = 0.
(g) 7x² + 8y + 10 = 0. (k) 3x2 6y + 8 = 0.
(h) x² + 4y + 4 = 0. (1) 2x² − 6x + y = 0.
4. Show that abscissas of points on the parabola (I) are proportional
to the squares of the ordinates.
5. Find the equation in polar coördinates of a parabola if the focus is

the pole, and if the axis of the parabola is the polar axis.
Ans. p = p
1- cos@
60. Construction of the parabola. A parabola whose focus and

directrix are given is readily
constructed by rule and com-
passes as follows : D
Draw the axis MX. Con-
struct the vertex V, the middle
point of MF. Through any
point A to the right of V draw M T
a line AB parallel to the direc-
trix. From F as a center with
a radius equal to MA strike
arcs to intersect AB at P and
Q. Then P and Q are points
on the parabola. For FP = MA, by construction , and hence
P is equidistant from focus and directrix .
By changing the position of A we may construct as many

points on the curve as desired .
Parabolic arch. When the span AB and height OH of a para-
bolic arch are given, points on the arch may be constructed as
follows :
-Height-
C a'c' 0 D
Draw the rectangle ABCD.
22
Divide AH and AC into the
가라
same number of equal parts.
Starting from A , let the suc-
cessive points of division be A a H B
-Span-
on AH, a , b, c,
on AC, l, m , n.
Now draw the perpendicular aa ' to AB, and draw Ol. Mark
the intersection. Do likewise for the points b and m, c and n.
The intersections are points
-X- O
on the parabola required .
Proof. Take axes ΟΧ
and OY, as in the figure.
Let
H B(a,h)
(1) OM' = x, M'P = y, A(-a,h)M
AB = 2 a, OH = h. Y
By construction, NC and MH are equal parts of AC and AH

respectively.
NC MH NC x
(2) = or =
AC AH h a
From the similar triangles OM'P and OCN,

212
У = NC NC
(3) OC a
Substituting the value of NC from ( 2) into (3) , and reducing,

a²
(4) x² = -Y.
h
This is the typical form (II) , and the locus passes through
O, A (— a, h) and B (a, h) , as required .
Solving (4) for y, we get

h x ta τα τα a
(5) y = a²2 x²,
y h th It h h
showing that y varies as the
square of x, and giving a simple formula for computing y, as
in the table.
61. Equations (I) and (II) are extraordinarily simple types

of equations of the second degree. The question,
To derive a test for determining if the locus of a given equa-
tion ofthe second degree is a parabola,
will be answered in Art. 70 ; but at this point, if the previous
results are borne in mind , we may state the
Theorem . The locus of an equation of the second degree is a

*
parabola ifthe only term of the second degree is the square of
one coördinate, and if also the first power of the other coördi-
nate is present in the equation.
For illustration, see Problem 3, p. 157.
62. The ellipse . Let us solve the following locus problem :
Given two fixed points F and YA
F. A point P moves so that the
sum of its distances from F and
F' remains constant. Determine the y
x
nature of the locus. X' 20
Solution . Draw the x-axis through
F and F', and take for origin the
Y PFPF" =2a
middle point of F'F. By definition ,
(1) PF + PF' = a constant.
* The student should not forget that the product xy is a term of the second
degree .
Let us denote this constant by 2 a. Then (1) becomes

(2) PF + PF' = 2 a.
Let FF2 c. Then
PF = √(x − c)² + y², PF' = √(x + c)² + y²,

since the coördinates of F are (c, 0) , and of F', (— c, 0) .
Hence (2) becomes
- 2
(3) √(x − e)² + y² + √(x + c) ² + y² = 2 a.
Transposing one of the radicals, squaring and reducing, the
result is
(4) — c²).
(a² — c²) x² + a²y² = a²(a² —
For added simplicity, set *
(5) a² ― c² = b².
Then (4) becomes the simple equation

(6) b²x² + a²y² = = a²b².
Discussion. The intercepts are,
on XX ' , a; on YY', ± b.
The axes XX ' and YY' are axes of symmetry and O is a center
of symmetry . YA
Solving (6) for x and for y, B
a
x= ± b² — y²,
b
y=± a² - x². X C- F A
a
Hence the values of x can-
B'
not exceed a numerically ,
nor can the values of y
exceed b numerically. The curve is therefore closed.
The locus is called an ellipse. The point 0, which bisects
every chord passing through it, is called the center. The given
fixed points F and F' are called the foci . The longest chord
* This is permissible . For PF + PF
" > FF", or 2 a > 2c ; that is, a > c, and
a2c2 is a positive number.
AA' through O is called the major axis ; the shortest chord BB',
the minor axis . Obviously ,
(7) major axis - 2 a, minor axis = 2 b.
Dividing (6) through by a²², and summarizing, gives the
Theorem. The equation of an ellipse whose center is the origin
and whose foci are on the x-axis is
x²
‫ شہر‬y2
‫شرح‬
(III) + = 1,
a²
where 2 a is the major axis and 2b C

= - b2, then
the minor axis. Ifca²
X' B' b B
the foci are (± c, 0) .
If the foci are on the y-axis,
and if we keep the above nota-
tion, the equation of the ellipse is
obviously
y² = 1.
(8) a²x² + b²y² = a²b², or +
b2 a²
Equations (6) , (8) , and (III) are typical equations of the
ellipse, and are of the form
YA
(9) Ax² + By = C,
B
where A, B, and C agree in sign. (c,12)
α
In the figure BF² = b² + c².
Substituting the value of c² from c
F AX
(5), then BF2 = a². Hence the -a +
property : The distance from either
focus to the end of the minor axis B'
equals the semimajor axis.

The chord drawn through either focus perpendicular to the
major axis is called the latus rectum. Its length is deter-
mined by setting x = c in (III) , and solving for y. This gives
b 72 •
y = - √a² ― c² Hence
a a
262
(10) length oflatus rectum = a
Eccentricity. When the foci are very near together the ellipse
differs but little from a circle. The value of the ratio OF : OA
may, in fact, be said to determine the divergence of the ellipse
from a circle. The value of this ratio is called the eccentricity
of the ellipse, and is denoted by e. Hence
OF c
(11) e= =-
OA a
The value of e varies from 0 to 1. If the major axis AA'

remains of fixed length, then the " flatness " of the ellipse in-
creases as e increases from 0 to 1, the limiting forms being a
circle of diameter AA ' and the line segment AA '.
From (11 ) and (5) ,
(12) b² = a² — c² = a² (1 — e²) .
To draw an ellipse quickly when its equation is in the typical

form, proceed thus :
1. Find the intercepts, mark them off on the coördinate
axes, and set the larger one equal to a, the smaller equal to b.
Letter the major axis AA ' and the minor axis BB'.
2. Find c from c² = a²b². Mark the foci F and F' on the
major axis.
3. Calculate directly one or more sets of values of the coördi-
nates, and sketch in the curve.
EXAMPLE
Draw the ellipse 4x² + y² = 16,
Solution. The intercepts are, on XX', +2 ; on
F
YY', 14. Hence the major axis falls on YY', and
a = 4, b = 2, c = √12 = 2√3 = 3.4. The foci are P
on the y-axis. The length of the latus rectum
262 c B
equals а 2. The eccentricity e a = √3. XB
The points found in the table
are the ends of the latus rectum . x y
If P is any point on the ellipse, ±1 3.4
then PF + PF' = 2a = 8.
PROBLEMS
1. Plot each of the following equations. Letter the axes and mark
the foci . Find the eccentricity, the length of the latus rectum, and
draw the latus rectum.
(a) x² + 9 y² = 9. (e) 9 y² + 4x² = 36.

(b) 9x² + 16 y2 - 144. (f) 2x² + y² = 25.
(c) 2x² + y² = 4. (g) 4x² + 8 y² = 32 .
(d) 4x² + 9 y² = 36. (h) 7x² + 3y² = 21 .
2. Transform each of the following equations by translation of the

axes so that the transformed equation shall lack terms of the first degree
in the new coördinates. Draw the figure.
(a) x² + 4 y² + 6 x − 8 y = 0. Ans. x2 + 4 y'² = 13.
(b) 9x² + 4y² + 36 x − 4y + 1 = 0.
(c ) x² + 5 y² + 10 y = 20.
(d) 5x² + y² + 10x + 4 y = 6.
(e) 3x² + y² + 6x -− 4 y = 2 .
(f) 4x² + 5 y² + 4x + 20 y = 20.
3. Find the equation of each of the following ellipses :

(a) major axis 8, foci (5, 2) and ( — 1 , 2) .
Ans. 7 (x - 2)² + 16 (y − 2)² = 112 .
(b) major axis = 10, foci (0, 0) and (0, 6) .
Ans. 25x2 + 16 (y - 3)² = 400.
(c) minor axis = 8, foci (-1 , 0) and (4, 0) .
(d) minor axis - 4, foci ( 0, -— 2) and (0, 4) .
63. Construction of the ellipse. The definition (2) of the pre-

ceding section affords a simple method of drawing an ellipse.
Place two tacks in the drawing board at
the foci F and F' and wind a string about
them as indicated. If now a pencil be placed
in the loop FPF' and be moved so as to F
keep the string taut, then PF + PF is
constant and P describes an ellipse. If the
major axis is to be 2 a, then the length of the loop FPF' must
be 2 a +2 c.
A useful construction of an ellipse by rule and compasses is

the following :
Draw circles on the axes AA' and BB' as diameters . From
the center O draw any radius intersecting these circles in M
and N respectively. From M draw Y
a line MR parallel to the minor B
axis, and from N a line NS paral- M
lel to the major axis. These lines
will intersect in a point P on the Α' RAX
ellipse.
Proof. Take the coördinate Β'
axes as in the figure below. Let
OA = x, AP = y = OD, ZMOX = $.
Clearly, OB = semimajor axis = a,
OC =semiminor axis - b.
Then in the right triangle OAB,

OA x
(1) cos & = =
OB a
Similarly, in the right triangle ODC, LOCD = ZCOA = $,

and Y
OD
si n = =У B
(2) ОС b
But cos² + sin² = 1. Hence, D

y²
from (1) and (2) , a² + b2 = 1 , and જ
O A X
P(x, y) lies on the ellipse whose
semiaxes are a and b. Q.E.D.
The angle is called the eccen-
tric angle of P.
The construction circles used
in this problem are called, respectively, the major and minor
auxiliary circles.
64. Equations (6) and ( 8) of Art. 62 are simple equations of

the second degree. We may ask the question,
What is the test that the locus of a given equation of the

second degree shall be an ellipse ?
Reserving for a later section the answer to this question , we

have, however, some light on it now. For we have observed
in Problem 2, p. 163, that the locus was in each case an ellipse.
These equations agree in the respect that there is no xy-term,
and the squares of x and y have unequal positive coefficients.
Consider such an equation, for example,
(1) x² + 4y² + 4x - 8y + N = 0,
where N is some number. If we translate the axes to the new
origin ( 2, 1) , the transformed equation is
12
(2) x¹² + 4y¹² = 8 – N.
If N is less than 8, the locus is an ellipse.

If N = 8, the locus is the single point (0 , 0) , often called a
point-ellipse.
If N is greater than 8, there is no locus.
This discussion is general, and may be summarized in the
Theorem. If an equation of the second degree contains no

xy-term, and if x and y occur with coefficients having like
signs, the locus is necessarily an ellipse or point-ellipse.
The case when x² and y² have equal coefficients has been dis-
cussed in Art. 38. The circle and point-circle may, of course,
be regarded as special cases of the ellipse and point-ellipse.
65. The hyperbola. Let us next turn our attention to a third

locus problem.
Given two fixed points F and F'. A point P moves so that
the difference of its distance from F and F remains constant.
Determine the nature of the locus.
Solution. Draw the x-axis through the fixed points , and

take for origin the middle point of F'F. By definition
(1) PF'- PF = a constant.
Let us denote this constant YA
by 2 a . Then (1) becomes
(2) PF - PF = 2 a.
P
Let FF2 c.
Then PF = √(x -− c) ² + y², 0 F

+2C--.
and PF' = √(x + c)² + y²,
since the coördinates of Fare
PF PF-2a
(c, 0) , and of F' , ( — c, 0) .
Y
(3) √(x + c)² + y² −√(x − e)² + y² = 2 a.

Transposing either radical, squaring and reducing, the result is
(4) (a² — c²) x² + a²y² = a² (a² — c²) .
For added simplicity,* set
(5) a² — c² = b², or c² — a² = b².
Then (4) becomes the simple equation

b²x² - a²y² = a²b². Y
(6)
Discussion . The intercepts
H
are, on XX ' , ± a ; on YY',
16-1 ; that is , the locus does
not cross the y-axis. The coef-
X
' Γ' Α' Ο A F X
ficient of the √- 1 in the im- -a
aginary intercept on the y-axis
B'
is, however, b. The axes XX'
and YY' are axes of symmetry
and O is a center of symmetry .
*
* This is permissible. For in the figure, PF" - PF < F'F, or 2 a < 2c ; that
is, a < c, and a² - c2 is a negative number.
Solving (6) for x and for y,

a
-
x= ± b q√b² + y², y = ± a √x² — a²,
whence we conclude that all values of x between - a and a

must be excluded, but no values of y.
When x increases, y also increases, and the curve extends
out to infinity, consisting of two distinct branches. *
The locus is called a hyperbola, the point 0, which bisects
every chord drawn through it, is called the center. The given
fixed points F and F' are the foci . The chord AA ' is named
the transverse axis . Marking off on YY' from 0 the lengths ± b,
the line BB' (Fig. p. 166) is called the conjugate axis. Thus the
(7) transverse axis = 2a, conjugate axis = 2 b.
Dividing (6) through by a2b2, and summarizing, gives the

Theorem. The equation of a hyperbola whose center is the
origin and whose foci are on the YA
x-axis is x² y2
= 1,
(IV) a² b2 Fo
where 2 a is the transverse axis
and 2b the conjugate axis. If AX
Χ' Β'
9
c² = a² + b², then the foci are

( ± c, 0).
F
If the foci are on the y-axis,
and if we preserve the notation,
the equation of the hyperbola is
obviously
x2 - y2
(8) a²x² — b²y² = — a²b², or b? a² -1.
Equations (6) and (8) are typical equations of the hyper-

bola. They are of the form
(9) Ax² + By² = C ,
where A and B differ in sign.
* On the left-hand branch, (2) is replaced by PF - PF"= 2 a.

2
In the preceding figures AB² = a² + b² . Substituting the
2
value of 2 from (5), ABc. Hence the property : The
distance between the extremities of the axes equals half the
distance between the foci.
YA
The chord drawn through a
focus and perpendicular to the
transverse axis is called the latus
rectum. We may determine its (c,
length by setting xe in (IV)
F
and solving for y. Thus , by (5) we
b 72
obtain y = ± c² a2 = 士
a α
Hence
2 b2
(10) length of latus rectum =
a
Eccentricity. The value of the ratio OF : OA in the hyperbola

is called the eccentricity of the curve, as in the case of the
ellipse. Denoting the eccentricity by e, then
OF c
(11) e=
OA a
For a hyperbola, e > 1. The relation of the value of e to the

shape of the curve will be made clear later. From (5) and (11),
(12) b² = c² - a² = a² (e² - 1).
To draw a hyperbola quickly when its equation is in the

typical form ( 9) , proceed thus :
1. Find the intercepts and mark them off on the proper axis.
Set a equal to the real intercept and b equal to the coefficient
of V- 1 in the imaginary intercept. Lay off the conjugate axis ;
letter it BB' and the transverse axis AA '.
2. Find c
e from c² = a² + b². Mark the foci F and F' on the
transverse axis .
3. Calculate directly one or more sets of values of the coör-
4 dinates , and sketch the curve.
EXAMPLE
Draw the hyperbola
4x2-5 y² + 20 = 0.
Solution. The intercepts are, on
P
XX', ± √− 5 = ± √5 √ − 1 ; on F
YY', 2. Hence b = √5, a = 2,
c = √a² + b² = 3, and the transverse TA
axis and the foci are on YY'. The ec- 3.
13
X B ΟΙ B
1x1
centricity is . The length of the latus
262
rectum is 5. x
a y
If Pis any point on F
0 +2
the hyperbola, then
PF - PF = 4. ±3 Y
PROBLEMS
1. Plot each of the following equations, letter the axes, and mark the
foci . Find the eccentricity , the length of the latus rectum, and draw the
latus rectum.
(a) 5 x² - 4y² = 20. (e) x2 - 3 y² + 3 = 0.
(b) x². 8 y² + 8 = 0. (f) 7x2 - 9 32 = 63 .
(c) 9x2 - y = 9 . (g) 2x² -— 7 y² = 18 .
(d) 3x2 -- y2 = 12 . (h) 7 x² - 2 y² = — 8.
2. Transform each of the following equations by translation of the

axes so that the transformed equation shall lack terms of the first degree
in the new coördinates. Draw the figure.
(a) 4x2.- y² + 8x - 2y - 1 = 0. (d) 4x2 - y26x - 4y = 0.
(b) 9x2.- y² + 18x 4y + 14 = 0. (e) x² --
- 5 y² + 6x - 10 y = 0.
(c) 3x2 - y² + 12x + 2y + 14 = 0. (f) x² - 2 y² + 10 y = 0.
3. Find the equations of the following hyperbolas :

(a) transverse axis -· 6, foci ( — 2, 0) and (6, 0) .
Ans. 7 ( -
— 2)² - 9 y² = 63.
(b) conjugate axis = 6, foci (0, 2) and (0, — 8) .
(c) conjugate axis 8, foci (1 , 2) and ( — 4, 2) .
(d) transverse axis 4, foci (0, 0) and ( — 4, 0) .
66. Conjugate hyperbolas and asymptotes . Two hyperbolas

are called conjugate hyperbolas if the transverse and conjugate
axes of one are respectively the conjugate and transverse axes
of the other.
If the equation of a hyperbola is given in typical form,
thenthe equation of the conjugate hyperbola is found bychanging
the signs of the coefficients of x2 and y2 in the given equation.
Thus the loci of the equations
(1) 16 x2 y216 and -16 x² + y² = 16

are conjugate hyperbolas. They may be written
x² y² = 1 and - x² y²
+ 1.
1 16 1 16
The foci of the first are on the x-axis, those of the second
on the y-axis . The transverse axis of the first and the conju-
gate axis of the second are equal to 2, while the conjugate axis
.of the first and the transverse axis of the second are equal to 8.
The foci of two conjugate hyperbolas are equally distant
from the origin. For c² equals the sum of the squares of the
semitransverse and semiconjugate axes, and that sum is the
same for two conjugate hyperbolas.
Thus in the first of the hyperbolas above c² = 1 + 16, while
in the second c² = 16 +1.
If in one of the typical forms of the equation of a hyper-
bola we replace the constant term by zero, then the locus of the
new equation is a pair of lines (Theorem, p. 40) which are
called the asymptotes of the hyperbola.
Thus the asymptotes of the hyperbola
(2) b²x² — a²y² = a²b²
are the lines
(3) b²x² — a²y² = 0,

or
(4) bx + ay = 0 and bx 1 ay = 0.
These may be written

b b
- x and y = - X.
(5) У a a
They pass through the origin and their slopes are respectively
b b
- and 1
a a
The property of these lines which they have in common with
the vertical or horizontal asymptotes of Art. 22 is expressed
in the
Theorem. The branches of the hyperbola approach indefinitely
near its asymptotes as they recede to infinity.
Proof. Let P (x , y) be a point on either branch of (2) near
the asymptote bx — ay = 0.
The perpendicular distance from this line to P, is
bx1 - ay1 YA
(6) d ==
√b² + a²
We may find a value for the
numerator as follows : P
Since Pi lies on (2),
b²x²- a²y? = a²².
Factoring and dividing,
a262
bx₁1 -— ayi = *
bx₁ + ay₁
a262
Substituting in ( 6) , d =
=
√b² + a² (bx₁ + ay₁)
and 1 be-
As P, recedes to infinity in the first quadrant, æ,
come infinite and d approaches zero.
Hence the curve approaches closer and closer to its asymp-
totes. Q. E.D.
Two conjugate hyperbolas have the same asymptotes .
Thus the asymptotes of the conjugate hyperbolas ( 1) are respectively
the loci of 16x2 y2 = 0 and - — 16x² + y² = 0,
which are the same.
A hyperbola may be drawn with fair accuracy by the fol-

lowing
Construction. Lay off OA = OA'= a on the axis on which the
foci lie, and OB = OB' = b on the other axis. Draw lines through
A, A ', B, B', parallel to the axes , forming a rectangle. Draw
the diagonals of the rectangle. Then the length of each diago-
nal is obviously 2 c (since a² + b² = c²) . Moreover, the diagonals
produced are the YA
asymptotes. For
the equations of
the diagonals are B C
readily seen to be b b
bx - ay = O and X FA a AF
bx + ay - 0, and B'
these are the same
as (4). Construct
the circle which F
circumscribes the
rectangle. Draw the branches of the hyperbola tangent to the
sides of the rectangle at A and A' and approaching nearer
and nearer to the diagonals. The conjugate hyperbola may be
drawn tangent to the sides of the rectangle at B and B' and
approaching the diagonals. The foci of both are the points in
which the circle cuts the axes .
From this construction the influence of the value of the
eccentricity upon the shape of the hyperbola can be easily dis-
cussed . In the figure, let AA ' be fixed. Now from (12) , Art. 65,
b² = a² (e² - 1).
When e diminishes towards unity, b decreases, the altitude

BB' of the rectangle diminishes, the asymptotes turn towards
the x-axis, and the hyperbola flattens .
When e increases, the asymptotes turn from the x-axis , and
the hyperbola broadens.
67. Equilateral or rectangular hyperbola . When the axes of

a hyperbola are equal (ab), the hyperbola is said to be
equilateral. If we set a = b in equation
(IV) , we obtain Y↑
(1) x² — y² = a²,
a
which is accordingly the equation of
a
an equilateral hyperbola whose trans-
verse axis lies on XX '.
Its asymptotes are the lines
x - y = 0 and x + y = 0.
These lines are perpendicular, and hence they may be used

as coördinate axes. The designation " rectangular " hyperbola
arises from this fact.
Theorem. The equation of an equilateral hyperbola referred
to its asymptotes is
(V) 2 xy = a².
Proof. The axes must be rotated through 45° to coincide
with the asymptotes . Hence we substitute (Art. 55)
x' +y' - x ' + y'
x= У
√2 √2
in (1) . This gives
(x' + y ') ² (— x' + y ') ² == a².
2 2
Reducing and dropping primes we have (V) . Q.E.D.

It is important to observe that (V) has the simple form
(2) xya constant .
68. Construction of the hyperbola . A mechanical construction,

depending upon the definition (1) of Art. 65, is the following :
Fasten thumb tacks at the foci. Pass over F' and around F
a string whose ends are held together ( Fig. 1 , p. 174) .
If a pencil be tied to the string at P, and both strings be
pulled in or let out together, then PF' – PF will be constant
and P will describe a hyperbola. If the transverse axis is to be 2a,

the strings must be adjusted at the start so that the difference
between PF and PF equals 2 a.
A construction often used for an
equilateral hyperbola when the asymp-
totes and one point A are given, is as
follows (Fig. 2) :
Let OX and OY be the asymptotes F F
and A the given point. Draw any line
throughA to meet OX at M and OY at N.
Lay off MP = AN. Then P is a point
on the required hyperbola.
Proof. Choose the asymptotes FIG. 1
as axes. Let the coördinates of A
be (a, b) and of P, (x, y) . Then
OS = X, SP = y, OB = b, BA = a.
N
By construction, AN MP. A(a,b)
B
.. triangle PSM = triangle NBA, P(x,y)
and BN = SP = y, SM = AB = a. y
Since the triangles OMN and S M
ABN are similar, FIG. 2
BN ON OB + BN
-
AB OM OS + SM
N
Substituting,
y - b + y, or xy:= ab.
a a + x
Comparing with (V), we see P
that P(x, y) lies upon an equilat- Mi M₂
eral hyperbola which has OX and FIG. 3
OY for its asymptotes and which passes through (a, b). Q.E.D.
By drawing different lines through A , and laying off
M₁P₁1 = AN₁ , M‚P₂2 = AN₂, etc., we determine as many points
19 P₂, etc., as we wish on the hyperbola (Fig. 3).
P₁,
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equations of the asymptotes and of the hyperbolas conju-

gate to the following hyperbolas, and plot :
(a) 4x² - y² = 36 . (c) 16x²- y² + 64 = 0.
(b) 9x2-25 y² = 100. (d) 8x2-16 y² + 25 = 0.
2. The distance from an asymptote of a hyperbola to either focus is
numerically equal to b.
3. The distance from the center to a line drawn through a focus of a
hyperbola perpendicular to an asymptote is numerically equal to a.
4. The product of the distances from the asymptotes to any point on
the hyperbola is constant.
5. The focal radius of a point P₁1 (x1 , y₁ ) on the parabola y² = 2px is
p
+ x1.
2
6. The ordinates of points on an ellipse and the major auxiliary circle
which have the same abscissas are in the ratio of b : a.
7. The area of an ellipse is ab.

Hint. Divide the major axis into equal parts. With these as bases inscribe
rectangles in the ellipse and major auxiliary circle (p . 164) . Apply Problem 6
and increase the number of rectangles indefinitely .
69. The examples of Problem 2, p. 169, illustrated the fact

that any equation of the second degree lacking an xy-term, but
containing 2 and y with coefficients of unlike signs, can by
translation of the axes be transformed into the form (9)
Ax² + By² = C,
in which A and B differ in sign.

From the preceding it is clear that the locus of this equation
is a hyperbola if C is not zero, and a pair of intersecting
lines if C is zero. Hence the
Theorem. If an equation of the second degree contains no

xy-term, and ifx and y occur with coefficients differing in sign,
the locus is either a hyperbola or a pair of intersecting lines.
70. Locus of any equation of the second degree . The locus

problems of this chapter have led to the equations of the sec-
ond degree ,
(1) y² = 2px and x² = 2py,
(2) b²x² + a²y² = a²² and b²x² - a²y² = a²b².
These are simple types, of course. The question is , however,
this :
Given an equation of the second degree, can the equation be

transformed by translating and rotating the axes so that the
transformed equation will reduce to one of these simple types ?
To answer this question, take the general equation of the sec-
ond degree, namely,
(3) Ax² + Bxy + Cy² + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
This equation contains every term that can appear in an
equation of the second degree.
We begin by rotating the axes through an angle . To
do this, set in (3),
x = x'cos y' sin0,
and y = x'sino + y ' cos 0.
This gives , after squaring, multiplying, and collecting, the
transformed equation
(4) A cos20 x12 - 2 A sin cos 0 x'y' + A sin20
+ Bsin cos 0 + B (cos²0— sin²0) --B sin cos 0 y¹2
+ C sin20 +2 C sin @cos + C cos20
+ D cos x' .- D sine y' + F = 0.
+ E sin @ + E cos 0
The angle is, as yet, any angle at all. But let us now, if
possible, choose this angle so that the equation (4) shall not
contain the x'y'-term. To do this, we must set the coefficient
of x'y' equal to zero ; that is,
(5) - 2 A sin cos 0 + B (cos20- sin20) + 2 C sin 0 cos 0 = 0.
But 2 sin cos 0 = sin 20, cos20 — sin²0 = cos 2 0.
Hence (5) becomes

(6) (CA) sin 20+ B cos 2 0 = 0.
Dividing through by cos 2 0, and transposing,

B
(7) tan 20 =
A C
Since any number may be the tangent of an angle, it is

always possible to find a value for from this equation. If,
then, the axes are rotated through the angle determined by
(7) , equation (3) reduces to
12
(8) A'x'2 + C'y' + D'x ' + E'y' + F = 0,
where from (4),
(9) A ' = A cos²0 + B sin cos 0 + C sin20,
(10) C' = A sin20 - B sin cos 0 + C cos20.
The discussion gives the

Theorem . The term in xy may always be removed from an
equation ofthe second degree,
Ax² + Bxy + Cy² + Dx + Ey + F = 0,
by rotating the axes through an angle 0 such that
B
(VI) tan 20 =
A- C
Now equation (8) is of a form which we have met frequently

in this chapter, and we have learned to simplify it by transla-
tion of the axes. We saw in Art. 61 that if only one square
(A ' = 0, or C ' = 0) and the first power of the other coördinate
were present, the equation could be transformed into one of the
typical forms (1) of the parabola.
Suppose, however, that the first power of the other coördi-
nate does not appear . For example, suppose in ( 8) that A ' = 0
and D'0. Then the equation is
C'y'² + E'y ' + F = 0.
This is an ordinary quadratic in y. If the roots are real, the

locus will be two lines parallel to the x -axis . These lines will
coincide if the roots are equal. There will be no locus if the
roots are imaginary.
If neither A' nor C ' is zero, we may, by translation to the
D' E'
new transform the equation into
origin (-24A 2C
112
(11) A'x2 + C'y" + F' = 0.
The locus of this equation has been discussed in Arts . 64

and 69.
The result we have established is expressed in the
Theorem . The locus of an equation of the second degree is
either a parabola, an ellipse, a hyperbola, two straight lines
(which may coincide), or a point.
The following conclusion also may be drawn : The presence
ofthe xy-term indicates that the axes of the curve are not paral-
lel to the axes of coördinates.
We seek now a test to apply to an equation containing an
xy-term in order to decide in advance the nature of the locus .
To do this we eliminate the angle from equations (9) and
(10), making use of (6). The result is the simple equation,
(VII) — 4 A'C ' — B² — 4 AC.
The steps in the elimination process are as follows :

Adding and subtracting (9) and (10) ,
(12) A' + CA + C (since sin² + cos² 0 = 1 ) .
(13) A' — C' = (A -
— C) cos 20+ B sin 20.
Squaring (13),
(14) (A' - C') ² = ( A – C)² cos² 2 0 + 2 B ( A – C) sin 20 cos 20+ B2 sin² 20 .
Squaring (6),
(15) 0 = (AC) 2 sin² 20 + 2 B ( CA ) sin 20 cos 20+ B2 cos2 20.
Adding (14) and (15) ,
(16) (A'C') (AC)² + B².
Squaring (12) ,
(17) (A' + C')² = (A + C)².
Subtracting (16) and (17) , we obtain (VII) .
If the locus of ( 8) is a parabola, A ' = 0 or C ' = 0. Hence from

(VII) , B2 ― 4 AC = 0.
If the locus of (8) is an ellipse, A ' and C ' agree in sign.
Hence A'C' is positive, and from (VII) , B² - 4 AC is negative.
If the locus of ( 8) is a hyperbola, A ' and C ' differ in sign .
Hence A'C ' is negative, and from (VII), B² — 4 AC is a posi-
tive number.
Collecting all the results in tabular form, we have the
Theorem. Given4any equation of the second degree,

Ax² + Bxy + Cy² + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
The possible loci may be classified thus :
Test General case Exceptional cases *

B2-4AC † two parallel lines
zero parabola one line
B2-4AC
ellipse point-ellipse
negative
B2-4 AC
hyperbola two intersecting lines
positive
A point-ellipse is often called a " degenerate ellipse," two

intersecting lines a " degenerate hyperbola," and two parallel
lines a " degenerate parabola."
Note that B2—4 AC is the discriminant of the terms of the
second degree in the equation.
* For tests to distinguish the exceptional cases, see Smith and Gale's " Ele-
ments of Analytic Geometry , " p. 277.
† This case is recognizable by inspection, for the terms of the second degree,
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2, now will form a perfect square.
The exceptional cases are recognizable by the condition that

the equation is then factorable into two factors of the first
degree in x and y. A number of problems of this kind were
given on page 41. When the equation is not readily factored by
trial, it may appear by the first method of the following section
(Art. 71) that factors do nevertheless exist . Moreover, under
the two first cases in the table (parabola and ellipse) there may
be no locus. This fact will also readily appear by the first
method of Art. 71.
71. Plotting the locus of an equation of the second degree. In

this section we discuss methods of plotting second-degree
equations which contain xy-terms .
FIRST METHOD. By direct plotting. Test by the theorem at
the end of the preceding section , and then plot the equation
directly.
EXAMPLES
1. Plot the locus of
(1) x² - 2xy + 4y² - 4x = 0.
Solution. Here A = 1 , B = -2, C = 4.
... B² - 4 AC - 4 - 16 — 12 := a negative number.
Hence the locus is an ellipse. YA
x y 2
秀 -z 1
0, 4 0 1 2 3 4 5
3 ±√5 1 O
4 2
51 485
Solve the equation for x as follows :

(2y + 42 =- (2y + 2
(2) x² - (2 y + 4) x + 4 y² +
2 2
[Collecting terms in x and completing the square. ]
(3) .. x = y + 2 ± √ (2 − y) (2 + 3 y).
Solving also for y,

(4) y = ‡ x ± √x ( 16 — 3 x) .
From the radicals in (3) and (4) we see that (see p. 49)
y may have values from - to 2 inclusive ;
x may have values from 0 to 1 inclusive .
Hence the ellipse lies within the rectangle
y = - }, y = 2, x == 0, x == 16.
Points on the locus may be found from (3) as in the table.
2. Determine the locus of
5x² + 4xy - — y² + 24x - — 6 y − 5 = 0.
Solution. A = 5 , B = 4, C = -1 . ... B2 4 AC - 16+ 20 = 36.
Hence, from the table of Art . 70, we may expect a hyperbola or a pair
of intersecting lines.
Solve the equation for y as follows :
y² — (4x — 6) y + (2 x -
− 3) ² = 5 x² + 24x ·- 5+ (2x - 3)2
-
= 9x² + 12x + 4 = (3x + 2)².
[Collecting terms in y and completing the square. ]
.. y — (2 x -
− 3) = ± (3x + 2) .
Hence the locus is the intersecting lines
y = 5x - 1 and y = -x — 5 .
PROBLEMS
1. Test and plot the following equations :

(a ) x² - 2xy + y² .- 5 2 = 0 . (c) 4xy + 4y² + 4y + 4 = 0.
(b) 4xy + 4y² --- 2x + 3 = 0. ( d ) 2x² + 4xy + 4 y² + 2 x − 3 = 0.
( e ) x² + 2xy + 2 y² + 2x + 2y −1 = 0.
( f ) 3x² - 12xy + 9 y² + 8 x 12y + 5 = 0.
( g ) 5x² - 12xy + 9 y² + 8 x − 12 y + 3 = 0.
(h ) x² + xy + y² + 3 y = 0.
( i ) x² + 2xy + 4 y² + 6 y = 0.
( j ) 4x² + 4xy + y² + 6 x − 9 − 0.
( k ) 3x² −2xy + y² − 4 x − 6 = 0.
( 1 ) x² − 2 xy + 5 y² 8y = 0.
(m) x2 - 4xy + 4y² + 4x + 2y = 0.
( n ) 3x² + 4xy + y² — 2 x - − 1 = 0.
(0 ) 3x² + 8xy + 4 y² + 2 x + 4y = 0.
SECOND METHOD. By transformation. If the xy-term is

lacking, we have seen that the equation may be simplified
by translating the axes. The transformed equation is then
readily plotted on the new axes.
When the xy-term is present, rotate the axes through the
angle given by (VI) ,
B
(5) tan 20 =
A- C
The term in xy will then disappear and further simplification

is accomplished by translation .
To rotate, we substitute
(6) x = x' cos - y sin 0, y = x' sin 0 + y' cos 0.
We find sin and cos as follows. First compute cos 20 from

1
(7) cos 20 - ± (26 and 28, p. 3)
√1 + tan² 20
From (5) , 20 must lie in the first or second quadrant, so the

sign in (7) must be the same as in (5) . 0 will then be acute ;
and from 40, p. 4, we have
cos 20 1+ cos 20
(8) sin 0 = + 2 cos 0 = + V
2 2
EXAMPLES
1. Construct and discuss the locus of

(9) x² + 4xy + 4 y² + 12 x -
− 6 y = 0.
Solution. Here A = 1, B = 4, C = 4.
.. B² -
— 4 AC = 0, and the locus is a parabola.
Write the equation (9) in the form
(10) (x + 2y )² + 12 x - 6 y = 0.
We rotate the axes through an angle 0, such that
4 4•
tan 20 =
1-
Then by (7), cos 20 == ,

and by (8),
2 1
(11) sin = and cos 0:=
√5 √5
The equations for rotating the axes are therefore
x' -2y' 2x' + y'.
x= y=
√5 √5
Substituting in the equation
(10), we obtain
6
X/2 -- y = 0.
√5
Hence the locus is a parabola
3
for which p = - and whose
√5
focus is on the y -axis.
The figure shows both sets of axes, the parabola, its focus and directrix.
sin 0 -
The axis OX' has the slope tan = = 2, from ( 11 ) . Hence to draw
Cos
OX' , simply draw a line through the origin whose slope equals 2 .
3
In the new coördinates the focus is the point and the
3 ( ਕ)
directrix is the line y' =-
2√5
2. Construct the locus of
5 x² + 6xy + 5 y² + 22 x − 6 y + 21 = 0.
Solution. Here A = 5, B = 6, C = 5.
.. B2 4 AC = 36-100 =- 64 = a negative number.
Hence the locus is an ellipse.
We rotate the axes through the angle 0, given by
6
tan 20 = = ∞.
5 5
.. 20 = 90°, 0* = 45°.
Hence the equations of the transformation are
x'y' x' + y'
x= 9 y=
√2 √2
* If A = C, the angle 0 always equals 45°.

