Pure Biology Notes
Pure Biology Notes
Pure Biology Notes
TOPIC 1
Handling of microorganisms and small animals. Schools must not keep snakes in the lab.
Improper handling of apparatus.
Fire – There should never be open flames in the lab. Make it a working rule that water is the only
nonflammable liquid you are likely to encounter.
Explosion – Never heat a closed system or conduct a reaction in a closed system (unless specifically directed
to perform the latter process and then only with frequent venting).
Chemical and Thermal Burns – Many inorganic chemicals such as the mineral acids and alkalis are corrosive
to the skin and eyes.
Sharp objects / Cuts – All broken glassware should be discarded into the ‘broken glass container’
Absorption of Chemicals – Keep chemicals away from the skin. Many organic substances are not corrosive,
do not burn the skin, or seem to have any serious e_ects. They are, however, absorbed through the skin,
sometimes with direct consequences. Always wear gloves.
Inhalation of Chemicals – Keep your nose away from chemicals.
Ingestion of Chemicals – The common ways of accidentally ingesting harmful chemicals are: (1) by pipette,
(2) from dirty hands, (3) contaminated food or drink and (4) food use of chemicals taken from the laboratory.
Pipettes must be fitted with suction bulbs to transfer chemicals. DO NOT USE MOUTH.
Laboratory rules
The teacher and learners are tasked with planning, organising, motivating and leading all activities going on in
laboratory. Good laboratory practice results in minimised or reduced accidents but with maximised learning.
Laboratory rules
A: Fire
In the event that your hair or clothing catches fire — DO NOT RUN. This will fuel the fire. STOP – DROP
– ROLL to smother the fire.
Help to smother any fire on a co-worker with your apron or lab coat, or with your own body. If a fire begins
and is confined in an open container such as a beaker, it can usually be extinguished simply by covering the
top of the beaker to remove the source of oxygen.
B: Evacuation
Whenever a Fire Alarm sounds, turn on water and electrical devices at your lab station, collect your bag
and/or calculator and exit the building by the stairwell closest to your lab.
Caution: AVOID PANIC. DO NOT RUN.
Avoid inhaling smoke from a chemical fire. Assemble in front of the assembly point. Your teaching assistant
will check the student roster to be sure everyone is safe. Do not leave the area until your TA has checked
your name on the roster. Return to the building ONLY after a security officer gives clearance.
C: Injury
Be familiar with the location and operation of the eye wash fountains and safety showers. Any chemical
splash into the eye should be flushed for a full 15 minutes using the nearest eye wash.
First aid supplies are available in the Stockroom. Slight wounds or burns may be treated there. Report all
burns, cuts, or other injuries to your instructor.
Chemical handling
1. Acids and chemicals are stored in a lockable room.
2. Treat all chemicals in the lab as toxic substances.
3. Keep them away from your skin and clothes.
4. There is need to wear protective clothing like goggles, laboratory coat and gloves.
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5. Do not mix chemicals for fun, dispose any chemicals if instructed, when diluting acids do not pour water
into acids but pour acid into water.
6. Wash hands after using chemicals. When acids or bases get onto your skin, wash it with water and inform
your teacher.
7. School laboratory manuals should always be consulted for such activities.
Technical Skills – Teachers should be able to service, repair and maintain using the basic laboratory
microscope and should demonstrate to learners how they work however learners should not repair electric
faults. Fire drills should be done several times so that learners know what to do if there is a fire in a building.
First Aid kit and how to use it should be known such that one may assist others when an accident occurs in
the laboratory.
Small animals in cages should not be left to pupils because they go for holidays. The animals also require
food water and clean cages. There is also need to avoid keeping live snakes because of the danger.
The science laboratory should have a first aid kit for treatment of minor accidents like application of
bandages ointments and washing of eyes and such others. Serious accidents should be reported to the
administration.
Experiments that produce poisonous fumes must be done in a fume cupboard and keep all windows open or
conduct the activity outside.
The teacher and learners should maintain basic plants for use in experiments and decoration in the laboratory.
Safe use of electricity- Do not use cords with naked wires and do not pull cords when disconnecting. Do not
overload circuits. Keep electrical wires away from water or damp conditions.
Sand buckets, fire extinguishers and a fire guard are also needed.
Handling of apparatus – Proper handling by learners and teachers since glass is fragile. Never heat glassware
when not completely dry. Put safety goggles. Learn how to use burners.
Branches of Biology
The division and different branches of science are constantly spreading with the increase of knowledge in
science.
The two main branches of science are Physical science and Biological science.
Physical Science is also called the science of non-living things.
In Physical Science characteristics, chemical reactions and many similar other properties of non-living
objects are examined and discussed.
Observation, examination and study of livings things are included in Biology.
The term Biology comes from two Greek words
Major Branches
Other Branches
Evolutionary biology – the study of the origins, changes of species over time.
Molecular – the study of biological molecules.
Careers
A Career is a profession or occupation or work. Biology is an important subject as it opens doors to many careers
hence learners (males or females) should take it up to high levels. Biology links with other subjects to include
arts subjects hence makes it useful in many different careers which can offer opportunity for men and women.
Nurse Biologist
Dermatologist Biochemist
Biological Technician Medical microbiologist
Medical and Health Services Manager Virologist
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Haematology Ecologists
Biotechnology research scientist Dieticians
Genetic Counselor Research scientists.
Biology Teacher or Higher education Lecturer Botanical instructors, etc.
Nature conservation officer (Conservationists)
Cell structures:
Cell membrane:
Cytoplasm:
Nucleus:
Vacuole:
Chloroplast:
Mitochondria:
Ribosomes:
Ribosomes are cell organelles that are the places where a protein is made by the synthesis of amino acids.
They are arranged in a network known as rough endoplasmic reticulum
They are found in all kinds of cells ranging from prokaryotic to eukaryotic.
Starch grains
Calculating Magnification:
Cell Specialisation
Specialised cells
A specialised cell is designed to do a particular job. There specialised plant and animal cells. They develop a
distinct shape, special kinds of chemical change take place in their cytoplasm. The changes in shape and the
chemical reactions enable the cell to carry out its special function.
nucleus
Muscle cells: They are cells found in muscles in Platelets: help clotting
animals, they contract and relax together to move
the organisms.
Their function is to contract to support and move
the body. They are adapted by two ways, First, Is
that they are made of contractile filament to help in
contraction. Second is it contains lots of
mitochondria to supply the cell with energy.
Xylem Vessels: these are dead lignified cells that
exist in the stem of a plant. Their function is to
transport water and minerals from the roots to the
leaves and the rest of the plant through the stem.
nucleus And to support the plant. They are adapted by 2
ways. Firstly, they are hollow to allow water and
minerals to pass through them with no resistance.
Secondly they are strong and lignified to support the
plant.
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TOPIC 3
Properties of water
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Non-polar molecules like lipids are insoluble in Property: High heat capacity
water.
Water has a high heat capacity of 4 200 J.
If surrounded by water they tend to repel/ push
This means that a large increase in heat energy
away forming micelles.
results in a relatively small rise in temperature.
Biological role of this property
This is because much of the energy is used in
This is important in hydrophobic interactions in breaking the hydrogen bonds which restrict the
protein structure and membrane structure by mobility of the molecules.
increasing the stability of these structures. Therefore temperature changes of water are
minimized as a result of its high heat capacity.
Biological role
Property: High surface tension and cohesion
(adhesion and cohesion) It makes it easier to achieve a stable body
temperature.
Cohesion is the force whereby individual
molecules stick together.
Adhesion is the force whereby water molecules Experiment 1
stick to other surfaces. Aim: To investigate the behaviour of water when
Biological role frozen.
Cohesion helps water to move as an unbroken
Materials: Ice tray or small container, water, a
column in the xylem tubes in plants.
freezer.
Adhesion helps the water to stick to the inside of
the vascular bundle. Procedure
High surface tension resulting from high
cohesion forces enable small organisms such as 1. Fill the container so that water is level with the
insects to skate the surface of the water. top of the container.