Substituting in the given equation and reducing,

4x´² + y²² + 4√2x′ − 7 √2 y′ + Z¹ = 0.
Translating to the new origin ( — √2, † √2) , the final equation is
4x/ 2 + y² = 16 .
Hence the locus is an ellipse whose
major axis is 8, whose minor axis is 4,
and whose foci are on the Y -axis.
The figure shows the three sets of
axes and the ellipse. The coördinates
of the new origin ơ ′ ( − √2, √2)
refer to the axes OX' and OY ', and this
must be remembered in plotting.
The equation
(12) Bxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0 ,
in which a² and y are lacking, offers an exception to the above
process, for, by translation , the equation may be reduced to
(13) Bx'y' + F' = 0 ;
and the locus of (13) is, by (V) , Art. 67, an equilateral hyper-
bola referred to its asymptotes as axes . Hence to plot (12 ) ,
translate so that the terms of the first degree disappear and
then plot the new equation.
To show that (12) may be transformed into (13) by translation, proceed

thus :
Substitute x == x′ + h , y = y' + k, in ( 12) , multiply out and collect the
terms. We obtain
Bx'y' + Bk x' + Bh | y' + Bhk
+D +E + Dh -
(14) = 0.
+ Ek
+F
Choose the new origin (h, k) so that the
coefficient of x' vanishes ; that is, Bk + D = 0,
coefficient of y' vanishes ; that is, Bh + E = 0.
E D
Solving these equations, h : 9 k 2
B B and (14) reduces to the
form (13).
PROBLEMS
1. Simplify the following equations and construct the loci. Check the
figure by finding the intercepts on the original axes.
(a ) x² + xy + y² = 3. Ans. 3x² + y'² = 6.
(b ) x² + 3 xy + y² + 4 y = 0. Ans. 25x2 - 5 y''2 + 32 = 0.
(c ) x² + 2xy + y² + 3x − 3 y = 0. Ans. x2 + 3 √2y = 0.
(d ) 3x² - 4 xy + 8x - 1 = 0 . Ans. x2-4 y'² + 1 = 0.
(e) 4x² + 4xy + y² + 8 x − 16 y = 0. Ans. 5x2-8√5у′ = 0.
(f ) 3xy + 4x + 6y + 1 = 0. Ans. 3x'y' - 7 = 0.
(g) 17x² - 12 xy + 8 y² -
— 68 x + 24 y − 12 = 0.
Ans. x2 + 4 y'² — 16 = 0.
(h ) y² + 6x - 6y + 21 = 0. Ans. y'2 + 6x′ = 0.
( i ) 6xy + 4x - 12 y + 3 = 0 . Ans. 6x'y' + 11 = 0.
( j ) 12xy - 5 y² + 48 y -
— 36 = 0. Ans. 4x2 - 9 y'² = 36.
( k ) 4x² - 12xy + 9 y² + 2 x −3 y -— 12 = 0.
Ans. 52 y2-49 0.
( 1 ) 12x² + 8 xy + 18 y² + 48 x + 16 y + 43 = 0.
Ans. 4x2 + 2 y2 = 1.
(m) 7x2 + 50 xy + 7y² = 50. Ans. 16x2 9 y 2 = 25.
(n ) x² + 3xy - — 3y² + 6x = 0. Ans. 21x2 - 49 y''2 = 72.
( 0 ) 16x² - 24 xy + 9 y² -
— 60 x — 80 y + 400 = 0.
Ans. y2-4 x" = 0.
2. Show that the general equation
Ax² + Bxy + Cy² + Dx + Ey + F = 0
may be simplified by translation only, so that the new equation contains
no terms of the first degree in x and y, if the coördinates of the new
origin (h, k) satisfy the equations
2 Ah + Bk + D = 0, Bh + 2 Ck + E = 0.
Hence show that the new origin (h, k) is the center of the locus, unless
B2 4 AC = 0. In the latter case the transformation fails.
72. Conic sections. Historically, the parabola, ellipse, and

hyperbola were discovered as plane sections of a right circular
cone. Hence the generic term used for them, -conic sections
or conics .
A definition often used, which will include all conic sections,
is the following : When a point P moves so that its distances
from a given fixed point and a given fixed line are in a constant
ratio, the locus is a conic.
The given fixed line is called the directrix, the fixed point
the focus, and the number representing the ratio of the dis-
tances of P from the focus and directrix is called the eccen-
tricity.
In Problem 3, p. 51, we found the equation for any conic
to be
(1) (1 − e²) x² + y² − 2 px + p² = 0,
if e is the eccentricity, YY' is the directrix, and (p , 0) is the

focus. Now (1) has no xy-term. Hence we see at once by
comparison with our previous results that a conic is
a parabola when e == 1,
an ellipse when e < 1,
a hyperbola when e > 1.
Clearly, when e = 1 the definition of the conic agrees with

that already given for the parabola.
The ellipse and hyperbola, each having a center, are called
central conics . D
E P(P0)
Focus and eccentricity, as used in
this section, agree with these terms
as already introduced. This fact is
left to the student to prove in the
following problems. H Ρ F M
The equation of a conic in polar co-
DI
ordinates is readily found. We may
show that if the pole is the focus and the polar axis the principal
axis of a conic section, then the polar equation of the conic is
= ep
(2) ρ 1 e cos 0
where e is the eccentricity and p is the distance from the

directrix to the focus .
For let P be any point on the conic. Then, by definition,

FP
= e.
EP
From the figure, FP P
and EP = HM = p + P cos 0.
Substituting these values of FP and EP, we have
ρ - e;
P + p cos
ep
or, solving for P, P=1 e cos 0
Q.E.D.
PROBLEMS
1
1. Simplify (1), p. 186, by translation of the axes when e 1 .
e2p2
Ans. (1 -— e²) x² + y²
1 e2
2. Show that in a central conic the focus coincides with, the focus
already adopted . Hence show that a central conic has two directrices,
one associated by the above definition with each focus.
3. Prove that e in Problem 1 agrees with e as defined in Arts. 62 and 65.
4. Prove that the focal radii of a point (x, y) on the ellipse (III) ,
p. 161 , are a + ex and a - ex.
5. Prove that the focal radii of a point on the hyperbola (IV) , p . 167,
are ex - a and ex + a.
LOCUS PROBLEMS
It is expected that the locus in each problem will be constructed and

discussed after its equation is found.
1. The base of a triangle is fixed in length and position . Find the
locus of the opposite vertex if
(a) the sum of the other sides is constant. Ans. An ellipse.
(b) the difference of the other sides is constant. Ans. A hyperbola.
(c) one base angle is double the other. Ans. A hyperbola.
(d) the sum of the base angles is constant. Ans. A circle.
(e) the difference of the base angles is constant. Ans. A conic.
(f) the product of the tangents of the base angles is constant.
Ans. A conic.
(g) the product of the other sides is equal to the square of half the
base. Ans. A lemniscate (Ex . 2, p. 122) .
(h) the median to one of the other sides is constant. Ans. A circle .
2. Find the locus of a point the sum of the squares of whose distances
from (a) the sides of a square, (b) the vertices of a square, is constant.
Ans. A circle in each case.
3. Find the locus of a point such that the ratio of its distance from a
fixed point P₁ (x1, y₁ ) to its distance from a given line Ax + By + C = 0
is equal to a constant k.
Ans. (A² + B² - — 2 k²A Bxy + ( A² + B² -
— k² A²) x² - — k²B²) y²
− 2 ( A²x₁ + B²x² + k² A C) x − 2 (A²y₁ + B²y₁ + k²BC) y
+ (x² + y²) (A² + B²) — k²C² = 0 .
4. Find the locus of a point such that the ratio of the square of its
distance from a fixed line to its distance from a fixed point equals a
constant k.
Ans. x4 — k² (x − p)² — k²y² = 0 if the y-axis is the fixed line and
the x-axis passes through the fixed point, p being the distance from
the line to the point.
k= 56
k= 24
k=0
7
k9
X 0
k11
X =16
k2
1
Systems of conics . When an equation of the second degree

contains one arbitrary constant, the locus is a system of conics.
PARABOLA, ELLIPSE; AND HYPERBOLA 189
EXAMPLE
x2 y2 =
Discuss the system represented by + = 1.
25 - k 9 - k
Solution. When k < 9 the locus is an ellipse whose foci are ( ± c, 0) ,
where c² = (25 — k) — (9 — k) = 16. When 9 < k < 25 the locus is an
hyperbola whose foci are ( ± c , 0) , where c² = (25 — k) — (9 — - k) = 16.
When k > 25 there is no locus. Since the ellipses and hyperbolas have
the same foci ( ± 4 , 0) , they are called confocal .
In the figure the locus is plotted for k =-- 56 , -— 24, 0, 7 , 9, 11 , 16, 21 ,
24, 25. Ask increases and approaches 9, the ellipses flatten out and finally
degenerate into the x-axis, and ask decreases and approaches 9, the hyper-
bolas flatten out and degenerate into the x-axis. As k increases and
approaches 25, the two branches of the hyperbolas lie closer to the y-axis,
and in the limit they coincide with the y-axis.
PROBLEMS
1. Plot the following systems of conics and show that the conics of
each system belong to the same type. Draw enough conics so that the
degenerate conics of the system appear as limiting cases.
x2 y2 x2 y2
(a)
16
+ == k.
9 (c) 16 - 9 =- k.
(b) y² - 2 kx. (d) x² = 2 ky - 6.
2. Plot the following systems of conics and show that all of the conics
of each system are confocal. Discuss degenerate cases and show that two
conics of each system pass through every point in the plane.
x2 y2 = 1. x2 y2
(a) +
16. k 36 - k (c) 64 k + 16 - k 1.
(b) y2 = 2 kx + k². (d) x² = 2 ky + k².
3. Plot and discuss the systems :
- k)² + 9 y² = 144.
(a) 16 (x — (c) (y - k)² = 4 x.
(b) xy = k. (d) 4 (x - k)29 (yk)² = 36.
4. Plot the following systems and discuss the locus as k approaches
zero and infinity :
(x — k)2 , y2 = 1. (x -— k)² - y2 1 .
(a) + (b)
k2 36 k2 36
CHAPTER XI
TANGENTS
73. Equation of the tangent. A tangent to a curve at a point

P₁ is obtained as follows. Take a second point P₂2 on the curve
near P₁ Draw the secant through
P₁1 and P2'
Now let P₂2 move along the P
curve toward P₁.
1' The secant will
turn around P₁. The limiting
position of the secant when P₂ 2 X'
reaches P₁1 is called the tangent
at P₁. y'
We wish to calculate the slope of the tangent at a point on a
curve. Let the coördinates of P,1 be (x , y ) and of P₂2 (x, + h,
Y₁ + k) . Then
- k•
slope of secant P₁P₂
h
To find the slope of the tangent, we begin by finding a value
k
for " the slope of the secant, as in the following example .
h
EXAMPLE
Find the slope of the tangent to the curve C : 8y = x³ at any

point P₁ (x , y ) on C (see figure on page 191) .
Solution. Let P1(x₁₁) and P₂(x¸1 +h, y₁ + k ) be two points on C.
Then since these coördinates must satisfy the equation of C,
(2) 8y₁ = x² ,
and 8 (y₁ + k) = (x, + h)³ ;
or
(3) 8 y₁ + 8 k = x² + 3 x† h + 3x¸h² + h³.
190
TANGENTS 191
Subtracting (2) from (3) , we obtain

8k = 3x3 h + 3x¸h² + h³.
Factoring, 8 k = h (3x² + 3 x¸h + h²) ;
k_3x²
= + 3x₁h + h²
and hence
h 8
- slope of secant PP .
Now as P,2 approaches P₁, h and k approach zero, and when

the secant becomes a tangent to the curve, h and k are both
equal to zero.
Hence the slope m of the tangent at P,1 will be obtained .
from the above value of the slope of the secant, namely,
2
3x² + 3x,h + h²
"
8
by setting h = 0 and also k = 0, if k appeared in the expres-
sion. Hence 3x
m = Ans.
8
The method employed in this example is general and may
be formulated in the following
Rule to determine the slope of the
tangent to a curve C at a point P₁1 on C.
First step. Let P₁(x₁₁ ) and P (x1 +h,
y₁ + k) be two points on C. Substitute Р.
h
their coördinates in the equation of C
X 0
and subtract.
k
Second step. Find a value for h the
slope of the secant through P,1 and P.

Third step. Find the limiting value
of the result of the second step when
h and k approach zero. This value is the required slope.
Having found the slope of the tangent at P₁ , its equation is
found at once by the point-slope formula. The point P, is called
the point of contact .
EXAMPLE
Find the equation of the tangent to the circle

x² + y² = r²
at the point of contact (x1 , y₁) .
Solution. Let P₁1 (x1 , y₁ ) and P₂ (≈1 + h,
y₁ + k) be two points on the circle C.
Then these coördinates must satisfy the
equation of the circle. Therefore
(1) x² + y² = r²,
and (x₁ + h)² + (y₁ + k) ² = r² ; Y'
or
(2) x² + 2x₁h + h² + y² + 2 y₁k + k² = r².
Subtracting (1) from (2) , we have
2x₁h + h² + 2 y₁k + k² = 0.
Transposing and factoring, this becomes
k(2 y₁ + k) = − h (2 x₁ + h) .
k 2x, + h
Whence
h 2y₁ + k
= slope ofthe secant through P₁1 and P₂2.
Letting P approach P₁ , h and k approach zero, so that m, the slope of
the tangent at P₁, is
21.
m=-
Y1
The equation of the tangent at P₁1 is then
X1 -
y - y1 ¹ (x — x₁) ,
91
or X₁x + y₂Y = x² + y²².
This equation may be simplified . For by ( 1) ,

x² + y² = r²,
so that the required equation is
X₁X + Y₁Y = r². Q. E. D.
TANGENTS 193
Theorem. The equation of the tangent to the circle

C : x² + y² = p²
at the point of contact P₁1 (x , y ) is
(I) x₁x + y₁y = r².
The point to be observed in this proof is this :

Always simplify the equation of the tangent by making use
of the equation obtained when x and y are substituted for x
and y inthe equation of the given curve.
In the equation (I) the point of contact is (x₁, y₁) , while
(x, y) is any point on the tangent.
In like manner we may prove the following
Theorem. The equation of the tangent at the point of contact
P₁ (x , y ) to the
ellipse b²x² + a²y² = a²b²
is b²x₁x + a²у₁y = a²b² ;
hyperbola b²x² - a²y² = a²b² is b³x₁x - a³y₁y = a²b² ;
parabola y² = 2px is y₁y = p(x + x₁).
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equations of the tangent to each of the following curves

at the point of contact (x1 , y₁) :
(a) x² -
= 2 py. Ans. x₁x = p (y + Y₁) .
(b) x² + y² = 2rx. Ans. x₁x + y₁y = r (x + x₁) .
(c) y2 4x + 3. Ans. y₁y = 2x + 2x1 + 3.
(d) xy = a². Ans. x₁y + y1x = 2 a2.
(e) x² + xy = 4. Ans. 2x₁x + x₁Y + Y₁x = 8 .
(f) x² + y² + Dx + Ey + F = 0 . D E
·
Ans . x¸x + y₁y + =
2 (x + x ) + 2 (y + y₁) + F = 0.
(g) y = x³. Ans. 3xx - y + 2y₁ = 0.
(h) y² = x³.
(i ) y = Ax² + Bx + C. (m) xy² + α = 0.
(j ) Ax² + By² + Cx - 0. (n ) x²y + b = 0.
(k) Ax² + By³ - 0. (0 ) xy² + a²x — a²b = 0.
(1 ) Axy + Bx + Cy = 0. (p) y² (2 a − x) = x³ .
74. Taking next any equation of the second degree, we may

prove the
Theorem. The equation of the tangent to the locus of

Ax² + Bxy + Cy² + Dx + Ey + F = 0
at the point of contact P, (x , y ) is
Y₁x + x₁y x + x1
2
Ax₁x + B + Cy₂ + D +++ +E ½ + F = 0.
2 2
Proof. Let P1 (x1 , y₁) and P₂2 (x₁ + h, y₁ + k) be two points on the conic.
Then
(1) Аx² + Вx₁₁ + Cy² + Dx₁ + Ey₁ + F = 0 and
A(x1 + h)² + B (x₁ + h) (y₁ + k) + C (y₁ + k)² + D (x₁ + h)
+ E (y₁ + k) + F = 0.
Clearing of parentheses,
(2) Ax² + 2 Ax¸h + Ah² + Bæ₁₁ + Bx¸k + By₁h + Bhk
+ Cy² + 2 Cy₁k + Ck² + Dx₁ + Dh + Ey₁ + Ek + F = 0.
Subtracting (1 ) from (2) ,
(3) 2 Ax¸h + Ah² + Bx₁k + By₁h + Bhk + 2 Cy₁k + Ck² + Dh + Ek = 0.
Transposing all the terms containing h, and factoring, (3) becomes
k (Bx₁ + 2 Cy₁ + Ck + E) h (2 Ax₁ + Ah + By₁1 + Bk + D) ;
k 2 Ax, + By + D + Ah + Bk
whence
h Bx₁ + 2 Cy₁ + E + Ck
This is the slope of the secant P₁P2.
1
Letting P₂ approach P₁ , h and k will approach zero and the slope of
the tangent is
m = 2 Ax₁ + Bу₁ + D
Bx₁ + 2 Cy₁ + E
The equation of the tangent line is then
2 Ax₁ + Bу₁ + D -
y - Y1 = (x − x₁).
Bx₁ + 2 Cy₁ + E
To reduce this equation to the required form we first clear of fractions
and transpose . This gives
(2 Ax₁ + By₁ + D) x + (Bx₁ + 2 Cy₁ + E) y
= (2 A + 2 Bry, + 2 Cy + D1 + Ey) = 0.
TANGENTS 195
But from (1) the last parenthesis in this equation equals

- ·(Dx₁ + Ey₁ + 2 F) .
Substituting, the equation of the tangent line is

(2 Ax₁ + By₁ + D) x + ( Bx₁ + 2 Cy₁ + E) y + (Dx₁ + Ey₁ + 2 F) 0.
Removing the parentheses, collecting the coefficients of A , B, C, D, E,

and F, and dividing by (2), we obtain the equation of the theorem . Q. E. D.
The above result enables us to write down the equation of

the tangent to the locus of any equation of the second degree.
For by comparing the equation of the curve and the equation
of the tangent we obtain the following
Rule to write the equation of the tangent at the point of con-

tact P₁1 (x, y ) to the locus of an equation of the second degree.
Y₁x + x₁Y
Substitute xx and Y₁y for x² and y², for xy, and
2
x + x1 and y + y₁
2 2 for x and y in the given equation.
For example, the equation of the tangent at the point of contact (x1, Y1)
to the conic x² + 3xy -
− 4 y + 5 = 0 is
x₁x + ½ (x₁Y + Y₁x) -·
— § (y + Y₁ ) + 5 = 0 ;
or, also, (2x + 3y₁) x + (3x - 4) y - 4y₁ + 10 = 0.
75. Equation of the normal . The normal to a curve at a point P₁

is the line drawn through P, perpendicular to the tangent at P,.
When the equation of the tangent has been found , we may
find at once the equation of the normal in the manner of Chap-
ter IV. Thus, using the equations of the tangents given on
page 193, we find the
Theorem. The equation of the normal at P₁1 (x, y ) to the

ellipse b²x² + a²y² = a²b² is a²y₁x - b²x₁y = (a² -— b²) x₁₁ ;
hyperbola b²x² — a²y² = a²b² is a²y₁x + b²x₁y = (a² + b²) x₁₁ ;
parabola y² = 2px is y₁x + py = x₁Y₁ + Þy₁ •

For example, for the ellipse :

The slope of the tangent
b²x₁x + a²y₁y = a²b²
A b21. Henc the equ
is m = - e ation of the normal is
a²y1
a²y1
y - y1 - b2 (x − x1) ,
x1
and this reduces to the equation in the theorem.
In numerical examples the student should use the Rule given

to write down the equation of the tangent, find the normal as
a perpendicular line, and not use the special formulas.
76. Subtangent and subnormal. If the tangent and normal at
P₁ intersect the x-axis in T and N respectively, then we define
P₁T
1 = length of tangent at P₁, Y
(1)
P₁N = length of normal at P₁ .
Ꭱ
The projections on XX' of PT and
PN are called respectively the sub-
tangent and subnormal at P₁ That
Ok --X- M₁
is, in the figure,
MT = subtangent at P₁₂,
(2)
MN = subnormal at P₁.
The subtangent and subnormal are readily found when the

equations of the tangent and normal are known. For, from the
figure,
MTOTOM
(3) =
= —
M₁N ON OM₁
and OM₁ = x1
while OT and ON are respectively the intercepts on XX' of the

tangent and normal at P₁. Since the subtangent and sub-
normal are measured in opposite directions from the foot of
the ordinate MP , they will have opposite signs.
TANGENTS 197
EXAMPLE
Find the equations of tangent and normal, and the lengths of subtan-
gent and subnormal at the point on the parabola x² = 4y whose abscissa
equals 3.
Solution. The point of contact YA
( 1, 1) is
x₁ = 3, Y₁ = 4 .
The formula for the tangent at
( 1, 1 ) is, by the Rule, p. 195,
X1x = 2 (y + Y₁).
Substituting the values of x and y₁ , T M₁
3x = 2 (y + ) or 6x - 4y - 9 = 0.
This is the required equation of the
tangent.
The slope of this line is §. Hence the equation of normal at (3, 4) is
У - OF —— (x - 3), or 8x + 12y - 51 = 0.
The intercept on XX' of the tangent is § ; of the normal 5¹ . Also x₁ = 3 .
... subtangent = - 3 =-
and subnormal = 51-3 = 27.
The lengths of the tangents and normals may be found by geometry,
for the lengths of the legs of the triangles P₁M₁T
1 and P₁M₁N are now
known .
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equations of the tangent and normal at the point indicated
to each of the following. Find also the lengths of subtangent and subnor-
mal . Draw a figure in each case.
(a) 2x² + 3y² = 35, x₁ = 2, y₁ positive .*
Ans. Tangent, 4x + 9y = 35 ; normal, 9x - 4 y = 6.
Subtangent = 27 ; subnormal ==
(b) x24y² + 15 = 0, x₁ = 1, y₁ negative.
(c ) y2 - 4x + 3, y₁ = 2.
(d) xy = 4, x₁ = 2.
(e) x² + y² - 4x - 30, x₁ = 3.
(f ) x² + 4 y² + 5x = 0, y₁ = 1 .
(g ) 4x² + 3y² = 1 ; positive extremity of latus rectum.
* Substituting x = 2 in the given equation, we find y 3. Hence y₁ = + 3.
(h ) x2 + xy + 4 = 0, x₁ = 2.
(i ) 91 = -1 .
y² + 2xy - 3 = 0, y₁
(j ) x² - 3xy — 4 y² + 9 = 0, x₁ positive, y₁ = 2.
(k) x² + xy + y² = 4, x₁ = 0, y₁ negative.
(1 ) x² + 4 y² + 4 x − 8 y = 0 , x₁ = 0 .
(m) 4y = x³, x₁ = 2 .
(n ) 4y² = x³, xX1 = 2.
2. Show that the subtangent in the parabola y2 = 2px is bisected at the
vertex, and that the subnormal is constant and equals p .
77. Tangent whose slope is given. Let it be required to find

the equation of a tangent to the ellipse
(1) 5 x² + y² = 5
whose slope equals 2.
Solution . Draw the system of lines whose slope equals 2

(Art. 36). We observe that some of the lines intersect the
ellipse in two points , and also that some of them do not inter-
sect the ellipse at all. Furthermore, two of them are tangent.
We wish to find the equations of
these two tangents.
The equation of the system of
lines whose slope equals 2 is P D
(2) У = 2 x + k,
where k is an arbitrary parameter .
Let us now start to solve for the
points ofintersection. Substituting
from (2) into (1),
(3) 5 x² + (2x + k)² = 5.
Squaring and collecting terms,
(4) 9 x² + 4kx + 25 = 0.
If the line (2) is the tangent AB of the figure, by solving
equation (4) we shall obtain the abscissa of the point of con-
tact. But (4) is a quadratic and has two roots. Hence these
roots must be equal.
TANGENTS 199
We learn in algebra that the roots of the quadratic
(5) Ax² + Bx + C = 0
are equal when
(6) B² - 4 AC = 0.
Comparing (4) with (5),

A = 9, B = 4k, C = k²- 5.
(7) 16236 ( 2-5)

36 (k² — 5) = 0, or k = ± 3.
Hence the equations of the required tangents are
AB : y = 2x + 3 and CD : y = 2x - 3.
Check. Writing k = 3 in (4) , it becomes
9x² + 12x + 4 = 0, or (3x + 2 ) ² = 0.
The equation is now a perfect square, and this fact consti-

tutes the check desired . Hence the equal roots have the com-
mon value x = 3. This is the abscissa of the point of contact
P. The ordinate is found from y H 2x + 3 to be y = §. Hence
P is ( 3, 3).
Similarly, putting k = 3 in (4) , we find Q to be (3, - §) .
The method followed in the preceding may be thus outlined .
To find the equation of the tangent to a conic when the slope

of the tangent is given.
1. Write down the equation of the system of lines with the

given slope (y = mx + k) . This equation contains a parameter
(k) whose value must be found .
2. Eliminate x or y from the equations of the line and conic
and arrange the result in the form of a quadratic
(8) Ay² + By + C = 0, or Ax² + Bx + C = 0.

3. The roots of this quadratic must be equal. Hence set

(9) B2 - 4 AC = 0,
and solve this for the parameter k.
4. Substitute the values of the parameter k in the equation
of the system of lines .
5. Check. When each value of the parameter satisfying (9)
is substituted in (8) , the quadratic becomes a perfect square.
*PROBLEMS
1. Find the equations of the tangents to the following conics which
satisfy the condition indicated , check, and find the points of contact.
Verify by constructing the figure.
(a) y2 = 4 x, slope = . Ans. x 2y + 4 = 0.
(b) x² + y² = 16, slope Ans.x + 3y ± 20 = 0 .
(c ) 9 x² + 16 y² = 144, slope ——
-1. Ans. x + 4y ± 4 √10 = : 0.
(d) x2 - 4 y² = 36, perpendicular to 6x - 4y + 9 = 0.
Ans. 2x + 3y + 3√7 = 0.
(e) x² + 2y2. x + y = 0, slope = -1. Ans . x + y = 1,2x + 2y + 1 = 0.
(f) xy + y² - 4x + 8y = 0, parallel to 2 x - 4 y = 7.
Ans. x = 2y, x--2y + 48 = 0.
(g) x² + 2xy + y² + 8 x -− 6 y = 0, slope = . Ans. 4x - 3y = 0.
(h) x² + 2xy - 4x + 2y = 0, slope = 2. Ans. y = 2x, 2x − y + 10 = 0 .
(i ) 2x² + 3y² = 35 , slope = 4 . ( 1 ) y² + 4 x − 9 = 0, slope = −1 .
(j ) x² + y² = 25, slope =-- 3. (m) x2 - y2 = 16, slope = .
(k) x² + 4y - 8 = 0, slope - 2. (n) xy - 4 = 0, slope -- — §..
78. Formulas for tangents when the slope is given. For later
reference we collect in this section formulas giving the equa-
tions of tangents to the conics in terms of the slope m of the
tangent. The student should derive these formulas, following
the method of the preceding section.
Theorem. The equation ofa tangent in terms ofits slope m tothe
circle x² + y² = p² is y = mx ± r√1 + m² ;
ellipse b²x² + a²y² = a²² is y = mx ± √a²m² + b² ;
- b² ;
hyperbola b²x² - a²y² = a²² is y = mx ± √a²m² —
р
parabola y² = 2px is y = mx + 2 m
TANGENTS 201
79. Properties of tangents and normals to conics . If we draw

the tangent AB and the normal CD at any point P₁1 on the
ellipse, and . if we draw also the
focal radii P、F and PF', we may
prove the property :
The tangent and normal to an B
ellipse bisect respectively the exter- X' F F
nal and internal angles formed
by the focal radii of the point of
contact.
Proof. In the figure we wish to

prove = 4. To do this we find tan & and tan @ by (VI) , Art. 35.
The slopes of the lines joining P,1 (x , y) on the ellipse
b²x² + a²y² := a2b2
to the foci F" (c, Ó) and F ( — c, 0) are

Y1
slope of F'P₁ = c
;
1 x1
7/1 •
slope of FP =
X1 + c
x₁
The equation of the tangent AB is (Theorem, Art. 73)

b²x,x + a²y₁y = a²b².
b²x1 .
..slope of AB = =-
a²y₁
m1 - m2 where
Now tan 0 " m₁ = slope of AB, m₂ = slope
of PF'. 1 + m m2
Substituting the above values of the slopes,

b2x1 Y1
a²yı X1 с
tan 0 = = — b²x² + b²cx₁ — a²y?
1
V²x₁₁ a²x₁₁ - a²cy, — b²x₁Y₁
-
a²y₁ (x₁ — c)
= (a²y} + b²xi) — b²cx₁
a²cy₁ — (a² — b²) x₁Y₁
But since P, lies on the ellipse,

a²y? + b²x² = a²b
and also a² - b² = c².
a²b² - b²cx₁ b2
Hence tan 0 = b²(a² - ex₁) =
- cy
a²cy₁ c²x₁₁ cy₁ (a² — cx₁)
In like manner ,
tan — b²x² — b²cx₁ — a²y? = (b²x² + a²y}) + b²cx₁

— a²x₁₁ — a²cу₁ + b²x₁Y₁ a²cy₁ + (a² — b²) x₁Y1
a²b² + b²cx₁ b2
= =
a²cy₁ + c²x₁₁ Cy1
Hence tan 0 - tan ; and since and are both less than
0.= That is, AB bisects the external angle of FP, and
FP , and hence, also, CD bisects the internal angle. Q. E. D.
An obvious application of this theorem is to the problem :
To draw a tangent and normal at a given point P¸ on an ellipse.
This is accomplished by connecting P,1 with the foci and

bisecting the internal and external angles formed by these lines .
The phenomenon observed in " whispering galleries " depends
upon this property ; namely, let the elliptic arc A'PA be a
vertical section of such a gallery.
P
The waves of sound from a person's
voice at the focus F will , after
meeting the ceiling of the gallery, A F FA
be reflected in the direction F.
For if PN is the normal at P, angle NPF = angle NPF', and
the law of reflection of sound waves is precisely that the angles
of incidence (= ▲ NPF) and reflection ( = Z NPF') are equal.
Hence sound waves emanating from F in all directions will
converge at F'. A whisper at F, which would not carry over
the distance FF' , might consequently, through reflection, be
audible at F',
TANGENTS 203
In like manner we prove the following properties :

The tangent and normal to a hyperbola bisect respectively the
internal and external angles formed by the focal radii ofthe
point of contact.
The tangent and normal to a parabola bisect respectively the
internal and external angles formed by the focal radius of the
pointofcontact and the line through thatpoint parallel to the axis.
YA
C
These theorems give rules for constructing the tangent and

normal to these conics by means of ruler and compasses.
Construction. To construct the tangent and normal to a hyper-
bola at any point, join that point to the foci and bisect the angles
formed by these lines. To construct the tangent and normal to
a parabola at any point, draw lines through it to the focus and
parallel to the axis, and bisect the angles formed by these lines.
The principle of parabolic reflectors depends upon the prop-
erty of tangent and normal just enunciated ; namely , the reflect-
ing surface of such a reflector is obtained by revolving a para-
bolic are about its axis. If, now, a light be placed at the focus,
the rays of light which meet the surface of the reflector will all
be reflected in the direction of the axis of the parabola ; for a
ray meeting the surface at P,1 in the figure will be reflected in a
direction making with the normal PD an angle equal to the angle
FPD. But this direction is, by the above property, parallel to
the axis OX of the parabola.
PROBLEMS
1. Tangents to an ellipse and its major auxiliary circle (p . 164) at

points with the same abscissa intersect on the x-axis.
2. The point of contact of a tangent to a hyperbola is midway be-
tween the points in which the tangent meets the asymptotes.
3. The foot of the perpendicular from the focus of a parabola to a
tangent lies on the tangent at the vertex.
4. The foot of the perpendicular from a focus of an ellipse to a tangent
lies on the major auxiliary circle (p. 164) .
5. Tangents to a parabola from a point on the directrix are perpen-
dicular to each other.
6. Tangents to a parabola at the extremities of a chord which passes
through the focus are perpendicular to each other.
7. The ordinate of the point of intersection of the directrix of a parab-
ola and the line through the focus perpendicular to a tangent is the same
as that of the point of contact.
8. How may Problem 7 be used to draw a tangent to a parabola ?
9. The line drawn perpendicular to a tangent to a central conic from
a focus, and the line passing through the center and the point of contact
intersect on the corresponding directrix (Art. 72) .
10. The angle which one tangent to a parabola makes with a second is
half the angle which the focal radius drawn to the point of contact of
the first makes with that drawn to the point of contact of the second.
11. The product of the distances from a tangent to a central conic to
the foci is constant.
12. Tangents to any conic at the ends of the latus rectum pass through
the intersection of the directrix and principal axis.
13. Tangents to a parabola at the extremities of the latus rectum are
perpendicular.
14. The equation of the parabola referred to the tangents in Problem
13 is
x² − 2 xy + y² — 2√2p (x + y ) + 2 p² = 0 .
Show that this equation has the form x + y¹ = √p√2.
15. The area of the triangle formed by a tangent to a hyperbola and
the asymptotes is constant.
16. An ellipse and a hyperbola which are confocal intersect at right
angles.
CHAPTER XII
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND LOCI
80. If x and y are rectangular coördinates, and if each is ex-

pressed as a function of a variable parameter, as, for example,
(1) x = }喜tピッ, j = } t³,,
in which t is a variable, then these equations are called the para-
metric equations of the curve, the locus of (x, y).
To plot the curve , give values to t and compute values of x
and y, arranging the work in a table. When the computation is
finished , plot the points (x, y) and draw a smooth curve through
them .
EXAMPLES
1. Plot the curve whose parametric equations are

(2) x = 1 t², y= 13. IYA
t x y
0 0 0
1 .5 .25
2 2 2
3 4.5 6.75
XO
etc. etc. etc.
·1 .5 .25
-2 2 -2
-3 4.5 - 6.75
etc. etc. etc.
Solution. The table is easily made. For example, if t = 2, then x = 2,

y = 2, etc.
The curve is called a semicubical parabola.
205
2. Draw the locus of the equa- YA

tions
(3) x = 2r cos 0 + r cos 20,

y = 2r sin 0.- r sin 20,
where is a variable parameter.
Solution. Take r = 5. Arrange

the computation as below :
The three-pointed curve thus
obtained is called a hypocycloid of
three cusps .
x= 10 cos 0 + 5 cos 20, y = 10 sin 0 - 5 sin 20

ө cos 0 20 cos 20 x sin sin 20 y
0 1 0 1 15 0 0 0
30° .86 60° .50 11.1 .50 .86 0.7
60° .50 120° -- .50 2.5 .86 .86 4.3
90° 0 180° 1 -5 1 0 10
120° - .50 240° - .50 - 7.5 .86 - .86 12.9
150° - .86 300° .50 - 6.1 .50 - .86 9.3
180° 1 360° 1 -5 0 0 0
210° -.86 420° .50 - 6.1 -
- .50 .86 - 9.3
240° - .50 480° -- .50 -7.5 -.86 .86 - 12.9
270° 0 540° 1 -5 1 0 - 10
300° .50 600° - .50 2.5 - .86 - .86 - 4.3
330° .86 660° .50 11.1 - .50 -- .86 -0.7
360° 1 720° 1 15 0 0 0
To obtain the rectangular equation from the parametric equa-

tions, the parameter must be eliminated . The method used
depends upon the example.
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND LOCI 207
EXAMPLES
1. Find the rectangular equation of the curve whose parametric equa-

tions are
(4) x = 2t + 3, y = 1 t² - 4.
Solution. The first equation may be solved readily for t. We find
t = }{ (x − 3) , and substituting in the second equation gives y = (x --
− 3)² — 4 ;
or, expanding and simplifying, x² — 6 x - − 8y— - 23 = 0, a parabola.
2. Find the rectangular equation of the curve whose parametric equa-

tions are
(5) x = 3 + 4 cos 0, y = 3 sin 0.
Solution. Remembering that sin² + cos² = 1 , we solve the first equa-
tion for cos , the second for sin 0. This gives
(6) cos 0 = (x - − 3) , sin @ = } y .
Hence the rectangular equation is
(x - 3)2 y2 =
(7) + 1,
16 9
an ellipse.
PROBLEMS
1. Plot the following parametric equations, t and ◊ being variable

parameters. Find the rectangular equation in each case :
(a) x = t1 , y = 4 — t². (i ) x = cos 0, y = cos 20.
(b) x == 2 t2 - 2, y = t - 3. ( j ) x = sin 0, y = sin 20.
(c) x 3 cos 0, y = sin 0. (k ) x = 1- cos 0 , y = ½ sin 10.
(d) x = 3 tan 0, y = sec 0. (1 ) x = 312, y = 3 t — t³ .
4 (m) x == 2 sin +3 cos 0, y = sin 0.
(e) x = 2t, y = t•
(n ) x 2 cos + 1 , y = sin @ + 4 cos 0.
(f) x = 2 + sin 0 , y = 2 cos 0. (0 ) x = t --
— t², y == t + t².
(g) x = { t³, y = 1t. 2
(P) x = 3-2t, y = 1 + •
(h) x = t22t, y = 1 - t².
2. Plot the following parametric equations :

(a) x = 2r cos 0 - r cos 20, y = 2r sin - r sin 20.
(b) x = 3 r cos 0 + r cos 3 0, y = 3 r sin 0 — r sin 30.
(c) x = 3 r cos0 - r cos 30, y = 3r sin - r sin 30.
(d) x = r cos - r cos 20, y = rsin r sin 20.
(e) x = 2r cos 0 + 1r cos 20, y = 2r sin - r sin 20 .
=aα (0 - sin 0) , x = a (0+ sin 0) ,

(f) (g)
y = a (1 — cos ) . y = a (1 -
— cos 0) .
Y
a a a
a a a
X Χ X
CYCLOID, CUSP AT ORIGIN CYCLOID, VERTEX AT ORIGIN
(h) x = a 0 - − ≥ a sin 0 , y = a -− 1 a cos 0.
( i ) x = α 0 - 2 a sin 0, y = a − 2 a cos 0.
( j ) x = r cos 0 + r 0 sin 0 , y = r sin - r 0 cos 0.
(k) x = 4 r cos 0 - r cos 40, y = 4 r sin 0 - r sin 40.
(1) a = alogt ,y = 1 « (t + a
(m) x = t + sint, y = 1+ cost.
(n ) x = 2 cost + t, y == 3 cost + sin 2 t.
(0 ) x = b cos²20, y = a tan0.
81. Various parametric equations for the same curve. When the
rectangular equation of a curve is given, any number of para-
metric equations may be obtained for the curve.
For example, given the ellipse
(1) 4x² + y² = 16.
Let x = 2 cos 0, where is a variable parameter. Substitut-
ing in (1),
16 cos²0 + y² = 16, or y² = 16 (1 — cos²0) = 16 sin²0.
Hence the equations
(2) x = 2 cos 0, Y = 4 sin 0,
are parametric equations of the ellipse (1) .
Again, substitute in (1) ,
y = tx + 4,
where t is a variable parameter.
This gives
(3) 4x² + ť²x² + 8 tx + 16 = 16 , or (4 + t²) x² + 8 tx = 0.
8t
(4) .. x =
4 + t²
Substituting this value in (3) and reducing,

4 t2
(5) У 4+ 12
Hence the equations (4) and (5) are also parametric equa-
tions of the ellipse.
The point is : We obtain parametric equations by setting one

of the coördinates equal to a function of a parameter, substitut-
ing in the given rectangular equation and solving for the other
coördinate in terms of the parameter .
To obtain simple parametric equations we must, of course,

assume the right function for one coördinate. No general rule
applicable to all cases can be given for this purpose, but the
study of the problems below will aid the student.
Many rectangular equations difficult to plot are treated by
deriving parametric equations and plotting the latter.
EXAMPLES
1. Draw the locus of the equation

(6) x³ + y³ - 3 axy = 0.
Solution. Set y = tx, where t is the parameter. Then, from (6),
(7) x3 + 18x³ - 3 atx2 = 0.
Dividing out the x², solving for x,

and remembering that y = tx, we obtain
the desired parametric equations
3 at 3 at2
(8) x= Y=
1 + to ' 1 + t³ X
The locus is the curve of the figure,
called the folium of Descartes .
The line drawn in the figure is an
oblique asymptote. Its equation is
x + y + α = 0.
The parameter t in (7) is obviously the slope of the line y = tx ; that
is, of the line joining a point on the curve and the origin .
The reason for assuming the relation y = tx in the preceding

example is that a² divides out in (7) , leaving an equation of the
first degree to solve for x. Problems 1 (a) , (d), (e) , (f) , and (j)
below are worked on the same principle. In many cases trigo-
nometric functions are employed with advantage, as in (b)
and (c).
PROBLEMS
1. Find parametric equations for each of the following curves by
making the substitution indicated in the given equation . The parameter
is t or 0, as the case may be. Plot the locus.
(a) y² = 4x² — x³, y - tx. Ans. x = 4 - t², y = 4t — t³ .
(b) x²y² = b²x² + a² y², x = a sec 0. Ans. y = b csc 0.
(c) x²y² = a²y2 -
— b²x², x = a sin 0. Ans. y = btan 0.
(d) y³ = 2 ax² — x³ , y = tx. Y
α α α
X
·
α X
(h ) x++ y¹ = a¹, x = a cos¹ 0.
PARABOLA
(e) y2 (2α- x) = x³, y = tx.