2. Place the container in a freezer.
3. Examine the container after a few hours.
Property: Water as a reagent
Water is biologically significant as an essential Questions:
metabolite, that is, it participates in the chemical
1. Describe what you observe.
reactions of metabolism.
2. Explain the observation.
For example water is used as a source of
3. Explain why it is advantageous to organisms
hydrogen in photosynthesis and in hydrolysis
that the density of ice is lower than that of
reactions, condensation and respiration.
water.
4. Write a conclusion.
Property: Transport medium
Water is a neutral liquid medium because it has
a pH of 7.
Biological role of this property
Water’s solvent properties also mean that it acts
as a transport medium in the blood transporting
cells, lymphatic and excretory system, the
alimentary canal and in the xylem and phloem.
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The 4 ‘Organic Compounds’
Carbohydrates
Example :
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carbohydrate supplies run low and form cell Animals need fats to make up cell structures
membranes. such as cell membranes
The Adipose tissue is needed to insulate our
Their simplest forms are fatty acids and glycerol. A body
fat molecule consists of 3 organic acids and 1
glycerol. Proteins
There are two types of fat: Proteins are used to generate energy only when
the body has exhausted it’s store of fat and
Saturated Fat: These are usually found in foods carbohydrates.
such as milk, butter, cheese and meat. Proteins are very important for the body. Our
Unsaturated Fat: These usually found in foods muscles and other tissues, Haemoglobin, fibrin,
such as fish oils, cooking oils and vegetable oils. keratin, collagen, DNA, enzymes etc. are all
made up of proteins.
Saturated fats are converted to cholesterol by the The proteins you eat are broken down into amino
liver. acids, and are used by the body to build and
repair cells and to make blood cells.
There are two types of cholesterol: Proteins are made by the synthesis of amino
acids in the ribosomes of cells.
1. HDL (High Density Lipids): Must be in greater Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and a bit
amounts as it is beneficial and good of Sulphur is what amino acid molecules
2. LDL (Low Density Lipids): Must be in contain.
controlled amounts or else the person may get Food containing proteins are: Eggs, Fish , Cow
infected with Coronary Heart Disease. peas etc.
Kwashiorkor is characterized by a protruding
For this reason, no more than 10% of your energy abdomen due to lack of proteins.
should come from eating saturated fats. Amino acids molecules link to form long chains
called polymers.
If the percentage level of saturated fats in your diet High temperatures and pH cause protein to break
increases, fat deposits begin to build up inside blood down. This is called protein has denatured.
arteries, making them stiffer, less elastic, and
narrower.
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Functions Add Benedict’s reagent.
Contains instructions for proteins, and store Put test tube in water bath for heating.
hereditary information. If reducing sugars are present the solution turns
Helps make proteins.
from blue to yellow, orange, red (fire colours).
If reducing sugars are not present the solution
remains blue.
Proteins Test:
Put sample (egg albumen) in a test tube.
Add water to make a solution.
Add Biuret reagent using a dropper.
If proteins are present in the solution turns
purple
If proteins are not present the solution remains
blue.
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Cellular Transport
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2. Using a ruler and a sharp knife, measure and cut 2. Add a few grains of potassium permanganate to
four cubes from the jelly with sides of 3.0 cm, each beaker and observe how rapidly the
2.0 cm, 1.0 cm and 0.5 cm. dissolved dye spreads through each column of
3. Place the cubes into a beaker of methylene blue water. An alternative is to use tea bags.
dye or potassium permanganate solution.
Question
4. After 15 minutes, remove the cubes with
forceps and place them on to a white tile. Give an explanation for the results you observed.
5. Cut each of the cubes in half and measure the
depth to which the dye has diffused. Osmosis
6. Calculate the surface area and volume of each Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from
cube and construct a table of your data. a region of high concentration to a region of low
Remember to state the units in the heading for concentration through a semi – permeable
each column. membrane.
Question
Imagine that these cubes were animals, with the jelly
representing living cells and the dye representing
oxygen.
Demonstrating Osmosis
Which of the ‘animals’ would be able to survive by
relying on diffusion through their surface to provide It can be demonstrated using
them with oxygen?
Visking tubing
Demonstrating the effect of temperature Potato strip/ chip
Egg shell membrane
Procedure:
1. Set up two beakers with equal volumes of hot Visking tubing is an artificial membrane material
water and iced water. made from cellulose and which acts as a partially
permeable membrane.
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Experiment 1 Experiment 2
Demonstrating osmosis using visking tubings. Testing osmosis in living plant tissue /
demonstrating osmosis using potato pieces.
Materials: visking tubing, container, 20% sugar
solution, balance, water. Materials: potatoes, knife, distilled water, sugar /
salt , three containers, balance, ruler.
Method
Method
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Turgor and Plasmolysis in Plant Cell
Turgor
They will be a low concentration of water inside the cell and a high concentration outside the cell. Water moves
into the cell by osmosis through the cell which is semi permeable. The cell sap volume increases and the cell
become full of water making the cell turgid. Water inside cell exerts a pressure on the walls called turgor
pressure. The cell increases in size or volume. A cell full of water is said to be turgid. It cannot take in any more
water. It becomes firm / hard.
Plasmolysis
They will be a high concentration inside the cell and a low concentration outside the cell. Water moves by
osmosis from the cell to its surrounding. The cell remains with less water and the cell shrinks and decreases in
size. Cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall and the cell becomes flaccid. It becomes soft.
Plants absorb water from the soil by osmosis until it enters the xylem vessels.
Mineral salts or ions are absorbed from the soil by active uptake, from lower to high concentration. The process
uses energy.
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TOPIC 4
PLANT SCIENCE
Nutrition
Photosynthesis
The process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light is called as
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is extremely important in the plant’s nutrition.
Photo: Light
Synthesis: Manufacturing
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So, first of all, you must destarch the plants. Leave
them in the dark for 48 hours. The plants use up all
stores of starch in its leaves.
Method
Observations
The leaf turns to blue-black when starch is present. 3. Is sunlight essential for photosynthesis?
The leaf turns yellowish-brown when there is no
starch. Method
Conclusion
Take a potted plant.
Plants can make their own food. Destarch the plant by keeping it in complete
darkness for about 48 hours.
Investigations to see if chlorophyll is needed for Test one of it leaves for starch, to check that is
photosynthesis. does not contain any.
Fix a leaf of this plant in between two strips of a
thick paper on leaf.
Place the plant in light for a few days.
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Remove the cover from the leaf and test it for Keep both the set-ups in the sunlight at least for
starch. 6 hours.
Perform the starch test on both of the plants.
Observations
Observations
Positive starch test will be obtained only in the
portion of the leaf exposed to light and negative test Leaf from the plant in which NaHCO3 has been
in parts with paper strip. placed gives positive test.
Leaf from the plant in which NaOH has been kept
give negative test.
Conclusion
Method
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Method Observations
i. Place a water weed in a beaker with water. Gas collects in the test tube A. Remove the test tube
ii. Fill the test tube with water and invert it over by lifting it upwards sob that the gas remains in it.
the inverted funnel. Test the gas in the test tube with a glowing splint.
iii. Cover the other set up with a black cloth. Results; The splint burst into a flame.
iv. Place the apparatus near a window so it
receives sunlight. Conclusion
v. Leave the apparatus until the test tube is full
Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis.
of gas.
Internal structure
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Stomata are small pores on the lower epidermis for gaseous exchange during photosynthesis, respiration and
transpiration.
Use Notes
Energy can be released from glucose using aerobic
Used for energy
respiration.
Stored as starch Stored as starch because:
Sucrose
Cellulose
Used to make organic substances
Chlorophyll (using nitrogen and magnesium)
Fats
Oils
Less reactive
Transformed to sucrose for transport
Small molecules
Soluble in sap in phloem vessels
Importance of photosynthesis
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Experiment
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Explanation
Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is converted to ATP and H+
At very low light levels the plant will be respiring only not photosynthesising.
As the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases. However, the rate will not increase
beyond a certain level of light intensity.
At high light intensities the rate becomes constant, even with further increases in light intensity; there are no
increases in the rate.
The plant is unable to harvest the light at these high intensities and the chlorophyll system can be damaged
by very intense light levels.