CISSOID OF DIOCLES
α α
2 +x X
(f ) y² = x²: y = tx.
2 -x
2 12. 2 2 18-2 t
Ans. x = y=
1 + 12 1 + t2
(g ) x² + xy + 2 y² + 2 x + 1 = 0,
x = ty - 1.
2 + 12 1 ( i ) x‡ + y² = a‡, x = a sin³ 0 .
Ans. x- y=
t² + t + 2 t² + t + 2 HYPOCYCLOID OF FOUR CUSPS
(j) æ* + 2 *y - – ay = 0 , y = t
(k) (x² + y² + 4 ay — a²) (x² -— a²) + 4 a²y² = 0, x² = t²y² + a².
(1 ) x2 = y (y - 2)², y −- 2 = tx.
(m) (x² -
— ≥ b²)² + y² (x² -
— b²) = 0, x² = b² + ty.
82. Locus problems solved by parametric equations. Parametric
equations are important because it is sometimes easy in locus.
problems to express the coördinates of a point on the locus in
terms of a parameter, when it is otherwise difficult to obtain
the equation of the locus . The following examples illustrate
this statement :
EXAMPLES
1. ABP is a rigid line. The points A and B move along two perpen-
dicular intersecting lines. What is the locus of the point P¸on AB ?
In the figure, A moves on XX', B moves on YA
YY' ; required the locus of the point P (x, y).
Solution. Take the coördinate axes as indi-
cated, and consider the line in any one of its
positions. Choose for parameter the angle S
XAB = 0. B
x- M
Let AP = a, PB = b.
Now OM = x, MP = y.
In the right triangle MPA ,
MP y
(1) sin = =-
PA a
In the right triangle BSP, Z PBS = 0.
BS x
(2) .. cos PBS = cos 0 =
BP
From (1) and (2) ,
(3) x = b cos 0, y = a sin 0.
X'
These are the parametric equations of the locus.
Squaring (1 ) and (2) and adding,
x2 y2
+ = 1.
b2 a2
Hence the point P moves on an ellipse whose
axes 2a and 2b lie along the given perpendicular lines.
A method commonly employed for drawing ellipses depends upon this
result. The instrument consists of two grooved perpendicular bars X'X
and YY' and a crossbar ABP. At A and B are screw nuts fitting the
grooves and adjustable along ABP. If the crossbar is moved, a pencil
at P will describe an ellipse whose semiaxes are PA and PB.
2. The cycloid. Find the parametric equations of the locus of a point
P on a circle which rolls along the axis of x.
D. N
Solution. Take for origin a point O at which the moving point P

touched the axis of x. Let the circle drawn be any position of the rolling
circle. Let a be the radius of the circle and take for the variable param-
eter the variable angle CBP. Then
PC = a sin 0, CB = a cos 0.
By definition, OA : arc AP = α0.
[ For an arc of a circle equals its radius times the subtended angle,
from the definition of a radian . ]
Hence from the figure, if (x, y) are the coördinates of P,
x OD = OA - PC = al a sin 0, y DP AB - CB aa cos 0.
=
=
sx a (0 — sin 0) ,
(4)
¸ y = a (1 — cos 0) .
These are the parametric equations of the cycloid.
The cycloid extends indefinitely to the right and left and consists of
arcs equal to OMN. M
Construction of the cy-. D2 №1
cloid . The definition of the M₂
cycloid suggests the follow- D3
M3
ing simple construction : ᎠᏎᏗ.
Do Mal
Lay off ON = 2 πα = cir-
cumference of the generat- O C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 C
ing circle . Draw the latter touching at C, the middle point of ON.
Divide OC into any number of equal parts, and the semicircle CM into
the same number of equal arcs. Letter as in the figure. Through M₁ ,

M½, etc. , draw lines parallel to ON. Lay off
M₁D₁ = CC₁ , M₂D₂ = CC₂ , MD = CÇ, etc.
Then D1 , D2, D3 , etc. are points on the cycloid .
For, let the generating circle roll to the left, the point M tracing the
curve. When the circle touches ON at C₁ , M will lie on a level with M₁ ,
and at a distance to the left of M₁ equal to CC₁ . Similarly for D2 , D , etc.
The arc MN of the cycloid may be constructed by using CM as an
axis of symmetry .
3. The hypocycloid of four cusps. Find the parametric equations of

the locus of a point P on a circle which rolls on the inside of a fixed
circle of four times the radius.
12
a B
EF A
Solution. Take the center of the fixed circle for the origin and let the
x-axis pass through a point A where the tracing point P touched the
OA α
large circle. Then OA = 4 CB, by hypothesis. .. CB = Draw
4 4
the rolling circle in any of its positions. Take for the variable parameter
the ZAOB. Then BCP = 40.
[For, by hypothesis, arc PB = arc AB ; and, from the definition of a

α a
radian, arc PB == ZBCP, arc AB= a0. .. < B BCP =a0, orZBCP = 40 . ]
4 4
But ZOCE + LECP + ≤ PCB = π.
π
... --0+ LECP + 40 := T.
2
π
Whence LECP = 30.
2
Now OF = x, FP = y.
From the figure,
OF = OE + DP,
(5)
FP EC - CD.
Finding the lengths of the segments in the right- hand members,
3a 3a
OE OC cos - cos 0, EC OC sin - sin 0.
4
π- α
DC = CP cos 30 = sin 30 , (by 31 , p . 3)
6) 4
π a
DP = CP sin 36 = cos 30. (by 31 , p . 3)
x = a cosa cos 30,
(6) {y= a sin 0 - a sin 30 .
These are parametric equations for the hypocycloid offour cusps.
Another form of (6) from which the rectangular equation may easily
be derived is obtained by expressing cos 30 and sin 30 in terms of cos
and sin respectively. Thus,
cos 30 = cos (2 0 + 0) = cos 20 cos - sin 26 sin (by 35, p . 3)
-= (2 cos20—1 ) cos 0 - 2 sin² cos
= 2 cos³0 - cos 0-2 (1- cos20) cos 0
= 4 cos³0-3 cos 0.
sin 30 - sin (2 0 + 0) = sin 20 cos 0 + cos 20 sin (by 33, p . 3)
= 2 sin cos² + ( 1 - − 2 sin² ) sin
= 2 sin ( 1 - sin²0) + sin 0 - 2 sin³0
= 3 sin 0 - 4 sin³0.
Substituting in (6) and reducing, the result is
(7) x = a cos³ 0, y = a sin³ 0.
From these, x = a‡ cos² 0, y } = a* sin²0 . Adding,
(8) xt + yt = a+ ,
which is the rectangular equation of the hypocycloid offour cusps.
PROBLEMS
In the following problems express x and y in terms of the parameter
and the lengths of the given lines of the figure. Sketch the locus.
1. Find the parametric equations of the ellipse , using as parameter
the eccentric angle ø, that is, the angle between the major axis and the
radius of the point B on the major auxiliary circle (p . 164) which has
the same abscissa as the point P (x, y) on the ellipse. (See figure . )
Ans. xa cos 4, y = b sin 4.
B
YA
P(x,
a
a
X
B
2. In the figure, ABP is a rigid equilateral triangle . A moves on

YY', B moves on XX'. Find the locus of the vertex P.
Ans. x = a cos✪ + a cos ( 120° -
— 0) , y = a sin (120° — Ø) .
Ellipse, x² - √3 xy + y² = ‡ a².
3. Two vertices A and B of a rigid right triangle ABP move on per-
pendicular lines. Find the locus of the vertex P.
Ans. xa cos 0+ a sin 0, y = a cos 0. Ellipse, x²- 2xy + 2 y² = a².
YA
A
a
P
B -x- R
y
A B
x O
4. AB is a fixed line and R a fixed point. Draw RQ to any point Q

in AB and erect the perpendicular QP, making QP ÷ QR equal to a con-
stant e. What is the locus of P?
x2 y2
Ans. xp cot 0, y = ep csc 0. Hyperbola, = 1.
p2 p2e2
5. AB is a fixed line and O a fixed point. Through O draw OX

parallel to AB and ON perpendicular to AB. Draw a line from O
through any point Q in AB. Mark on this line a point P such that
MP = NQ, MP being 1 to OX. What is the locus of P?
Ans. x = a cot²0, y = a cot 0. Parabola, y² = ax.
YA
YA
N B
R (a,b)
P B
x M A
6. Through the fixed point R (a, b) lines are drawn meeting the
coördinate axes in A and B. What is the locus of the middle point of AB ?
b
Ans. x a— y = b- at, where t = slope of AB.
t
Equilateral hyperbola, (x − a) (y — b) = ab.
7. Find the locus of a point Q on
YA
the radius BP (Fig. , Ex. 2, p. 212)
if BQ = b.
x = a0 - b sin 0,
Ans . = a - b cos 0.
The locus is called a prolate or cur- B-
tate cycloid according as b is greater P
or less than a.
Describe a construction for the
curve analogous to that given for
the cycloid in Art. 82.
8. Given a string wrapped around
a circle ; find the locus of the end
of the string as it is unwound.
Hint. Take the center of the cir-
cle for origin and let the x-axis pass
through the point A at which the end
of the string rests. If the string is un-
wound to a point B, let ZAOB = 0.
(See figure.)
Ans. The involute of a circle (x = r cos 0 + r✪ sin 0,
y = rsin 0 - re cos 0.
9. A circle of radius r rolls on the inside of a circle whose radius

is r' . Find the locus of a point on the rolling circle.
Ans. The hypocycloid
r
x = (r− r) cos 0 + r cos· 0,
r
y = (r' — r) sin ✪ -
— r sin -re.
r
The curve is closed when r and rare
commensurable . The hypocycloid of
four cusps, p. 213, is a special case.. Ꮎ
Describe a construction for the curve EF A
analogous to that given for the cycloid
in Art. 82.
10. A circle of radius r rolls on the outside of a circle whose radius
is r'. Find the locus of a point on the
rolling circle . P D
Ans. The epicycloid
r+r
x =· (r′ + r) cos 0-- r cos -0,
r
+r
y = (r' + r) sin ✪ — r sin 0.
r
The curve is closed when randr are
commensurable.
Describe a construction for the curve
EF A X
analogous to that given for the cycloid
in Art. 82 .
11. Given a fixed point O on a fixed circle and a fixed line AB. Draw
the x-axis through O perpendicular to AB YA
and the y-axis through O parallel to AB.
Draw any line through O to meet AB in
L and the fixed circle in S. Draw LP||
to OX to meet SM drawn | to OY. Re- S
quired the locus of P.
P
Ans. x = b cos20, y = a tan 0.
Cubic, xy2 + a²x ·-- a²b = 0. M
Give a full discussion of the equation.
Show that the y-axis is an asymptote .
What modifications , if any, are necessary
in the equations when AB is a tangent ?
when AB does not intersect the circle ? B
12. OB is the crank of an engine and AB the connecting rod. B moves

on the crank circle whose center is YA
O, and A moves on the fixed line
OX. What is the locus of any point
P on AB?
Ans. x = b cos 0
+ √r² - (a + b)² sin² 0, y = a sin 0. บ
Ellipse, when r = a + b ; other-
-x0+
wise an egg-shaped curve.
13. OB is an engine crank re-
volving about O, and AB is the con-
necting rod, the point A moving on OX.
Draw API to OX to meet OB produced
at P.* What is the locus of P?
Ans. xr cos 0+ √c² - — r² sin² 0,
y = r sin tan √c².- r2 sin20.
When cr, the locus is the circle
x² + y² = 4 r².
83. Loci derived by a construction C
Ꮎ
from a given curve. Many important
loci are defined as the locus of a point
obtained by a given construction from a given curve. The
method of treatment of such loci is illustrated in the follow-
ing examples .
EXAMPLES
1. Find the locus of the middle YA
points of the chords of the circle
x² + y² = 25 which pass through P (3,4)
P₂2 (3, 4) .
Solution. Let P₁ (x1, y₁) be any
point on the circle.
P(xy)
(1) ... x² + y² = 25. X O
Then a point P(x, y) on the locus
is obtained by bisecting P₁P2.
1 By
(IV) , Art. 13,
x = 1 (x + 3) , y = (y₁ + 4) .
.. 1 = 2x - 3, Y₁ = 2y - 4.
*P is the instantaneous center " of the motion of the connecting rod.
(2x - 3)2 + (2y - 4)² = 25,
or x² + y² -
— 3x - 4y = 0. Ans.
The locus is a circle constructed upon OP2 as a diameter.
2. The witch. Find the equation of the locus of a point P constructed

as follows : Let OA be a diameter of the circle x² + y² - 2 ay = 0, and
let any line OB be drawn through O to meet the circle at P₁1 and the
tangent at A at B. Draw P₁P 1 to ОA and BP || to OA . Required
the locus of P.
Solution. Let (x, y) be the coördinates of P and (x₁, y₁ ) of P1
Then the coördinates of P₁ ( 1 , 1 ) must satisfy the equation
x² + y² -
— 2 ay = 0. YA
A B
(2) .. x + y 2 ay₁ = 0.
a
From the figure,
a
(3) Y₁ = y.
From the similar triangles
OCP1 and OMB we have
ос CP1
(4) 9 or x1 31 .
OM MB x 2a
[ For OC = 1, OM = *, CP = 1, MB = 2a . ]
Solving (3) and (4) for x, and y₁ , we obtain

xy
(5) X1 - 2α 9 Y₁ = y.
Substituting from (5) in (2) ,

x²y2
+ y² - 2 ay = 0,
4 a2
or
(6) y (x² + 4 a²) = 8 a³ .
The locus of this equation is known as the witch of Agnesi.

The method followed in Examples 1 and 2 may evidently be
described as follows :
Rule for finding the equation of a locus derived by a construc-

tion from a given curve.
First step. The construction will give rise to a figure from

which we may find expressions for the coördinates of any point
19 y ) on the given curve in terms of a point P (x, y) on the
P₁1 (x,
required curve.
Second step. Substitute the results of the first step for the coör-
dinates x, and y, in the equation ofthe given curve and simplify.
The result is the required equation.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the locus of a point whose ordinate is half the ordinate of a
point on the circle x2 + y² = 64. Ans. The ellipse x² + 4 y² = 64.
2. Find the locus of a point which cuts off a part of an ordinate of
the circle x² + y² = a² whose ratio to the whole ordinate is b : a.
Ans. The ellipse b²x² + a²y² = a²b².
3. Find the locus of the middle points of the chords of (a) an ellipse,
(b) a parabola, (c) a hyperbola which pass through a fixed point P₂ (~2, Y2)
on the curve.
Ans. A conic of the same type for which the Y
values of a and b or of p are half the values of those
constants for the given conic.
4. Lines are drawn from the point (0, 4) to the
hyperbola x² - 4y² = 16. Find the locus of the points
which divide these lines in the ratio 1 : 2 . a
X
Ans. 3x² - 12 y² + 64 y - — 800.
5. A chord OP₁1 of the circle x² + y² - — 2 ax = 0
meets the line x = 2 a at a point A. Find the locus
of a point P on the line OP₁ such that OP = P₁A .
Ans. The cissoid of Diocles y² (2 a − x) = x³ (see
figure).
6. DD ' is the directrix and F the focus of a given conic (Art. 72) .
Qis any point on the conic . Through Q draw QN1 to the axis of the
conic and construct P on NQ so that NP = FQ. What is the locus of P ?
Ans. A straight line.
84. Loci using polar coördinates . When the required locus is
described by the end-point of a line of variable length whose
other extremity is fixed, polar coördinates may be employed to
advantage.
EXAMPLE
The conchoid . Find the locus of a point P constructed as follows :
Through a fixed point O, a line is drawn cutting a fixed line AB at
P₁ . On this line a point P is taken so
that P₁P = ± b , where b is a constant.
Solution. The required locus is the
locus of the end-point P of the line OP, YA
and O is fixed . Hence we use polar coör-
dinates, taking O for the pole and the
perpendicular OM to AB for the polar
axis. Then P
(1) OP = p, MOP = 0. -a M
By construction,
(2) p = OP = OP₁1 ± b.
But in the right triangle OMP₁,
(3) OP₁ = OM sec Z MOP₁ = a sec 0.
Substituting from (3) in (2) ,
(4) p = a sec ± b.
The locus of this equation is called the conchoid of Nicomedes. It has
three distinct forms according as a is greater, equal to, or less than b.
PROBLEMS
1. OA is a diameter of a fixed circle, and OB is any chord drawn from
the fixed point O. In the figure below, BP = AB. Find the locus of P.
Ans. The circle p = a (sin + cos () .
P
(1.
B
-a- X
2. The chord OB of a fixed circle drawn from O is produced to P,

making BP = diameter = a . What is the locus of P ?
Ans. The cardioid p = a ( 1- cos 0).
3. In problem 2, if BP = any length = b, the locus of P is the limaçon

of Pascal, p = b - a cos 0. The limaçon has three distinct forms accord-
ing as ba. In the figure on p. 124, b > a. The rectangular equation
is (x² + y² + ax )² = b² (x² + y²).
4. F is the focus and DD' the directrix of a conic (figure below) . Qis
any point on the conic. On the focal radius FQ lay off FP = QM, where
QM is to DD'. Find the locus of P (see Art. 72) . Ans ep sin
. P=
1 - e cos 0
L
0
F M X
·b
M
5. Lines are drawn from the fixed point O on a fixed circle to meet a
fixed line LM which is to the diameter through O. On any such line OC
lay off OP - BC. What is the locus of P? Ans. P b sec 0.- a cos 0.
Draw the locus for
b>a, b < a, and b = a.
In the last case the
curve is the cissoid
(Problem 5, p. 220).
6. O is the center
of a fixed circle and A B
a fixed interior point.
Draw any radius OB,
connect A and B, and
draw API to AB to
meet OB at P. Re-
quired the locus of P.
e- a cose
Ans. pe "
e cos0 - a
if OB= a, OA = e.
Draw the locus.
7. A line is drawn from a fixed point O meeting a fixed line in P₁ . Find
the locus of a point P on this line such that OP₁ · OP = a² . Ans . A circle.
8. A line is drawn through a fixed point O, meeting a fixed circle in

P₁ and P. Find the locus of a point P on this line such that
OP = 20P₁ · OP₂2 ÷ (OP₁ + OP₂) . Ans. A straight line.
9. In Ex. 1 , Art . 82 , find the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from
the origin upon AB. Ans. The four-leaved rose p = a sin 20 (see figure) .
Y
4
α
X
a
Ο α
3 2
FOUR-LEAVED ROSE PARABOLIC SPIRAL
10. Let the x-axis cut the circle x² + y² = a² at A. An arc AB is laid

off on the circle equal to the abscissa x of a point (x , y ) on the parabola
y2 = 4 cx, and the radius OB is produced to P making BP - Yo Show
that the locus of P is the parabolic spiral (p - − a) ² = 4 ac 0 (see figure) .
85. Loci defined by the points of intersection of systems of lines.
If two systems of lines involve the same parameter, the lines
belonging to the same value of the parameter are called
corresponding lines . Many loci are defined, or may be easily
regarded as the locus of the points of intersection of such
lines. The method of treatment will now be illustrated .
EXAMPLES
1. Find the locus of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the ver-
tex of a parabola to the tangent. (See the figure on p. 224) .
Solution. Taking the typical equation y² = 2 px, the equation of a
tangent AB in terms of the slope t is (Art. 78)
p
(1) У = tx +
2t
The equation of the perpendicular OP is
1
(2) y = ――x.
Equations (1) and (2) define the two systems of lines in the parameter t.
The locus of the point of intersection P of corresponding lines is required.
Solving (1) and (2) for x and y, B
p p
(3) x = - y= YA
d4-
2 (1 + t²) 2t + 2t³
x
=
These are the parametric equations of
the required locus.
The rectangular equation is found
thus :
x
From (2), t Substituting in
y
the first equation of (3) and reducing,
y² (x + { p) = − x³ .
Comparison with the answer to
Problem 5, p. 220, shows that the
locus is a cissoid .
The method of solving Example 1 may be summed up in the
Rule to find the equation of the locus of the points of intersec-
tion of corresponding lines of two systems.
First step. Find the equations of the two systems of lines
defining the locus in terms of the same parameter.
Second step. Solve these equations for x and y in terms of the
parameter. This gives the parametric equations of the locus.
If only the equation in rectangular coördinates is required , it
may be obtained by eliminating the parameter from the equa-
tions found in the first step, for the result will be the same as
that obtained by eliminating the parameter from the equations
found in the second step.
2. Find the locus of the points of intersection of two perpendicular
tangents to the ellipse b²x² + a²y² — a²b² = 0.
Solution. First step . The equation of a tangent in terms of its slope t
is (Art. 78)
(4) y = tx + √a²t² + b².
The slope of the tangent perpendicular to (4) is t . By replacing t
1
in (4) by we find the equation of the perpendicular tangent to be
t
x la2
(5) y = - + V + b2.
t2
Second step. As the parametric equations are not required, this step
may be omitted .
To eliminate t from (4) and (5) we write them in the forms
== √a²t² + b²,
tx - y = Y
x + ty = √a² + b²t².
Squaring these equations, we P(x, y)
obtain
t2x22 txy + y² = a²t² + b²,
x² + 2txy + t2y2 = a² + b²t².
Adding,
(1 + t²) x² + (1 + t²) y²
=· (1 + t²) a² + (1 + 1²) b².
Dividing by 1 + t², the required
equation is
x² + y² = a² + b².
The locus is therefore a circle whose center is the center of the ellipse,
and whose radius is √a² + b² . It is called the director circle.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the locus of the intersections of perpendicular tangents to (a)
the parabola, (b) the hyperbola (IV) , p . 167.
Ans. (a) The directrix ; (b) x² + y² = a² — b².
2. Find the locus of the point of intersec-
Y
tion of a tangent to (a) an ellipse, (b) a pa-
rabola, (c) a hyperbola with the line drawn
through a focus perpendicular to the tangent.
Ans. (a) x² + y² = a² ; (b) x = 0;
(c) x² + y² = a².
3. Find the locus of the point of intersec- X
tion of a tangent to an equilateral hyperbola
and the line drawn through the center per-
pendicular to that tangent.
Ans. The lemniscate (x² + y²)2
=
= a² (x² — y²) ( Ex. 2, Art. 46) .
4. Find the locus of the point of intersection of a tangent to the circle
x² + y² + 2 ax + a2b2 = 0 and the line drawn through the origin per-
pendicular to it.
Ans. The limaçon (x² + y² + ax)² = b² (x² + y²) ( Problem 3, p . 222) .
5. Find the locus of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from

the origin to a tangent to the parabola
y² + 4 ax + 4 a² = 0.
a+x
Ans. The strophoid y² = x2 (see
a-x
figure).
6. Find the locus of the intersection
of the normals drawn at points on the
x2 y2 a
ellipse + 1 and major auxiliary
a2 62
circle x² + y² = a2 which have the same
abscissas. Ans. Circle x2 + y² = (a + b)² .
7. In the figure, LM is any half chord ཡོ་
of the circle parallel to the diameter AB.
Find the locus of P, the intersection of BL
and OM. Ans. Parabola y2 = a2 - 2 ax.
8. A tangent to the ellipse b²x² + a²y² = a²b²
meets the axes of x and y in A and B re- M
spectively. From A draw a line || to OY, and
from B a line to OX. What is the locus O B
a-
of their point of intersection ?
Ans. x²y² = a²y² + b²x². (Problem 1 , (b) , p. 210. )
9. Work out Problem 8 when the ellipse is
replaced by a hyperbola.
A somewhat different class of locus problems is illustrated
in the following example.
EXAMPLE
What is the locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords
of an ellipse ?
YA
Solution. Let the equation of the P
system of parallel chords be
D
(6) y = mx + k,
where k is a parameter and m = slope
of chords . Let the value of k for the
chord P₁P₂2 be k₁ ; that is,
(7) y = mx + k₁
is the equation of P₁P2. Assume that
the coördinates of P₁ are (x1 , y₁ ) , and of P2 (X2, Y2)
If P' (x , y ) is the middle point of P₁P2, then

(8) X′ = )½ (X1 + X2) , _Y′ = ½ (Y1 + Y2) .
Since (x , y ) and (~2, y2) are the points of intersection of the chord
(7) and the ellipse, we shall find their values by solving
(9) y = mx + k₁ and b²x² + a²y² = a²b².
Eliminating y, we obtain the equation
(10) (a²m² + b²) x² + 2 a²k₁mx + a²k¸ — a²b² = 0.
же
The roots of this equation are x₁ and x2, and , from (8) , x' equals one
half the sum of these roots. Hence we need to know in (10) only the sum
of the roots. But, by algebra,*
2 a2k1
(11) x1 + x2 =
a²m² + b²
Hence, from (8) ,
a2
(12) x'
a²m² + b² 4. .
Since (x , y ) satisfy (7),
a²mk₁ b2
(13) y' = mx' + k₁ = + k1 =
a²m² + b²
a²m² + b²
Eliminating k₁ , from ( 12) and ( 13) ,
(14) b²x' + a²my' = 0.
Dropping the accents gives the equation of the locus,
(15) b2x + a²my = 0.
The locus is the straight line DD' in the figure .
B C
* In the quadratic Ax² + B + C = 0, sum of roots:== A product ofroots = A
In a circle a diameter may be defined as the locus of the middle points

of a series of parallel chords. The corresponding locus for a conic section
is also called a diameter of the conic .
Hence we have the
Theorem. The diameter ofthe ellipse
b²x² + a²y² = a²b²

which bisects all chords with the slope m is
b²x + a²my = 0 .
In like manner (see the figures on p . 227) we may prove the
Theorem. The diameter which bisects all chords with the

slope m of the
hyperbola b²x² — a²y² = a²b² is b²x — a²my = 0 ;

parabola y² = 2px is my = p.
Every line through the center of an ellipse or hyperbola is a diameter,

while in a parabola every line parallel to the axis is a diameter.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equation of the diameter of each of the following conics

which bisects the chords with the given slope m.
(a) x² — 4 y² = 16, m = 2. Ans. x8y = 0 .
(b) y² = 4x, m = - 1. Ans. y + 4 = 0.
(c) xy = 6, m = 3. Ans. y + 3x = 0.
(d) x² - xy -— 8 = 0, m = 1. Ans. x- y = 0.
(e) x² -
— 4 y² + 4 x − 16 = 0 , m = - 1 . Ans. x + 4y + 2 = 0.
(f ) xy + 2 y² −4x - 2y + 6 = 0, m = 33 Ans. 2x11 y — 16 = 0.
2. Find the equation of that diameter of

(a) 4x² + 9 y² = 36 passing through (3, 2) . Ans. 2x - 3y = 0.
(b) y2 = 4x passing through (2, 1) . Ans. y = 1.
(c) xy = 8 passing through (— 2, 3) . Ans. 3x + 2y = 0.
(d) x² — 4y + 6 = 0 passing through (3, -
— 4) . Ans. x = 3.
(e) xy — y² + 2x - 4 = 0 passing through (5, 2) . Ans . 4x - 9y - 2 = 0.
3. Find the equation of the chord of the locus of

(a) x² + y² = 25 which is bisected at the point (2, 1) .
Ans. 2x + y- 5 = 0.
(b) 4x² - y2 = 9 which is bisected at the point (4 , 2) .
Ans. 8xy — 30 = 0.
(c) xy = 4 which is bisected at the point (5, 3) . Ans. 3x + 5y — 30 = 0.
(d) x² — xy — 8 = 0 which is bisected at the point (4, 0) .
Ans. 2xy - 8 = 0.
4. Show that if two lines through the center of the ellipse
b²x² + a²y² = a²b²
b2
have slopes m and m' such that mm' 9 then each line bisects all
a2
chords parallel to the other.
Draw two such lines. They are called conjugate diameters.
5. Through the point (x , y ) on the ellipse b²x² + a²y² = a²b² a diam-
eter is drawn ; prove that the coördinates of the extremities of its
bxo .
ayo
conjugate diameter are x = ± y ==
b a
6. If a' and b' are the lengths of two conjugate semidiameters of the
ellipse, prove that a'² + b² = a² + b² (use Example 5) .
7. Prove that the tangent at any point of the ellipse is parallel to the
diameter which is conjugate to the diameter through the given point ;
and hence that the tangents at the extremities of two conjugate diameters
form a parallelogram .
8. Prove that the area of the parallelogram formed by the tangents at
the extremities of two conjugate diameters of an ellipse is constant and
is equal to 4 ab.
Hint. The area in question is eight times the area of the triangle whose
ayo
vertices are (0, 0) , (xo, Yo) , and
b a (see Example 5) .
bro)
9. Two tangents with the slopes m₁ and m₂ are drawn from a point P
to an ellipse b²x² + a²y² = a²b2 . Find the locus of P
(a) when m₁ + m² = 0. Ans. x = 0 and y = 0.
(b) when m₁ + m² = 1 . Ans. x2-2xy - a² = 0.
(c) when m₁m₂ = 1. Ans. x2 - y2 = a² — b².
CHAPTER XIII
CARTESIAN COÖRDINATES IN SPACE
86. Cartesian coördinates. The foundation of plane analytic

geometry depends upon the possibility of determining a point
in the plane by a pair of real numbers (x, y) . The study of
solid analytic geometry is
based on the determination
R
of a point in space by a set
of three real numbers x, y,
and z. This determination is
accomplished as follows : 2
Let there be given three A
Χ x
mutually perpendicular planes y
intersecting in the lines XX', B
YY', and ZZ', which will also Y
be mutually perpendicular.
These three planes are called
the coördinate planes and may be distinguished as the XY-plane,
the YZ-plane, and the ZX-plane. Their lines of intersection
are called the axes of coördinates, and the positive directions on
them are indicated by the arrowheads. * The point of inter-
section of the coördinate planes is called the origin .
Let P be any point in space and let three planes be drawn
through P parallel to the coördinate planes and cutting the
axes at A , B, and C. These three planes together with the
* XX' and ZZ' are supposed to be in the plane of the paper, the positive
direction on XX ' being to the right, that on ZZ' being upward. YY is sup-
posed to be perpendicular to the plane of the paper, the positive direction be-
ing infront of the paper, that is, from the plane of the paper toward the reader.
230
CARTESIAN COÖRDINATES IN SPACE 231
coördinate planes form a rectangular parallelepiped, of which

P and the origin 0 are opposite vertices, as in the figure.
The three edges OA == x, OB = y, and OC = ≈ are called the
rectangular coördinates of P.
Any point P in space determines three numbers , the coördi-
nates of P. Conversely, given any three real numbers x, y, and z,
a point P in space may always be constructed whose coördinates
are x, y, and z. For if we lay off OA х, ов - y, and OC = 24,
and draw planes through A , B, and C parallel to the coördinate
planes, they will intersect in a point P. Hence
Every point determines three real numbers, and conversely,

three real numbers determine a point.
The coördinates of P are written (x, y, z) , and the symbol

P (x, y, z) is to be read, " The point P whose coördinates are
x, y, and z."
From the figure we have the relations
AP = OS = √(OB)² + (OC)² ;
BP = OR = √(OC)² + (04)² ;
CP = 0Q = √(0A)² + (OB)² ;
OP = √(0A)² +(0B)² + (OC')².
Hence, let P (x, y, z) be any point in space ; then its distance

from the XY-plane is ,
from the YZ-plane is x,
from the ZX-plane is y,
from the X-axis is √y² + z²,
from the Y-axis is √≈² + x²,
from the Z-axis is √x² + y²,
from the origin is Va² + y² + .