Explanation
At low temperature, the enzyme does not have
enough energy to meet many substrate
molecules, so the reaction is slowed.
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When the temperature rises, the particles in the
reaction move quicker and collide more, so the
rate of photosynthesis rises also.
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The gas should be checked to prove that it is
indeed oxygen – relights a glowing splint.
Repeat at different lower CO2 concentrations by
using different dilutions of a saturated solution.
Graph the results placing CO2 concentration on
the x-axis.
Explanation
The rate of photosynthesis increases linearly
with increasing CO2 concentration (from point
A to B).
The rate falls gradually, and at a certain CO2
concentration it stays constant (from point B to
C). Here a rise in CO2 levels has no effect as the
other factors such as light intensity become
constant.
Count the number of oxygen bubbles given off
by the plant in a one - minute period. This is the
rate of photosynthesis at that particular
concentration of CO2.
Mineral Nutrients
Plants require mineral salts from their environment. These are absorbed as ions in solution.
Each mineral element has a specific function in the plant.
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Method iv. Examine on daily bases the root length, plant
shoots, colour of leaves and number of
leaves.
v. Constantly add water where necessary so that
there is enough solution.
Results
During the first week all plants in each test tube
appear healthy. Because they have all nutrient
necessary stored in their leaves.
There will be very little growth in plant with distilled
water.
After these mineral deficiency show up and these are
as below:
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Results explaned:
Productivity
It refers to the amount of organic matter or biomass produced in a certain unit of time. Biomass is the mass of
living biological organisms in a given area such as a farm field or ecosystem. It can be expressed as average mass
per unit area.
Factors affecting productivity
Pests cause damage to plants and spread diseases. This result in a reduction in crop yields. Control measures can
be taken as follows:
Cultural- a way of reducing pests and damage that may be caused by using farm operations that make it more
difficult for a pest to establish itself. Or which don’t make use of chemicals
a) Early planting.
b) Weed removal.
c) Crop rotation.
d) Clean plant environment.
e) Organic manure and fertilizer.
f) Burning and burying crop residues.
g) Fumigation of tobacco seed beds with wood smoke and spraying with a mixture of milk water to reduce
disease infection in maize.
Advantages Disadvantages
Low cost Their effect takes times to be felt / are slow acting.
Easily accessible natural resources Need to be frequently carried out and applied e.g. crop
e.g. milk and ashes. rotation.
Does not disturb the ecosystem / are
safe.
Chemical - use of chemicals through spraying or dusting. A pesticide is a substance that kills pests. Fungicides
are used to kill fungi.
Advantages Disadvantages
It is a quick method expensive
Specific (only affects one pest). Kill or damage other animals.
Pests can be controlled when used May stay in the soil affecting other animals in the food
correctly. chain e.g. DDT
High and high doses are needed as pest become
resistant to chemicals.
Biological – involves the introduction of a parasite or a predator which is an enermy to the pests that need to be
destroyed e.g. African marigold (plant) reduces nematodes in soil, a fungus called Trichoderma damage another
called Rhizoctonia in potatoes.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Biological Control Methods
Transport
Transport
Is all about passing nutrients from one place to another to favour the living organism’s growth.
carbon dioxide
water
mineral ions etc to photosynthesise and grow.
Plant Structure
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A plant is divided into two section, whatever is above the soil, is called the shoot, and whatever is below
the soil is called the root.
The root is simple, it is usually a main root with extensions of thinner ones.
The shoot however, is made of several parts as shown above.
The roots have the specialised cell, root hair cell, the root hair cells absorbs water from the soil and fixes
the plant into the ground.
In the root also, starts the transports system of the plant which extends all the way from the root up to the
tip of the stem.
QN: Explain the parts of the shoot and root. [6]
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Root and stem structure
Part Function
Epidermis Protection from damage and prevent entry of bacteria and fungi.
Cambium Produce xylem and phloem vessels.
Phloem Transports soluble food
Xylem Transports water and mineral salts.
Cortex and pith Gives root and stem strength and stability
Root hairs Absorbs water and mineral salts.
Plants take water from the soil through their roots. Roots have root hairs to absorb water and minerals from the
soil.
Structure of a root:
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Function of roots:
Root hairs provide a large surface area and help significantly in the absorption of water.
They provide anchorage to the plant
They also absorb mineral ions through active transport
Water moves through the root hairs through osmosis:
1. The water outside the root is in its dilute form (High water potential)
2. The water inside the root is in concentrated form (Low water potential)
3. Thus the water diffuses from a region of high water potential to a region of low water potential, down their
water potential gradients, through a partially permeable cell membrane.
Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells,
followed by the loss of water vapour through the stomata.
Importance of Transpiration
For continuous absorption of water. The continuous flow of water from the roots up the stems and out of the
leaves is called transpiration stream.
For the plant to take up dissolved mineral nutrients/ions.
It has a cooling effect on the plant due to evaporation.
Transpiration has significant importance in the water cycle.
1. The mesophyll cells in the plant’s leaves are covered with a thin film of moisture.
2. The sun’s heat causes some of this moisture to diffuse out of the stomata and evaporate into the atmosphere.
3. Water from the xylem vessels travel to the mesophyll cells by osmosis and replace the water loss.
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Measuring transpiration rates The rate of transpiration is measured by
calculating how fast the air-water meniscus
Transpiration rate in a plant can be measured travels through the capillary tube.
using apparatus called a potometer
Experiment 1
Method
Cut a woody shoot and immediately place the cut edge of the shoot under water.
Immerse the potometer complelely under water in a big bowl or sink with the tap under the reservoir open.
Make sure the potometer is completely filled with water and that there are no air bubbles.
Put the cut stalk of your leafy shoot into the water in the sink and cut off the last centimetre of the stem
obliquely under water.
With the potometer and the stalk of the shoot still under water, fit the stalk into the rubber bung. It must fit
very tightly.
Close the tap under the reservoir and remove the shoot and potometer from the water. Clamp in position if
necessary and keep in a still, lit position.
Any air bubbles in the capillary tube should be expelled by opening the tap to let water run into the potometer
bottle from the reservoir.
At this stage if the apparatus is not air tight, water will be seen oozing out from the sides of the stopper. If
necessary smear some Vaseline around the rubber stopper to prevent any leakage.
Prepare a results table.
Record the distance the air bubble travelled in mm every minute for at least l0mins
Calculate and record the distance travelled in mm per min.
Repeat at least twice and calculate the average distance.
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The conditions can now be changed in one of the following ways:
Move the apparatus into sunlight or under a fluorescent lamp.
Blow air past the shoot with an electric fan or merely fan it with an exercise book.
Cover the shoot with a plastic bag.
After each change of conditions, take three more readings of the rate of uptake and notice whether they
represent an increase or a decrease in the rate of transpiration.
Results
An increase in light intensity should make the stomata open and allow more rapid transpiration.
Moving air should increase the rate of evaporation and, therefore, the rate of uptake.
The plastic bag will cause a rise in humidity round the leaves and suppress transpiration.
Not all the water taken up will be transpired; some will be used in photosynthesis; some may be absorbed by
cells to increase their turgor. However, these quantities are very small compared with the volume of water
transpired and they can be disregarded.
The rate of uptake of a cut shoot may not reflect the rate in the intact plant. If the root system were present,
it might offer resistance to the flow of water or it could be helping the flow by means of its root pressure.
Summary
Wind speed The wind increases transpiration rates (as water evaporates more quickly
on a windy day)
The greater the light intensity, the greater the chance that a plant will
Light intensity
open its stomata to photosynthesise. Hence the greater transpiration will
be.
Water supply In short water supply, a plant will conserve water instead of wasting it.
The shorter the water supply, the lesser the transpiration.
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Experiment 2
Observations
To find which surface of a leaf loses more water
vapour Leaf A does not lose water at all.
Leaf B loses water.
Method Leaf C loses little water.
1. Take 4 leaves of similar size. Leaf D dries out most or fast.
2. Carefully smear both surfaces of leaf A with Results
petroleum jelly / vaseline.
3. Cover the lower surface of leaf B with petroleum More water is lost at D because more stomata are
jelly. on the lower surface of the leaf.
4. Cover the upper surface of leaf C with petroleum Conclusion
jelly.
5. Leave the one remaining leaf (D). The lower surface loses more water than the
6. Weigh each of the leaves on the balance. upper surface of the leaf.
7. Place a little vaseline on the cut end of the leaf
Interpretation
stalk and suspend a piece of string between two
retort stands and attach each of the 4 leaves to the
The vaseline prevents evaporation.
string. Leave until next lesson.
The untreated leaf and the leaf with its upper
8. Observe the appearance of the leaves and reweigh
surface sealed show the greatest degree of
them.
shrivelling, so it is from the lower surface that
9. Calculate the loss in mass of each of the leaves.
leaves lose most water by evaporation.
More rapid results can be obtained by sticking
small squares of blue cobalt chloride paper to the
upper and lower surface of the same leaf using
transparent adhesive tape.
Cobalt chloride paper changes from blue to pink
as it takes up moisture. By comparing the time
taken for each square to go pink, the relative
rates of evaporation from each surface can be
compared.
Translocation
Translocation is the movement of organic food such sucrose and amino acids in phloem; from regions of
production (source), to regions of storage OR regions of utilisation in respiration or growth (sink)
A source is the part of a plant where sucrose and amino acids are being produced by photosynthesis. For
example: Leaves
A sink is the part of a plant where sucrose and amino acids are translocated. For example: flowers, roots,
tubers etc.
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Uses of sucrose:
For example, potato plants are not able to survive the cold frost of winter. Let’s see what happens!
So in summer, the leaves are sources and the growing stem tubers are sinks.
In spring, the stem tubers are sources and the growing leaves are sinks.
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FORM 3 TERM 2
TOPIC 5
ENZYMES
Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts which speed up the reaction rate without getting involved in the reaction itself.
Catalysts are substances that can change the speed of a chemical reaction.
Examples of enzymes: Salivary amylase, Pepsin, Renin, Lipase, Catalase Maltase, Lactase etc.
Types of Enzymes:
Enzymes have a structure that is called active site. Only one substance can fit into the active site to be
digested, and it is the only substrate that this particular enzyme works with.
The figure below shows how enzymes work:
The substrate enters the active site of the enzyme.
The reaction takes place.
The substrate exits the enzyme as two simpler products.
You can also think of the way enzymes work as a key and a lock, the key is the substrate and the lock is the
enzyme. The key should be exactly the right shape to fit in the lock, so does the substrate to fit in the active site
of the enzyme. The key could only open only one lock, and the lock could be unlocked by only that key.
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Properties of Enzymes:
Temperature:
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TOPIC 6
ANIMAL SCIENCE
Nutrition
Diet
A good diet on its own will not make you skillful or fit as a performer or a sportsperson, but will help you make
the most of your abilities through nutrition; hence, nutrition is very important. Your body is an endothermic one
and has the ability to maintain a constant body temperature and a lot of energy is needed to do so. Moreover, the
electrical impulses that are transmitted by the neurones in your body as well need energy to do so. Thus it is
important that you should have a good balanced diet to get all the seven nutrients beneficial for nutrition.
Balanced Diet
A balanced diet is a diet that contains all the main nutrients in the correct amounts and proportions to maintain
good health. Everyone, whether involved in sport or not should try to eat a healthy balanced diet.
Carbohydrates
They are needed for energy to do all types of work and are required in large quantities. Sugars and starch are
important carbohydrates in a diet. Starch includes maize, rice and other cereals. Sugars are in fruits such as
mangoes and apples and biscuit and sweet drinks.
Proteins
These are for building of tissue and repair of worn out tissues or cells. Proteins are obtained from lean meat, fish,
milk, eggs, round nuts, peanut butter, cow peas and e.tc. When proteins are digested, they are broken down into
amino acids. These acids are absorbed into blood stream and build up the cytoplasm of cells and tissues. The
unused amino acids are changed to glycogen and then stored or oxidized to provide energy.
Fats
Fats help the body from losing heat therefore, one feels warmer. Fats also provide energy, but fats only contain
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in different proportions as to the carbohydrates. Sources of fats are peanut butter,
cooking oil, fat meat and margarine.
Mineral salts
They are sometimes referred to as fast salts or minerals. Protein, carbohydrates and fats provide the body with
carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen and phosphorus. However, there are more elements found in food we eat e.g.
calcium, sodium, iron and others. Calcium is for building bones and teeth and other salts maintain the body in
shape and function and iron makes up blood. Food such as fish, eggs, dried vegetables, liver meat and ishwa
contain mineral salts.
Water
About 70% of most tissues consist of water. The functions of water include:
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As a solvent which reactants of metabolic reactions are dissolved in.
It makes up most of the blood plasma which red blood cells, nutrients, hormones and other materials are
carried in.
It helps in lowering the body temperature in hot conditions by secreting it as sweat on the skin, the sweat
evaporates using heat energy from the body, thus lowering the temperature.
water is obtained from fruits such as oranges and cucumbers and melons.
Vitamins
Vitamin A: is found in fish, milk, vegetables, eggs and cheese. It is needed for good eyesight and healthy
skin.
Vitamin C: is found in citrus fruits and vegetables. It is needed for healthy teeth, gums, and to prevent scurvy.
Vitamin B1: is found in whole-grain food, nuts and meat. It is needed for breaking down carbohydrates.
Vitamin D: is found in animal products such as milk and egg. It is also made in the presence of sunlight by
the skin. It is crucial for absorbing calcium and phosphorous and to avoid rickets.
Minerals:
Minerals are basic elements that are found in the air and in the earth’s crust.
Our body needs certain minerals in small proportions in order to maintain the nutrient stability.
Below are the names of some minerals needed by our body, where they are found and their importance:
Calcium: is present in vegetables, dairy products and dried fish. It is significant for keeping our bones strong.
Iron: is found in red meat, liver, beans, lentils and green leafy vegetables. It is crucial for making blood and
for the prevention of anaemia.
Iodine: is found in seafood and dairy products. It is needed as it maintains the thyroid gland.
Fibre
Fibres are actually a substance called cellulose. It is found in the cell walls of plants. Fruits, vegetables, whole
grain cereals are good sources of dietary fibre. Fibres cannot be digested, but it is beneficial for the smooth
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working of the digestive system. People who eat too little fibre often suffer from constipation and may acquire
high risk of bowel cancer. Define the term constipation. (2)
Food Tests
Test for Starch: with Iodine solution. If result is positive, a blue-black precipitate forms.
Glucose
A little glucose is heated with some benedict solution in the test tube. The heating is done by placing the test tube
in a beaker of boiling water. The solution changes from clear blue to cloudy green, then to yellow and finally to
a red or brown.
Protein
Add few drops of biuret solution (sodium hydroxide soln and copper sulphate soln) to sample of food. The blue
colour shows presence of protein.
Fat
Two drops of cooking oil are shaken with about 5 cm3 ethanol in a dry test tube until the fat disappears or
dissolves. The alcohol is poured into a test tube with water (few). A cloudy white emulsion is formed, this shows
that the solution contained some fats or oils.
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Observations and results
Oils burns and it was easy to light.
Produce heat energy which raises the temperature of water quickly.
Oils produce high heat value energy) as to carbohydrates.
Test for Vitamin C: with DCPIP. A blue to a colourless liquid forms in presence of vitamin C.
Malnutrition is the result of not eating a balanced diet. There may be:
wrong amount of food: too little or too much.
incorrect proportion of main nutrients.
lacking in one or more key nutrients
Effects of malnutrition
3. Starvation
Too little food can result in starvation.
rate foods, can result in the disease anorexia
nervosa.
4. Childhood protein-energy malnutrition (Kwashiorkor)
Wrong proportion of nutrients e.g. too much carbohydrates (starchy foods) and a lack of protein can lead to
kwashiorkor in young children.
Kwashiorkor characterized by edema, anorexia, ulcerating dermatoses.