The coördinate planes divide all space into eight parts called
octants, designated by 0-XYZ, O-X'YZ, etc. The signs of the
coördinates of a point in any octant may be determined by the
Rule for signs.
x is positive or negative accord-
ing as P lies to the right or left
ofthe YZ-plane.
y is positive or negative accord-
ing as P lies in front or in back
ofthe ZX-plane.
z is positive or negative accord-
ing as P lies above or below the
XY-plane.
Points in space may be con-
veniently plotted by marking the
z'
same scale on XX' and ZZ ' and
a somewhat smaller scale on YY' . Then to plot any point, for
example (7, 6, 10) , we lay off OA = 7 on OX, draw AQ parallel
to OY and equal to 6 units on OY, and QP parallel to OZ and equal
to 10 units on OZ.
PROBLEMS
1. What are the coördinates of the origin ?
2. Plot the following sets of points :
(a) (8, 0, 2) , ( — 3 , 4 , 7) , ( 0, 0, 5) .
(b) (4, - 3, 6), ( 4, 6, 0) , (0, 8, 0) .
(c) ( 10, 3, -— 4) , ( — 4, 0, 0) , (0, 8, 4) .
(d) (3, -— 4, - — 8) , ( — 5 , — 6 , 4) , (8, 6, 0) .
(e) ( → 4, - 8, - 6) , (3 , 0, 7) , (6, - 4, 2) .
(f ) ( — 6 , 4, -– 4) , (0, --- 4, 6) , (9, 7, - 2).
3. Calculate the distances of each of the following points to each of
the coördinate planes and axes and to the origin :
(a) (2, - - - -1,
-2, 1) , (b) (3, − 4, − 3) , (c) (√
4. Show that the following points lie on a sphere whose center is the
origin and whose radius is 3 :
(√3, -− 2, √2), (2√2, 0, -1 ), ( −2, 2, 1) , ( — √5, √3, 1) .
5. Show that the following points lie on a circular cylinder of radius

5 whose axis is the Y-axis :
− 8 , 4) , (2 √5 , 6, √5), ( — 4 , 0 , -
(3, - − 3) , (1 , §, 2 √6) .
6. Where can a point move if x = O ? if y = 0 ? if z = 0 ?
7. Where can a point move if x = 0 and y = 0 ? if y = 0 and z = 0 ?
if z = 0 and x = 0 ?
8. Show that the points (x, y, z) and ( — x , y , z) are symmetrical with
respect to the YZ-plane ; (x, y, z) and (x, y, z) with respect to the ZX-
plane ; (x, y, z) and (x, y, - z) with respect to the XY-plane.
9. Show that the points (x, y, z) and ( — x, - y, z) are symmetrical with
respect to ZZ' ; (x, y, z) and (x, -— y, -- z) with respect to XX' ; (x, y, z)
-
and ( x, y, z ) with respect to YY' ; (x, y, z) and ( — x, — y, — z) with
10. What is the value of z if P (x, y, z ) is in the XY-plane ? of x if P
is in the YZ-plane ? of y if P is in the ZX-plane ?
11. What are the values of y and z if P (x, y, z) is on the X-axis ? of
z and x if P is on the Y-axis ? of x and y if P is on the Z-axis ?
12. A rectangular parallelepiped lies in the octant O- XYZ with three
faces in the coördinate planes. If its dimensions are a, b, and c, what are
the coördinates of its vertices ?
87. Orthogonal projections . To extend the first theorem of

projection, Art . 31 , we define the angle between two directed lines
in space which do not intersect to be the angle between two
intersecting directed lines drawn parallel to the given lines
and having their positive directions agreeing with those of the
given lines.
The definitions of the orthogonal projection of a point upon
a line and of a directed length AB upon a directed line hold
when the points and lines lie in space instead of in the plane.
It is evident that the projection of a point upon a line may
also be regarded as the point of intersection of the line and
the plane passed through the point perpendicular to the line.
As two parallel planes are equidistant, then the projections of
a directed lengthAB upon two parallel lines whose positive direc-
tions agree are equal.
FIRST THEOREM OF PROJECTION. If A and B are points

upon a directed line making an angle of y with a directed line
CD, then the
(I) projection of the length AB upon CD = AB cos y.
Proof. Draw C'D' through A parallel to CD. Then, by defi-

nition, the angle between AB and C'D' equals y. Since C'D' and
AB intersect we may apply the M
first theorem of projection in
the plane, and hence the
projection of the length AB
upon C'D' = AB cos y.
Since the projection of AB on

CD equals the projection of AB N
upon C'D' we get (I) . Q. E.D.
SECOND THEOREM OF PROJECTION. If each segment of a
broken line in space be given the direction determined inpassing
continuously from one extremity to the other, then the algebraic
sum of the projections of the segments upon any directed line
equals the projection of the closing line.
The proof given on page 69 holds whether the broken line
lies in the plane or in space.
Corollary I. The projections of the line joining the origin to

anypoint P on the axes of coördinates are respectively the coördi-
nates of P.
For the projection of OP (Fig. , p . 230) upon OX equals OA ,
since A is the projection of P on OX. Similarly for the pro-
jections on OY and OZ.
Corollary II. Given any two points P₁1 (x , y , z ) and P₂

(X227 Y2 ), then
X₂- X₁ = projection of P₁P₂ upon XX' ,
Y½ — Y₁ = projection of P₁P₂ upon YY' ,
Z₂- Z₁ = projection of P₁P₂ upon ZZ' .
For if we project POP, and PP, upon XX', we have the

1 + projection of OP₂2 = projection of P¸Ð½
projection of P₁0
But by Corollary I,
projection of P₁0 === -x₁, projection of OP₂ = x2
- x₁ = projection of PP, upon XX '.
.' . x2—
In like manner the other formulas are proved.
Corollary III. If the sides of a polygon be given the direction
established by passing continuously around the perimeter, the
sum ofthe projections of the sides upon any directed line is zero.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the projections upon each of the axes of the sides of the tri-
angles whose vertices are the following points, and verify the results by
Corollary III.
(a) (-3, 4, - 8) , (5, - – 6, 4) , (8, 6, 0).
(b) ( 4,8, -— 6) , (3, 0, 7) , (6, 4, — 2) .
(c) (10, 3, - 4) , ( 4, 0, 2) , (0, 8, 4) .
(d) - 6, 4, -— 4) , (0, - 4, 6) , (9, 7, — 2) .
1 2 on the axes are respectively 3, -
2. If the projections of P₁P₂ — 2 , and 7,
and if the coördinates of P₁ are ( — 4, 3, 2) , find the coördinates of P2.
Ans. (-1, 1, 9).
3. A broken line joins continuously the points (6 , 0 , 0) , (0, 4, 3) ,
(— 4, 0, 0) , and (0, 0, 8) . Find the sum of the projections of the segments
and the projection of the closing line on (a) the X-axis, (b) the Y-axis,
(c) the Z-axis, and verify the results. Construct the figure .
4. A broken line joins continuously the points (6 , 8 , - — 3) , (0, 0, — 3) ,
(0, 0, 6) , ( — 8, 0, 2 ) , and ( — 8 , 4 , 0) . Find the sum of the projections of
the segments and the projection of the closing line on (a) the X-axis,
(b) the Y-axis, (c) the Z-axis, and verify the results. Construct the figure .
5. Find the projections on the axes of the line joining the origin to
each of the points in Problem 1 .
6. Find the angle between each axis and the line drawn from the
origin to 4 3 п•
(a) the point (8, 6, 0) . Ans. cos- 1 , COS -1
5 5 2
2
(b) the point (2, 1,2). Ans. cos- l " CO S-1 9 COS-1
3 (一 )
7. Find two expressions for the projections upon the axes of the line
drawn from the origin to the point P (x, y, z ) , if the length of the line is
p and the angles between the line and the axes are a, ß, and y.
8. Find the projections of the coördinates of P (x, y, z) upon the line
drawn from the origin to P if the angles between that line and the axes
are a, B, and y. Ans. x cos a, y cos ß, z cos y.
88. Direction cosines of a line . The angles a, ß, and y between

a directed line and the axes of coördinates are called the direc-
tion angles of the line.
If the line does not intersect the axes, then a, ß, and y are
the angles between the axes and a line drawn through the ori-
gin parallel to the given line and agreeing with it in direction.
The cosines of the direction angles of a line are called the
direction cosines of the line.
Reversing the direction of a line changes the signs of the

direction cosines ofthe line.
For reversing the direction of a line changes a, B, and y into

π - α, π - ẞ, and π y respectively, and (30, p. 3) cos (π — x)
COS X.
ZA
Theorem. If a, ß, and Y are
the direction angles of a line, B
then
(II) cos²a + cos2B + cos2y = 1.

That is, the sum of the
squares ofthe direction cosines γ
a
C X
of a line is unity.
Proof. Let AB be a line.
whose direction angles are a, Y
B, and y. Through O draw OP
parallel to AB and let OP = p. By definition XOP = α,
▲ YOP = ß, ≤ZOP = y. Projecting OP on the axes,
(1) x = p cos α, y = p cos ẞ, 2 = ρ cos.y.

Projecting OP and OCQP on OP,

(2) p = x cos x + y cos B + z cos y.
Substituting from (1) in (2) and dividing by p, we obtain
(II) . Q. E.D.
COS a cos B COS th en
Corollary. If a = b Y
с
a b
(III) cos a cos B:=
± √a² + b² + c² ± √a² + b² + c²
C
cos y =
± √a² + b² + c²
That is, if the direction cosines of a line are proportional to

three numbers, they are respectively equal to these numbers each
divided by the square root of the sum of their squares.
For if r denotes the common value of the given ratios , then
(3) cos a = ar, cos B = br, cos y = cr.
Squaring, adding, and applying (III) ,

1 = r² (a² + b² + c²) .
1
± √a² + b² + c²
Substituting in (3), we get the values of cos a, cos B, and

cos y to be derived .
The important conclusion just derived may be thus stated :
Any three numbers a, b, and c determine the direction of a
line in space. This direction is the same as that of the line
joining the origin and the point (a, b, c).
If a line cuts the XY-plane, it will be directed upward or downward

according as cos y is positive or negative.
If a line is parallel to the XY-plane, cos y = 0, and it will be directed
in front or in back of the ZX-plane according as cos ẞ is positive or negative.
If a line is parallel to the X-axis, cos ß - COS Y 0, and its positive
direction will agree or disagree with that of the X-axis according as
cos α = 1 or - 1.
These considerations enable us to choose the sign of the radical in the

Corollary so that the positive direction on the line shall be that given in
advance .
89. Lengths.
Theorem. The length of the line joining two points
P₁ (x₁, y₁ , ₁) and P₂2 (x2, Y2, 2) is given by
2
(IV) 1 = √(x₁ — X₂) ² + (Y1 — Y₂) ² + (Z1 — Z₁) ³.
Proof. Let the direction angles of the line PP, be a, ß, and y.

Projecting PP,
1 2 on the axes, we get, by the first theorem of
projection and Corollary II , p. 234,
(1) l cos α = x2 ― X19 l cos By₂-
= Y₁ l cos y = 22-1
Squaring and adding,

-
1² (cos² a + cos² ß + cos² y) = (x,2 − x‚) ² + (Y₂ − Y‚)² + (~2 — ~‚)²
=·(x₁ - -
−- x₁₂) ² + (Y₁ − Y₂) ² + (≈, − %,) ².
Applying (II) , and taking the square root, we have (IV) .
Q. E. D.
Corollary. The direction cosines of the line drawn from P₁ to
P₂2 are proportional to the projections of PP, on the axes.
For, from (1 ),
COS α cos B COS Y
= = "
- -
X2 - X1 #2 P2
1 A
since each ratio equals Also
B
the denominators are the pro-
jections of PP,2 on the axes. Y
If we construct a rectangular
parallelepiped by passing planes through P, and P,2 parallel to
the coördinate planes, its edges will be parallel to the axes and
equal numerically to the projections of PP, upon the axes.
P₁P₂2 will be a diagonal of this parallelepiped , and hence l²
will equal the sum of the squares of its three dimensions.
We have thus a second method of deriving (IV) .
PROBLEMS
1. Find the length and the direction cosines of the line drawn from
(a) P₁1 (4, 3, - 2) to P₂2 ( −2 , 1 , — 5). Ans. 7, - 号, - 3.
(b) P1 (4, 7, - 2) to P₂2 (3, 5, - 4) . Ans . 3, - 3, - 3, - 3.
(c) P (3,8, 6) to P₂ P2 (6, -· 4, 6) . Ans. 5 ,,, 0.
2. Find the direction cosines of a line directed upward if they are
proportional to (a) 3, 6, and 2 ; (b) 2, 1 , and — 4 ; (c) 1 , 2, and 3.
3 6 2 2 1 4 1 - 2 3
Ans. (a) ; .(c) "
7'7' ; (b) √21 √21 + √21 √14 √14 √14
3. Find the lengths and direction cosines of the sides of the triangles
whose vertices are the following points ; then find the projections of
the sides upon the axes by the first theorem of projection and verify
by Corollary III , p. 237.
(a) (0, 0, 3) , (4, 0, 0) , (8, 0, 0) .
(b) (3, 2, 0), (-2, 5, 7) , ( 1 , — 3, — 5).
(c) (-4, 0, 6), (8 , 2 , - - 1) , (2, 4, 6) .
(d) — 2, -
(3, - 3, - 3) , (4, 2 , 7) , ( — 1 , - — 5) .
4. In what octant ( O-XYZ, O-X'YZ, etc.) will the positive part of
a line through O lie if
(a) cos a > 0, cos ẞ > 0, cos y > 0 ? (e) cos a < 0, cos ẞ > 0, cos y > 0 ?
(b) cos a > 0, cos ẞ > 0, cos y < 0 ? (f) cos a < 0, cos ẞ < 0, cos y > 0 ?
(c) cos a > 0, cos ẞ < 0, cos y < 0 ? (g) cos a < 0, cos ẞ < 0, cos y < 0 ?
(d) cos a > 0, cos ẞ < 0, cosy > 0 ? (h) cos a < 0, cos ẞ > 0, cos y < 0 ?
5. What is the direction of a line if cos α = 0? cos ẞ = 0 ? cos y = 0?
cos a = cos ẞ = 0 ? cos B = cos y = 0 ? cos y = cos α = 0 ?
6. Find the projection of the line drawn from the origin to P₁1 (5, -
— 7, 6)
upon a line whose direction cosines are , - , and 4 . Ans. 9.
Hint. The projection of OP₁ on any line equals the projection of a broken
line whose segments equal the coördinates of P1 .
7. Find the projection of the line drawn from the origin to P₁ (x1 , Y1, Z1)
upon a line whose direction angles are a, ẞ, and y.
Ans. x cos a + y₁ cos B + 21 COS Y.
8. Show that the points ( -3 , 2 , - 7) , (2, 2, - 3) , and ( — 3, 6, — 2) are
the vertices of an isosceles triangle .
9. Show that the points (4, 3, - 4), (-2, 9, - 4) , and (-2, 3, 2) are
the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
10. Show that the points ( — 4, 0, 2) , ( −1 ; 3√3, 2) , (2, 0, 2) , and

(− 1 , √3, 2 + 2 √6) are the vertices of a regular tetrahedron .
11. What does formula (IV) become if P₁1 and P₂2 lie in the XY-plane ?
in a plane parallel to the XY-plane ?
12. Show that the direction cosines of the lines joining each of the
points (4, -- 8, 6) and ( — 2 , 4, -
— 3) to the point (12, 24, 18) are the same.
How are the three points situated ?
13. Show by means of direction cosines that the three points (3, — 2 , 7) ,
(6, 4, -2) , and (5 , 2 , 1 ) lie on a straight line.
14. What are the direction cosines of a line parallel to the X-axis ? to
the Y-axis ? to the Z-axis ?
15. What is the value of one of the direction cosines of a line parallel
to the XY-plane ? the YZ-plane ? the ZX-plane ? What relation exists
between the other two ?
16. Show that the point ( — 1 , — 2, − 1 ) is on the line joining the points
- 5) and is equally distant from them.
(4, - 7, 3) and ( — 6, 3, —
π π
17. If two of the direction angles of a line are and what is the
3 4
third ? π 2π
Ans. or •
3 3
18. Find the direction angles of a line which is equally inclined to the
three coördinate axes. Ans. a = ß = y = cos− ¹µ√3.
19. Find the length of a line whose projections on the axes are
respectively
(a ) 6, ― 3, and 2. Ans. 7.
(b) 12, 4, and - 3. Ans. 13 .
(c) - 2, -1 , and 2 . Ans. 3.
90. Angle between two directed lines .

Theorem. Ifa, ẞ, y and a', B', y' are the direction angles oftwo
directed lines, then the angle ✪ between them is given by
(V) cos 0 = cos a cos a' + cos ẞ cos B' + cos y cos y ' .
Proof. Draw OP and OP' (figure, p. 241 ) parallel to the given

lines and let OP = p. Then, by definition,
Z POP' = 0.
Now, if the coördinates of P are (x, y, z) , then, in the figure,

OA = x, AB = = y, BP = 2.
Project OP and OABP on OP'. Then

(1) p cos 0 = x cos a' + y cos B' + z cos y'.
Projecting OP on the axes,
(2) x = p cos α, y = p cos ß, 2 = p cos y.
Substituting in (1) from (2) Z↑
and dividing by p, we ob-
tain (V). Q. E. D.
Theorem. If a, B, y and a',
B', y' are the direction angles
of two lines, then the lines are
(a) parallel and in the same
direction when and only when AX
a = a', B = B', y = y' ;

(b) perpendicular† when and Y
B
only when
cos a cos a ' + cos ẞ cos B' + cos y cos y' = 0.
That is, two lines are parallel and in the same direction when
and only when their direction angles are equal, and perpen-
dicular when and only when the sum of the products of their
direction cosines is zero.
Proof. The condition for parallelism follows from the fact

that both lines will be parallel to and agree in direction with
the same line through the origin when and only when their
direction angles are equal.
The condition for perpendicularity follows from (V) , for if
π
Ꮎ= then cos 0 = 0, and conversely Q. E.D.
2
* They will be parallel and have opposite directions when and only when
the direction angles are supplementary.
† Two lines in space are said to be perpendicular when the angle between
π
them is but the lines do not necessarily intersect.
2'
In the applications we usually have given not the direction

cosines, but three numbers to which they are proportional.
Hence the importance of the following
Corollary. Ifthe direction cosines of two lines are proportional
to a, b, c and a' , b ', c', then the conditions for parallelism and
perpendicularity are respectively
α b c
= = aa' + bb' + cc' = 0.
a' b'
91. Point of division .
Theorem. The coördinates (x, y, z ) of the point of division P
2. and P2 (X2 Y2 ≈2) such that the
on the line joining P₁ (x 19, y₁, ≈₁)
ratio ofthe segments is P₁P
=d
PP₂
are given by the formulas
x1+ xxx +
(VI) x= ? y= z = 21 λα
1 +λ 1+1 1 +λ
This is proved as in Art. 13.
Corollary. The coördinates (x, y, z) of the middle point P of
the line joining P₁ (x , y, z ) and P2 (X2 Y2, 2) are
x= (x1 + x2) , y = { (Y₁ + Y₂) , z = ( 1 + Z₂) .
PROBLEMS
1. Find the angle between two lines whose direction cosines are
respectively π
(a) ,, - 4 and 4, — - 4, 4. Ans.
2
(b) ,, and - — 1 , 1 , 13. Ans. cos- 1114 .
6
(c) , - 3, and 4, 4, 4 . Ans. cos-1 ( 241).
2. Show that the lines whose direction cosines are 4 , 9 , 4 ; 4, 4, -—§;
and - ,, are mutually perpendicular.
3. Show that the lines joining the following pairs of points are either
parallel or perpendicular.
(a) (3, 2, 7) , ( 1 , 4 , 6) and (7, - 5, 9) , (5, - 3, 8) .
(b) (13, 4, 9) , (1 , 7, 13) and ( 7, 16 , — 6) , (3 , 4, -
— 9) .
(c) (-6, 4, - 3) , (1 , 2 , 7) and (8 , — 5, 10) , (15, -- 7, 20) .
4. Find the coördinates of the point dividing the line joining the fol-
lowing points in the ratio given .
(a) (3, 4 , 2) , (7, — 6, 4), λ = 1. Ans . (133 , 3, 3) .
(b) -- 1 , 4, · 6) , (2 , 3, — 7) , λ = — 3. Ans. ( ,, - 15).
(c) (8, 4, 2) , (3, 9, 6) , Ans. (21 , 3, 0) .
(d) (7, 3, 9), (2, 1 , 2) , λ = 4. Ans. (3, 7, 7).
5. Show that the points (7, 3 , 4) , ( 1 , 0, 6) , and (4, 5 , — 2) are the ver-
tices of a right triangle .
6. Show that the points (— 6, 3 , 2) , (3, -- 2, 4) , ( 5, 7 , 3), and
(— 13, 17, —1) are the vertices of a trapezoid .
7. Show that the points (3, 7, 2) , ( 4, 3, 1) , (1 , 6, 3) , and (2, 2 , 2) are
the vertices of a parallelogram .
8. Show that the points (6, 7, 3) , ( 3, 11 , 1 ) , (0, 3, 4) , and (— 3, 7, 2)
are the vertices of a rectangle.
9. Show that the points (6, — 6 , 0) , (3 , - — 4, 4) , (2 , — 9 , 2) , and
(-1, -7, 6) are the vertices of a rhombus.
10. Show that the points (7, 2, 4) , (4, -
— 4, 2) , (9, -— 1 , 10) , and (6, —7, 8)
are the vertices of a square.
11. Show that each of the following sets of points lies on a straight
line, and find the ratio of the segments in which the third divides the line
joining the first to the second.
(a) (4, 13, 3) , (3 , 6, 4) , and (2 , -— 1 , 5) . Ans. -- 2.
- -
(b) (4, — 5, — 12) , ( — 2 , 4 , 6) , and (2 , -2, -6) . Ans..
(c) ( — 3, 4, 2) , ( 7 , — 2 , 6) , and (2, 1 , 4) . Ans. 1 .
12. Find the lengths of the medians of the triangle whose vertices are
the points (3, 4, -
— 2) , (7, 0, 8) , and ( — 5, 4, 6) . Ans. √113, √89 , 2√29.
13. Show that the lines joining the middle points of the opposite
sides of the quadrilaterals whose vertices are the following points
bisect each other.
(a) (8, 4, 2) , (0, 2, 5) , ( — 3 , 2 , 4) , and (8, 0, — 6) .
(b) (0, 0, 9) , (2, 6, 8) , ( — 8, 0 , 4) , and (0, - 8, 6).
(c) P1 (x1, Y1 , Z1) , P2 (X2, Y2, Z2) , P3 (X3, Y3, Z3) , P4 (X49 Y49 Z4) .
14. Show that the lines joining successively the middle points of the
sides of any quadrilateral form a parallelogram.
15. Find the projection of the line drawn from P₁1 (3, 2, - 6) to P₂
(-3, 5, - - 4) upon a line directed upward whose direction cosines are
proportional to 2, 1 , and 2. Ans. 4 .
16. Find the projection of the line drawn from P₁1 (6, 3, 2) to P½2 (4 , 2 , 0)
upon the line drawn from P, (7, -— 6, 0) to P4 (— 5, - 2, 3). Ans. 1 .
17. Find the coördinates of the point of intersection of the medians of
the triangle whose vertices are (3, 6, -
− 2) , ( 7, -
— 4 , 3) , and ( — 1 , 4, — 7) .
Ans. (3, 2, 2) .
18. Find the coördinates of the point of intersection of the medians of
the triangle whose vertices are any three points P1 , P2, and P¸.
Ans . [ } (x1 + x2 + X3) , § (Y1 + Y2 + Y3) , 3 (Z1 + Z2 + 23) ] .
19. The three lines joining the middle points of the opposite edges of a
tetrahedron pass through the same point and are bisected at that point.
20. The four lines drawn from the vertices of any tetrahedron to the
point of intersection of the medians of the opposite face meet in a point
which is three fourths of the distance from each vertex to the opposite
face (the center of gravity of the tetrahedron) .
CHAPTER XIV
SURFACES , CURVES, AND EQUATIONS
92. Loci in space . In solid geometry it is necessary to con-

sider two kinds of loci :
1. The locus of a point in space which satisfies one given con-
dition is, in general, a surface.
Thus the locus of a point at a given distance from a fixed
point is a sphere, and the locus of a point equidistant from two
fixed points is the plane which is perpendicular to the line join-
ing the given points at its middle point.
2. The locus of a point in space which satisfies two conditions *
is, in general, a curve. For the locus of a point which satisfies
either condition is a surface, and hence the points which satisfy
both conditions lie on two surfaces , that is, on their curve of
intersection .
Thus the locus of a point which is at a given distance r from
a fixed point P,1 and is equally distant from two fixed points P₂2
and P is the circle in which the sphere whose center is P, and
whose radius is r intersects the plane which is perpendicular
to PP, at its middle point.
These two kinds of loci must be carefully distinguished.
93. Equation of a surface. First fundamental problem . If any

point P which lies on a given surface be given the coördinates
(x, y, z), then the condition which defines the surface as a locus
will lead to an equation involving the variables x, y , and z.
* The number of conditions must be counted carefully. Thus if a point is to

be equidistant from three fixed points P1, P2, and P3, it satisfies two condi-
tions, namely, of being equidistant from P₁ and P2 and from P2 and P3.
245
246 NEW ANALYTIC GEOMETRY 1
The equation of a surface is an equation in the variables x, y,

and representing coördinates such that :
1. The coördinates of every point on the surface will satisfy
the equation .
2. Every point whose coördinates satisfy the equation will
lie upon the surface.
If the surface is defined as the locus of a point satisfying
one condition, its equation may be found in many cases by a
Rule analogous to that in Art. 17.
EXAMPLE
Find the equation of the locus of a point whose distance from
P₁ (3, 0, -2) is 4.
Solution. Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the locus. The given con-
dition may be written P₁P = 4.
By (IV), P₁P = √(x − 3)² + y² + (z + 2)² .
.. √(x − 3)² + y² + (z + 2)² = 4.
Simplifying, we obtain as the required equation
x² + y² + z² — 6x + 4z - 3 = 0.
That this is indeed the equation of the locus should be verified as
on page 31 .
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point which is
(a) 3 units above the XY-plane.
(b) 4 units to the right of the YZ-plane .
(c) 5 units below the XY-plane.
(d) 10 units back of the ZX-plane .
(e) 7 units to the left of the YZ-plane .
(f) 2 units in front of the ZX-plane.
2. Find the equation of the plane which is parallel to
(a) the XY-plane and 4 units above it.
(b) the XY-plane and 5 units below it.
(c) the ZX-plane and 3 units in front of it.
(d) the YZ-plane and 7 units to the left of it.
(e) the ZX-plane and 2 units back of it.
(f ) the YZ-plane and 4 units to the right of it.
SURFACES, CURVES, AND EQUATIONS 247
3. What are the equations of the coördinate planes ?

4. What is the form of the equation of a plane which is parallel to
the XY-plane ? the YZ-plane ? the ZX-plane ?
5. What are the equations of the faces of the rectangular parallele-
piped which has one vertex at the origin, three edges lying along the
coördinate axes, and one vertex at the point (3 , 5, 7) ?
6. Find the equation of the locus of a point whose distance from the
point (a) (2, - 2, 1 ) is 3. (d) ( → 2, 3 , 0) is √5.
(b) (0, 1, - 2) is 1. (e) (a, b, c) is d.
(c) ( − 1 , 3, 3 ) is √3. (f) (α, ß, y) is r.
7. Find the equation of the sphere whose center is the point
(a) (3, 0, 4) and whose radius is 5.
Ans. x² + y² + z² — 6 x − 8 z = 0.
(b) (→- 3, 2, 1) and whose radius is 4.
Ans. x² + y² + z² + 6 x -− 4 y - 2z - 2 = 0.
(c) (6, 4, 0) and whose radius is 7.
(d) (a, ẞ, y) and whose radius is r.
Ans. x² + y² + z² − 2 xx − 2 By − 2 yz + α² + ß² + y² — p² = 0.
8. Find the equation of a sphere
(a) having the line joining (3, 0, 7) and (1, - 2, -1 ) for a diameter.
(b) of radius 2, which is tangent to all three coördinate planes in the
first octant.
(c) of radius 3, which is tangent to all three coördinate planes in the
third octant.
(d) whose center is the point (3, 1, - 2) and which is tangent to the
XY-plane.
(e) whose center is (6, 2 , 3) and which passes through the origin .
(f) passing through the four points ( -2, 0, 0) , (0, -4, 0) , (0, 0, 4) , (8 , 0, 0) .
9. Find the equation of the locus of a point which is equally distant
from the points
- 1) and (4, - 3, 0).
(a) (3, 2 , − Ans. 2x10 y + 2 z − 11 = 0 .
(b) (4, - 3, 6) and (2, - 4, 2) . Ans. 4x + 2y + 8z - 37 = 0.
(c) (1, 3, 2) and (4, - 1 , 1). Ans. 3x4y - z - 2 = 0.
(d) (4, — 6, — 8) and ( — 2, 7, 9). Ans. 6x - 13 y - 17z + 9 = 0.
10. Find the equation of a plane perpendicular at the middle point to
the line joining
(a) (1 , - 2, 1) and (2 , — 1, 0) .
(b) (-3, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1).
(c) (-2, 1 , 1 ) and ( 1 , 0, 0).
11. Find the equations of the six planes drawn through the middle
points of the edges of the tetrahedron whose vertices are the points
(5, 4, 0) , (2, -
− 5, — 4) , (1 , 7, — 5) , and ( — 4, 3, 4) , which are perpendicular
to the respective edges, and show that they all pass through the point
(-1, 1, - 2).
12. Find the equation of the locus of a point which is three times as
far from the point (2, 6, 8) as from (4, — 2, 4) , and determine the nature
of the locus by comparison with the answer to Problem 7 (d) .
13. Find the equation of the locus of a point the sum of the squares of
whose distances from ( 1 , 3, − 2) and (6, — 4, 2) is 50, and determine the
nature of the locus by comparison with the answer to Problem 7 (d) .
14. Find the equation of the locus of a point whose distance
(a) from the X-axis is 3.
(b) from the Y-axis is .
(c) from the Z-axis is √5.
15. Find the equation of a circular cylinder
(a) whose axis is the Y-axis and whose radius is 2 .
(b) whose axis is the Z-axis and whose radius is √3.
(c) whose axis is the X-axis and whose diameter is √7.
16. A point moves so that the sum of its distances to the two fixed
points (√3, 0, 0) and ( — √3, 0, 0) is always equal to 4. Find the equa-
tion of its locus. Ans. x² + 4z² + 4 y² — 4 = 0.
17. Find the equation of the locus of a point
(a) whose distance from the point ( 1 , 0 , 0) equals its distance from
the YZ-plane. Ans. y² + z2 - − 2 x + 1 = 0.
(b) whose distance from the point (1 , 0 , 0) equals its distance from
the Z-axis. Ans. z22 x + 1 = 0.
(c) whose distance from the X-axis is one half of its distance from the
YZ-plane. Ans. 4y² + 4 z² — x² = 0.
(d) whose distance from the Z-axis is twice its distance from the Y-axis.
(e) whose distance from the origin equals the sum of its distances
from the XZ-plane and the YZ-plane. Ans. z2-2xy = 0.
(f ) the sum of whose distances from the three coördinate planes is
constant.
(g) whose distance from the origin equals the sum of its distances
from the three coördinate planes. Ans. xy + yz + zx = 0.
(h) whose distance from the X-axis is half the difference of its dis-
tances from the XY-plane and the XZ-plane .
( i ) whose distance from the point (0, 0, 1 ) equals its distance from the
XY-plane increased by 1 .
(j ) whose distance from the Z-axis equals its distance from the
point (1 , 1 , 0) .
18. Find the equation of the locus of a point the sum of whose dis-
tances from the X-axis and the Y-axis is unity.
19. Find the equation of the locus of a point the sum of whose dis-
tances from the three coördinate axes is unity.
94. Planes parallel to the coördinate planes . We may easily

prove the
Theorem. The equation of a plane which is

parallel to the XY-plane has the form z = constant;
parallel to the YZ-plane has the form x = constant;

parallel to the ZX-plane has the form y = constant.
95. Equations of a curve. First fundamental problem . If any

point P which lies on a given curve be given the coördinates
(x, y, z) , then the two conditions which define the curve as a
locus will lead to two equations involving the variables x, y,
and 2.
The equations of a curve are two equations in the variables
x, y, and z representing coördinates such that :
1. The coördinates of every point on the curve will satisfy
both equations .
2. Every point whose coördinates satisfy both equations will
lie on the curve.
If the curve is defined as the locus of a point satisfying two

conditions, the equations of the surfaces defined by each condi-
tion separately may be found in many cases by a Rule anal-
ogous to that of Art. 17. These equations will be the equations
of the curve .
It will appear later that the equations of the same curve
may have an endless variety of forms.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equations of the locus of a point whose distance from the
origin is 4 and which is equally distant from the points P₁1 (8, 0, 0) and
P₂2 (0, 8, 0).
Solution. Let P (x, y, z) be any
point on the locus.
The given conditions are
(1) PO = 4, PP₁1 = PP2.
By (IV) ,
PO√x² + y² + z², RX
(8,0,0)
PP₁1 = √(x -
— 8)² + y² + z²,
PP₂ = √x² + (y -— 8)² + z². P₂(0,8,0)
Substituting in (1) , we get
√.x² + y² + z² = 4, √(x − 8) ² + y² + z² = √x² + (y --
— 8j² + z².
Squaring and reducing, we have the required equations, namely,
x² + y² + z² = 16, x - y = 0.
These equations should be verified as in Art. 16.
2. Find the equations of the circle lying in the XY-plane whose center
is the origin and whose radius is 5.
Solution. In plane analytic geometry the equation of the circle is
(2) x² + y² = 25.
Regarded as a problem in solid analytic geometry we must have two
equations which the coördinates of any point P (x, y, z) which lies on the
circle must satisfy. Since P lies in the XY- plane,
(3) z = 0.
Hence equations (2) and (3) together express that the point P lies in the
XY-plane and on the given circle. The equations of the circle aretherefore
x² + y² = 25, z = 0.
The reasoning in Ex. 2 is general . Hence

If the equation of a curve in the XY-plane is known, then the
equations ofthat curve regarded as a curve in space are the given
equation and z == 0.
An analogous statement evidently applies to the equations of

a curve lying in one of the other coördinate planes.
From Art. 94 we have at once the
Theorem. The equations of a line which is parallel to
the X-axis have the form y = constant, z = constant ;
the Y-axis have the form z = constant, x = constant;
the Z-axis have the form x = constant, y = constant.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equations of the locus of a point which is
(a) 3 units above the XY-plane and 4 units to the right of the YZ-plane.
(b) 5 units to the left of the YZ-plane and 2 units in front of the ZX-plane .
(c) 4 units back of the ZX-plane and 7 units to the left of the YZ-plane.
(d) 9 units below the XY-plane and 4 units to the right of the YZ-plane .
2. Find the equations of the straight line which is
(a) 5 units above the XY-plane and 2 units in front of the ZX-plane.
(b) 2 units to the left of the YZ-plane and 8 units below the XY-plane.
(c) 3 units to the right of the YZ-plane and 5 units from the Z-axis.
(d) 13 units from the X-axis and 5 units back of the ZX-plane.
(e) parallel to the Y-axis and passing through (3, 7, — 5) .
(f) parallel to the Z-axis and passing through ( — 4, 7, 6) .
3. What are the equations of the axes of coördinates ?
4. What are the equations of the edges of a rectangular parallelepiped
whose dimensions are a, b , and c, if three of its faces coincide with the
coördinate planes and one vertex lies in O- XYZ ? in O-XYZ ? in
O-X'Y'Z?
(a) 5 units from the origin and 3 units above the XY-plane.
(b) 5 units from the origin and 3 units from the X-axis.
(c) 6 units from the Y-axis and 3 units behind the XZ-plane .
(d) 7 units from the Z-axis and 2 units below the XY-plane.
6. Find the equations of a circle defined as follows :
(a) center on the Z-axis, radius 4 , and lying in the XY-plane .
(b) center on the X-axis, radius 7 , and lying in a plane parallel to the
YZ-plane and 3 units to the right of it.
(c ) center on the Y-axis, radius 2 , and lying in a plane 2 units behind
the XZ-plane.
(d) center at the point ( 1, 0 , 1) , parallel to the XY-plane, and cutting

the Z-axis.
7. The following equations are the equations of curves lying in one of
the coördinate planes. What are the equations of the same curves regarded
as curves in space ?
(a) y² = 4x. (e) x² + 4z + 6 x =: 0 .
(b) x² + z² = 16. (f) y² — z² — 4y = 0.
(c ) 8 x² - y² = 64. (g) yz² + z² -
— 6 y = 0.
(d) 4z² + 9y² = 36. (h) z² -
— 4x² + 8 z = 0 .
(a) 5 units above the XY-plane and 3 units from (3, 7, 1) .
Ans. z = 5, x² + y² + z² - — 6 x -— 14 y -
— 2% + 50 = 0.
(b) 2 units from (3, 7, 6) and 4 units from (2, 5, 4) .
Ans. x² + y² + z² - — 6x — 14 y 12 z + 90 = 0,
x² + y² + z² - 4x - 10 y - 8z + 29 = 0.
(c) 5 units from the origin and equidistant from (3, 7 , 2) and
(-3, - 7, -2) . Ans. x² + y² + z² — 25 = 0, 3x + 7y + 2 z = 0.
(d) equidistant from (3, 5, -- 4) and ( — 7, 1, 6), and also from
(4, - 6, 3) and (-2 , 8, 5) .
Ans. 5x + 2y5z + 11 = 0, 3x - 7 y −z + 8 = 0.
(e) equidistant from (2, 3, 7) , (3 , — 4 , 6) , and (4, 3 , - 2).
Ans. 2x 14 y - 2z + 1 = 0, x + y - 8z + 16 = 0.
9. Find the equations of the locus of a point which is equally distant
from the points (6, 4, 3) and (6, 4 , 9) , and also from ( — 5, 8, 3) and
( — 5, 0, 3) , and determine the nature of the locus. Ans. z = 6, y = 4.
10. Find the equations of the locus of a point which is equally distant
from the points (3, 7, -
— 4) , ( — 5 , 7, — 4) , and ( — 5, 1 , 4) , and deter-
mine the nature of the locus. Ans. x -1 , y = 4.
11. Determine the nature of each of the following loci after finding
their equations. The moving point is equidistant from
(a) the three coördinate planes.
(b) the three coördinate axes.
(c) the three points (1 , 0 , 0) , ( 0, 1 , 0) , and (0, 0, 1) .
(d) the XY-plane, the Z-axis, and the point (0 , 0, 1).
(e) the XY-plane, the X-axis, and the point (0, 0, 1) .
(f ) the points ( 1 , 0, 0) , ( 0, 1 , 0) , and the Z-axis .
(g) the X-axis, the Y-axis, and the point (1, 0, 0).
(h) the Z-axis, the XY- plane, and the YZ-plane.
96. Locus of one equation . Second fundamental problem. The

locus of one equation in three variables (one or two may be
lacking) representing coördinates in space is the surface passing
through all points whose coördinates satisfy that equation and
through such points only.
The coördinates of points on the surface may be obtained
as follows :
Solve the equation for one of the variables, say z , assume
pairs of values of x and y, and compute the corresponding
values of 2.
A rough model of the surface might then be constructed by
taking a thin board for the XY-plane, sticking needles into it
at the assumed points (x, y) whose lengths are the computed
values of 2, and stretching a sheet of rubber over their
extremities.
97. Locus of two equations. Second fundamental problem. The

locus of two equations in three variables representing coördinates
in space is the curve passing through all points whose coördi-
nates satisfy both equations and through such points only.
That is, the locus is the curve of intersection of the surfaces
defined by the two given equations.
The coördinates of points on the curve may be obtained as
follows :
Solve the equations for two of the variables, say x and y, in
terms of the third, z , assume values for 2 , and compute the
corresponding values of x and y.
98. Discussion of the equations of a curve. Third fundamental

problem. The discussion of curves in elementary analytic geom-
etry is largely confined to curves which lie entirely in a plane
which is usually parallel to one of the coördinate planes. Such
a curve is defined as the intersection of a given surface with a
plane parallel to one of the coördinate planes. The method of
determining its nature is illustrated as follows :
EXAMPLE
Determine the nature of the curve in which the plane z = 4 intersects

the surface whose equation is y² + z24x.
Solution. The equations of the curve are, by definition,
(1 ) y² + z² = 4x, z = 4.
Eliminate z by substituting from the second equation in the first.
This gives
(2) y² - 4x + 16 = 0, z = 4.
Equations (2) are also the equations of the curve.
For every set of values of (x, y, z) which satisfy both of equations (1) will
evidently satisfy both of equations (2) , and conversely.
If we take as axes in
the plane z = 4 the lines
O'X ' and O'Y ' in which
the plane cuts the ZX-plane
and the YZ-plane, then the
equation of the curve when
referred to these axes is
the first of equations (2),
namely,
(3) y² - 4x + 16 = 0.
The locus of (3) is a pa- Χ
rabola. The vertex, in the
plane z - 4, is the point
(4, 0) ; also p = 2.
In plotting the locus of (3) in the plane X'O'Y' the values of x and y
must be laid off parallel to O'X' and O'Y' respectively, as in plotting
oblique coördinates (Art. 9) .
From the preceding example we may state the
Rule to determine the nature of the curve in which a plane
parallel to one of the coördinate planes cuts a given surface.
Eliminate the variable occurring in the equation of the plane
from the equations of the plane and surface. The result is the
equation of the curve referred to the lines in which the given
plane cuts the other two coördinate planes as axes. Discuss this
curve by the methods ofplane analytic geometry.
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the nature of the following curves and construct their

loci :
(a) x² - 4y² = 82 , z == 8. (e) x² + 4 y² + 9 z² = 36, y = 1 .
(b) x² + 9 y² = 9 z², z = 2 . (f) x2 - 4y² + z² = 25, x = —- 3.
(c) x² - 4y² = 42, y ==- 2. (g) x2 - y2 4x² + 6x = 0, x = 2 .
(d) x² + y² + z² = 25, x = 3. (h) y² + z² -· 4x + 8 = 0, y = 4.
2. Construct the curves in which each of the following surfaces inter-

sects the coördinate planes :
(a) x² + 4y² + 16 z² = 64. (d) x² + 9 y² = 10 z .
(b) x² + 4y² - 16 z² = 64 . (e) x2 - 9 y² = 10z.
(c) x2 - 4y² - 16 z² = 64. (f) x² + 4y² - 16 z² = 0.
3. Show that the curves of intersection of each of the surfaces in

Problem 2 with a system of planes parallel to one of the coördinate planes
are conics of the same species (see Art. 70) .
4. Determine the nature of the intersection of the surface x² + y² +

4z264 with the plane z = k. How does the curve change as k increases
from 0 to 4 ? from 4 to 0 ? What idea of the appearance of the surface
is thus obtained ?
5. Determine the nature of the intersection of the surface 4x - 2y = 4

with the plane y = k ; with the plane z = k' . How does the intersection
change as k or k' changes ? What idea of the form of the surface is
obtained ?
6. In each of the following find the equations of the locus, determine

its nature, and construct it :
(a) A point is 5 units from the origin and 3 units from the Z-axis.
(b) A point is 3 units from both the X-axis and the Z-axis.
(c) The distance of a point from the Z-axis is equal to twice its distance
from the XY-plane and its distance from the origin is 2.
(d) A point is 5 units from the X-axis and 4 units from the XZ-plane.
(e) A point is equidistant from the YZ-plane and the XZ-plane and
its distance from the X-axis is 7. Ans. An ellipse.
(f) A point is equidistant from the Z-axis, the YZ-plane, and the point
(2, 0, 0). Ans. A parabola,
7. The ratio of the distances of a point to the Z-axis and the Y-axis
respectively is . Determine the nature of its locus if it is also
(a) one unit above the XY-plane.
(b) one unit in front of the XZ-plane.
(c) one unit to the left of the YZ-plane.
(d) in the XZ-plane .
(e) equidistant from the XZ-plane and the YZ-plane.
(f) in the plane 4x - 3z12 - 0.
8. Find the equations of the locus of a point whose distance from the
point (2, 0, 0) is always equal to three times its distance from the Z-axis,
and whose distance from the YZ-plane is always unity . Name and draw
the locus.
9. Find the equations of the locus of a point which is equidistant from
the point (1, - 2 , 0) and the Z-axis, and which is 31 units behind the
XZ-plane. Name and draw the locus.
10. Find the equations of the locus of a point which is equidistant from
the Y-axis and the XZ-plane and equidistant from the origin and the
point (0, 0, 4) . Name and draw the locus.
99. Discussion of the equation of a surface. Third fundamental

problem.
Theorem. The locus of an algebraic equation passes through
the origin if there is no constant term in the equation.
The proof is analogous to that on page 47.
Theorem. Ifthe locus of an equation is unaffected by chang-
ingthe sign ofone variable throughout its equation, then the locus
is symmetrical with respect to the coördinate plane from which
that variable is measured.
Ifthe locus is unaffected by changing the signs oftwo variables
throughout its equation, it is symmetrical with respect to the axis
along which the third variable is measured.
If the locus is unaffected by changing the signs of all three
variables throughout its equation, it is symmetrical with respect
to the origin.
The proof is analogous to that on page 42.
Rule to find the intercepts ofa surface on the axes ofcoördinates.

Set each pair of variables equal to zero and solve for real
values of the third.
The curves in which a surface intersects the coördinate planes
are called its traces on the coördinate planes . From the Rule,
p. 254, it is seen that
The equations of the traces of a surface are obtained by succes-
sively setting x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0 in the equation ofthe surface.
By these means we can determine some properties of the sur-
face. The general appearance of a surface is determined by con-
sidering the curves in which it is cut by a system of planes
parallel to each of the coördinate planes . This also enables us
to determine whether the surface is closed or recedes to infinity.
EXAMPLE
Discuss the locus of the equation y² + z² = 4x .

Solution. 1. The surface passes through the origin since there is no
constant term in its equation.
2. The surface is symmetrical with respect to the XY-plane, the ZX-
plane, and the X-axis.
For the locus of the given
equation is unaffected by
changing the sign of z, of
y, or of both together.
3. It cuts the axes at the
origin only.
4. Its traces are respec-
tively the point-circle y² +
z20 and the parabolas
z24x and y² = 4 x.
5. It intersects the plane
xk in the curve
y² + z² = 4k.
This curve is a circle whose center is the origin , that is, is on the X-axis,
and whose radius is 2√k if k > 0 , but there is no locus if k < 0 . Hence the
surface lies entirely to the right of the YZ-plane.
If k increases from zero to infinity, the radius of the circle increases

from zero to infinity while the plane x = k recedes from the YZ-plane.
The intersection with a plane z = k or y = k', parallel to the XY- or
the ZX-plane, is seen to be a parabola whose equation is
y² = 4x - k2 or z² = 4x - k'².
These parabolas have the same value of p, namely p = 2, and their ver-
tices recede from the YZ- or the ZX-plane as k or k' increases numerically.
PROBLEMS
1. Discuss and draw the loci of the following equations :

(a) x² + z² = 4x. (k) x² + y² — -- z² = 0 .
(b) x² + y² + 4 z² = 16. ( 1 ) x2 - y2 - z² = 9.
(c) x² + y² - 4 z² = 16. (m ) x² + y².- z² + 2xy = 0.
(d) 6x + 4y + 3 z = 12. (n) x + y - 6 z = 6.
(e) 3x + 2y + z = 12. (o ) y² + z² = 25 .
(f) x + 2x - 4 = 0. ( p ) x² + y² — z² -— 1 = 0.
(g) x² + y² - 2 z = 0. ( q ) x² + y². z² + 1 = 0.
(h) x² + y² -- 2x -= 0. (r) 4x2 -y² - z² = 0.
( i ) x² + y² -— 4 = 0. ( s ) z2.— x y = 0.
(j ) y² + z² x - 4 = 0. (t ) x² + y² --
— 2 zx = 0 .
2. Show that the locus of Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 is a plane by con-
sidering its traces on the coördinate planes and the sections made by
planes parallel to one of the coördinate planes .
3. In each of the following find the equation of the locus of the point
and draw and discuss it :
(a) The sum of the distances of a point from the XZ-plane and the
YZ-plane equals twice its distance from the XY-plane increased by 4.
(b) The square of its distance from the Z-axis is equal to four times
its distance from the XY-plane.
(c) Its distance from the Z-axis is double its distance from the XY-
plane.
(d) Its distance from the Y-axis is twice the square root of its distance
from the YZ-plane .
(e) It is equally distant from the point (2 , 0 , 0) and the YZ- plane.
Ans. y² + z2 - 4x + 4 = 0.
( f) It is equally distant from the point (0, 2 , 0) and the X-axis.
(g), Its distance from the Z-axis is equal to its distance from the
YZ-plane increased by 2.
(h) Its distance from the point (0, 0, -

− 2) is equal to double its distance
from the XY-plane increased by unity.
(i ) Its distance from the point ( 1 , 0, 0) is equal to half its distance
from the YZ-plane diminished by one. Ans. 3x² + 4 y² + 4 z² − 3 = 0.
(j ) The product of the sum and the difference of its distances from
the XZ-plane and the YZ-plane respectively is equal to twice its distance
from the XY-plane .
point (0, 0, 3) is twice its distance from the XY-plane, and discuss the
locus. Ans. x² + y² -
— 3 z² -
— 6 z + 9 = 0.
point (0, 4, 0) is three fifths its distance from the ZX-plane, and discuss
the locus. Ans. 25 x² + 16 y² + 25 z² 200 y + 400 = 0.
CHAPTER XV
THE PLANE AND THE GENERAL EQUATION OF THE FIRST

DEGREE IN THREE VARIABLES
100. The normal form of the equation of the plane. Let ABC
be any plane, and let ON be drawn from the origin perpen-
dicular to ABC at D. Let the positive direction on ON be from
O toward N, that is,
from the origin to-
ward the plane, and
denote the directed
length OD by p and
the direction angles
of ON by a, B, and γ.
E A
Then the position of
any plane is deter-
mined by given posi-
B
tive values of p, α,
Y
B, and y.
If p = 0, the positive direction on ON, as just defined , becomes mean-
ingless. Ifp = 0, we shall suppose that ON is directed upward, and hence
π
cos y>0 since y < If the plane passes through OZ, then ON lies in the
2
XY-plane and cos y = 0 ; in this case we shall suppose ON so directed that
™
π
B < and hence cos B >0. Finally, if the plane coincides with the
2
YZ-plane, the positive direction on ON shall be that on OX.
Let us now solve the problem :

Given the perpendicular distance p from the origin to a plane
and the direction angles a, ß, y of this perpendicular, to find
the equation of the plane.
260
THE PLANE 261
Solution. Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the given plane

ABC. Draw the coördinates OE := x, EF = y, FP-= ≈ of P.
Project OEFP and OP on the line ON. By the second theorem
of projection ,
projection of OE + projection of EF + projection of FP

= projection of OP.
Then by the first theorem of projection and by the defini-

tion of p,
x cos a + y cos B + cos y = p.
Transposing, we obtain the
Theorem. Normal form. The equation of a plane is
(I) x cos a + y cos B + zcos y − p = 0,
where p istheperpendicular distance from the origin to theplane,

and a, B, and γ are the direction cosines ofthat perpendicular.
Corollary. The equation of any plane is of the first degree in

x, y, and z.
101. The general equation of the first degree, Ax + By + Cz

+ D = 0. The question now arises : Given an equation of the
first degree in the coördinates x, y, z ; what is the locus ? This
question is answered by the
Theorem. The locus of any equation of the first degree in

x, y, and z,
(II) Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 ,
is a plane.
Proof. We shall prove the theorem by showing that (II)

may be reduced to the normal form (I) by multiplying by a
proper constant. To determine this constant, multiply (II)
by k, which gives
(1) kAx + kBy + kCz + kD = 0.

Equating corresponding coefficients of (1) and (I) ,
(2) kA = cos α, kB = cos ẞ, kC = cos y, kD -p.
Squaring the first three of equations (2) and adding,

k² (A² + B² + C²) = cos²a + cos²ß + cos³y = 1.
1
(3) .. k =
± √A² + B² + C²
From the last of equations (2) we see that the sign of the
radical must be opposite to that of D in order that p shall be
positive.
Substituting from (3) in (2) , we get
A B
COS α = cos B =
± √A² + B² + C²
(4) C -D
cos y = p=
± √Ã²+ B² + C¹²² ± √A² + B² + C²
We have thus determined values of a, ß, y, and p such that

(I) and (II) have the same locus . Hence the locus of (II) is a
plane. Q. E.D.
If D = 0, then p = 0; and from the third of equations (2) the sign of
the radical must be the same as that of C, since when p = 0, cos y > 0. If
D = 0 and C = 0, then p = 0 and cosy = 0 ; and from the second of
equations (2) the sign of the radical must be the same as that of B, since
when p = 0 and cos y = 0, cos ẞ >0.
Equation (II) is called the general equation of the first degree

in x, y , and z. The discussion gives the
Rule to reduce the equation of a plane to the normal form.
Divide the equation by ± √2 + B + C , choosing the sign of
the radical opposite to that of D.
When D = 0, the sign of the radical must be the same as that

of C, the same as that of B if C = D = 0, or the same as that of
A if B = C = D = 0.
THE PLANE 263
From (4) we have the important

Theorem. The coefficients of x, y, and z in the equation of a
plane are proportional to the direction cosines of any line per-
pendicular to the plane.
From this theorem and Art. 90 we easily prove the following :
Corollary I. Two planes whose equations are
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, A'x + B'y + C'z + D' = 0
are parallel when and only when the coefficients ofx, y, and z are
proportional, that is, A B C
- =
A' B' C
Corollary II. Two planes are perpendicular when andonlywhen

AA ' + BB' + CC ' = 0.
Corollary III. A plane whose equation has the form

Ax + By + D = 0 is perpendicular to the XY-plane ;
By + Cz + D = 0 is perpendicular to the YZ-plane ;
Ax + Cz + D = 0 is perpendicular to the ZX-plane.
That is, if one variable is lacking, the plane is perpendicular to
the coördinate plane corresponding to the two variables which
occur in the equation.
For these planes are respectively perpendicular to the planes
2 == 0, x == 0, and y = 0 by Corollary II.
Corollary IV. A plane whose equation has the form

Ax + D = 0 is perpendicular to the axis of x ;
By + D = 0 is perpendicular to the axis ofy;
Cz + D = 0 is perpendicular to the axis of 2.
That is, iftwo variables are lacking, the plane is perpendicular
to the axis corresponding to the variable which occurs in the
equation.
For two of the direction cosines of a perpendicular to the
plane are now zero, and hence this line is parallel to one of the
axes and the plane is therefore perpendicular to that axis.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the intercepts on the axes and the traces on the coördinate
planes of each of the following planes and construct the figures :
(a) 2x + 3y + 4z - 24 = 0. (e) 5x - 7y - 35 = - 0.
(b) 7x 3y + z21 = 0. (f) 4x + 3x + 36 = 0.
(c) 9x - 7y ― 9z + 63 = 0. (g) 5y - 8% - 400.
(d) 6x + 4y - z + 12 = 0. (h) 3x + 5 % + 45 = 0.
2. What are the intercepts and the equations of the traces on the coör-
dinate planes of the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 ?
3. Find the equations of the planes and construct them by drawing

their traces, for which
π π π
(a) α = B= Y ==" p = 6. Ans. √2x + y + z −12 = 0.
3 3
2π 3п П
(b) α = 3 9 β - p = 8. Ans. x + √2y. - z + 16 = 0.
3
cos a COS = COS Y
(c) 6 Ans. 6x - 2y + 3 z 28 = 0.
- 3 p = 4.
cos α cos B COS Y
=
(d) 1 2 p = 2. Ans. 2x + y + 2 z + 6 = 0.
4. Find the equation of the plane such that the foot of the perpen-
dicular from the origin to the plane is the point
(a) (— 3, 2, 6) . Ans. 3x - 2y6z + 49 = 0.
(b) (4, 3, - 12) . Ans. 4x + 3y - 12 z 169 = 0.
(c) (2, 2, -
− 1). Ans. 2x + 2y -− z − 9 = 0.
5. Reduce the following equations to the normal form and find a, ß,

1
y, and p :
(a) 6x - 3y + 2 z −7 = 0 . Ans . cos- 1§ , cos- ¹ ( — § ) , cos— s- 12 , 1 .
2п п 2п
(b) x -V√2y + z + 8 = 0 . Ans. " " 4.
3 4 3
(c) 2x - 2y - z + 12 = 0 . Ans . cos - 1 (-3) , cos- s- 113, cos-1 }, 4.
п Зп п
(d) y z + 10 = 0. Ans. " 5√2.
2 4
(e) 3x + 2y6z = 0. Ans. cos - 1 ( - § ) , cos- ¹ ( — 4 ) , cos− 1§ , 0 .
6. Find the distance from the origin to the plane 12x - 4y + 3z - 39 = 0.
THE PLANE 265
7. Find the area of the triangle which the three coördinate planes cut
from each of the following planes :
(a) 2x + 2y + z -− 12 = 0. Ans. 54.
(b) 6x - 2y - 3 z + 21 = 0.
(c) 12x - 3y + 4z13 = 0. 27√5
(d) x + 5y + 7 z − 3 = 0. Ans.
70
(e) x - - 2y + 3z - 6 = 0.
-
(f) 9x + 2y 2 + 18 = 0.
Hint. Find the volume of the tetrahedron formed by the four planes by find-
ing the intercepts. Set this equal to the product of the required area by one
third the distance of the given plane from the origin, and solve.
8. Find the distance between the parallel planes 6x + 2y - 3z - 63 = 0
and 6x + 2y - 3 z + 49 = 0. Ans. 14.
9. Find the equation of a plane parallel to the plane 2x + 2y + z− -
150 and two units nearer to the origin .
10. Show that the following pairs of planes are either parallel or per-
pendicular :
2x + 5y - 6z + 8 = 0, 6 x - 3y + 2z - 7 = 0,
(a) 6x + 15y18z5 = 0. ( c) { 3x + 2y = 62 + 28 = 0.
3x - 5y - 4z + 7 = 0, 14x -7y -- 21z - 50 = 0,
(d)
(b) { 6x + 2y + 2z --- 7 = 0. 2x -− y - 3 z + 12 = 0.
11. What may be said of the position of the plane (I) , Art. 100, if
(a) cos α == 0? (c) cos y == 0 ? (e) cos B = COS Y - 0?
(b) cos ẞ = 0 ? (d) cos a = cos ẞ = 0 ? (f) cos y = cos a - 0?
12. For what values of a, ß, y, and p will the locus of (I) , Art. 100, be
parallel to the XY-plane ? the YZ-plane ? the ZX-plane ? coincide with
one of these planes ?
13. For what values of α, ß, y, and p will the locus of (I) , Art . 100 ,
pass through the X-axis ? the Y-axis ? the Z-axis ?
14. Find the coördinates of the point of intersection of the planes
x + 2y + z = 0, x − 2 y − 8 = 0, x + y + z − 3 = 0. Ans. (2, - 3, 4) .
15. Show that the plane x + 2y -- 2 z - 90 passes through the point
of intersection of the planes x + y + z- 1 = 0 , x − y − z - 1 = 0, and
2x + 3y - 8 = 0.
16. Show that the four planes x + y + 2 z - 2 = 0, x + y· 2z + 2 = 0,
xy + 8 = 0, and 3xy - 2z + 18 = O pass through the same point.
17. Show that the planes 2x − y + z + 3 =· 0, x - − y + 4 z = 0, 3 x +
y − 2z + 8 = 0 , 4 x -
− 2 y + 2 z -− 50 , 9 x + 3y - 6z - 7 = 0, and 7x -
7y + 28z - 6 = 0 bound a parallelepiped .
18. Showthat the planes 6x - 3y + 2z = 4,3x + 2y6 z = 10, 2x +

6y + 3z9, 3x + 2y −6z 0, 12x + 36 y + 18 z -- 11 = 0, and 12x
6y + 4z - 17 0 bound a rectangular parallelepiped .
− 2-
19. Show that the planes x + 2y − z = 0, y + 7 z - = 0, x -
− 2y —
- ---
z − 4 = 0, 2 x + y 8 = 0, and 3x + 3y − z − 8 = 0 bound a quadrangu-
lar pyramid.
20. Derive the conditions for parallelism of two planes from the fact
that two planes are parallel if all their traces are parallel lines.
102. Planes determined by three conditions . The equation

(1) Ax + By + C≈ + D = 0
represents, as we know, all planes . The statement of a problem,
to find the equation of a certain plane, may be such that we are
able to write down three homogeneous equations in the coeffi-
cients A, B, C , D, which we can then solve for three coefficients
in terms of the fourth. When these values are substituted in
(1) , the fourth coefficient will divide out, giving the required
equation.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the point
P₁ (2, -7, ) and is parallel to the plane 21 x 12 y + 28 z -
— 84 = 0.
Solution. Let the equa- ZA
tion of the required plane be
(2) Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.
Since P₁ lies on (2) , we
ཐཱ་
may substitute x = 2, y = -7,

2 = 2, giving
(3) 2 A − 7 B + ½ C + D = 0 .
Since (2) is parallel to the
given plane (Corollary I ,
p . 263),
A B - C
(4) 21 - - 12 28
Y
Equations (3) and (4) are
three homogeneous equations in A, B, C, D.
Solving (3) and (4) for A , B, and D in terms of C,
A1 = 3 C, B = -- C, D = -6 C.
THE PLANE 267
Substituting in (2) , & Cx - & Cy + Cz - 6 C = 0.

Clearing of fractions and dividing by C ,
21 x - 12 y + 28 z -- 168 = 0. Ans.
The answer should be checked by testing whether the coördinates of P₁
satisfy the answer.
2. To find the equation of a plane passing through three points, sub-
stitute for x, y, and z in ( 1) the coördinates of each of the three points.
Then three equations involving A , B, C, and D will be obtained , which
may be solved for three of these coefficients in terms of the fourth .
It is convenient to write down the equation of a plane passing through
three given points (x1 , 1 , 1 ) , (X2, Y2 , Z2) , (X3, Yg, Zg) in the form of a deter-
minant. This is x У Z 1
x1 Y1 21 = 0.
(5)
X2 Y2 Z2 1
X3 Y3 Z3
In fact, when (5) is expanded in terms of the elements of the first row,
an equation of the first degree in x, y, and z results. Hence (5) is the
equation of a plane. Further, (5) is satisfied when the coördinates of
any one of the three given points are substituted for x, y, and z, since
then two rows become identical. Hence the plane (5) passes through the
given points.
The equation (5) may be used also to determine whether four given
points lie in a plane.
If we write (5) , when expanded , in the form
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0,
then the coefficients are the determinants of the third order,
Y1 21 1 X1 Z₁ 1 X1 Y1 1 X1 Y1 Z1
A:= Y2 Z2 B= X2 Z2 9 C = X2 Y2 1 D= X2 Y2 Z2
Y3 Zg X3 Z3 X3 Y3 X3 Y3 Z3
PROBLEMS
Check the answer in each of the following :
1. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the points
(2, 3, 0) , ( — 2, -- 3, 4) , and (0, 6, 0) . Ans. 3x + 2y + 6 z − 12 = 0.
(1, 1 , − 1 ) , ( — 2 , -
— 2 , 2) , and ( 1 , — 1 , 2) . Ans. x - 3y -— 2 z = 0.
(3, 3, 2) and is parallel to the plane 3 x - y + z − 6 = 0 .
Ans. 3x y + z -- − 14 = 0.
(0, 3, 0) and (4, 0, 0) and is perpendicular to the plane 4 x -6 y -
− z = 12.
Ans. 3x + 4y - 12 z -- 12 = 0.
(0, 0, 4) and is perpendicular to each of the planes 2 x -
− 3 y = 5 and
x-.4 % = = 3. Ans. 12x8 y + 3 z - − 12 = 0.
•
6. Find the equation of the plane whose intercepts on the axes are
3, 5, and 4 . Ans. 20 x 12 y + 15 z - − 60 = 0.
(2, 1, 6) and is parallel to the plane x - 2 y − 3 z + 4 = 0.
Ans. x--2y - 3 z + 14 = 0.
(2, -− 1, 6) and (1 , — 2 , 4) and is perpendicular to the plane x — 2y -
2z + 9 = 0. Ans. 2x + 4y ― 3 z + 18 - = 0.
9. Find the equation of the plane whose intercepts are - — 1 , -− 1 , and 4 .
Ans. 4x + 4y - z +4 - 0.
(4, 2, 0) and is perpendicular to the planes x + y − z = 0 and 2x —
4 y + z = 5. Ans. x + y + 2 z - 2 = 0.
11. Show that the four points (2 , 3, 4) , (1 , 0, 2) , (2 , -- 1, 2), and
(1, -− 1 , 3) lie in a plane.
12. Show that the four points (1 , 0, - − 1) , (3, 4, - 3) , (8, - — 2, 6), and
(2, 2, -— 2) lie in a plane.
13. Find the equation of the plane which is perpendicular to the line
joining (3, 4, - — 1 ) and (5, 2, 7) at its middle point.
Ans. xy + 4 z -− 13 = 0.
14. Find the equations of the faces of the tetrahedron whose vertices
are the points (0 , 3, 1 ) , (2 , — 7, 1 ) , (0, 5 , — 4) , and (2 , 0, 1) .
Ans. 25x + 5y + 2z = 17, 5 x 2 z = 8, z = 1, 15 x + 10 y + 4 z = 34.
15. The equations of three faces of a parallelepiped are x 4 y = 3,
2x -− y + z = 3, and 3x + y − 2 z = 0 , and one vertex is the point
(3, 7, -
— 2) . What are the equations of the other three faces ?
Ans. x4y + 25 = 0, 2 x − y + z + 3 = 0, 3 x + y -− 2 z = 20.
16. Find the equation of the plane whose intercepts are a, b, c.
x У Z
Ans. + + = 1.
a b c
17. What are the equations of the traces of the plane in Problem 16 ?
How might these equations have been anticipated from plane analytic
geometry ?
THE PLANE 269
P₁1 (x1 , 1, 1) and is parallel to the plane A₁x + B₁y + С₁² + D₁ = 0.
Дns. A₁ (x - − x₁) + B₁ (y -
− y₁ ) + C₁ (≈ − z₁ ) = 0 .
19. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the origin and
P₁1 ( 1 , 1 , 1 ) and is perpendicular to the plane 4, + B₁y + C₁z + D₁ = 0.
-
Ans. (B₁₁ - C1 ¥₁) ≈ + ( С₁₁— A₁²₁) ÿ + (A₁₁ — B₁₁) ≈ = 0.
103. The equation of a plane in terms of its intercepts .

Theorem. Ifa, b, and c are respectively the intercepts of a plane
on the axes of X, Y, and Z, then the equation of the plane is
x y Z
-= 1.
(III) a+ b+
Proof. Let the equation of the required plane be
(1) Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.
Then we know three points in the plane, namely
(a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0), (0, 0, c).
These coördinates must satisfy (1) . Hence

Aa D = 0, Bb + D = 0, Cc + D = 0.
D D D
Whence A == B =- C
a c
Substituting in ( 1) , dividing by ―- D, and transposing, we

obtain (III). Q. E. D.
104. The perpendicular distance from a plane to a point. The

positive direction on any line perpendicular to a plane is
assumed to agree with that on the line drawn through the ori-
gin perpendicular to the plane (Art. 100) . Hence the distance
from a plane to the point P,1 is positive or negative according
as P₁ and the origin are on opposite sides of the plane or not .
If the plane passes through the origin, the sign of the distance from
the plane to P₁1 must be determined by the conventions for the special
cases in Art. 100.
We now solve the problem : Given the equation of a plane

and a point, to find the perpendicular distance from the plane
to the point.
Solution . Let the point be P₁1 (x₁ , y₁ , ₁) and assume that the
equation of the given plane is in the normal form
(1) x cos a +y cosẞ + cos y ―p = 0. Ꮓ
Let d equal the required distance.

Draw OP Projecting OP₁ on
ON, we evidently get p + d.
Projecting OE, EF, and FP, on
ON, we get respectively x, cos a, EX
y₁ cos ẞ, and z₁ cos y. F

Then, by the second theorem of
projection, Y
p + d = x₁cos a + y₁cos B + 2₁ cos y.

.. d = x₁ cos a + y₁ cos ẞ + ₁ COS y - p.
Hence the perpendicular distance d is the number obtained

by substituting the coördinates of the given point for x, y, and
z in the left-hand member of (1) . Whence the
Rule to find the perpendicular distance d from a given plane

to a given point.
Reduce the equation of the plane to the normal form. Place
d equal to the left-hand member of this equation.
Substitute the coördinates of the given point for x, y, and z.
The result is the required distance.
For example : To find the perpendicular distance from the plane

2x + y - 2 z + 80 to the point ( 1 , 2, 3) . Dividing the equation
by - 3, we have
+ y - 2z + 8
d:= 2x 2 (-1) +22 ( 3) + 8 - . Ans.
3 3
Hence the given point is on the same side of the plane as the origin .
THE PLANE 271
The rule gives for the perpendicular distance d from the plane
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
to the point (x , y , z ) the result
(2) d = Ax₁ + By₁ + C²₁ + D

± √A² + B² + C¹²
the sign of the radical being determined as above (Art. 101) .
105. The angle between two planes. The plane angle of one
pair of dihedral angles formed by two intersecting planes is evi-
dently equal to the angle between the positive directions of the
perpendiculars to the planes. That angle is called the angle
between the planes.
Theorem. The angle 0 between the two planes

Ax + B₁y + C₁≈ + D₁1 = 0 and A¸x + By + Ç² + D₂ = 0 is
given by
A₁₂ + B₁B₂ + C₁C2
(IV) cos Ꮎ =
± √A² + B² + C² × ± √A² + B² + C²
the signs of the radicals being chosen as in Art. 101.
Proof. By definition the angle between the planes is the

angle between their normals.
The direction cosines of the normals to the planes are
A₁ A2
cos α₁ = COS α2 =
土 √Ã² + B² + C² ± √A² + B² + C²
B₁ B₂
cos B₁ = cos B2 =
± VA + Bỉ + C ± √A² + B² + C2
C₁ C2
COS Yı = " COS Y2
± √A² + B² + CR ± √A + B + C2
By (V) , Art. 90, we have
cos = cos a cos a₂ + cos B₁ cos ß₂ + cos γι COS Y2
Substituting the values of the direction cosines of the
normals, we obtain (IV) . Q. E. D.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the distance from the plane

(a) 6x - 3y + 2z - 100 to the point (4 , 2 , 10) . Ans. 4.
(b) x + 2y −2z - 12 = 0 to the point (1 , -— 2, 3) . Ans. - 7.
(c) 4x + 3y + 12 z + 6 = 0 to the point (9, -1 , 0) . Ans. -- 3 .
(d) 2 x - 5y + 3z - 40 to the point ( — 2, 1 , 7) . Ans. V38.
2. Do the origin and the point (3, 5, - 2 ) lie on the same side of the
plane 7xy - 3z + 6 = 0 ? Ans. Yes.
3. Does the point (1 , 6, 0) lie on the same side of the plane
-3 z = 6 as the origin ?
x + 2y −
4. Find the length of the altitude which is drawn from the first vertex
of the tetrahedron whose vertices are (0, 3, 1 ) , ( 2 , -
— 7 , 1 ) , (0 , 5, — 4) , and
(2 , 0, 1) . Ans. 18 √29.
5. Find the volume of the tetrahedron formed by the point (1 , 2, 1)
and the points where the plane 3x + 4y + 2 z -− 12 = 0 intersects the
coördinate axes.
6. Find the volumes of the tetrahedrons having the following vertices :
(a) (3, 4, 0) , (4, — 1 , 0) , (1 , 2 , 0) , (6, — 1, 4) . Ans. 8.
(b) (0, 0, 4) , (3 , 0, 0) , (0, 2, 0) , (7, 7, 3) .
(c) (4 , 0, 0) , (0, 4, 0) , (0, 0, 4) , (7 , 3, 2) .
(d) (3, 0, 0), (0, 2, 0) , (0 , 0, -·1) , (3 , — 1 , − 1). Ans. 3.
(e) (1 , 0, 0) , (0, 1 , 0) , (0, 0, 2), (4, — 1 , 3) .
(f) (3, 0, 0) , (0, 5, 0) , (0, 0, 1) , (3, -- 4, 0) .
7. Find the angles between the following pairs of planes :
(a) 2x + y - 2z90, x -- 2y + 2z0. Ans. cos-1 (- § ).
(b) x + y - 4z 0,3 y 3 z + 7 = 0 . Ans. cos- 1 .
(c) 4x + 2y + 4 z −7 - = 0 , 3 x - 4y = 0. Ans. cos-1 (- 1²3).
π•
-- y + z = 7 , x + y + 2 z =
(d) 2 x − = 11. Ans.
3
(e) 3x - 2y + 6 z = 0, x + 2y ― 2z + 5 = 0.
(f) x + 5y3z +8 0, 2x -· 3y + z - 5 = 0.
8. Show that the angle given by (V) is that angle formed by the planes
which does not contain the origin .
9. Find the vertex and the dihedral angles of that trihedral angle
formed by the planes x + y + z = 2 , x − y − 2 z = 4, and 2x + y − z = 2 in
which the origin lies . 1 2π
Ans. (4, 4, 2) , cos- 1 √2, COS -1
3 (-/ v/2)
THE PLANE 273
2π
(0, — 1,0) and (0, 0, -
− 1 ) and which makes an angle of with the plane
3
y + z = 7.
Ans. ± √6x + y + z + 1 = 0 .
11. Find the locus of points which are equally distant from the planes
2 x - y — 2z - 30 and 6 x - − 3 y + 2 z + 4 = 0.
Ans. 32x - 16y8z9 = 0.
12. Find the locus of a point which is three times as far from the plane
3x6y - 2z = 0 as from the plane 2x - y + 2 z = 9.
Ans. 17x13 y + 12 z - 63 = 0.
plane x + y + z − 1 = 0 is equal to its distance from the origin.
plane x + y - 1 equals its distance from the Z-axis .
Ans. (xy)² + 2 (x + y) − 1 = 0 .
15. Find the equation of the locus of a point, the sum of the squares of
whose distances from the planes x + y − z - − 1 = 0 and x + y + z + 1 = 0
is equal to unity. Ans. 2 (x + y)² + 2 z (z + 2 ) − 1 = 0 .
106. Systems of planes . The equation of a plane which sat-

isfies two conditions will, in general, contain an arbitrary con-
stant, for it takes three conditions to determine a plane . Such
an equation therefore represents a system of planes.
Systems of planes are used to find the equation of a plane
satisfying three conditions in the same manner that systems
of lines are used to find the equation of a line (Art. 36) .
Three important systems of planes are the following :
The system ofplanes parallel to a given plane

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
is represented by
(V) Ax + By + Cz + k = 0,
where k is an arbitrary constant.
The plane (V) is obviously parallel to the given plane (Corol-

lary I, Art. 101) .
The system of planes passing through the line of intersection

of two given planes
Ax + By + C≈ + D₁ = 0, A¸x + By + C + D₂2 = 0
is represented by
(VI) A₁x + B₁y + С₁z + D₁ + k ( A₂x + B₂y + C₂z + D2) = 0 ,
where k is an arbitrary constant.
Clearly, the coördinates of any point on the line of intersec-

tion will satisfy the equations of both of the given planes, and
hence will satisfy (VI) also.
The equation of a system of planes which satisfy a single
condition must contain two arbitrary constants. One of the
most important systems of this sort is the following :
The system ofplanes passing through a given point P1 (X₁, Y₁, ≈ ₁)

is represented by
(VII) · A(x − x₁ ) + B (y — y₁ ) + C (z — Z₁ ) = 0 .
Equation (VII ) is the equation of a plane which passes

through P₁, for the coördinates of P₁1 obviously satisfy it.
Again, if any plane whose equation is
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
passes through P,, then
Ax₁ + By + Cz₁ + D = 0.
Subtracting, we get (VII). Hence (VII) represents all

planes passing through P.
Equation (VII) contains two arbitrary constants , namely, the
ratio of any two coefficients to the third.
In the following problems write down the equation of the
appropriate system of planes and then determine the unknown
parameters from the remaining data.
THE PLANE 275
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the value of k such that the plane x + ky - 2 z - 9 = 0

shall
(a) pass through the point (5 , —- 4, - 6). Ans. 2.
(b) be parallel to the plane 6 x - 2y - 12z7 . Ans. - - 3.
(c) be perpendicular to the plane 2 x - 4 y + z = 3. Ans. 0.
(d) be 3 units from the origin . Ans. 2.
π -
(e) make an angle of 3 with the plane 2 x 2 y + z = 0.
Ans. -一号 35.
(3, 2, -1 ) and is parallel to the plane 7 x - y + z = 14.
Ans. 7x y + z - 18 = 0.
3. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the inter-
section of the planes 2x + y -− 4 = 0 and y + 2 z = 0, and which
(a) passes through the point (2, -
− 1 , 1) ; (b) is perpendicular to the plane
3x + 2y - 3 z = 6.
Ans. (a) x + y + z - 2 0; (b) 2x + 3y + 4z - 4 = 0.
4. Find the equations of the planes which bisect the angles formed
by the planes
(a) 2xy + 2 z = 0 and x + 2 y -- − 2 z = 6.
Ans. 3x + y -— 6 = 0 , x − 3 y + 4 z + 6 = 0.
(b) 6x - 2y - 3 z = 0 and 4x + 3y - 13 z = 10.
5. Find the equations of the planes passing through the line of inter-
section of the planes 2 x + y - z 4 and x- y + 2z0 which are per-
pendicular to the coördinate planes.
Ans. 5x + y 8,3x + z = 4,3y - 5z = 4.
6. Findthe equation of a plane parallel to the plane 6x - 3y + 2z + 21 = 0

and tangent to a sphere of unit radius whose center is the origin.
7. Find the equation of a plane parallel to the plane 6x - 2y - 3z + 35 = 0
and such that the point (0, -2 , -1 ) lies midway between the two planes.
8. Find the equation of a plane through the point (2 , - 3, 0) , and
having the same trace on the XZ-plane as the plane x - 3y + 7 z − 2 = 0.
9. Find the equation of a plane parallel to the plane 2x + y + 2z + 5 = 0,
and forming a tetrahedron of unit volume with the three coördinate
planes.
10. Find the equation of a plane parallel to the plane 5x + 3y + z − 7 = 0
if the sum of its intercepts is 23.
11. Find the equation of a plane parallel to the plane 2x + 6y +

3 z 8 - 0, upon which the area intercepted by the coördinate planes
in the first octant is 7. Ans. 2x + 6y + 3 z -
− 3 = 0.
12. Find the equation of a plane parallel to the plane 2x + y +
2z50 and such that the entire surface of the tetrahedron which it
forms with the coördinate planes is unity . Ans. 2x + y + 2z ± 1 = 0 .
13. Find the equation of a plane having the trace x + 3y - 2 = 0 and
forming a tetrahedron of volume with the coördinate planes.
Ans. 3x + 9 y + z − 6 = 0.
14. Find the equation of a plane passing through the intersection of
the two planes 6x + 2y + 3 z − 6 = 0 and x + y + z −1 = 0 and forming
a tetrahedron of unit volume with the coördinate planes.
Ans. 12x8 y - 3 z - 12 = 0.
15. A point moves so that the volume of the tetrahedron which it
forms with the three points (2 , 0, 0) , (0 , 6 , 0) , and (0 , 0, 4) is always
equal to 2. Find the equation of its locus.
16. A point moves so that the sum of its distances from the three
coördinate planes is unity. Determine the equation of the locus of a
second point which bisects the line joining the first with the origin.
17. Find the equation of the plane passing through the intersection of
the planes A + B₁у + С₁² + D₁ = 0 and A¸¤ + B₂y + C₂² + D₂ = 0
which passes through the origin .
Ans. (A¸Ð½ – A½Ð₁) ≈ + (В₁Ð½ - — B₂D₁) y + ( C₁D₂ -
− C₂D1) z = 0.
18. Find the equations of the planes which bisect the angles formed
by the planes A₁≈ + B₁у + С₁≈ + D₁ = 0 and A¸¤ + B₂y + C₂² + D₂ = 0.
Ans . A₁x + B₁у + C₁² + D₁ = ± A + By + Caz + Dą
√A² + B² + C² √A² + B2² + C2
19. Find the equations of the planes passing through the intersection
of the planes A₁≈ + В₁у + С₁² + D₁ = 0 and A2x + B₂y + C₂² + D₂ = 0
which are perpendicular to the coördinate planes.
Ans. (ABA, B ) y - (C₁A₂- C₂A₁ ) 2+ A₁D₂- AD₁ = 0,
(A₁B₂- AB₁ ) - (B₁С₂- 2 B₂С₁ ) ≈ -
— (B₁D - — B¸D₁ ) = 0,
- -
(С₁A₂ — С₂A₁) x − (B₁С₂ — B₂C₁ ) } + С₁D₂ − С₂D₁ = 0.
CHAPTER XVI
THE STRAIGHT LINE IN SPACE
107. General equations of the straight line. A straight line

may be regarded as the intersection of any two planes which
pass through it. The equations of the planes regarded as
simultaneous are the equations of the line of intersection,
and hence the
Theorem. The equations of a straight line are of the first

degree in x, y, and z.
Conversely, the locus of two equations of the first degree is a

straight line unless the planes which are the loci of the separate
equations are parallel. Hence we have the
Theorem. The locus of two equations ofthe first degree,
A₁x + B₁y + C₁≈ + D₁ = 0,