Energy Calculations:
The amount of energy required depends from person to person, depending on a number of factors such as:
Age, Size, Sex, Lifestyle, Diet
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Summary
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The Digestive System
Processes:
Ingestion
Taking food into the body through the mouth is called as ingestion.
Digestion
The breakdown of large insoluble molecules to small water soluble molecules using mechanical and chemical
digestion is called as digestion.
Absorption
The movement of digestive food molecules through the wall of the small intestine, into the blood or lymph is
defined as absorption.
Excretion
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The alimentary canal runs from the mouth to the Peristalsis
anus. It also includes the liver and the pancreas. The walls of the alimentary canal have an inner,
circular muscle fibre coat and an outer,
Peristalsis is the longitudinal movement of the longitudinal muscle fibre coat.
muscles in the oesophagus that help the food bolus As the ball of food (bolus) formed in the mouth
to travel through the alimentary canal. enters the pharynx, a reflex action is initiated.
This produces slow, wave-like contractions in
Sphincter muscles act as valves and are found the walls of the oesophagus and later along the
throughout the canal. they help regulate the whole length of the tract (peristalsis).
movement of food through it. Peristaltic waves involve the contraction of the
circular muscle fibres behind the bolus and their
The Mouth relaxation in front of the bolus.
Longitudinal muscles provide the wave-like
1. The teeth bite and grind the food into smaller action. The two functions together push the ball
pieces. down the tract.
2. The tongue helps move the food and mixes it
evenly with the saliva.
3. This forms a food bolus.
4. Salivary glands produce saliva containing
amylase.
5. Amylase breaks down starch containing food
such as bread into maltose.
Amylase
The Oesophagus
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Dilute hydrochloric acid is also produced and it The small intestine is present between the stomach
acts as a barrier by killing any pathogens that and the colon.
may have got into the food.
The mucus is secreted by goblet cells that are It consists of 3 parts:
present on the walls of the stomach. the mucus
prevents the stomach to get digested by the 1. Duodenum
hydrochloric acid it produces! 2. Jejunum
It produces pepsin (an enzyme for digesting proteins) and 3. Ileum
renin (an enzyme for digesting milk proteins and used
to clot milk.), they are also called the protease enzyme. The Duodenum and the Pancreas
To give the right pH for pepsin and renin to work (pH2-
acidic).
To neutralise the alkaline effect of saliva.
Enzymes present:
Pepsin
Amylase
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Pepsin It has a large surface area
It has microvilli on its surface that again,
Proteins ——————–> Polypeptides amplifies the surface area.
It has goblet cells on its surface that produce
3. Lipase: breaks down fats into fatty acids and mucus and lubricate the intestine walls.
glycerol It can secrete a wide range of enzymes in order
to break the food in its simplest form.
Lipase It is structured in such a way that the enzymes
are recycled and don’t go waste in a single
Fats ———————> Fatty acids + Glycerol digestion cycle.
It has a lacteal that can absorb fats and take it to
Bile is a yellowish-green, watery liquid, which is the hepatic portal vein to the liver.
made in the liver.
It is stored in the gall bladder. Absorption
It flows to the duodenum along the bile duct.
There are no enzymes present in bile but it does Absorption is the process by which digested food are
contain bile salts that emulsify fats. transferred into the blood stream through the villi of the ileum.
Bile also contains bile pigments which are The capillaries of the villi will join up to form the hepatic
produced when red blood cells are broken down portal vein which carries blood to the liver. When the
in the spleen. absorbed nutrients reach the hepatic portal vein,
the liver:
Villi
produces urea
transports the absorbed nutrients to the cells.
converts glucose to glycogen.
Assimilation
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Production of other proteins such as enzymes and Enzymes present:
hormones.
Fats are used to form part of a cell such as the cell 1. Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose
membrane and the nuclear membrane. Maltose
Fats are used as insulators. Maltose ————-> Glucose
2.Sucrase: Breaks down sucrose into glucose and
Role of the liver
fructose
Sucrase
Synthesis of proteins, immune and clotting
factors, and oxygen and fat-carrying substances. Sucrose ————-> Glucose + Fructose
Its chief digestive function is the secretion of 3. Lactase: Breaks down lactose into glucose and
bile, a solution critical to fat emulsion galactose
(emulsification) and absorption. Lactase
The liver also removes excess glucose from Lactose —————-> Glucose + Galactose
circulation and stores it until it is needed. It 4. Peptidase: Breaks down polypeptides into amino
converts excess amino acids into useful
acids
forms(glucose and urea ) i.e. deanimation and filters
drugs and poisons (alcohol, pills etc) from the Peptidase
bloodstream, neutralising them and excreting Polypeptides——————> Amino acids
them in bile. 5. Lipase: Breaks down fats into fatty acids and
Urea is a nitrogenous substance which is sent to the glycerol
kidneys for disposal. Lipase
Fats ———————> Fatty acids + Glycerol
Large Intestine
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In the rectum, faeces are formed, which is an undigested mixture of undigested food, bacteria, bile pigments
and some dead cells.
Faeces are disposed out of the body, at the end of the alimentary canal.
Experiment 3
Results
At the start of the investigation the distilled water tests negative for starch (stays brown) and reducing sugar
(stays turquoise). The contents of the visking tubing are positive for starch (blue-black), but negative for
reducing sugars (stays turquoise).
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After 20 minutes, the contents of the visking tubing are yellow/brown with iodine solution, but turn orange
or brick red with Benedict’s solution. The water sample stays yellow/brown with iodine solution, but turns
orange or brick red with Benedict’s solution.
Interpretation
The amylase digests the starch in the visking tubing, producing reducing sugar.
The complete digestion of starch results in a negative colour change with iodine solution.
The presence of reducing sugar (maltose or glucose) causes the Benedict’s solution to turn orange or brick
red.
The reducing sugar molecules can diffuse through the visking tubing into the surrounding water, so the water
gives a positive result with Benedict’s solution.
Starch is a large molecule, so it cannot diffuse through the tubing: the water gives a negative result with
iodine solution.
This model can be used to represent digestion in the gut. The starch solution and amylase are the contents of the
mouth or duodenum. The visking tubing represents the duodenum wall and the distilled water represents the
bloodstream, into which the products of digestion are absorbed.
Teeth
1. Milk teeth: the teeth which form during 5-30 months of your life. There are usually 20-22 milk teeth.
2. Permanent teeth: the teeth that replace milk teeth when you grow towards your teens. There are usually 32
permanent teeth.
Plaque
Some of the bacteria, together with other substances in your mouth, form a sticky film over the teeth, especially
next to the gums and in between the teeth. This substance is known as plaque.
Tartar
Plaque is soft and easy to remove at first. However, if it is left, it hardens to form tartar, which cannot be removed
by brushing.
Gum Disease
Tooth Decay
If sugar is left on the teeth, bacteria in the mouth will feed on it. Soon, due to the metabolic reactions going in
the bacteria’s body, an acidic solution will be produced which lowers the pH of the mouth and has the potential
to dissolve the enamel.
As the bacteria grow, greater volumes of acidic solution are produced. The acid gradually reaches the dentine
which gets dissolved even faster and then worms its way down the pulp cavity.
The bacteria can grow up to such an extent that an abscess is created by it at the root of the tooth, causing
excruciating pain!
A person suffering from tooth decay usually is recommended for a root canal treatment.
Dental Care
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Gaseous Exchange
The respiratory system is responsible for gaseous exchange and breathing. Gaseous exchange occurs in the
alveoli. Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
The respiratory system consists of the lungs, organs inside the head and of the chest.
On the diagram, identify an organ which is not responsible for gaseous exchange (1)
Functions of parts
Part Function
Larynx(voice box) Is held open by the trachea for air passage.
trachea This is a tube that connects the nasal cavity and larynx to the lungs. It is lined with
a layer of ciliated epithelium cells and goblet cells which secrete mucus that traps
bacteria and dust from inhaled air and gets moved upwards to the larynx by the
cilia. It is then either spit out or swallowed to the stomach where it is eliminated by
acid.
Bronchus and Channel air to and from the alveoli. Contains mucus and cilia to trap dust and micro-
bronchioles organisms.
Alveoli / air sacs Where gaseous exchange takes place. These are tiny bags full of gas, they are
present in the lungs in large amounts (several million alveolus in each lung). They
2
give the lungs a much larger surface area (about 70 m ) for faster diffusion of gases
between them and the blood.
Diaphragm This is a sheath of muscles that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal
cavity. Together with the ribs and the inter-costal muscles, it plays a big role in
breathing and gas exchange.
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Path taken
Inhaling occurs, air enters the mouth and nose where bacteria and dust in it are trapped by mucus and
warmed by blood capillaries.
The air enters the trachea where it is cleaned again by cilia.
The bronchi take the air from the trachea to each lung.
Bronchi divide into several bronchioles, each one has a group of alveoli at the end of it.
In the alveoli gas exchange takes place where the oxygen rich air diffuses into the blood capillaries of the
pulmonary arteries and the carbon dioxide rich gas diffuses into the alveoli to be exhaled.
Experiment 1
Breathing mechanism
Observations
While breathing in, the rib cage moves upwards and outwards, the diaphragm flattens and the volume in the chest
increases. Since the volume increases the pressure decreases and the air is drawn into the lungs.
While you exhale, the rib cage moves inwards and downwards, the diaphragm relaxes (dome shaped) and the
volume in the chest decreases. Since the volume decreases pressure increases and the air is expelled out of the
lungs.
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The concentration gradient in the alveoli is maintained by an efficient ventilation or breathing mechanism. Fresh
air rich in oxygen are taken in at each breath. Air is drawn in the air sac by contraction of muscles between ribs
and diaphragm. The muscles relax when air is breathed out.
The alveoli are air sacs where gaseous exchange takes place.
Each alveolus is supplied with blood capillaries.
These come from the pulmonary artery and they contain deoxygenated blood rich in carbon dioxide.
The concentration of oxygen is very high inside the alveolus and very low in the blood, so oxygen molecules
diffuse from the alveolus to the red blood cells and combine with haemoglobin.
At the very same time this occurs, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the alveolus because the
concentration of it is very high in the blood and low in the alveolus.
Adaptations
Very thin wall of both the alveolus and the capillary, they are one cell thick which makes the diffusion
distance shorter, increasing the rate.
The difference in concentration of gases between the alveolus and the capillary is very large, increasing the
diffusion rate of gases.
The alveolus are balloon shaped which gives it a very large surface area for faster diffusion.
The walls of the alveolus are lined by a thin film of water in which gases dissolve in during diffusion, this
makes it faster.
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Experiment 2 (a) Percentage composition of air ( not all gases)
Comparing inhaled and exhaled air Inhaled Exhaled
Oxygen 20% 16%
Apparatus: carbon dioxide indicator, two test tubes, Carbon 0,03% 4%
mouth piece, dioxide
Method Water variable higher
vapour
Experiment 3
Method
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Smoking and the Circulatory System
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Method Experiment 2
Method
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Conclusion is that ethanol is produced by enzymes
fermentation of glucose.
Glucose → lactic acid + energy.
Production and Effect of Lactic Acid
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Transport
The blood from the left side of the heart comes from the lungs
The blood capillaries surrounding the alveoli get oxygen that diffuses into the blood
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This blood now contains oxygen and thus it is called as oxygenated blood
The deoxygenated blood is returned back to the right hand side of the heart, and is sent to the lungs to get
oxygenated once again.
A double circulatory system is one where blood is transported through the heart twice in one complete cycle.
Beginning at the lungs, blood flows into the left-hand side of the heart, and then out to the rest of the body. It is
brought back to the right-side of the heart, before going back to the lungs again.
The pressure applied to pump the blood all over the body is not lost; it is returned to the heart to raise the pressure
again.
In a double circulatory system, the oxygenated blood is transported at a faster rate through the body’s organs.
Transporting blood at a faster rate is particularly important as tissues that are metabolically active will require
oxygen in abundance. A double circulatory system ensures that the oxygenated blood reaches the tissues on
priority.
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The Heart
Is made up of the cardiac muscle which contracts and relaxes throughout life
Left Atrium Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and passes it to the left ventricle
Receives oxygenated blood from the Left Atrium and pumps it all over the
Left Ventricle
body
Receives deoxygenated blood from the body and passes it to the Right
Right Atrium
Ventricle
Receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and pumps it over to
Right Ventricle
the lungs to get oxygenated
Pulmonary vein Brings oxygenated blood to the left atrium from the lungs
Receives oxygenated blood from the left ventricle and pumps it all over
Aorta
the body
Vena cava Brings deoxygenated blood to the right atrium from the body
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Receives deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle and pumps it over
Pulmonary artery
to the lungs to get oxygenated
Important: the reason why the walls of the ventricles are thicker than those of the atria is due to the fact that the
atria just receive the blood; the actual task of pumping it out of the heart is done by the ventricles.
Important: the reason why the left ventricle’s walls are thicker than those of the right ventricle is due to the fact
that the right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs, which are in close proximity to the heart. The left ventricle
has the job of transporting the blood all over the body.
The Pacemaker: is a patch of muscle in the right atrium which controls the rate at which the heart beats according
to the needs of the body.
If you are exercising, then the body will need a lot of oxygen; you soon take up an oxygen debt which causes a
drop in the ph of blood (due to the production of lactic acid)
The brain senses the drop in pH and sends electrical impulses to the pacemaker to make the heart beat faster.
Atrioventricular valves: are valves between the atria and ventricles in the heart that prevent the blood from
flowing from the ventricles, into the atria.
The valve on the left hand side of the heart is made of 2 parts and thus is called the bicuspid valve
The valve on the right hand side of the heart is made of 3 parts and thus is called the tricuspid valve
Coronary Arteries
The muscles of the heart are so thick that the nutrients and oxygen in the blood inside the heart would not be able
to diffuse to all the muscles quickly enough.
The heart muscles need a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients so that it can keep transporting and pumping
blood. The coronary arteries are responsible for it.
If a coronary artery gets blocked (e.g. by a blood clot), the cardiac muscles run short of oxygen and they cannot
respire to obtain energy to contract causing the heart to stops beating. This is called a heart attack or cardiac
arrest.
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Is caused due to heavy amounts of stress and again leads to
High Blood pressure
the development of CHD
CHD often develops in males than in females. (It may be
Gender
due to sex-linked genes)
Stop smoking.
Keep the diet based on saturated fatty food in control.
Have a diet based on fish and vegetable oils.
Exercise Regularly.
Take drugs such as ‘statin’ under the guidance of a physician.
The patient will have to take immune suppressants for life if the operation is
HeartTransplant Operation
successful and if the tissue types don’t match!
Blood Vessels
There are 3 major types of blood vessels in the human transport system:
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Blood vessel: Function Structure of wall Width of lumen
Thick and strong Relatively narrow
Carry blood away from the
Arteries
heart Contains muscles and Varies with heart beat due to
elastic tissues recoiling and stretching capacity
Supply all cells with their
Extremely narrow
requirements Very thin
Capillaries
Wide enough for red blood cells to
Take away their waste Only one cell thick
pass through
products
Quite thin
Wide
Carry blood towards the
Veins Contain lesser amounts of
heart
muscles and elastic tissues Contains valves
than arteries
No need for strong walls as most of the blood pressure has been lost.
Capillaries
Thin walls and narrow lumen bring blood into close contact with body
tissues
No need for strong walls as most of the blood pressure has been lost.
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Components of blood plasma
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1. Red blood cells
Phagocytes:
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3. Platelets
Blood clotting
Till now, we have learnt that platelets help in the Maintain the blood pressure.
clotting of blood. Let’s see how this happens now! Prevent the entry of pathogens
There is cut in the skin. Help in healing
Blood vessels are damaged.
Damaged blood vessels and tissues begin Genetic disease where blood does not clot–
secreting chemicals. Haemophilia
This activates blood clotting factors.
The soluble plasma protein- fibrinogen changes The lymphatic system and tissue fluid
to an insoluble substance called fibrin.