(I)
Ax + By + Co≈ + D₂ = 0,
is a straight line unless the coefficients of x, y, and z are

proportional.
To plot a straight line we need to know only the coördinates

of two points on the line. The easiest points to obtain are
usually those lying in the coördinate planes , which we get by
setting one of the variables equal to zero and solving for the
other two, as in the following example.
The direction of a line is known when its direction cosines
are known. The method of obtaining these will now be
illustrated.
277
EXAMPLES
1. Find the direction cosines of the line whose equations are

(1) 3x + 2y - z - 1 = 0, 2 x - y + 2 z -- − 3 = 0.
Solution. Let us find the point where the line pierces the XY-plane.
To do this, let z = 0 in both equations. Then solving the resulting
equations 3x + 2y - — 1 = 0 and 2xy - 3 = 0 for x and y, we find the
required point is ( 1 , -1 , 0) . Similarly, putting y = 0, the point on the
line in the ZX-plane is ( §, 0, 1) .
Hence A ( 1 , -
− 1, 0) and B (§, 0, 3) are two points on the line.
Let the required direction cosines of AB be cos a, cos ẞ, and cosy.
Then, by the corollary of Art. 89,
COS α cos B COS Y
(2)
1- 용 0 0-
or, reducing (multiplying the denominators by 8) ,
cos a cosB COS Y
(3)
3 8 -7
The direction cosines may now be found as usual (Art. 88) .
A second method is the following :
cos α cos B COS Y
(4) Assume
a b c
The coefficients 3, 2 , and 1 in the first plane of (1 ) are proportional
to the direction cosines of a perpendicular to that plane. The required
line lies in this plane . Hence (corollary, Art . 90)
(5) 3a + 2b c = 0.
For the same reason, using the second plane in (1 ) ,
(6) 2 a b + 2 c = 0.
Solving (5) and (6) for the ratios of a, b, and c, the result is
8a =-· 3b, 7α a = - 3 c.
α b - c
(7) ... =
3 -8 -
Combining (7) and (4) , we have the previous result (3) .
2. Find the direction cosines of the line (I) .
Solution. The direction cosines cos a, cos B, cos y must satisfy
A₁ cos a + B₁ cos ẞ + C₁1 cosy = 0, A, cos a + B₂ cos ẞ + C₂ cos y == 0,
reasoning as in Ex. 1 .
THE STRAIGHT LINE IN SPACE 279
Solving these equations for the ratios, we have the

Theorem. If a, B, and y are the direction angles of the line (I ) , then
COS a cos B COS Y
= = •
B1C2 - B2C1 C142 — C2A1 A₁B₂- A2B₁
The denominators are readily remembered as the three determinants
of the second order
B₁ C₁ C₁ A₁ A, B₁ 9
B₂ "
2 C₂2 AA B₂
formed from the coefficients of x, y, and z in (I) .
PROBLEMS
1. Find the points in which the following lines pierce the coördinate
planes, and construct the lines :
(a) 2x + y - z = 2 , x − y +2 z = 4. (c) x + 2y = 8, 2x - 4y = 7.
(b) 4x + 3y - 6 z = 12 , 4 x -
− 3 y = 2 . (d) y + z = 4, x − y +2 z = 10.
2. Find the direction cosines of the following lines :
(a) 2xy + 2 z = - 0 , x + 2y — 2 z = 4.
Ans. ± √65, F¿½√65, F1½√65.
(b) x + y + z = 5, x — y + z = 3 . Ans. V2, 0, 12.
(c) 3x + 2y - z = 4, x - 2y - 2 z = 5. Ans. ± √5, FV , ± √5.
(d) x + y −3 z = 6 , 2 x − y +3 z = 3 . Ans. 0, 10, 10.
(e) x + y - 6, 2 x -- 3 z = 5. Ans. V22, F2√22, ± √22.
(f) y + 3 z = 4, 3 y - 5 z = 1 . Ans. 1 , 0, 0.
(g) 2x - 3y + z = 0, 2 x − 3 y −2z = 6. Ans . ± √13, ± √13, 0 .
(h) 5x14z - 7 = 0 , 2 x + 7 z = 19. Ans. 0, 1, 0.
3. Show that the lines of the following pairs are parallel and construct
the lines :
(a) 2 y + z - = 0, 3 y - 4 z = 7 ; and 5 y - 2 z = 8, 4 y + 11 z = 44.
(b) x + 2y- z = 7 , y + z - 2x = 6 ; and 3x + 6y - 3z = 8,2 x ― y — z = 0.
(c) 3x + z = 4, y + 2 z = 9 ; and 6xy = 7, 3 y + 6 z = 1 .
4. Show that the lines of the following pairs meet in a point and are
perpendicular :
(a) x + 2y = 1 , 2 y -
− z = 1 ; and x -
− y = 1 , x - 2 z = 3.
(b) 4x + y -- 3 z + 24 = 0, z = 5 ; and x + y + 3 = 0 , x + 2 = 0.
(c) 3x + y − z 1,2x - z - 2 ; and 2x y + 2z - 4, x --y + 2z = 3.
=
5. Find the angles between the following lines, assuming that they are
directed upward , or in front of the ZX-plane :
π
(a) x + y − z = 0, y + z = 0 ; and x y = 1, x − 3 y + z = 0. Ans.
3
(b) x + 2y + 2 z = 1 , x − 2 z 1 ; and 4x + 3y − z + 1 = 0, 2 x + 3y = 0.
Ans. cos-11 .
(c) x -- 2y + z = 2, 2 y − z = 1 ; and x -2y + z = 2, x -− 2y + 2 z = 4.
Ans . cos-1 .
6. Find the equations of the planes through the line
x+ y- − z = : 0, 2 x -
− y + 3 z = 5,
which are perpendicular to the coördinate planes.
Ans. 3x + 2z = 5 , 3 y -− 5 z + 5 = 0 , 5x + 2y = 5.
7. Show analytically that the intersections of the planes x - 2 y − z = 3

and 2x4 y 2z = 5 with the plane x + y - 3 z = 0 are parallel lines.
8. Verify analytically that the intersections of any two parallel planes

with a third plane are parallel lines .
108. The projecting planes of a line . The three planes pass-

ing through a given line and perpendicular to the coördinate
planes are called the project-
ing planes of the line. ZA
B2
If the line is perpendicular to 8
B3 A2
one of the coördinate planes, any B
plane containing the line is per-
pendicular to that plane. In this
case we speak of but two project- A
ing planes, namely, those drawn A3
through the line perpendicular
to the other coördinate planes.
Bi
If the line is parallel to one
of the coördinate planes, two of Y
the projecting planes coincide.
By (VI) , Art. 106, the equation of any plane through the line
(1) 3x + 2y - 10, 2x - y + 2z - 3 = 0
has the form
3x + 2y - 1 + k (2x - y + 2z - 3) = 0.
"
Multiplying out and collecting terms ,

(2) (3 + 2k) x + (2 −k) y + ( - 1 + 2k) ≈ 1-3 k = 0.
This plane will be perpendicular to the XY- plane when the
coefficient of equals zero, that is , if k . Writing this value
of k in (2) and reducing,
(3) 4x + 3y = 0, or 8x + 3y - 5 = 0.
This is therefore the equation of the projecting plane of the
line (1 ) on XY, that is, of the plane ABA,B, of the figure.
Now equation (3) is simply the result obtained by eliminating
zfrom the equations (1) ; namely, we multiply the first of equa-
tions (1) by 2 and add it to the second. Hence the result :
To find the equations of the projecting planes of a line, elim-
inate x, y, and z in turn from the given equations.
Thus, to finish the example begun, eliminating y from (1) ,
we find 7x + 3-70 for the projecting plane on XZ.
Eliminating x, we get 7y - 8x + 7 = 0 for the equation of
the projecting plane on YZ.
Special forms of the projecting planes will indicate special
positions of the line relative to the coördinate planes. These
cases should be noted in the following problems .
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equations of the projecting planes of the following lines :
(a) 2x + y z = 0, x - − y + 2 z = 3.
Ans. 5x + y = 3 , 3x + z = 3, 3 y -− 5 z + 6 = 0 .
(b) x + y + z = 6, x —―y — 2 z = 2.
Ans. 3x + y = 14, 2 x − z = 8 , 2y + 3 z = 4.
(c) 2x + y 2 = 1 , x − y + z = 2 .
Ans. Line parallel to YZ. x = 1, y −z + 1 = 0.
(d) x + y - 4 z = 1 , 2x + 2y + z = 0.
Ans. Line parallel to XY. 9x + 9y = 1 , 9 z + 2 = 0 .
(e) 2y + 3z = 6, 2 y 3 z = 18.
Ans. Line parallel to OX. y = 6, z = - 2 .
(f) 2xy + z = 0, 4 x + 3y + 2z = 6. Ans. 5y = 6, 10x + 5 z = 6.
(g) x + z = 1, x − z = 3 . Ans. x = 2, z =:-— 1.
2. Reduce the equations of the following lines to the given answers and
construct the lines :
(a) x + y 2 z = 0, x — y + z = 4. Ans. x = 1 z + 2 , y = { z - 2.
(b) x + 2y - z = 2, 2x + 4y + 2 z = 5 . Ans. z = 4, y = --1 x + Z ·
(c ) x - 2y + z = 4, x + 2y -− z = 6. Ans. x = 5, y = 1 z + 1 .
(d) x + 3 z =- 6, 2x + 5z8. Ans. z = 4, x = 6.
(e) x + 2y - 2 z = 2 , 2 x + y −4z = 1 . Ans. x = 2z , y = 1 .
(f) x - - y + z = 3, 3x 3y + 2z = 6. Ans. z = 3, y = x.
3. Find the equations of the line passing through the points (-2, 2, 1 )
and (-8 , 5, - 2) . Ans. x = 2 z - 4, y ==
= - z + 3.
4. Find the equations of the projection of the line x z +2 , y = 2 z — 4
upon the plane x + y z = 0. Ans. x = { z + 1451, y =
¹¹
5. Find the equations of the projection of the line z = 2, y = x - 2
upon the plane x - 2y - 3 z = 4. Ans. x = - 5% +4, y =-- 4 z .
6. Show that the equations of a line may be written in one of the forms
y = mx + a, [ x = α, [ x = a,
z = nx + b, z = my + b, \ y = b,
according as it pierces the YZ-plane, is parallel to the YZ-plane, or is
parallel to the Z-axis.
7. Show that the condition that the line x = mz + a, y = nz + b should
α-- a' - b- b'
intersect the line x = m'z + a', y == n'z + b' is
m- m' n - — n'
109. Various forms of the equations of a straight line.

Theorem. Parametric form. The coördinates of any point
P(x, y, z) on the line through a given point P (x , y, z ) whose
direction angles are a, B, and y are given by
(II) x = x₁ + p cosa, y = y₁ + p cos ß, z = z₁ + p cosy,
where ρ denotes the variable directed length P¸P.
Proof. The projections of PP on the axes are respectively

x—-- x19
C -
YY1 2 -21
But, by the first theorem of projection, these are also equal to
p cos α, p cos B, p cos y.
Hence
X — x1 = ρ cos a, y Y₁ = p cos B, 2-2₁ = p cos y.
Solving for x, y, and z, we obtain (II). Q. E.D.

Theorem. Symmetric form. The equations of the line passing
through the point P₁ (x , y , z ) whose direction angles are a, B,
and y have the form
x - x1 y - Yı - Z- Z1.
(III) =
cos a cosB cosy
To obtain (III) , solve each of the equations of ( II) for p and

equate results.
cos a COS Υ .
Corollary. If = cos B = , then the symmetric equa-
a b C
tions ofthe line may be written in the form
x--X1 y - y₁ Z - Z1
- =
(IV) a b c
Theorem. Two-point form. The equations of the straight line

passing through P₁ (x , y, z ) and P₂2 (X , Y ) are
x - x1 y - y₁ Z- Z1
(V) = =
-
X2 -X1 -
Proof. The line (III) passes through P,. If it also passes

through P₂, then the coördinates x2, y2, and 22 may be substi-
tuted for x, y, and 2, and therefore
X2 ― X1 = Y2 - Y1 = 21.
Cos a cos B COS Y
Dividing (III) by this result, we obtain (V) . Q. E. D.

Equations (III) - (V) each involve three equations, namely
those obtained by neglecting in turn one of the three ratios.
These equations are, in different form, the equations of the
projecting planes, since one variable is lacking in each. Any
two of the three equations are independent and may be used
as the equations of the line, but all three are usually retained
for the sake of their symmetry . In (IV) and (V) , note that the
denominators are numbers proportional to the direction cosines
of the line .
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equations of the lines which pass through the following
pairs of points, reduce them to the given answers, and construct the lines :
(a) (3, 2, -― 1) , (2 , - 3, 4) . Ans. x = -− } z + ¹¹ , y = - z + 1 .
(b) ( 1 , 6, 3) , (3, 2, 3) .* Ans. z = 3, y = 2x + 8.
(c) (1 , —- 4, 2) , (3, 0, 3) . Ans. x2z - — 3, y = 4 z ---
— 12.
(d) (2, - 2, − 1 ) , (3, 1 , − 1) . Ans. z = - 1, y = 3x - 8.
(e) (2, 3, 5) , (2, -- 7, 5) . Ans. z = 5, x = 2 .
2. Show that the two-point form of the equations of a line becomes
x − x1 = -
- , Z = 21 , if 2₁ = Z2 . What do they become if y₁ = y₂ ?
X2 - X1 99 - 31
if x₁ = x2 ?
3. What do the two-point equations of a line become if x₁ = x2 and
Y1 = y₂ ? if y₁ = Y2 and·Z₁ = 2₂ ? if z₁ = z½ and x1 = x2 ?
4. Do the following sets of points lie on straight lines ?
— 4) , (5, 4, - 6) , and (9, 8, - 10) .
(a) (3, 2, - Ans. Yes.
(b) (3, 0, 1) , (0, -– 3, 2) , and (6 , 3, 0) . Ans. Yes.
(c) (2, 5, 7) , ( — 3 , 8, 1) , and (0, 0, 3) . Ans. No.
5. Show that the conditions that the three points P₁ ( 1 , Y1 , Z1) ,
P₂2 (X2, Y2, Z2) , and P3 (X , Y , Zg) should lie on a straight line are
X3X1 - Y3Y1 = Zg - 21 .
X2 - x1 - Z2 - 21
6. Find the equations of the line passing through the point (2, -
— 1 , − 3)
whose direction cosines are proportional to 3, 2 , and 7, and reduce them
to the given answer. Ans. x = z + 23 , y = 4 2 − 4 .
7. Find the equations of the line passing through the point (0, -
— 3, 2)
which is parallel to the line joining the points (3, 4, 7) and (2, 7, 5) .
x - Y + 3 -2- 2
Ans .
-3 2
x --- 2 y + 2 2 x+1 y- z+3
8. Show that the lines and
3 -3 2 4
are parallel .
x -1 2-3
* From (V), 3-1 = y - 6 3-3 • The value of the last ratio is infinite unless
2-6
z - 3 = 0. If z - 3 = 0, then the last ratio may have any value and may be equal
x - 1 1-6
to the first two. Hence the equations of the line become 2 = 4 , z = 3.
Geometrically it is evident that the two points lie in the plane z = 3, and hence
the line joining them also lies in that plane.
9. Find the equations of the line through the point ( −2, 4 , 0) which is
x - y + 2 Z-4
parallel to the line = 2 and reduce them to the answer.
4 3 - 1 Ans. x = --4z - 2 , y:=-
-3 z + 4.
x+2-У 3 Z 1 x 3 - У 2+ 3
10. Show that the lines and
6 3 2 2 6 3
are perpendicular.
x 3 y t -2- 3
11. Find the angle between the lines and
2 - 1 2π
x+ 2 - y-7 - Ans.
" if both are directed upward .
1 2 1 3
12. Find the parametric equations of the line passing through the point
(2, - 3, 4) whose direction cosines are proportional to 1 , -- 2, and 2 .
Ans . x == 2 + } p , y = − 3 − 3 p , z = 4 + } p .
13. Construct the lines whose parametric equations are
(a) x == 2 + 3 P, y = 4 - p , z = 6 + 3p .
(b) x = 3-4 p, y = 6 -— § p, z == 4+ P.
14. Find the distance, measured along the linex = 2 - 1³°
3³ P, Y = 4 + 1} p,
2 =--3 + p , from the point (2 , 4, - 3) to the intersection of the line with
the plane 4 x − y − 2 z = 6. Ans . 1 .
15. Show that the symmetric equations of the straight line become
x - x1 = y - y1 z = 21, if cos y = 0. What do they become if cos a = 0 ?
cos α cos B
if cos B = 0 ?
16. Show that the symmetric equations of the straight line become
Z = Z1, x = x1, if cos y = cos a = 0. What do they become if cos a =
cos ẞ0 ? if cos ẞ = cos y = 0 ?
17. Reduce the equations of the following lines to the symmetric form
(IV) .
x 13 - = Z-
(a) x - 2y + z = 8, 2x - 3y = 13 . Ans.
3 2 1
Solution. Find the equations of two projecting planes. The second
plane is already the projecting plane on XY. Eliminating x, we get
y − 2 z ==-- 3. Now in the two projecting planes thus found,
(1) 2x - 3y = 13 and y - 2 z = 3,
solving each for y and equating results,
2 x 13 - - 2z - 3
(2) 1
3
Multiplying the numerators through by 1, we have the answer.
Comparison with (IV) gives x₁ = ¹³ , Y₁ = 0, %₁ = 3 , a = 3, b = 2, c = 1 .

Hence the line passes through ( 13 , 0 , § ) and its direction cosines are
proportional to 3, 2, 1.
A remark here is important. In (IV) , ≈₁ , y₁ , and z₁ are the coördinates
of any fixed point on the line. Hence for a given line the numerators in
(IV) may be quite different . For example, putting z = 0 in ( 1) , we find
x-- 2 y + 3 - Z
x = 2, y = -- 3. Hence the equations = represent the
3 2 1
given line also. Notice that in equations (IV) the coefficients of x, y, and
z must be unity. This explains the step, after deriving ( 1 ) , of removing the
2 from the 2x and the 2 z.
x 3
(b) 4x - 5y + 3z3, 4x − 5y + z + 9 = 0 . Ans. 5 = 4 92 == 6.
(c) 2x + z + 5 - 0, x + 3z5 = 0. Ans. z = 3, x = -- 4.
= x-3 y Z
(d) x + 2y + 6z 5, 3x - 2y - 10z 7. Ans.= =
22
-7 2
x ---
= y = 9.
2
(e) 3x - y - 2z0, 6x - 3y - 4z + 9 = 0 . Ans.
|
3'
-
(f) 3x — 4y = 7 , x + 3y = 11 . Ans. x = 5, y 2.
(g) 2x + y + 2 z = 7, x + 3y + 6z = 11 . Ans. У 3 = , x = 2.
x- y +1
(h) 2x - 3y + z = 4, 4 x - 6 y -- z = 5. Ans. z = 1.
2
(i ) 3z + y = 1 , 4z3y = 10. Ans. y = - 2, z == 1 .
x-a Y- Z
(j ) x = mz + a, y = nz + b. Ans .
m n 1
18. Find the equations of the line passing through the point (2, 0, -2) ,
x-
which is perpendicular to each of the lines = y = 2 + 1 and
2 1 2
Xx y + 1 = 2 + 2
x 2 Y 2+2
3 1 2 Ans. = =
4 2 5
19. Find the equations of the line passing through the point (3, -· 1 , 2)
which is perpendicular to each of the lines x = 2 z − 1 , y = z + 3, and
x= y- • x - 3 - y +1 Z - 2
Ans.
3 1 -6 4
20. Find the equations of the line through P₁1 (x1 , 1 , 1 ) parallel to
XX. y - Y2 Z- Z2 x-- X1 - Z-- 21 .
(a) Ans . =
а b c a b c
x- X1 - Y1 2- - 21
(b) x = mz + a, y = nz + b. Ans. = =
20
m n 1
Ans. X1 = ย -- Y1 " z = 21.

XX.
(c) z = a, y = mx + b.
m
(d) A₁x + B₁y + С₁² + D₁ = 0, A¸¤ + B¸¥ + Câ² + D₂ = 0.
x- - x1 y - y1 2-- 21
Ans. = =
BC , - B9C CA, - A Ꮯ AB,2 - AB
A2C1
21. Find the equations of the line passing through P₁1 (X1 , 1 , 1) which
is perpendicular to each of the lines
x- = y - Y2 = 2 - Z2 and X X3 = = Z - 23 .
а2 b2 C2 სვ ხვ Cg
x - x1
Ans. =
- -
110. Relative positions of a line and plane. If the equations

of the line have the form (IV) , and if we substitute the values
of two of the variables given by (IV) in the equation of the
plane, then if the result is true for all values of the third vari-
able, the line lies in the plane.
We next easily prove the
Theorem. A line whose direction angles are a, ß, and γ and
the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 are
(a) parallel when and only when
A cos a + Bcos B + C cos y = 0 ;
(b) perpendicular when and only when
A B C
= -
cos a cos B cos y
Proof. The direction cosines of a perpendicular L₂2 to the

plane are proportional to A, B, and C.
The line and plane are parallel when and only when the line
is perpendicular to the line L₂ ; that is, when and only when
A cos a + B cos B + C cos y = 0.
.
The line and plane are perpendicular when and only when
the line is parallel to L,; that is, when and only when
COS a cos B COS γ .
A B C
PROBLEMS
x+ 3 y 4 Z
1. Show that the line ' = is parallel to the plane
2 7 3
4x + 2y + 2z = 9.
1/2
8130
N
2. Show that the line =
7 is perpendicular to the plane 3x +
2y + 7z = 8.
3. Show that the line x = z · 4, y = 2 z -

− 3 lies in the plane 2 –
3y + 4z - 1 = 0.
4. Find the equations of the line passing through (1 , 6, 2 ) and per-

Z- 2
pendicular to the plane 2 x - y + 6 z = 0. Ans. x 1 = y + 6
2 --1 6
5. Show that the lines x = 2z + 1 , y = 3 z + 2, and 2x = z + 2 ,

3 y = 6 z intersect, and find the equation of the plane determined by
them . Ans. 5x + y -— 13 z — 7 = 0.
x 2 y+2 Z 3
6. Show that the line lies in the plane 2x +
3 1
2y - z + 3 = 0.
7. Find the equations of the line passing through the point (3, 2, -
— 6)
which is perpendicular to the plane 4x - y + 3 z = 5.
x -3 У -2 2+ 6
Ans. = =
4 1 3
8. Find the equations of the line passing through the point (4, — 6, 2)
which is perpendicular to the plane x + 2y − 3 z = 8 .
x - 4 = y + 6 - Z- 2
Ans.
1 2 -3
9. Find the equations of the line passing through the point ( — 2, 3, 2)
which is parallel to each of the planes 3x - y + z = 0 and x· -- z = 0.
Ans. x + 2 У 3 = 2-2
1 4 1
-
10. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1 , 3, — 2)
x-- 3 y -4 2
which is perpendicular to the line
2 5 1
Ans. 2x + 5yz = 19.
11. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (2 , — 2, 0)
which is perpendicular to the line z = 3, y = 2x − 4 . Ans. x + 2y + 2 = 0.
12. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line x + 2 z = 4,
x- 3 y +4 z-- 7
y - z = 8 which is parallel to the line =
2 3 4
Ans. x + 10y8z84 = 0.
13. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (3, 6, — 12)
x + 3 = У 2 = 2 + 1 and x- 4
which is parallel to each of the lines - 1
3 3 2
z+ 2
y = 3. Ans. 2x + 3y z = 36.
4
14. Find the equations of the line passing through the point (3, 1, -
− 2)
which is perpendicular to the plane 2x - y - — 5 z = 6.
Ans. x - zz + , y = } % +7 .
212
x - 2 y +1 Z x 2 y +1
=
15. Show that the lines = and =
3 4 22
- -1 3
intersect, and find the equation of the plane determined by them.
Ans. 14x4 y + 13 z = 32.
X- 2 y + 3
16. Find the equation of the plane determined by the line =
2 -2
2-1
- and the point (0, 3, -
— 4) . Ans. x + 2y + 2 z + 2 = 0.
1
17. Find the equation of the plane determined by the parallel lines
x + 1 = y - 2 Z and x - 3 - y +4 ช 1.
. Ans. 8x + y26z + 6 = 0.
3 2 1 3 2 1
18. Find the equations of a line lying in the plane x + 3 y − 2 z + 4 = 0
x- 4 y + 2 Z-2
and perpendicular to the line = = at the point where it
3 2 3
meets the plane.
19. Find the equations of a line tangent to the sphere x² + y² + z² = 9
at the point (2, −1 , − 2) , and parallel to the plane x + 3y - 5z - 1 = 0 .
20. Find the equations of a line tangent to the sphere x² + y² + z² = 9
x 2 y +1 Z
at the point (2, 2, -
− 1) , and perpendicular to the line =
3 1
21. Find the equations of the line passing through P1 ( 1 , 1 , 1 ) which
is perpendicular to the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.
x- X1 У Y1 21 .
Ans . = =
A B C
22. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point
x X2 Y - Y2 Z- Z2
P1 ( 1, 1, 1 ) which is perpendicular to the line =
a b c
Ans. a (x − x₁ ) + b (y − y₁ ) + c (z — z₁) = 0 .
x - 1 y - 12-21 and the

23. Find the angle between the line = =
a b c
plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.
Ans. sin@ - = AaBb + Ce
√A² + B² + C² √a² + b² + c²
Hint. The angle between a line and a plane is the acute angle between the
π
line and its projection on the plane. This angle equals 2 increased or decreased
by the angle between the line and the normal to the plane.
24. Find the equation of the plane passing through P3 ( 3, Y , Z3 ) which

x-
is parallel to each of the lines = y - Y1 = 2-21 and = Y - Y2
-
Z Z2 . €1 a2 ba
C2
Ans. (b₁₂ - b₂1) (X − X3) + (¤¸ª₂ — α₂º1) (Y — Y3 ) + (ª¸b₂ -
—ɑ¸¹1) (≈ —- Zg) = 0 .
25. Find the condition that the plane A₁x + B₁y + C₁z + D₁ = 0 should
be parallel to the line A¸¤ + By + C₂z + D₂ = 0, A3x + B3¥ + C3² + D3 = 0.
Ans. A1 (BC - B3C2) + B1 ( C2A3 - С342) + C₁ (A, B₂ - — A ,B ) = 0 .
26. Find the equation of the plane determined by the point P₁1 (X1 , Y1, Z1)
and the line Ax + В₁у + С₁z + D₁ = 0, A¸¤ + By + C₂² + D₂ = 0.
Ans. (A + B + C₂% 1 + D ) (A₁x + B₁y + С₁² + D₁)
= (A₁₁ + B₁¥1 + C171 + D₁) (A‚¤ + B¿y + C„² + D2).
27. Find the equation of the plane determined by the intersecting lines
X --
- X1 y — Yi = 2-
and
x-- x1 Yy1 Z 21 .
=
a1 b₁ C1 a2 ხა C2
Ans. (b₁₂ - b₂1 ) (x − x1 ) + (€ 1α₂ − ¤₂α₁) (y — y₁) + (a₁b₂ ---
- — ɑ„b₁ ) (≈ — z₁) = 0 .
28. Find the equation of the plane determined by the parallel lines
x--x1 Y - Y1 = z — 71 and x - X2 - y - Y2 Z - Z2 .
a b c a b c
Ans. [( y)c (z₁za) b] x + [ (z₁ - z₂) a − (xx - ) cy
+ [( 1 -
− x₂) b − (Y₁ − y₂) a ] z + (Y₁₂ — Y₂²₁ ) a
+ (21x2 -− ZX1) b + (x ₁Y½ — X Y ₂ ) c = 0.
29. Find the conditions that the line x = mz + a, y = nz + b should lie
in the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.
Ans. Aa + Bb + D = 0, Am + Bn + C = 0.
x-- x1
30. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line
a1
-
=Y Y1 · ༧1 which is parallel to the line x -- x2 y - Y2 =
C1 a2 Da C2
Ans. (bbc ) (x − x₁ ) + (c₁₂ — са₁ ) (y — y₁ ) + (a,b₂ — ab₁) (z — z₁) = 0
CHAPTER XVII
SPECIAL SURFACES
111. In this chapter we shall consider spheres, cylinders ,

and cones* (surfaces considered in elementary geometry) , and
surfaces which may be generated by revolving a curve about
one of the coördinate axes , or by moving a straight line.
112. The sphere. We begin with the

Theorem. The equation of the sphere whose center is the point
(a, B, y) and whose radius is r is
(I) (x - a)² + (y -
− ẞ)² + (z -
− y) ² = r².
Proof. Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the sphere, and denote

the center of the sphere by C. Then , by definition, PC = r.
Substituting the value of PC given by the length formula ,
and squaring, we obtain (I) . Q. E.D.
When (I) is multiplied out, it is
x² + y² + x² - 2 ax - 2 By - 2 y≈ + a² + ß²
B² + y² − 7² = 0 ;
that is, it is in the form
x² + y² + x² + Gx + Hy + Iz + K = 0.
The question now is, When is the locus of this equation a

sphere?
To answer this, collect the terms thus :
(x² + Gx) + (y² + Hy) + (x² + I2) = — K.
' " cylinder, " and " cone " are

* In analytic geometry the terms " sphere ,,"
usually used to denote the spherical surface, cylindrical surface, and conical
surface of elementary geometry , and not the solids bounded wholly or in part
by such surfaces.
291
Completing the squares within the parentheses , we obtain

(x + } G) ² + (y + } H) ² + (≈ + } 1) ² = 1 ( G² + H² + 1² − 4 K).
Comparing with (I) , we have at once the
Theorem. The locus of an equation of the form
(II) x² + y² + z² + Gx + Hy + Iz + K = 0
is determined as follows :
(a) When G² + H² + 1² − 4 K > 0 , the locus is a sphere whose

H
center is - - and whose radius is
( 음 2 ny
r = ½ √G² + H² + 1²— 4 K.
(b) When G² + H² + 1²— 4 K = 0, the locus is thepoint-sphere *

G H
( 음 -품 2 -금)
(c) When G² + H² + 1² − 4 K < 0, there is no locus.
In numerical examples it is recommended that the theorem

be not used, but that the squares be completed as in the proof,
and the center and radius be found by comparison with (I).
EXAMPLE
What is the locus of the equation

x² + y² + z² — 2x + 3y + 1 = 0 ?
Solution. Collecting terms,
(x² - 2x) + (y² + 3 y) + 22 = -1.
Completing the squares,
(x² − 2 x + 1) + (y² + 3 y + † ) + z² = − 1 + 1 + 1,
or (x -
− 1)² + (y + 1 ) ² + z² = { .
This equation is in the form (I) ; r = 3, a = 1 , ß : -2, 70. That is,
the locus is a sphere of radius and center (1 , - , 0).
* That is, a point or sphere of radius zero.

SPECIAL SURFACES 293
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equation of the sphere whose center is the point
(a) (x, 0, 0) and whose radius is a. Ans. x² + y² + z² — 2 xx = 0.
(b) (0, B, 0) and whose radius is ß. Ans. x² + y² + z² — 2 By = 0.
(c) (0, 0, y) and whose radius is y. Ans. x² + y² + z² -— 2 yz = 0.
2. Determine the nature of the loci of the following equations and find
the center and radius if the locus is a sphere, or the coördinates of the
point-sphere if the locus is a point-sphere.
(a) x² + y² + z² - 6x + 4x = 0. (c ) x² + y² + z² + 4 x −z + 7 = 0.
(b) x² + y² + z² + 2x -
— 4y — 5 = 0 . (d ) x² + y² + z²− 12x + 6y + 4z = 0.
3. Where will the center of (II) lie if
(a) G = 0? " (c) I = 0 ? (e) H = I = 0 ?
(b) H = 0 ? (d) GH = 0 ? (f) I = G = 0?
4. Prove that each of the following loci is a sphere, and find its radius
and the coördinates of its center.
(a) The distance of a point from the origin is proportional to the square
root of the sum of its distances from the three coördinate planes.
(b) The sum of the squares of the distances of a point from two fixed
points (2, 4, - 8) and ( — 4 , 0, 2) is equal to 52.
Ans. α = - 1 , β = 2, y = — 3, r = √14.
(c) The distance of a point from the origin is half its distance from
the point (3, - 6, 9) .
(d) The distance of a point from the point (7, 1, − 3) is twice its dis-
tance from the point ( — , - — 2, 3) . √141
Ans. α = - 4, B - 3, y = 1 , r =
2
(e) The sum of the squares of the distances of a point from the three
planes x + 2y + 2z − 1 = 0, 2 x − y + 2 z − 1 = 0 , 2 x + 2 y − z −1 = 0
is unity .
5. Show that a sphere is determined by four conditions and formulate
a rule by which to find its equation.
6. Find the equation of a sphere passing through the three points in
any one of the following columns and through a fourth point selected
from the other two.
A ( − 1 , — 1 , 1) , D (0, 0, 1) , G (0, - 4, 5),
B(-1, -3, 1), E (3, 0, 2) , H (2, — 4, 5),
C(-1, 4, 4) ; F (2, 0, 1) ; I (3, -
— 1 , 5) .
Ans. x² + y² + z² − 2 x + 4y - 6z + 5 = 0.
7. Find the equation of a sphere which

(a ) has the center (3, 0 , -
− 2) and passes through (1 , 6, - — 5) .
Ans. x² + y² + z² - — 6x + 4 z − 36 = 0.
(b ) passes through the points (0, 0, 0) , (0 , 2 , 0) , (4 , 0, 0) , and (0 , 0, -
— 6) .
Ans. x² + y² + z² - — 4 x -− 2 y + 6 z = 0 .
( c ) is concentric with the sphere x² + y² + z² — 6x + 4z = 0 and passes
through the point (3, 1 , 0) .
(d) has the line joining (4, - 6, 5) and (2, 0, 2) as a diameter.
(e ) has the center (2 , 2, - 2) and is tangent to the plane 2x + y −
3z + 2 = 0.
( f ) has a unit radius and is tangent to each of the coördinate planes
in the first octant.
( g ) passes through the three points ( 1 , 0, 2) , (1 , 3 , 1) , and ( — 3 , 0,0) and
has the center in the XZ-plane. Ans. x² + y² + z² -− 2 x + 6 z - — 15 = 0.
(h) passes through the three points (1 , — − 5, 2) , and (1 , -
- 3 , 4) , ( 1 , - — 3, 0)
and has its center in the plane x + y + z = 0.
Ans. x² + y² + z² − 2 x + 6 y − 4 z + 10 = 0.
(i ) has its center on the Y-axis and passes through the points (0, 2 , 2)
and (4, 0, 0) . Ans. x² + y² + z² + 4y - — 16 = 0.
( j ) passes through the points (1 , 5 , — 3) and ( — 3, 0 , 0) , and whose
center lies on the line of intersection of the planes 3x + y + z = 0, x +
2y - 1 = 0. Ans. x² + y² + z² − 2 x + 6z -— 15 = 0.
(k) is tangent to the three coördinate planes and to the plane
6x + 2y + 3 z − 4 = 0. Ans. x² + y² + z² — 2 x − 2 y - − 2 z − 4 = 0.
( 1 ) has its center at (3, 1 , 1 ) and is tangent to the sphere x² + y² +
z2-2x - 4y + 2z + 2 = 0. Ans. x² + y² + z² - — 6x - − 2 y - 2z + 10 = 0 ;
x² + y² + z² - 6x - 2y - 2z - 14 = 0.
(m) passes through the points (1 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 1 ) , and ( 1 , 0, 1 ) and whose
radius is 11. Ans. x² + y² + z² — 14 x -- — 14 y --— 14 z + 26 = 0.
(n) is tangent to the plane x + y - z +10 at the point (3, -2 , 2)
and has its center in the XY-plane.
( o ) passes through the three points (2, 0, 1 ) , (2 , — 1 , 0) , and ( 1 , — 1 , 1)
and is tangent to the plane 2 x + 2y - 2 + 2 = 0.
Ans. x² + y² + z² - — 4x + 2y- − 2 z + 5 = 0.
( p ) passes through the intersection of the two spheres x² + y² + z² -
6x ==: 0, x² + y² + z² + 9 y − 5 z − 7 = 0 , and through the point (0 , 1 , 1 ) .
8. Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal line to
the sphere x² + y² + z² − 14 = 0 at the point (3, -
— 2, 1) .
9. Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal line to the
sphere x² + y² + z² --− 2 x + 4 y − 6z + 5 = 0 at the point (3, -
— 4, 2) .
10. Find the equations of the planes tangent to the sphere x² + y² + z² —