Fibrin causes fibres to be made in the damaged Capillaries leak! Their cell walls don’t fit together
blood vessel and tissue properly and thus there are small gaps between them.
Red blood cells and platelets get trapped in the
fibres. Substances that leak out from the capillaries:
This forms a blood clot!
White Blood Cells (WBCs)- can easily change
their shape unlike red blood cells.
Importance of blood clotting
Blood Plasma
Prevent excessive blood loss
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So the substances that leak out from the blood The tissue fluid slowly drains into the lymphatic
capillaries are known as tissue fluid. capillaries.
It is now called lymph
The tissue fluid simply surrounds the body cells. The lymphatic capillaries eventually join up to
form larger lymphatic vessels which empty
Importance and functions of tissue fluid themselves into the subclavian veins.
Here the lymph enters the blood.
Supply cells with all their requirements (such as
oxygen and nutrients that diffuse) Features of the Lymphatic system and lymph nodes
Take away the waste products of metabolism out
from the cells Have valves to ensure the flow of lymph is in one
Immediate environment of every cell in the direction
human body Run close to the muscles so that muscular
contractions squeeze the lymph and for it to
Lymph move along the vessels.
Have structures called lymph nodes where new
The tissue fluid surrounding the body cells ought white blood cells are produced
to be eventually returned to the blood. The white blood cells help in destroying most
To make sure this happens, there are another set toxins in the lymph before entering the blood
of capillaries in our body called as lymphatic from the subclavian vein.
capillaries.
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Immunity
Immunity - is the ability of the body to resist -Antibodies are transferred from the mother to the
infection child to gain immunity.
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Reproduction in Humans
-Reproduction is a characteristic of all living things.
-In sexual reproduction, two gametes fuse, the sperm (male sex cell) and the ovum produced by the female
reproductive system.
-Male and female bodies become sexually mature at puberty when the body undergoes changes in appearance
and behaviour.
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Structure Function
Testes Sperms are made in the testes and stored in the epididymis. Produces
male sex hormone, testosterone.
Sperm duct (Vas deferens) They are two muscular tubes, each connected to a testis. They carry the
sperms from the testis to the urethra.
Epididymis Storage of sperms temporarily.
Penis It is the male sex organ which ejaculates semen into the vagina during
sexual intercourse.
Scrotum Bag of skin, outside the body which protects the testes at lower
temperature. This encourages sperm production.
Urethra It is a tube inside the penis which is the pathway of semen and urine out
of the body.
Prostate gland Both secret nutrients and enzymes to stimulate the sperm, the fluid from
And seminal glands together with sperm is called semen.
vesicles
Structure Function
ovary To release egg cells(ova)during ovulation to secrete hormones called oestrogens.
They stimulates the uterus lining to build up.
Oviduct Narrow tube through which egg cells travel to the uterus.
Uterus Wide muscular tube where the foetus develops.
Cervix Ring of muscle that closes the neck of the uterus from the vagina.
Vagina Muscular tube that links the uterus to the outside, and through which a baby is
born.
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Structure of Male and Female Gametes
A gamete is a special cell (sex cell) that has only half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell. After
fertilisation, the full number of chromosomes is restored as two gametes join to form a zygote.
Ova Sperm
Small spherical cell with a nucleus, cytoplasm Single cell, with oval shaped head.
and thick membrane.
Larger than sperm-this is because it needs space Smaller than an ovum and in larger quantities to
to store nutrients on which the embryo feeds on increase the chance of successful fertilisation.
before it reaches the uterus.
Has small middle part and a tail.
Does not move by itself – they are swept to the Can swim to meet the ovum because it has a
uterus by cilia in the walls of the oviduct. large number of mitochondria to release lots of
energy to be used in swimming.
Once a month – puberty to menopause. Million produced.
Sexual Intercourse
When the man is sexually excited, blood is pumped into his penis. This causes it to become erect.
Simultaneously, mucus is produced from the woman’s vagina to lubricate the passage of the penis
The erect penis is inserted into the woman’s vagina.
At a point, thrusting movements are made which stimulate the tip of the penis with the clitoris.
This results in a reflex action to take place:
The walls of the tubes containing the sperm contract rhythmically and sperm is ejaculated into the vagina.
This biological process is known as sexual intercourse and is the beginning of reproduction.
Fertilisation
This refers to the fusion of the male and female gamete nuclei to form a zygote; it takes place in the oviduct
or fallopian tube.
Ejaculation deposits the semen at the neck of the vagina (cervix).
Sperm swim through the cervix into the uterus by wriggling movements of their tail.
They pass through the uterus to the oviduct, one of the sperm may bump into it and stick to its surface.
The sperm then enters the cytoplasm of the ovum.
Then the nucleus fuses with the female nucleus.
A single ejaculation may contain about 5 hundred million sperms, only one sperm fertilizes the ovum.
When one sperm enters the ovum, it forms a barrier such that other sperms will not enter and will die after
fertilization.
Before fertilisation the released ovum can survive for about 24 hours and a sperm for 2 to 3 days.
Diagram 1
Diagram 2
Implantation
-After fertilisation, a zygote is formed in the oviduct or fallopian tube. The zygote under goes rapid cell division.
It takes about 7 days to travel to the uterus. It develops into hollow ball containing many cells and now called
an embryo. The uterus develops its thick inner lining cell and blood vessels. Then implants itself into the lining
1. Placenta
The placenta has two sets of villi, the foetus’s set which contains the foetus’s blood capillaries, and the
mother’s set which contains the mother’s blood capillaries. The blood flows from the foetus to the foetus’s
blood vessels in the placenta through umbilical arteries and veins.
The function of the placenta and the umbilical cord is to exchange substances between the mother and fetus
without mixing their bloods together. This is because they might have different blood groups or the mom
might have a disease that could be passed to the foetus. The blood circulation of the foetus includes the
placenta. When the blood reaches the blood capillaries of the foetus in the placenta, waste substances like
carbon dioxide and urea diffuse from it to the maternal (mother’s) blood. The mother then gets rid of these
waste materials. Useful substances also diffuse from the maternal blood to the foetus’s blood. These include
oxygen, amino acids, glucose, vitamins, water, minerals, fatty acids & glycerol. These nutrients are used in
2. Umbilical Cord – attaches the foetus to the placenta and contains the umbilical vein (carries oxygenated
blood) and umbilical artery (carries deoxygenated blood).
3. Amnion fluid - is a fluid filled sac that supports the foetus and protects it from physical knocks and
mechanical damage. The foetus needs no space to breath because it doesn’t, gets its oxygen from the mother
and gets rid of the carbon dioxide through her too.
Development
Ante-natal care
Ante-natal (before birth) care is a routine care for the healthy pregnant woman.
Dietary needs
The mother needs to take care of her diet as everything she will eat will diffuse across the placenta to her baby.
Some of the nutrients that are necessary for the mother and her baby are:
Exercise
Under weight babies are born of smoking mothers i.e. below 2, 5 kg.
Smoking.
Alcohol.
Nutrition.
Illness of the mother.
Birth
The uterus wall begin rhythmic muscular contraction which become more and more powerful and more
frequent.
The cervix opens and the baby`s head passes into the vagina.
The burst of the amnion and its fluid escapes. Soon the contraction of the uterus aided by voluntary
contraction of the abdominal muscles propel the baby out.
In humans the umbilical cord is cut and tied to prevent excessive bleeding and infections.
After Birth
Shortly after the baby is born, the contraction of the uterus expels the placenta from the mother`s body as
after birth.
Breast feeding and Bottle feeding (Formula Milk)
Advantages Disadvantages
Sterile
Free of cost
Improves bond between mother Father is unable to bond and spend time
and baby with baby
Perfect composition of nutrients Sometimes the mother is unable to
needed for the baby produce sufficient breast milk
Breast feeding
Composition of nutrients It can be difficult for mothers to breast
naturally changes according to feed babies in certain situations
baby’s growth Keeps mother preoccupied
Contains antibodies
Gives baby passive immunity
Birth control is important in order to keep families small and limit the increase of the human population
exponentially.