10x + 5y - 2z - 24 = 0 at the points where it intersects the coördinate axes.
11. Find the equation of a sphere inscribed in the tetrahedron formed
by any four of the following planes :
14x + 5y - 2z1680, 10x + 11y + 2 z + 88 :- 0,
14x- 5y + 2z + 28 = 0, 2x ― y - 2z + 12 = 0,
10x11 y + 2z + 33 = 0, 2x - y + 2z + 8 = 0.
12. Find the equation of the smallest sphere tangent to the two spheres
x² + y² + z² -− 2 x − 6 y + 1 = 0, x² + y² + z² + 6x + 2 y - 4z + 5 = 0.
Ans. 3x² + 3 y² + 3 z² + 2 x -- 10 y - 4z + 7 = 0.
113. Cylinders. A surface which is generated by a straight line
which moves parallel to itself and intersects a given fixed curve
is called a cylinder. The fixed curve is called the directrix. We
now consider equations whose loci are cylinders.
EXAMPLES
1. Determine the nature of the locus of y² = 4x.
Solution. The intersection of the surface with a plane x = k, parallel
to the YZ-plane, is the pair of lines
(1) x = k, y = 2 √k,
which are parallel to the Z-axis. If k > 0, the locus of equations (1) is a
pair of lines ; if k - 0, it is a single line (the Z-axis) ; and if k < 0 ,
equations (1) have no locus.
Similarly, the intersection
with a plane y = k, parallel
to the ZX-plane, is a straight
line whose equations are
x = 4k², y = k,
and which is therefore par-
allel to the Z-axis.
The intersection with a
plane z = k parallel to the
XY-plane is the parabola
z = k, y² = 4x. Y
For different values of k these parábolas are equal and placed one
above another. The surface is therefore a cylinder whose elements are
parallel to the Z-axis and intersect the parabola y² = 4x, z = 0 .
It is evident from Ex. 1 that the locus of any equation which

contains but two of the variables x, y, and z will intersect
planes parallel to two of the coördinate planes in one or more
straight lines parallel to one of the axes, and planes parallel
to the third coördinate plane in congruent curves. Such a sur-
face is evidently a cylinder. Hence the
Theorem. The locus of an equation in which one variable is
lacking is a cylinder whose elements are parallel to the axis
along which that variable is measured.
The student should not infer from this statement that the
equations of all cylinders have one variable lacking. In case
the elements are inclined , all three variables will appear in the
equation. This is illustrated by the following example :
2. Determine the nature of the
locus of
x² + 2 xz + z² = 1 — y² .
The intersection of this locus
by the plane = k is
y = k, x + z = ± √1— k²,
a pair of parallel lines whose
direction is independent of k. In
fact, the direction cosines of these
lines are proportional to -1 , 0, 1 ;
that is, they are parallel to the
line joining the point (-1 , 0 , 1 )
to the origin. We conclude then
that the surface is a cylinder. To
construct the surface, draw its traces and pass lines through them hav-
ing the above direction. The trace in the YZ-plane is the circle
y² + z² = 1 ;
in the XY-plane, the circle
x² + y² = 1 .
It is evident from Ex. 2 that in order to prove that a surface is
cylindrical it is only necessary to find a system of planes which cut
from it a system of parallel lines.
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the nature of the following loci , and discuss and con- .
struct them :
(a) x² + y² = 36. (f) z² + x² = r².
(b) x² + y² = 3x . (g) x² + 6y = 0.
(c) x2 z² = 16 . (h) yz - ·4 = 0.
(d) y² + 4 z² = 0. (i) y² + z − 4 = 0.
(e) x² + 2y - 4 = 0. (j ) y² -
— x³ = 0.
2. Find the equations of the cylinders whose directrices are the follow-
ing curves and whose elements are parallel to one of the axes :
(a) y² + z² -
— 4y = 0, x = 0. ( c) b²x² — a²y² = a²b², z == 0.
(b) z² + 2x = 8, y = 0. (d) y² + 2pz = 0, x == 0.
3. Prove that the following loci are cylinders . Discuss and construct
them . (a) x + y — z² = 0. (d) x2 4 (x + y) + 8 = 0.
--- 1 = 0.
(b) xz + yz − (e) x² + 2xy + y² = z.
(c) y² = 3x + 2 . (f) x² - 2xy + y² = 1 − z² .
4. A point moves so that its distance from a fixed point is always equal
to its distance from a fixed line . Prove that the locus is a parabolic
cylinder.
from two intersecting perpendicular lines is constant. Prove that the
locus is a hyperbolic cylinder.
6: A point moves so that the sum of its distances from two planes is
equal to the square of its distance from a third plane . The three planes
are mutually perpendicular . Prove that the locus is a parabolic cylinder .
7. A point moves so that the sum of its distances from two planes is
equal to the square root of its distance from a third plane. Prove that
the locus is a parabolic cylinder when the three planes are mutually
perpendicular.
114. The projecting cylinders of a curve. The cylinders whose

elements intersect a given curve and are parallel to one of the
coördinate axes are called the projecting cylinders of the curve.
The equations may be found by eliminating in turn each of the
variables x, y , and 2
z from the equations of the curve . For if we
eliminate , for example, the result, by the preceding section, is
the equation of a cylinder which passes through the curve, since

values of x, y, and 2
z which satisfy each of two equations satisfy
an equation obtained from them by eliminating one variable.
The equations of two of the projecting cylinders may be
conveniently used as the equations of the curve. * Hence the
problem of constructing the original curve reduces to that of
constructing the curve of intersection of two cylinders whose
elements are parallel to the coördinate axes. The method is
illustrated in the following examples .
EXAMPLES
1. Construct the curve of intersection of the two cylinders
x² + y² - 2y = 0, y² + z² - — 4 = 0.'
Solution. Draw the trace of each cylinder on the coördinate plane to
which its elements are perpendicular. Then consider a plane perpendicu-
IF
A B
lar to the coördinate axis to which the elements of neither cylinder are
parallel . In this case such a plane is y = k . Let this plane intersect the
* In general, the equations of a curve may be replaced by any two inde-
pendent equations to which they are equivalent ; that is, by two independent
equations which are derived by combining the given equations.
SPECIAL SURFACES. 299
axis at the point K. It will intersect the traces at the points A, B, C, and D.
Through each of these points will pass an element of the corresponding
cylinder, all four elements lying in this plane . The points of intersection
E, F, G, and H of these elements are points on the curve of intersection
of the two cylinders . By taking several positions of the plane y = k, we
obtain a sufficient number of points to construct the entire curve as shown
in the second figure on page 298.
2. Construct the curve whose equations are

2 y² + z² + 4x = 4z , y² + 3z28x12 z.
Eliminating x, y, and z in turn, we obtain the equations of the project-

ing cylinders
y² + z² = 4 z, z² - 4x = 4z , y² + 4x = 0.
ΖΑ
The figure shows the first and third of these cylinders , intersecting
in the original curve constructed by the method explained in the
previous example.
It is usually wise to deduce the equations of all three of the projecting
cylinders, for it may be that two of them are distinguished for simplicity
and hence are most convenient to construct .
If the curve lies in a plane parallel to one of the coördinate

planes, then two of its projecting cylinders coincide with the
plane of the curve, or part of it.
For a straight line the projecting cylinders are the project-
ing planes.
PROBLEMS
1. Construct the curve in which the following, in each case a plane
and a cylinder, intersect :
-
+ y² — 25 = 0, (x² + y² — 4 x = 0,
(a) (x²
y + z = 0. (c) x + 2 z + 2 y ― 4 = 0.
(y² + 422-16 = 0, ( x² — y² — 4 = 0,
(b) x + z − 1 = 0. (d) Y + z + x == 0.
2. Construct the curve in which the following pairs of cylinders intersect :

- (x² + y² = 25,
(a) (x² — 4 y = 0, (f) 5z + y² + 10 y = 0.
\y2 + 4 z = 0.
(y² + 4z = 0, ý² + z² — 36 = 0,
(b) (g)
\x² + y² - — 4 = 0. { x² + y² — 7 y = 0.
x2 - 9z + 36 = 0, (y² + z² - - 0,
— 36 =
(c) (h)
x² + y² -— 36 = 0. { x² + y² — 5 y = 0.
(y² + 4 z = 0, ý² + x² — 36 = 0,
(d) (i)
x² + y² — 4 y = 0. z² + y² — 6 y = 0.
( x² + z² — 25 = 0, zy = 12 ,
(e) (j )
Ly² - z = 0. x² + y² — 7y + 6 = 0 .
3. Find the equations of the projecting cylinders of the following curves
and construct the curve as the intersection of two of these cylinders :
(a) x² + y² + z² = 25, x² + 4 y² - — z² = 0.
(b) x² + 4 y² -— z² = 16, 4x² + y² + z² = 16.
(c) x² + y² = 4 z , x² - y² = 8z.
(d) x² + 2y² + 4z² = 32 , x² + 4y² = 4z. (y²x² + 2x² + 7y— 72 = 0,
(h)
(e) y² + zx = 0, y² + 2x + y — z = 0. \x² — z² -
— 7 y + 36 = 0.
(x² - 10y5z (2x² + y² - 9z = 0,
(f) - 25 = 0 , (i ) y² + 9z - 72 = 0.
\x² + 2 y² + 5 z + 10 y — 25 = 0.
(x² + 2 y² + 4 z 4 = 0,
(g) 2x² + 5 y² + 12 z — 8 (j) ( 2x² + 2y² + zy — 14y = 0,
= 0. \x² + y² + 2zy — 7y - 18 = 0.
4. A point is two units from the Z-axis and the sum of its distances
from the XY-plane and the YZ-plane is equal to its distance from the
ZX-plane increased by 2. Construct its locus.
5. A point is equidistant from the Z-axis and the XY-plane, and its
distance from the origin is equal to its distance from the YZ-plane
increased by 2. Construct the locus .
115. Parametric equations of curves in space. If the coördi-
nates x, y, and z of a point P in space are functions of a variable
parameter, then the locus of P is a curve (compare Art. 80) .
For example, if
(1) x = t², y = 1—2t , z = 3 t³ + 2,
where t is a variable parameter, then the locus of (x, y, z) is a curve in space.
This curve may be drawn by assuming values for t, computing x, y, and z,
plotting the points, and then joining these points in order by a continuous
curve. Equations (1) are called the parametric equations of the curve.
The equations of the projecting cylinders of the curve, the locus of
(1) , result when the parameter t is eliminated from each pair of the
equations. Thus, taking the first two,
(2) x = 1 t², y = 1-2t,
we find from the second, t = (1 - − y) , and substituting in the first,
(3) 4x = (1 − y) ², or (y — 1 ) ² — 16 x = 0,
and the locus lies on this parabolic cylinder.
Similarly, eliminating t from the first and third equations of (1) ,
x = t², z == 3t8 + 2,
we obtain the cubic cylinder
(4) - 2)² = 576 x³ .
(≈ —
Hence the curve (1) is the curve of intersection of the cylinders (3)
and (4) .
In some cases it is convenient to find the equations of a curve in space
by using a parameter.
EXAMPLE
Equations ofthe helix. A point moves on a right cylinder in such a man-
ner that the distance it moves parallel to the axis varies directly as the
angle it turns through around the axis.
Find the equations of the locus. a
Solution. Choose the axes of coördi-
nates so that the equation of the cylin-
der is
(5) x² + y² = a²,
T
as in the figure. P(x,y,z)
Po
Let Po on OX be one position of the M
α
moving point, and P any other position. N
Then, by definition, the distance NP
(= z) varies as the angle XON ( = 0) ;
that is, z = b0 , where b is a constant. Furthermore, from the figure,
x = OM = ON cos0 = a cos 0,
y = MN - ON sin = a sin 0.
Hence the equations of the helix are :

(6) x = a cos 0, y = a sin 0 , z = b0,
where is a variable parameter. Ans.
Eliminating from the first two of equations (6) , we obtain (5) , as
we should .
Given the equations of the projecting cylinders, to find para-

metric equations for the curve. It was shown in Art. 81 that
an indefinite number of parametric equations could be obtained
for the same plane curve. The same statement holds for space
curves, as illustrated in the following example.
EXAMPLE
Find parametric equations for the curve of intersection of the surfaces
(see Example 2, Art. 114) ,
2 y² + z² + 4x = 4z , y² + 3z2 - 8x12 z.
Solution. The projecting cylinders are
(7) y² + z² = 4 z , z² - 4x = 4z , y² + 4x = 0.
If we assume y = 2t, then the last equation will give x ==-12
- . From
either of the other two cylinders we find
z = 2 ± 2√1- t².
Hence the given curve is the locus of
(8) x = -- t2, y = 2t, z = 2 + 2 √1-12.
Other parametric equations result when we set one of the coördinates
in (7) equal to some other function of a parameter. The aim is, of course,
to find simple parametric equations. The method adopted must depend
upon the given problem.
PROBLEM
Find simple parametric equations for the curves of Problems 2 and 3,
p. 300.
Ans. For Problem 2. (a) x = 2 t, y = t2, z = -- 1 tt.
(b) x = 2 cos 0, y = 2 sin 0 , z = -- sin2 0.
(c) x - 6 cos 0, У = 6 sin 0, 2 = (1 + cos² ).
116. Cones. The surface generated by a straight line turning

around one of its points and intersecting a fixed curve is called
a cone.
EXAMPLE
Determine the nature of the locus of the equation 16x2 + y² — z² = 0.
Solution. Let P₁1 ( ₁ , ₁ , z₁ ) be a point on a curve C on the surface
in which the locus intersects a plane, for example z = k. Then
(1) 16x + y - zz² = 0, 21
z₁ = k.
Now the origin Olies on the surface . We
shall show that the line OP₁ lies entirely on
the surface. The direction cosines of OP₁
are 21 , 1 , and 21 , where p² = x² + y² + z}
P1 P1 P1
= OP2. Hence the coördinates of any point
on OP₁ are, by (II) , Art. 109,
x= x1 Y1 21
(2) = 21 P,, y = P, 2 = ρ.
P1 P1 P1
Substituting these values of x, y, and
z in the left-hand member of the given
equation, we obtain
161 p² y p² zp²
(3) 2 +
Pi Pi Pi
or also
p2
(4) P² ( 16 x + y² — zi) .
But from the first of equations (1 ) the
expression in the parenthesis in (4) equals
zero. Hence the product in (4) also van-
ishes for any value of p . This means that
every point (x, y, z) on the line (2) lies on the surface, that is, the entire line
lies on the surface. Hence the surface is a cone whose vertex is the origin.
The essential thing in the above solution is that (4) may be
obtained from the first of equations (1 ) by multiplying by a
Ρ
power of · This may be done whenever the equation of the
P1
surface is homogeneous * in the variables x, y , and z . Hence the
Theorem. The locus of an equation which is homogeneous in
the variables x, y, and z is a cone whose vertex is the origin.
* An equation is homogeneous in x, y, and z when all the terms in the
equation are of the same degree.
To construct the locus of the equation of a cone, find the

intersection of the cone with a suitably chosen plane parallel
to one of the coördinate planes, construct this plane curve, and
then draw the elements from the points on this curve to the
vertex of the cone.
Thus in the figure for the preceding example, the cone is
cut by the plane z = 8, and the curve of intersection , namely
the ellipse 16a² + y² - 64 = 0, is drawn in this plane.
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the nature of the following loci , and discuss and con-
struct them :
(a) x²- y² + 36 z² = 0. (e) x² + 9 y² - 4 z² = 0.
(b) y² -
— 16 x² + 4 z² = 0. ( f) x² + yz = 0.
(c ) x² + y² - 2 zx = 0. (g) xy + yz + zx = 0.
(d ) x + y + z = 0. (h) x² + yz + x2 =: 0.
2. Discuss the following loci :
(a) x² + y² = z² tan² y. (b) y² + z² = x² tan² a. (c) z² + x² = y² tan² ß.
3. Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is the origin and whose
elements cut the circle x2 + y² = 16, z == 2. Ans. x² + y² — - 4 z² = 0.
4. A point is equidistant from a plane and a line perpendicular to the

plane. Prove that the locus is a cone.
5. A point moves so that the ratio of its distances from two lines inter-
secting at right angles is constant. Prove that the locus is a cone. What
is the nature of the locus when the ratio is unity ?
6. The sum of the distances of a point from three mutually perpen-
dicular planes is equal to its distance from their common point of inter-
section. Show that the locus is a cone.
117. Surfaces of revolution . The surface generated by revolv-

ing a curve about a line lying in its plane is called a surface of
revolution.
Familiar examples are afforded by the sphere, and the right
cylinder and cone.
EXAMPLE
Find the equation of the surface of revolution generateď by revolv-

ing the ellipse x² + 4y² - 12 x = 0, z = 0, about the X-axis.
Solution. Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the surface. Pass a plane
through P and OX which cuts the surface along one position of the ellipse,
and in this plane draw OY' perpendicular to OX. Referred to OX and OY'
as axes, the equation of
the ellipse is evidently
(1) x² + 4y²² - — 12x = 0.
But from the right tri- P
angle PAB we get
- +- +-- +- + - + -
y'² = y² + z². By X
(2) x² + 4y² + 4 z²
- 12x = 0.
This equation expresses the relation which any point on the surface
must satisfy, and it is therefore the equation of the surface.
The method of the solution enables us to state the
Rule to find the equation of the surface generated by revolving
a curve in one of the coördinate planes about one of the axes in
that plane.
Substitute in the equation of the curve the square root of the
sum ofthe squares of the two variables not measured along the
axis of revolution for that one of these two variables which
occurs in the equation of the curve.
The line about which the given curve is revolved is called the
axis ofthe surface. Sections of the surface by planes perpendicu-
lar to its axis are obviously circles whose centers lie on the axis .
If the sections of a surface by all planes perpendicular to
one of the coördinate axes are circles whose centers lie on that
axis, then the surface is evidently a surface of revolution whose
axis is this coördinate axis. This enables us to determine
whether or not a given surface is a surface of revolution whose
axis is one of the coördinate axes.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equations of the surfaces of revolution generated by

revolving each of the following curves about the axis indicated , and
construct the figures :
(a) y² = 4x - 16, X-axis. Ans. y² + z2 = 4 x 16.
(b) x² + 4y² = 16, Y-axis. Ans. x² + 4y² + z² = 16.
(c) x2 4z, Z-axis. Ans. x² + y² = 4z .
(d) x² -
— y² = 16, Y-axis. Ans. x2 - y2 + z² = 16.
(e) x2 -- y² = 16, X-axis . Ans. x2 - y2 — z² = 16.
(f) y² + z² = 25, Z-axis . Ans. x² + y² + z² = 25.
(g) y2 = 2pz, Z-axis. Ans. A paraboloid of revolution, x² + y² = 2 pz .
x2 y2 x2 y2 z2
(h) = 1 , X-axis. Ans. An ellipsoid of revolution, + + =1 .
62 a2 b2 b2
y2
(i) a2 b2 1 , Y-axis.
x2 y2 22
Ans. A hyperboloid of revolution of one sheet, a2 b2 + - 1.
a2
1
x2 y2
(j) = 1, X-axis .
a2 b2
x2 y2 z2
Ans. A hyperboloid of revolution of two sheets, 1.
a2 b2 b2
2. Find the equations of the surfaces of revolution generated by revolv-
ing each of the following curves about the axis indicated , and construct
the figures :
(a) x² = 4z ; X-axis . (e) xz = 4 ; X-axis.
(b) y2x3 ; X-axis. (f ) xz = 4 ; Z-axis.
(c) x² = z + 4 ; X-axis. (g) y = x³ — x ; X-axis.
(d) z2 = x -- 3 ; Z-axis . (h) z - sin x ; X-axis .
3. Find the equation of and construct the surface formed by revolv-
ing the curve z = ex about (a) the X-axis ; (b) the Z-axis.
4. Verify analytically that a sphere is generated by revolving a circle
about a diameter.
5. Find the equation of the surface of revolution generated by revolv-
ing the circle x² + y² − 2 xx + a² — r² = 0 about the Y-axis. Discuss the
surface when a > r, a = r, and a < r.
Ans . (x² + y² + z² + a² — p²) ² = 4 c² (x² + z²) . When a > r the surface
is called an anchor ring or torus.
6. Find the equations of the cylinders of revolution whose axes are
the coördinate axes and whose radii equal r.
Ans. y² + z² = r² ; z² + x² = r² ; x² + y² = r².
7. Find the equations of the cones of revolution whose axes are the
coördinate axes and whose elements make an angle of 4 with the axis of
revolution . Ans . y² + z² = x²tan² ø ; z² + x² = y² tan² ; x² + y² = z² tan² .
8. Show that the following loci are surfaces of revolution :
(a) y² + z² = 4x. (f) (x² + z²) y = 4 a² (2 a − y) .
(b) x² - 4y² + z² = 0. (g) x² + y² + zx² + zy² -- − z + 3 = 0.
(c) 4x² + 4y² — z² = 16. (h) x4 ་ y¹ + z++ 2x²z² = 1 .
(d) x² - 4y² + z² 3y = 0. (i ) x² + y² + z³ — 2y + 1 = 0.
(e) xz² + xy² = 3.
9. A point moves so that its distance from a fixed plane is in a con-
stant ratio to its distance from a fixed point. Show that the locus is a
surface of revolution.
10. A point moves so that its distance from a fixed line is in a constant
ratio to its distance from a fixed point on that line . Prove analytically that
the locus is a cone of revolution. What values of the ratio are excluded ?
118. Ruled surfaces. A surface generated by a moving straight
line is called a ruled surface. If the equations of a straight line
involve an arbitrary constant, then the equations represent a
system of lines which form a ruled surface. If we eliminate
the parameter from the equations of the line, the result will be
the equation of the ruled surface.
For if (x , y , z ) satisfy the given equations for some value
of the parameter, they will satisfy the equation obtained by
eliminating the parameter ; that is, the coördinates of every
point on every line of the system satisfy that equation.
Cylinders and cones are the simplest ruled surfaces.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the surface generated by the line whose
equations are 1
x + y = kz, x — У = -2.
k
Solution. We may eliminate k from these equations of the line by
multiplying them . This gives
(1) x²- y² = z².
This is the equation of a cone (Art. 116) whose vertex is the origin. As
the sections made by the planes x = k are circles, it is a cone of revolu-
tion whose axis is the X-axis.
We may verify that the given line lies on the surface (1) for all values
of k as follows :
Solving the equations of the line for x and y in terms of z, we get
1
x=- y = - K- 2.
= (x + 1) = = (x - 1) =.
Substituting in (1), ·
+ -- - z² =
an equation which is true for all values of k and z, as is seen by removing

the parentheses. Hence every point on any line of the system lies on (1) ,
since its coördinates satisfy (1) .
2. Determine the nature of the surface z3-3 zx + 8y = 0.

Solution. The intersec-
tion of the surface with the
plane z -= k is the straight
line
k³ - 3kx + 8y = 0, z = k.
Hence the surface is the
ruled surface generated by
this line as k varies. To
construct the surface con-
X
sider the intersections with
the planes x = 0 and x == 8.
Their equations are respec-
tively x = 0, Y
8y + z³ = 0 ;
and x = 8,
8y24 z + z³ = 0.
Joining the points on these curves which have the same value of z gives
the lines generating the surface .
The method used in Ex . 2 is adapted to the determination

and construction of ruled surfaces. An examination of the
equation of such a surface will suggest a system of planes
whose intersections with the surface are a system of lines, as
illustrated in Problem 2 on the following page.
PROBLEMS
1. Show that the following loci are ruled surfaces whose generators are
parallel to one of the coördinate planes . Construct and discuss the loci :
(a) z - xy = 0. (f) y² = x²z.
(b) x²y — z² = 0. (g) y = xz (2― z)².
(c) z2. - zx + y = 0. (h) y² = x² (z² + 1) .
(d) x²y + xz = y. (i) = (z2-1) .
y²x²
(e) y — xz² = 0. (j ) y² = x² ( 1— z²) .
Remark. The surfaces may be easily constructed from string and cardboard .
2. Show that the following loci are ruled surfaces :
(a) (x + y) z + (x + y ) ² − 1 = 0 .
(b) x² - 2xz - y² + z² = 3.
(c) y² + 4 z² + xy — 4 yz --2 xz + 3 = 0.
(d) x³ + 3yx² - xz2 - 3 yz² - — x² + z² = 0.
(e) x² -
— y² = z.
(f) x2 - y² = z² - 1 .
Hint. Find a system of planes which cut the surface in a system of straight
lines.
3. Find the equations of the ruled surfaces whose generators are the
following systems of lines, and discuss the surfaces :
(a) x + y = k, k (x − y) = a². Ans. x2 -- y2 = a².
(b) 4x - 2y = kz, k (4x + 2 y) = z. Ans. 16x24y² = z².
(c) x - 2 y = 4 kz , k (x — 2 y) = 4. Ans. x24 y² = 16 z .
(d) x + ky + 4 z = 4k , kx − y 4 kz = 4. Ans. x² + y² — 16 z² = 16.
(e) x --y ----
— kz = 0, x -zky = 0.
(f) 3x - z- k = 0, ky — - z = 0.
4. Given two planes, one with a variable intercept on the X-axis, the
other with a variable intercept on the Y-axis. The remaining intercepts
being unity, find the equation of the ruled surface generated by the
line of intersection of these planes
(a) when their variable intercepts are in the ratio 1 : 2.
(b) when their distances from the origin are in the ratio 1 : 3.
Ans. [y (z + y) ]² --
— [ 3x (z + x) ] ² = (4xy)² .
(c) when the sum of their distances from the origin is unity.
CHAPTER XVIII
TRANSFORMATION OF COÖRDINATES. DIFFERENT SYSTEMS

OF COÖRDINATES
119. Translation of the axes. Formulas applicable to space ,

entirely analogous to those established in Chapter IX for the
plane, are derived as ex-
plained below. Ꮓ
Theorem. The equations
for translating the axes to (h,k, l) Р
a new origin O' (h, k, l) are
(I) x = x' + h,
y = y' + k,
z = z' + 1.
Proof. Let the coördi- YK
nates of any point before
and after the translation of the axes be (x, y, z) and (x', y', z')
respectively. Projecting OP and OO'P on each of the axes, we
get equations (I) . Q. E. D.
120. Rotation of the axes. Simple formulas for rotation arise

if two of the axes are rotated about the third . For example,
when the axes OX and OY are turned through an angle about
the Z-axis , the z-coördinate of any point P does not change,
and the new x- and y-coördinates are given by formulas (II) ,
Art. 55. Hence the
Theorem. The equations for rotating the axes about the Z-axis
through an angle ✪ are
(II) x = x'cose - y' sine, y = x' sine + y' cose,
310
Similar formulas result when the axes are rotated about OY

or OX.
If the axes are rotated about the origin into the new
position O-X'Y'Z ' , and if the coördinates of any point P
before and after the rotation are
respectively (x, y, z) and (x ', y', z') ,
we have the zx
Theorem. If a,, B₁ Y₁ ; α B₂ Y2;

and a3, B3, Y3, are respectively the
Β' Α
direction angles of the three mutu-
X
ally perpendicular lines OX', OY',
and OZ', then the equations for
B
rotating the axes to the position
O- X'Y'Z' are YK
x = x' cos a₁ + y' cosa₂ + z ' cosa,,

(III) y = x'cos ẞ₂ + y' cos B₂ + z'cos ẞ3 ,
z = x'cosy₁ + y' cosy₂ + z'cosy3 . *
Proof. Projecting OP and OA'B'P on each of the axes OX,

OY, and OZ, we obtain immediately equations (III) . Q. E. D.
Theorem. The degree of an equation is unchanged by a trans-

formation of coördinates.
This may be shown by reasoning as in Art. 57.
PROBLEMS
1. Transform the equation x² + y² - 4x + 2y - 4z + 1 = 0 by trans-
−1 , -
lating the origin to the point (2, ་ − 1) . Ans. x2 y2-4 z = 0.
2. Derive the equations for rotating the axes through an angle about
(a) the X-axis ; (b) the Y-axis.
* The direction cosines of OX', OY ', and OZ' obviously satisfy the six
equations
cos2 a₁ + cos2 B1 + cos2y1 = 1 , cos a₁ cos α2 + cos B1 cos B2 + cos 71 COS Y2 = 0,
cos2 a2 + cos² B₂ + cos2 y2 = 1 , cos a2 cos ag + cos B2 cos B3 + cos Y2 COS Y3 = 0,
cos2 ag + cos2 B3 + cos2 y3 = 1 , cos ag cos α1 + cos Bg cos B1 + cos Yg cos Y1 = 0.
Hence only three of the nine constants in (III) are independent.
3. Show that the following equations may be transformed into the

given answers by translating the axes, or by rotating them about one of
the coördinate axes (see Art . 71) :
(a) x² + y² — z² -
— 6x8y + 10 z = 0. Ans . x² + y² — z² = 0 .
(b) 3x2 8 xy + 3y² 5 z² + 5 = 0. Ans. x2-7y² + 5 z² = 5.
(c) y² + 4 z² – 16 x 6 y + 16 z + 9 = 0. Ans. y² + 4z² = 16x .
(d) 2x² — 5 y² — 5 z² — 6 yz = 0 . Ans. x2 - 4 y² - z² = 0.
(e) 9 x²- 25 y² + 16 z² - 24 zx - 80x - 60 z0. Ans. x2 y2 = 4z.
4. Show that Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 may be reduced to the form x = 0
by a transformation of coördinates.
Hint. Remove the constant term by translating the axes, then remove the
z-term by rotating the axes about the Y-axis, and finally remove the y-term
by rotating about the Z-axis.
5. Transform the equation 5 x² + 8 y² + 5 z² --
− 4 yz + 8 zx + 4 xy −4x +
2y + 4z = 0 by rotating the axes to a position in which their direction
cosines are respectively ,, t ; t, , ; †, - , - I.
Ans. 3x² + 3y² = 2z.
6. Show that the xy-term may always be removed from the equation
Ax² + By² + Cz² + Fxy + K = 0 by a rotation about the Z-axis.
7. Show that the yz-term may always be removed from the equation
Ax² + By² + Cz² + Dyz + K = 0 by rotating about the X-axis.
8. What are the direction cosines of OX, OY, and OZ (Fig. , p. 311)
referred to OX' , OY', and OZ' ? What six equations do they satisfy ?
9. Show that the six equations obtained in Problem 8 are equivalent
to the six equations in the footnote, p . 311 .
10. If (x, y, z) and (x', y' , z ) are respectively the coördinates of a
point before and after a rotation of the axes, show that
x² + y² + z² = x²² + y²² + z'².
11. The possibilities of simplifying an equation by rotation of the axes
appear in the following example. Consider the equation of the second
degree
Ax² + By² + Cz² + Dyz + Ezx + Fxy + Gx + Hy + Iz + K = 0.
If the axes are rotated about OZ through the angle given by
F
tan 20 = the transformed equation will contain no xy-term
A -- Β΄
(Art. 70). We may then rotate about OX and remove the yz - term, and
finally about OY and remove the xz-term . Thus the terms in xy, yz, and
zx can be made to disappear.
121. Polar coördinates . The line OP drawn from the origin

to any point P is called the radius vector of P. Any point
P determines four numbers, its
radius vector P, and the direction
angles of OP, namely a, B, and y,
which are called the polar coördi-
nates of P.
These numbers are not all independ-
ent, since a, ß, and Y satisfy (II) , Art. 88 .
X
If two are known , the third may then be
found, but all three are retained for the
sake of symmetry .
YV
Conversely, any set of values
of p, a, ß, and y which satisfy (II) , Art. 88 , determine a
point whose polar coördinates are p, a, ß, and γ.
Projecting OP on each of the axes, we get the
Theorem. The equations of transformation from rectangular
to polar coördinates are
(IV) x = p cos a, y = p cos ẞ, z = p cosy.
Obviously
(1) p² = x² + y² + z²,
which expresses the radius vector in terms of x, y, and z.
122. Spherical coördinates. Any point 21
P determines three numbers, namely,
its radius vector p, the angle 0 be-
tween the radius vector and the Z-axis ,
and the angle between the projection
of its radius vector on the XY-plane
and the X-axis. These numbers are X
called the spherical coördinates of P.
is called the colatitude and the Y M
longitude.
Conversely, given values of p , 0, and determine a point
P whose spherical coördinates are (p, 0, $).
Projecting OP on OA , OM = p sin 0,
and projecting OP and OMP on each of the axes, we prove the
Theorem. The equations of transformation from rectangular
to spherical coördinates are
(V) x = p sin cos 0, y = psin 0 sin o, z = p cos 0.
The equations of transformation from spherical to rectangular
coördinates may be obtained by solving (V) for p, 0, and 4.
123. Cylindrical coördinates. Any point P (x, y, z) determines
three numbers , its distance from the XY-plane and the polar
coördinates ( , ) of its projection (x, y, 0) on the XY-plane.
These three numbers are called the cylindrical coördinates of P.
Conversely, given values of r, o, and z de- Z
termine a point whose cylindrical coördi-
nates are (r, 4,2). Then we have at once the
༤
2
Theorem. The equations of transforma-
tion from rectangular to cylindrical coördi
nates are X
Դ
(VI) x = rcos , y = rsino, z = Z. Y A
The equations of transformation from cylindrical to rectangu-

lar coördinates may be obtained by solving (VI) for r, 4, and 2.
PROBLEMS
1. What is meant by the " locus of an equation " in the polar coördi-
nates p, a, ẞ, and y ? in the spherical coördinates p, 0, and ? in the
cylindrical coördinates r, p, and z ?
2. How may the intercepts of a surface on the rectangular axes be found
if its equation in polar coördinates is given ? if its equation in spherical
coördinates is given ? if its equation in cylindrical coördinates is given ?
3. Transform the following equations into polar coördinates :
(a) x² + y² + z² = 25. Ans. p = 5.
π
(b) x² + y² — z² = 0 . An s. Y = •
4
(c) 2x2 — y² — z² = 0. Ans. a cos- 1
4. Transform the following equations into spherical coördinates :

(a) x² + y² + z² = 16. Ans. p = 4.
(b) 2x + 3y = 0. Ans. = tan- 1¹ ( — }) .
(c) 3x² + 3y² = 7 z². Ans. 0 = tan- 1√21 .
5. Transform the following equations into cylindrical coördinates :
(a) 5x - y = 0. Ans. = tan- 15.
(b) x² + y² = 4. Ans. r = 2.
6. Find the equation in polar coördinates of
(a) a sphere whose center is the pole.
(b) a cone of revolution whose axis is one of the coördinate axes.
Ans. (a) p = constant ; (b) a = constant, ß = constant, or y = constant.
7. Find the equation in spherical coördinates of
(a) a sphere whose center is the origin.
(b) a plane through the Z-axis.
(c) a cone of revolution whose axis is the Z-axis.
Ans. (a) p = constant ; (b) - constant ; (c) 0 = constant.
8. Find the equation in cylindrical coördinates of
(a) a plane parallel to the XY-plane.
(b) a plane through the Z-axis.
(c) a cylinder of revolution whose axis is the Z-axis.
Ans. (a) z = constant ; (b) = constant ; (c) r = constant.
9. In rectangular coördinates a point is determined as the intersec-
tion of three mutually perpendicular planes . Show that
(a) in polar coördinates a point is regarded as the intersection of a
sphere and three cones of revolution which have an element in common.
(b) in spherical coördinates a point is regarded as the intersection of a
sphere, a plane, and a cone of revolution which are mutually orthogonal.
(c) in cylindrical coördinates a point is regarded as the intersection
of two planes and a cylinder of revolution which are mutually orthogonal.
10. Show that the square of the distance r between two points whose
polar coördinates are (P1 , α1, B1 , Y₁) and ( P2, A2, B2, y²) is
r² = p²² + p² --- 2 P₁ P₂ (cos α₁ cos α½ + cos ß₁ cos ß₂ + COS Y₁ COS Y½) .
11. Find the general equation of a plane in polar coördinates.
Ans. p (A cos a + B cos B + C cos y) + D = 0.
12. Find the general equation of a sphere in polar coördinates.
Ans. p² + p (G cos a + II cos ẞ + I cos y) + K = 0.
CHAPTER XIX
QUADRIC SURFACES AND EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND

DEGREE IN THREE VARIABLES
124. Quadric surfaces . The locus of an equation of the sec-

ond degree in x, y, and z , of which the most general form is
(1) Ax²+ By²+ Cz² + Dyz + Ezx + Fxy + Gx +Hy + Iz +K = 0,

is called a quadric surface or conicoid . We may learn something
of the nature of such a surface by taking cross sections. We
first obtain
Theorem I. The intersection of a quadric with any plane is a

conic or a degenerate conic.
Proof. By a transformation of coördinates any plane may be

made the XY-plane, 2 = 0. Referred to any axes the equation
of a quadric has the form ( 1 ) (Theorem, p. 311) . Hence the
equation of the curve of intersection referred to axes in its
own plane z = 0 is
Ax² + Fxy + By² + Gx + Hy + K = 0,

and the locus is therefore a conic or a degenerate conic, by
Art. 70. Q.E. D.
As already pointed out in Art. 71 , the parabola, ellipse, and
hyperbola were originally studied as conic sections , -plane sec-
tions of a conical surface. From the preceding theorem and
by intuition, the truth of the following statement is manifest.
Corollary. The curve of intersection of a cone of revolution

with a plane is an ellipse, hyperbola, or parabola, according as
the plane cuts all of the elements, is parallel to two elements
316
QUADRIC SURFACES 317
(cutting the other elements. some on one side of the vertex

and some on the other) , or is parallel to one element (cutting
all the others on the same side of the vertex) .
For sections of a quadric by a set of parallel planes , the

following result is important :
Theorem II. The sections of a quadric with a system ofparal-
lel planes are conics of the same species.
The truth of this statement is established in the following
sections. The meaning of the theorem is this : A set of parallel
sections will all be ellipses, or all hyperbolas, or all parabolas,
the exceptional cases (Art. 70) under each species being included .
125. Simplification of the general equation of the second degree

in three variables. If equation (1 ) be transformed by rotating
the axes, it can be shown that the new axes may be so chosen
that the terms in yz, zx, and xy will drop out (Problem 11,
p. 312). Hence (1) reduces to the form
A'x² + B'y² + C'z² + G'x + H'y + I'z + K' = 0.
Transforming this equation by translating the axes, it is easy
to show that the axes may be so chosen that the transformed
equation will have one of the two forms
(1) A "x² + B'y² + C

' " ~² + K" = 0,
(2) A " x² + B'y² + I'≈ = 0.
Note the difference in (1) and (2) . In (1 ) all the squares and
no first powers are represented , in (2) only two squares and
the first power of the other variable.
If all of the coefficients in (1 ) and (2) are different from
zero, they may, with a change in notation , be respectively writ-
ten in the forms
2216
x² y2
H
=: 1,
H
(3) ±
b2
x² y²
(4) ± b2 = 2 cz.
The purpose of the following sections is to discuss the loci of

these equations, which are called central and noncentral quadrics
respectively.
If one or more of the coefficients in (1 ) or (2) are zero, the
locus is called a degenerate quadric.
Certain cases are readily disposed of by means of former
results.
If K" - 0, the locus of (1) is a cone (Theorem , Art. 116)
unless the signs of A " , B ", and C " are the same, in which case
the locus is a point, namely the origin.
If one of the coefficients A ", B", and C " is zero, the locus is a
cylinder whose elements are parallel to one of the axes and whose
directrix is a conic of the elliptic or hyperbolic type. If also
K" = 0, the locus will be a pair of intersecting planes.
If two of the coefficients A " , B" , and C " are zero, the locus is a
pair ofparallelplanes (coincident if K" = 0) , or there is no locus.
If one of the coefficients in ( 2) is zero, the locus is a cylinder
whose directrix is a parabola, or a pair of intersecting planes.
If two of the coefficients are zero, the locus is a pair of coinci-
dent planes. (4 " and B" cannot be zero simultaneously, as the
equation would cease to be of the second degree.)
PROBLEMS
1. Construct and discuss the loci of the following equations :

(a) 9x² -— 36 y² + 4 z² = 0. (e ) 4y² - 25 = 0.
(b) 16 x² - 4 y² — z² = 0. (f) 3y² + 7z² = 0.
(c) 4x² + z² - 16 -= 0. (g) 8 y² + 25 z = 0.
(d) y² — 9 z² + 36 = 0. (h) z² + 16 = 0.
2. Show by transformation of coördinates that the following quadrics
are degenerate :
(a) x² — y² + z² - — 6 z + 9 = 0.
(b) x² + 4y². - z² - 2x + 8y + 5 = 0.
(c ) x² + y² + z² + 2 x -- 2y + 4z - 6 = 0.
(d) x² + y².-- 2 z² + 2y + 4 z −1 = 0.
(e ) x² + yz = 0 .
xa y2 z2
126. The ellipsoid + + - 1. If all of the coefficients in
a² b2 c2
(3) , Art. 125, are positive, the locus is called an ellipsoid . A dis-
cussion of its equation gives us the following properties :
1. The ellipsoid is symmetrical with respect to each of the
coördinate planes and axes and the origin. These planes of
symmetry are called the principal planes of the ellipsoid.
2. Its intercepts on the axes are respectively
x = ± α , y = ± b, 2 = c.
The lines AA ' = 2 a, BB' = 2 b, CC' - 2 c, are called the
axes of the ellipsoid (see figure below).
3. Its traces on the principal planes are the ellipses ABA'B',
BCB'C ' , and ACA'C ' , whose equations are
x² y² y2 22 x² 22
+ = 1, + 1, + = 11 .
b2 b2 a²
4. The equation of the curve in which a plane parallel to the

XY-plane, z = k , intersects the ellipsoid is
x² y² k2 x² /2
y
=1 or + 1.
(1) a² + b2 a² b2
-
c² (c² — k²) (c² — k²)
The locus of this equation is an ellipse. If increases

from 0 to c, or de- Z
creases from 0 to
―c, the plane recedes
from the XY-plane ,
and the axes of the
X'A Ꭺ
ellipse decrease from B
2a and 2b respec- YV
tively to 0, when
the ellipse degener-
z'l
ates into a point. If
k > c or k < - c, there is no locus. Hence the ellipsoid lies
entirely between the planes z = ± c.
In like manner the sections parallel to the YZ-plane and the

ZX-plane are ellipses whose axis decrease as the planes recede.
Hence the ellipsoid lies entirely between the planes x = ± a
and yb. The ellipsoid is therefore a closed surface.
If a = b, the sectio (1 ) is a circle for values of k such that
n
- c < k < c, and henc the elli
e psoid is now an ellipsoid of
revolution whose axis is the Z-axis . If b = c or c = a , it is an
ellipsoid of revolution whose axis is the X- or Y-axis .
If a = bc, the ellipsoid is a sphere, for its equation may
be written in the form x² + y² + z² = a².
x2 y2 z2
127. The hyperboloid of one sheet + = 1. If two of
a² b2 c²
the coefficients in (3) , Art. 125, are positive and one is negative,
the locus is called a hyperboloid of one sheet. Consider first the
20180
equation 21
y² 22
= 1.
(1) a2 + b2 c2
A discussion of this equation

gives us the following properties :
1. The hyperboloid is symmetri-
B'
cal with respect to each of the coördi-
X' A'
nate planes and axes and the origin. B
Y
2. Its intercepts on the X-axis
and the Y-axis are respectively
x = ± a , y = ± b,
but it does not meet the Z-axis.
3. Its traces on the coördinate
planes are the conics z1
x² y² y2 =
a² + 4
3 b2 = 1, b2 - 3 = 1,
X 3--11,
of which the first is the ellipse whose axes are AA ' = 2 a and
BB' = 2b, and the others are the hyperbolas whose transverse
axes are BB' and AA ' respectively.
I
PLATE
Ellipsoid one
sheet
Hyperboloid
of sheets
two
of
Hyperboloid
CENTRAL
QUADRICS

XY-plane, zk , intersects the hyperboloid is
y² = k2 x² y2
(2) 1+ or + == 1 .
a² + a² v2
·(c² + k²) cz (c² + k²)
The locus of this equation is an ellipse. If k increases from

0 to ∞ , or decreases from 0 to - ∞ , the plane recedes from the
XY-plane, and the axes of the ellipse increase indefinitely from
2 a and 2 b respectively. Hence the surface recedes indefinitely
from the XY-plane and from the Z-axis .
In like manner the sections formed by the planes x = k' and
y = k " are seen to be hyperbolas. As k ' and k " increase numer-
ically, the axes of the hyperbolas decrease, and when k'a
ork" = b, the hyperbolas degenerate into intersecting lines .
As k ' and k " increase beyond this point, the directions of the
transverse and conjugate axes are interchanged, and the lengths
of these axes increase indefinitely.
The hyperboloid ( 1) is said to " lie along the Z-axis."
The equations
x² - y² x² ~2
+ = 1, - + y² + = 1,
(3) a² b2 b2
are the equations of hyperboloids of one sheet which lie along

the Y-axis and the X-axis respectively.
If ab, the hyperboloid (1) is a surface of revolution whose
axis is the Z -axis , because the section ( 2) becomes a circle.
The hyperboloids (3) will be hyperboloids of revolution if a = c
and be c respectively.
x² y2 z2
128. The hyperboloid of two sheets - = 1. If only
a² b2 c²
one of the coefficients in (3) , Art. 125, is positive, the locus is
called a hyperboloid of two sheets . Consider first the equation
x² y2
/ 22
= 1.
(1) a² V2
1. The hyperboloid is symmetrical with respect to each of

the coördinate planes and axes and the origin.
2. Its intercepts on the X-axis are x = ± a, but it does not
cut the Y-axis and the Z-axis .
3. Its traces on the XY-plane and the XZ-plane are respec-
tively the hyperbolas
x² y2 = x2 22
1, = 1,
a² b2 a²
which have the same transverse axis AA ' = 2 a, but it does
not cut the YZ-plane.
4. The equation of the curve in which a plane parallel to
the YZ-plane, x = k , intersects the hyperboloid (1) is
2
y² 22 = k2 y2 = 1.
+ -1 , or +
b2 a² b2 c²
a² (k² — a²) 5 (k² – a²)
This equation has no locus if — a < k < a. If k = ± a, the

locus is a point ellipse, and as k increases from a to ∞ , or
decreases from a to ― co , the locus is an ellipse whose
axes increase indefinitely. Hence the surface consists of
two branches or sheets which
recede indefinitely from the Y
YZ-plane and from the X-axis.
X'
In like manner the sections
z'
formed by all planes parallel
to the XY-plane and the ZX-plane are hyperbolas whose axes
increase indefinitely as their planes recede from the coördi-
nate planes.
The hyperboloid (1 ) is said to " lie along the X-axis. ”
The equations
x2 y² ~2 x2 3/2 22
1, = 1,
(2) a² + 72 a² b2
+
are the equations of hyperboloids of two sheets which lie along

the Y-axis and the Z-axis respectively.
If b = c, c = a, or ab, the hyperboloids (1 ) and (2) are

hyperboloids of revolution .
It should be noticed that the locus of (3) , Art. 125, is an ellip-
soid if all the terms on the left are positive, a hyperboloid of
one sheet if but one term is negative, and a hyperboloid of two
sheets if two terms are negative. If all the terms on the left
are negative, there is no locus . If the locus is a hyperboloid ,
it will lie along the axis corresponding to the term whose sign
differs from that of the other two terms.
PROBLEMS
1. Discuss and construct the loci of the following equations :

(a) 4x² + 9 y² + 16 z² = 144 . (e) 9x2 - y2 + 9 z² = 36 .
(b) 4x² + 9 y² -
— 16 z² = 144 . (f) z2 .- 4 x24 y2 - 16.
(c) 4x 2 -9 y2-16 z2 = 144. (g) 16x² + y² + 16 z² = 64.
(d) x² + 16 y² + z² = 64. (h) x² + y² — z² = 25 .
2. Reduce, by translation of the axes, each of the following to a
standard form and determine the type of central quadric it represents :
(a) x² + 2 y² + 2 z2 2x + 4y - 8z + 10 = 0.
(b) x2 - y² + 2 z² — 6x + 2y + 4 z + 9 = 0.
(c) y² — x² -- 2 z2 + 6x - 2 y -− 4 z + 6 = 0.
(d) x² — 2 y² -
— 4 z² — 2 x — 8 y -— 8 = 0.
( e) 4x² — y² — z² −8 x − 2 y + 6 = 0 .
(f) 4x² - y2 z28x - 2y + 4 = 0 .
(g) 3x² + 4 y² — 8 y -— z² = 0.
3. Find the equations of the planes whose intersections with the ellip-
soid 9 x² + 25 y² + 169 z² = 1 are circles. Ans. 4x = 12 z + k.
4. The square of the distance of a point from a line is equal to the

square of its distance from a perpendicular plane (a) increased by a con-
stant ; (b) diminished by a constant. How do the two loci differ ? What
property have they in common ?
5. A point moves so that its distances from a fixed point and a fixed
line are in constant ratio μ. Determine and name the locus
(a) when μ < 1 . (c) when μ - 1.
(b) when μ > 1 . (d) when the point is on the line.
6. A point moves so that its distances from a fixed point and a fixed
plane are in a constant ratio. Prove that the locus is an ellipsoid of revo-
lution when the ratio is less than unity, and a hyperboloid of revolution
when greater than unity.
two intersecting perpendicular lines in space is constant. Prove that the
locus is an ellipsoid of revolution .
x2 y2
129. The elliptic paraboloid + = 2 cz. If the coefficient
a² b2
of y² in (4) , Art. 125, is positive, the locus is called an elliptic
paraboloid . A discussion of its equation gives us the following
properties :
1. The elliptic paraboloid is
symmetrical with respect to the
YZ-plane and the ZX-plane and
the Z-axis.
2. It passes through the origin,
but does not intersect the axes
elsewhere.
3. Its traces on the coördi-
X'
nate planes are respectively the
conics YV
x² / y2 x² y2 =
+ = = 2 cz, 2 cz,
a² b2 0, a² b2
of which the first is a point-ellipse and the other two are

parabolas.
4. The equation of the curve in which a plane parallel to
the XY-plane, z = k , cuts the paraboloid is
x² y² x² y2 = 1 .
+ b2 = 2 ck, or +
a2 2 a²ck 2 b2ck
The curve is an ellipse if c and k have the same sign , but

there is no locus if e and k have opposite signs . Hence , if c
is positive, the surface lies entirely above the XY-plane. If k
increases from 0 to ∞ , the plane recedes from the XY-plane
and the axes of the ellipse increase indefinitely. Hence the

surface recedes indefinitely from the XY-plane and from the
Z-axis.
In like manner the sections parallel to the YZ-plane and the
ZX-plane are parabolas whose vertices recede from the XY- plane
as their planes recede from the coördinate planes.
The paraboloid is said to " lie along the Z-axis."
The loci of the equations
(1) ¿ + 1 = 2az, 1 + 1 = 2 by,
are elliptic paraboloids which lie along the X-axis and the
Y-axis respectively.
If a = b , the first surface considered is a paraboloid of revolu-
tion whose axis is the Z-axis ; and if b = c and a = c, the parab-
oloids (1) are surfaces of revolution whose axes are respectively
the X-axis and the Y-axis.
An elliptic paraboloid lies along the axis corresponding to
the term of the first degree in its equation, and in the positive
or negative direction of the axis according as that term is
positive or negative.
130. The hyperbolic paraboloid = 2 cz . If the coeffi-

cient of y² in (4) , Art. 125 , is negative , the locus is called a
hyperbolic paraboloid .
1. The hyperbolic paraboloid is symmetrical with respect to
the YZ-plane and the ZX-plane and the Z-axis.
2. It passes through the origin, but does not cut the axes
elsewhere.
3. Its traces on the coördinate planes are respectively the
conics x² y /2 x²
= = 2 cz,,
a² - =0
, a² -2 , -
of which the first is a pair of intersecting lines and the other

two are parabolas.

= , cuts the paraboloid is
XY-plane, zk
x² - y² x² y² =
= 2 ck, or 1.
a² b2 2 a²ck 2 b2ck
The locus is a hyperbola. If c is positive, the transverse

axis of the hyperbola is parallel to the X- or Y-axis accord-
ing as k is positive or negative. If k increases from 0 to ∞ ,
or decreases from 0 to -∞ , the ZA
plane recedes from the XY-plane
and the axes of the hyperbolas
increase indefinitely . Hence the
14
surface recedes indefinitely from x'
the XY-plane and the Z-axis .
The surface has approximately
the shape of a saddle.
Z'
In like manner the sections
parallel to the other coördinate planes are parabolas whose
vertices recede from the XY-plane as their planes recede from
the coördinate planes.
The surface is said to " lie along the Z-axis."
The loci of the equations
x² y²
=2- =
by, -2ax
a² -- b2 ,
are hyperbolic paraboloids lying along the Y-axis and the X-axis
respectively. A hyperbolic paraboloid also lies along the axis
which corresponds to the first-degree term in its equation .
A plane of symmetry of a quadric is called a principal plane.
Each paraboloid has two principal planes ; each central quadric,
three. Axes of symmetry are called principal axes . A parab-
oloid possesses one such axis ; a central quadric, three. The
existence of a center of symmetry for a central quadric explains
the designation " central quadric."
PLATE II
Elliptic Paraboloid Hyperbolic Paraboloid

NONCENTRAL QUADRICS
Hyperboloid of one sheet Hyperbolic Paraboloid

RULED QUADRICS
PROBLEMS
1. Discuss and construct the following loci :

(a) y² + z² = 4x . (e) 9 z² - 4x² -
= 288 y.
(b) y2 - z² = 4x. (f) 16 x² + z² = 64 y.
(c) x2 - 4 z² = 16 y. (g) y2 - x² = 10 z.
(d) x² + y² = 8z . (h) y² + 16 z² + x == 0.
2. Reduce by transformation of coördinates each of the following to a
standard form and determine the type of paraboloid it represents :
(a) z = xy. (c) x² + 2 y² -
— 6x + 4y + 3 z + 11 = 0.
(b) z == x² + xy + y². (d) z2 - 3 y2 4x + 2z - 6y + 1 = 0.
3. A point is equidistant from a fixed plane and a fixed point. Show
that the locus is an elliptic paraboloid of revolution .
4. A point is equidistant from two nonintersecting perpendicular lines.
Show that the locus is a hyperbolic paraboloid .
5. Prove that the parabolas obtained by cutting (a) an elliptic parabo-
loid, and (b) a hyperbolic paraboloid by planes parallel to one of the
principal planes, are all congruent.
6. Show analytically that any plane parallel to the axis along which
(a) an elliptic paraboloid , and (b) a hyperbolic paraboloid lies, intersects
the surface in a parabola.
131. Rectilinear generators. The equation of the hyperboloid

of one sheet, Art. 127, may be written in the form
-x² 22 y²
(1) =1
b2
As this equation is the result of eliminating k from the equa-

tions of the system of lines
x 2 y x 2
+ = =
a c * ( 1 + 1) a -- с k (1–3),
( 1-1 ) .
the hyperboloid is a ruled surface. Equation (1) is also the re-

sult of eliminating k from the equations of the system of lines
x y X 2-1
228+2 - k
a + c= (1-1 ) a
=== c k ( 1 + 1) .9
and the hyperboloid may therefore be regarded in two ways as
a ruled surface.
In like manner the hyperbolic paraboloid contains the two
818
systems of lines
১১/০
x У - У= 2
+ = 2 ck,
a b b k'
818
2
210
x - =
and / = kz,
a +1 b k
These lines are called the rectilinear generators of these

surfaces . Hence the
Theorem. The hyperboloid of one sheet and the hyperbolic

paraboloid have two systems of rectilinear generators, that is,
they may be regarded in two ways as ruled surfaces.
The two systems of generators are shown in Plate II.
REVIEW PROBLEMS
Name and draw the surfaces in each of the following groups, giving
in detail all their characteristics :
1. (a) xy 0. 5. (a) x² + y² = z2 + 2z.
(b) xy 1 . (b) x² + y² = x² - 2 z.
(c) xy = 2. (c) x² + y² = 2 z — z².
(d) xy = z² .
6. (a) x² + 2 y² + 3 z² = 0.
(e) xy = z² + 1 .
(b) x² + 2 y² + 3 z² = 1 .
(f) xy = z² + z.
(c) x² + 2 y² + 3 z² = 2x .
2. (a) x² + y² -- 0. (d) x² + 2 y² + 3 z² = 2 x -− 1.
(b) x² + y² = 1.
(c) x² + y² = x. 7. (a) x² + 2 y² — 3 z² = 0.
(d) x² + y² = 2. (b) x² + 2 y² -
— 3 z² = 1 .
(e) x² + y² = z². (c) x² + 2 y² - 3 z² = 2x.
(f ) x² + y² = 2 xy. (d) x² + 2 y² -
— 3 z² = 2 x + 1 .
3. (a) x + y = 0. (e) x² + 2 y² - 3z22 x - 1 .
(b) x + y = 1. (f) x² + 2 y² - 3 z² = 2x - 2 .
(c) x + y = z. 8. (a) xy + yz + zx = 0.
(d) x + y = z². (b) z² + yz + zx == 0.
(e) x + y = xy. (c) z + yz + zx = 0.
4. (a) x² + y² = x² + 1 . (d) z² + x² + zx = 0.
(b) x² + y² = z² — 1 . (e) z² + x² + xy = 0.
(c) x² + y² = 1− z². (f) z² + xy + x = 0.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
1. Construct the following surfaces and shade that part of the first
intercepted by the second :
(a) x² + 4 y² + 9 z² = 36, x² + y² + z² = 16.
(b) x² + y² + z² = 64 , x² + y² 8x = 0.
(c) 4x² + y² — 4 z = 0, x² + 4 y² — - z² = 0.
2. Construct the solids bounded by the surfaces (a) x² + y² = a²,
z = MX, Z == 0 ; ( b) x² + y² = az , x² + y² = 2 ax, z = 0.
3. Show that two rectilinear generators of (a) a hyperbolic paraboloid ,
and (b) a hyperboloid of one sheet, pass through each point of the surface .
4. If a plane passes through a rectilinear generator of a quadric , show
that it will also pass through a second generator, and that these generators
do not belong to the same system.
5. The equation of the hyperboloid of one sheet may be written in
x2
the form y2 22 1- • By treating this equation as in Art. 131 , we
b2 c2 a2
obtain the equations of two systems of lines on the surface. Show that
these systems of lines are identical with those already obtained .
6. Show that a quadric may, in general, be passed through any nine
points.
7. If a > b > c, what is the nature of the locus of
x2 y2 z2
+ + =1
a² - λ b2 λ c2-λ
if >> a² ? if a² > > > b² ? if b² > > > c² ? if λ < c² ?
8. Show that the traces of the system of quadrics in Problem 7 are
confocal conics.
9. Show that every rectilinear generator of the hyperbolic paraboloid ·
|
x2 - y2 x У
= 2 cz is parallel to one of the planes 士 = 0.
a² b2 а b
10. Prove that the projections of the rectilinear generators of (a) the
hyperboloid of one sheet, (b) the hyperbolic paraboloid , on the principal
planes are tangent to the traces of the surface on those planes.
11. A plane passed through the center and a generator of a hyper-
boloid of one sheet intersects the surface in a second generator which is
parallel to the first .
12. Show how to generate each of the central quadrics by moving an
ellipse whose axes are variable.
13. Show how to generate each of the paraboloids by moving a parabola.
CHAPTER XX
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS
132. A problem quite distinct from any thus far treated in this
text arises when it is required to find the equation of a curve
which shall pass through a series of empirically given points.
That is, we suppose that certain
values of the variable and of
the function are known from an
actual experiment, and the cor-
responding points are plotted on
cross-section paper . A smooth
curve is then drawn to " fit "
these points ; and an equation
for this curve is required .
The general treatment of this
important problem is beyond
the scope of an elementary text,
and the following sections are concerned with simple cases only.
133. Straight-line law. If the curve suggested by the plotted
points is a straight line, assume the law
(1) y = mx + b,
and determine the values of m and b from the observed data.
The straight line representing the required law will not neces-
sarily pass through all the points plotted , for experimental work
is subject to error. It is sufficient if the line fits the points
within the limits of accuracy of the experiment. In general,
the straight line may be drawn through two of the plotted
points, and m and may be calculated from their coördinates.
330
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS 331
EXAMPLE
In an experiment with a pulley, the effort, E lb. , required to raise a

load of Wlb. was found to be as follows :
W
| 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
E 31 47 61 7/12 9 10 12 13 15 161
Find a straight-line law to fit these data.

Solution. Plotting the points as in the figure, it is seen that the straight
line drawn through (30, 64) and ( 100, 161 ) fits the observed data very
well. To find its equation , substitute these values in the equation
(2) E =mW + . E
This gives 6 = 30 m + b, 20
.Effort
161100 m + b. Solving for

m and b, we find m = 2809 41 15
lbs
in
E
b = 17. Substituting in (2) ,

41 W + Y, 10
(3) E = 280
the required equation . 5
For the purpose of calcu-
lation we write (3) in the form
0 20 40 60 80 100 W
(4) E = 0.146 W + 1.86 , Load W in lbs.
keeping three decimal places in the coefficient of W in order to secure

three-figure accuracy.
We now test (4) by comparing the observed values and calculated values.
W 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
70 80
80 90 100
E, observed 3.25 4.87 6.25 7.50 9 10.5 12.2 13.7 15 16.5
E, calculated 3.32 4.98 6.24 7.68 9.16 10.6 12.1 13.5 15 16.5
The formula (4) may be used for calculating values of E for values of
W intermediate between 10 and 100, and not given in the table. For
example, the effort required to raise a load of 25 lb. is
E = 0.146 × 25 + 1.86 = 5.51 lb.
PROBLEMS
The following data treated in the same way will yield laws represented
by the formula y = mx + b .
1. V is the volume in cubic centimeters of a certain quantity of

gas at the temperature to C. , the pressure being constant. Find the
law connecting V and t.
t 27 33 40 55 68
V 109.9 112.0 114.7 120.1 125..
Ans. V 100+ 0.367 t.
2. V is the volume of a certain quantity of mercury at a temperature

of 0° C. Find the law connecting V and 0 .
0° C. 18 36 60 72 90
V (cc.) 100.32 100.65 101.07 101.30 101.61
Ans. V 100+ 0.018 0.
3. S is the weight of sodium nitrate dissolved by 100 g. of water at the

temperature to C. Find the law connecting S and t.
S 68.8 72.9 87.5 102
t -6 0 20 40
Ans. S 73.0+ 0.73 t.
4. The following are corresponding values of the speed and induced

volts in an arc-light dynamo . Find the law connecting volts and revolu-
tions per minute.
Rev. per minute, n 200 320 495 621 744
Volts induced , v 165 270 410 525 625

5. S is the weight of potassium bromide which will dissolve in 100 g.

of water at the temperature t° C. Find the law connecting S and t.
t 0 20 40 60 80
S 53.4 64.6 74.6 84.7 93.5
6. Find the equation of the straight lines that best fit the following
data .
(a) x 0.5 1 1.55 2 2.5 3
y 0.31 0.82 1.29 1.85 2.51 3.02
(b) t | 0 | 5
5 10 15 20 25 30
T 15 20 24.4 28.4 32 35.2 38.2
(c) P 250 400 500 600 750 800 900
C 0.64 0.80 0.91 0.99 1.12 1.15 1.22

3333
(d) W 3 13 23 43
F # 1 19 21 2ğ
134. Laws reduced to straight-line laws. By suitable treat-

ment of the given data many laws can be transformed into a
linear relation. Some cases of this kind of frequent occurrence
will now be given.
1. The law y = a + bx².
When the points plotted suggest a vertical parabola with its

vertex on the y-axis, the assumed equation will have the above
form. If now we set x² = t, and plot the values of t and y, these
values satisfy the relation y = a +bt, that is, a straight-line law.
EXAMPLE
An experiment to determine the coasting resistance R in pounds per ton

of a motor wagon for the speed V miles per hour gave the following data :
V 021 5 7 10 12 15
R 40 40 42 45 50 55 63
Plotting the points, the curve suggested (Fig. 1 ) appears to be a

parabola with the equation
(1) R = a + bV2.
Resistan ce
Ꭱ
Resistance
༤
lton
100
er
lbs.per
.pRbs
R3
ton
R
115
75
39
50 50
25
25 25
5 10 15 20 V 50 100 150 200 250 t

Speed V miles per hour t=v2
FIG. 1 FIG. 2
To check this, calculate the values of V² (table, Art. 3) , set V² = t, and

retabulate the data thus :
t(= V²) 61 25 561 100 1561 225
R 40 40 42 45 50 55 63
Plotting these points (Fig . 2) , it appears that they are fitted by a

straight line . By the preceding section we find the equation of this line
to be R = 39.3 + .107 t. Hence the required law is
(2) R = 39.3 + .107 V2.

PROBLEMS
The following data satisfy laws of the form y = a + bx² . Determine

the values of a and b.
1. x 19 25 31 38 44
y 1900 3230 4900 7330 9780
Ans. y - 5.09 x² - 10.

0000
2. S 94 1 2
1 11
10
P 2 21 31 5 71 10 13 221
མ
3. 10 20 30 40 50
A
R 7 9.1 14.5 20 29
HO
4. d ៖ 1 7 1
S 663 1178 1841 2651 3608 4712
2. The law y = ax".

Taking logarithms, we have
(3) log y = log a + n log x,
that is, the logarithms of the given data satisfy a straight-line

law. Hence in this case tabulate the logarithms of the given
data, determine the straight-line law to fit them, * compare
with (3) to find a and n, and substitute in y = ахп
This law, as the study of the problems on page 337 will
show, has wide application.
* Logarithmic squared-paper is of great convenience in this case.

EXAMPLE
The following data satisfy a law of the form y = ax" . Find the values
of a and n.
ข่า
3
x 4 7 11 15 21
y 28.6 79.4 182 318 589
Solution. Tabulating the values of log 2
'yog
and log y (table, p . 4) ,
ly
=
log x 0.602 0.845 1.041 1.176 1.322
2.50 2.77 1
log y 1.456 1.900 2.26
Plotting x = log x, y = log y, it ap-

pears that x and y satisfy a straight-line
law. The equation is found to be .5 1 1.5 x
y' = .364 +1.82 x'. x' = log x
(4)
Hence, comparing with (3) , n = 1.82 , log a = .364. Then a = 2.3, and
the required law is
(5) y = 2.3x1.82. Ans.
PROBLEMS
1. Find a law of the form y = ax" for the following data :
x 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000
y 2869 8700 16,660 26,370 37,660
2. Find a law of the form p = av" to fit the following data :
V 4 4.55 5 5.5 6 7
p 110 97.1 86.8 78.4 71.5 60.7

3. The time, t seconds, that it took for water to flow through a tri-
angular notch, under a pressure of h feet, until the same quantity was in
each case discharged , was found by experiment to be as follows :
h .043 .057 .077 .094 .100
t 1260 540 275 170 135
Find the law.
4. The indicated horse power I required to drive a vessel with a

displacement of D tons at a ten-knot speed is given by the following data.
Find the law connecting I and D.
D 1720 2300 3200 4100
I 655 789 1000 1164
5. uis the volume in cubic feet of 1 lb. of saturated steam at a pressure

of p lb. per square inch. Find the law of the form pu" const. connect-
ing p and u.
u 26.43 22.40 19.08 16.32 14.04
p 14.7 17.53 20.80 24.54 28.83
6. F is the force between two magnetic poles at a distance of d centi-

meters. Find the law connecting F and d.
d cm. 1.2 1.9 2.3 3.2 4.5
F dynes 4.44 1.77 1.21 0.625 0.316
7. D is the diameter in inches of wrought -iron shafting required to

transmit H horse power when running 70 revolutions per minute.
Find a formula.
Н
H 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Ꭰ 2.11 2.67 3.04 3.36 3.61 3.82 4.02 4.22

8. Qis the quantity of water in cubic feet per second flowing through
a right-angled isosceles notch when the surface of quiet water is H feet
above the bottom of the notch. Find the law.
4
H | 1 | 2 | 3
Q 2.63 15 41 84.4
9. A certain ship draws h feet of water and displaces V cubic feet .

What is the law connecting h and V?
Draft h 18 13 11 9.5
Displacement V❘ 107,200 65,800 51,200 41,100
135. Miscellaneous laws . In many experiments the analytic

form of the law is known in advance. If, however, such fact
is unknown, and if the preceding methods fail, the points deter-
mined by the data should in any case be plotted , and then the
shape of the required curve may suggest an equation to be
tried . The following problems furnish a variety in this regard.
PROBLEMS
1. The curve suggested in each of the following is a vertical parabola

y = a + bx + cx².
The values of a, b, ånd c may be found from three pairs of values of
the data. Determine the law in each case.
(a) x 1 2 34 5 6 7
y 25 41 55 67 77 85 91
(b) The resistance, R ohms, of a wire at t° C. is given by the follow-

ing table :
t 0 5 10 15 20 25
R 25 25.49 25.98 26.48 26.99 27.51

(c) x 0 0.5 1 5
1.5 2 2.5 3
y
་ 5.4 6.3 6.6 6.1 5.0 3.2 0.6
(d) u020 40 60 80 100
v 290 253 215 176 136 94
2. The points may be fitted by a branch of an equilateral hyperbola

whose equation is -b
y= a +-x
1 ==
In this case plot y and transforming into a straight-line
x t, thus
law. Find the law after this manner for the following data :
(a) x 4 5 6 7 8
y 4410 3530 2940 2520 2210
(b) A 1.96 2.46 2.97 3.45 3.96 4.97 5.97
50.25 48.7 47.9 47.5 46.8 45.7 45

A
(c) S 10 11 12 13 14
W 8370 4880 - 1970 -

- 490 - 2600
3. In some cases a branch of the rectangular hyperbola ((12) , p . 184) ,

xy = bx + ay
a b
will fit the points. Dividing through by xy, this becomes 1 x +
1
Hence if
x u, y = v, are plotted, u and v will satisfy a straight-line law.
Show that this is the case in the following and find the law.
(a) x 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
y 12.8 17.1 20 22.2 23.1 23.8 23.8 24.2

(b) S 1 2334567 8
t 2.05 3.23 3.95 4.49 4.87 5.20 5.40 5.60
4. Compound-interest law (p . 103) . If the law sought is of the form

y= aekx
taking logarithms,
log y = log a + kx log e,
where loge = 0.434, as usual . Hence log y and x satisfy a linear relation ,
and we accordingly plot x and log y, determine the straight line, the
values of a and b, and substitute.
Proceed in this manner in the following :
(a) x 0 3.45 10.85 19.30 28.8 40.1 53.75
y 19.9 18.9 16.9 14.9 12.9 10.9 8.9
Hint. Plot x and log y.
(b) h 0 886 2753 4763 6942 10,593
p 30 29 27 25 23 20
Hint. Plot h and log p.
(c) 0 10 27.4 42.1
S 61.5 62.1 66.3 70.3
x 0 2.1 5.6 9.3 11.5
y 20 18.92 17.34 15.8 14.96
136. The problem under discussion requires for thorough

solution the method of least squares, and for an exposition of
this theory the student is referred to treatises on that subject.
INDEX
Abscissa, 10 Degenerate ellipse, 179

Algebraic curve, 44 Degenerate hyperbola, 179
Amplitude , 108 Degenerate parabola, 179
Anchor ring, 306 Degenerate quadric, 318
Angle, eccentric, 215 ; vectorial , 119 Director circle, 225
Arch, parabolic, 158 Directrix, 153, 186, 295
Area of ellipse, 175 Discriminant of the equation of a
Asymptotes, 51 , 170 circle, 93
Auxiliary circle, 164
Axis, conjugate, 167 ; major, 161 ; Eccentricity, 162 , 168
minor, 161 ; transverse, 167 Ellipse, point, 165
Axis of parabola, 153 Epicycloid , 217
Exponential curves, 102
Cardioid , 221
Focal radii of conics, 187
Catenary , 113
Focus, 153, 160, 167, 186 .
Center, instantaneous, 218
Folium of Descartes, 209
Center of conic, 160, 167
Four-leaved rose, 126, 223
Central conic , 186
Central quadric, 318 Helix, 301
Circle, point-, 92 Hyperbolic spiral, 132
Cissoid of Diocles, 54 , 210, 220 Hypocycloid, 217 ; of four cusps,
Cocked hat, 55 210, 213 ; of three cusps, 206
Colatitude, 313
Compound interest curve, 103 Intercepts, 46
Compound interest law, 340 Involute of a circle, 216
Conchoid of Nicomedes, 221
Confocal conics, 189 Latus rectum, 154, 161 , 168
Conicoid, 316 Lemniscate of Bernoulli, 55, 122,
Conjugate diameters, 229 225
Coördinates, oblique, 11 Limaçon of Pascal, 55, 222, 225
Cubical parabola, 46 Lituus, 132
Curtate cycloid, 216 Logarithmic curves, 102
Cycloid, 208, 212 Longitude , 313
341
Maximum value of a function, 136 Reciprocal spiral , 132

Minimum value of a function, 136 Rose, three-leaved , 125, 126 ; four-
leaved , 126, 223 ; eight-leaved , 126
Octant, 232
Ordinate , 10 Semicubical parabola, 205
Spiral, hyperbolic or reciprocal ,
Parabola, cubical , 46 ; semicubical, 132 ; logarithmic or equiangular,
205 132, 133 ; parabolic, 223
Parabolic spiral , 223 Spiral of Archimedes, 132
Parameter, 84 Strophoid, 54, 226
Period of sine curves, 107 Symmetry, 43
Point-circle, 92 System of logarithms, common,
Point of contact, 191 101 ; natural, 101
Polar axis, 119
Pole, 119 Torus , 306
Principal axes, 326 Traces of a surface, 257
Principal planes, 319, 326 Triangle problems, 90
Probability curve, 105
Prolate cycloid, 216 Vertex of a conic, 153
Radian, 2 Whispering gallery, 203

Radius vector, 119 Witch of Agnesi , 219

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Alexan

PERCEY F. SMITH, PH.D.

ARTHUR SULLIVAN GALE, PH.D.

GINN AND COMPANY

The Athenæum Press

A glance at the Table of Contents of the present volume

simple and direct. The chapters devoted to the study of the

FORMULAS AND TABLES FOR REFERENCE

CURVE AND EQUATION

15. Locus of a point satisfying a given condition 30

24. The degree of the equation of any straight line . 58

38. Equation of the circle . 92

TRANSCENDENTAL CURVES AND EQUATIONS

PARABOLA, ELLIPSE, AND HYPERBOLA

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND LOCI

SURFACES, CURVES, AND EQUATIONS

TRANSFORMATION OF COÖRDINATES . DIFFERENT SYSTEMS

QUADRIC SURFACES AND EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND DEGREE

FORMULAS AND TABLES FOR REFERENCE

1. Occasion will arise in later chapters to make use of the

Functions of an angle in a right triangle. In any right triangle one of

From the above the theorem is easily derived :

a complete revolution , and is called a degree.

Circular measure. The unit angle is an X

angle whose subtending arc is equal to the

Or also, by solving this,

These equations enable us to change from one measurement to another.

32. sin (2π-- :x) = sin ( — x) = — sin x, etc.

2. Three-place table of common logarithms of numbers .

3. Squares and cubes ; square roots and cube roots.

Cube Square Cube No. Square Cube Square Cube

22 484 10,648 4.690 2.802 72 5,184 373,248 8.485 4.160

30 900 27,000 5.477 3.107 80 6,400 512,000 8.944 4.308

48 2,304 110,592 6.928 3.634 98 9,604 941,192 9.899 4.610

4. Natural values of trigonometric functions .

Angle in Angle in sin COS tan cot

.000 0° .000 1.000 .000 ∞ 90° 1.571

COS sin cot tan Angle in Angle in

5. Logarithms of trigonometric functions.

.000 0° 0.000 .... 90° 1.571

log sin log tan Angle in Angle in

6. Natural values . Special angles .

Angle in Angle in sin COS tan cot sec CSC

Angle in Angle in sin COS tan cot sec

7. Rules for signs of the trigonometric functions .

Quadrant sin COS tan cot sec CSC

8. Directed line . Let X'X be an indefinite straight line ,

then the length of the segment AB is always given by ba;

corresponding to B and A. This statement is evidently equiv-

For all positions oftwo points A and B on a directed line, the

(I) (II) (III) (IV)

The above definition is illustrated in each of the four figures ,

I. AB = OB— OA = 6—3 = + 3 ; BA = OA — OB =3—6 = −3 ;

The following properties of lengths on a directed line are

9. Cartesian * coördinates. Let X'X and Y'Y be two directed

the numbers a, b are called the Cartesian coördinates of P, a the

Every point determines a pair ofreal numbers, and, conversely,

10. Rectangular coördinates . A rectangular system of coördi-

In the figure several points are plotted , the unit of length

(-9,-4) (0, -4)