There are many birth control methods practiced by people worldwide. These birth control methods usually come
into 4 categories: Natural, Chemical, Mechanical and Surgical:
Natural methods
Abstinence Woman avoids sexual intercourse completely
Woman keeps track of her body temperature (that rises at
How they work ovulation) and doesn’t have sex during this period
Other methods
Woman checks if the mucus produced in her vagina has
become slippery or not
Useful for couples who don’t want to use other measures of birth control for
Advantages
religious or other reasons
It is never possible to be 100% certain about ovulation period.
Disadvantages
Chemical Methods
Spermicides can be used to kill sperm that enter the
vagina
Spermicides They can be effectively used in combination with
another method- a diaphragm
A very effective method only when contraceptive pills are taken at the
right time.
Advantages
The IUS and IUD lasts till 10 years
Mechanical Methods
A condom is a piece of rubber sheath
A condom is placed upon the erect penis and acts as a
Condom
barrier between the sperm and the vagina.
Diaphragm is also a very safe and reliable method IF used with spermicide
Care must be taken when using a condom or a femidom; no sperm should escape
Disadvantages
through it.
Surgical Methods
In a man the sperm ducts are cut and tied, thus
preventing the passage of any sperms produced.
How it works Vasectomy In a woman the oviducts are cut or tied, sopping egg
cells from travelling down the oviduct.
These are caused by micro organisms’ i.e. viruses or bacteria that can not usually survive outside the body. They
are transmitted from one person to another when people have sexual intercourse.
Most STDS can be controlled by antibiotics if a person goes on the doctor in the early stages. There is however
no known cure for the H.I.V.
Eukaryotes:
Examples include:
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Penicillium.
Mushroom.
Yeast and moulds.
c) Animal Kingdom
The animal kingdom contains many phyla.
Some of them are vertebrates, arthropods,
annelids, molluscs, nematodes.
Phylum Arthropoda:
Crustaceans:
Give birth to offspring by laying eggs Don’t have teeth, instead have a beak
Have 4 limbs Have hollow bones
Their habitat is both terrestrial and aquatic Are warm blooded
Have moist skin Lay hard shelled eggs
Breathe through gills when young; when mature, Forelimbs replaced by wings
breathe through lungs Breathe through lungs
Adult often lives on land
Examples of Birds: Flamingo, Eagle, Hawk,
Example of Amphibian: Frog, Salamander etc. Sparrow etc.
Prokaryotae
e) Monera Kingdom
Bacteria are prokaryotic and unicellular. They have
Warm blooded cell walls and circular DNA called plasmids. They
Can maintain a constant body temperature are Heterotrophs or Autotrophs. They make use of
Have different types of teeth chemicals or sunlight to make their food. They
Have skin covered by Hair reproduce by simple cell division,
Give birth to live young offsprings
Have sudoriferous (sweat) glands Example: bulgaricu, cyanobacteria,
Females have mammary (milk secreting) glands
that produce milk to feed young ones. Naming of organisms
Micro-organisms are very small and cannot be seen by a naked eye and these include viruses, bacteria fungi
and uni-cellular animals.
They live in water, air, soil, on plants or animals.
Characteristics of microorganisms
i. They are very small or microscopic.
ii. Are made up of one cell (unicellular)
iii. They contain genetic material in form of DNA.
iv. Reproduce, grow and affect other living organisms.
v. They are capable of carrying out all functions of life such as reproduction, respiration, growth, movement
however viruses cannot carry all these independently.
Types of microorganisms
Bacteria
Viruses
Fungi
Action of Fungi
The threads or hyphae grow and spread into the food creating a large surface area for absorption of food.
When the fungus is ready to reproduce, some hyphae grows into the air forming spore cases (thousands of
them) inside the sporangium.
The sporangium bursts to release spores into the air.
Some spores will land on suitable substrate and germinate into more hyphae form another fungal growth.
1. Are used to make products like wine, beer and 1. Making compost.
bread. 2. Making bread with yeast.
2. Some are used in genetic engineering to increase 3. Fermentation to produce wine and beer.
the production of useful genes. 4. Production of drugs such as penicillin.
3. Help in break down bodies of dead organisms 5. Improving crops using genes (Genetically
(decomposition of matter). Modified Organisms).
4. However, microorganisms cause diseases 6. Treating sewage.
(pathogen). 7. Producing transgenic organism by altering their
gene make up.
8. Gene cloning etc.
Bio- Remediation
Refers to waste management technique using
microorganisms to remove contaminants that may
be harmful to the environment and health
Biotechnology
Some examples are:
a) Cleaning up an oil spill.
b) Cleaning up contaminated soil.
c) Cleaning up blood and bodily fluids that may be harmful at a crime scene.
d) Cleaning waste water so that it can be reused.
TOPIC 9
GENETICS
Genes
A gene is a structural unit of inheritance responsible
for one specific feature. These are sections on a
DNA molecule which code or instruct for every
specific features and characteristics such as eye
colour and earlobe.
Chromosomes
Alleles
Genes exists in two copies. That is, a gene has a copy on each chromosome pair.
Alleles are different versions of the same gene representing a specific trait such as colour of flowers.
Alleles can occupy same position or locus on a homologous chromosome for example the purple allele and
white allele for flower colour in peas.
Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype is the genetic combination that gives rise to that phenotype. For example, with respect to dimple ,
Dd or DD and no dimples, dd and tongue rolling, a person may have the genotype (RR), (Rr), or (rr) because
alleles are present in pairs.
Phenotype is the physical appearance that is a result of a particular combination of alleles. E.g. curved
thumbs, dangly earlobes. Dimples, colour etc.
Homozygous and Heterozygous
The gene that controls dimples has two possible forms – an allele for dimples and no dimples. Dangly
earlobes and for attached earlobes.
If one inherits identical alleles, whether dominant or recessive, its homozygous.
If one inherits one of each type of allele is heterozygous for that trait.
Dominant and recessive
A dominant allele is the one that is expressed in the observable traits of the organism.
A recessive allele expresses itself only under homozygous conditions or cannot be observed in the offspring.
A capital letter represents a dominant allele and a small letter or lower case represents a recessive allele
e.g. 1. RR, Rr for tongue rolling and rr for non-tongue rolling.
2. BB, Bb for black fur and bb for white fur.
Some genetic traits: Dominant alleles are on the left side:
Monohybrid Cross
This kind of crosses involves a cross using one characteristic (mono) and the resultant offspring will have a
genotype with two different alleles (hybrid).
Co – dominance
This is where by one allele is not completely dominant over the other but they share their expression in the
phenotype.
The phenotype is not a blend of the traits, but rather both of the traits are seen in the offspring.
People with blood type A will respond to B as foreign and will start to clump. This is the same when blood
B is given to A antigens.
People with AB blood can be given either blood types as they are no antibodies expressed in their red blood
cells.
The i allele produces neither antigens, so can be given to people of any blood type but only done on
emergency situations.
Genotype Blood type Antigens present on blood cells Antibodies present in plasma
I A I A or I Ai A A B
I B I B or I B I B B A
IAIA AB A and B Neither A nor B
ii O Neither A nor B A and B
Sex chromosomes
Mutation
Is the sudden change in the nature of a gene / DNA. In HIV, it refers to change in RNA. The change in the
genetic material due to mutation is permanent and heritable.
Harmless mutations – these change the physical feature of an organism without causing any harm for example
when one is borne with extra digits (polydactyl).
Harmful mutation – when there is change in physical appearance, behaviour or physiology of an organism.
Useful mutations – they can be introduce beneficial changes that increases survival chances of species.
Types of mutations
Genetic mutations
Mutations causes changes in genes with either no effect or may alter or stop the function of the gene.
Most mutations occur as a result of mistakes during DNA replication. Sometimes the DNA can repair itself
but if the mistake is not corrected, it will be added to the DNA structure.
Autosomal dominant mutations
The changes occur on the recessive allele and the disorder will only be expressed when an individual inherits
two identical copies of the gene.
If only one copy of the gene is inherited, the person will be termed a carrier for the disorder.
Examples are cystic fibrosis, albinism and sickle cell anaemia.
Is a genetic disease where the red blood cells losses oxygen and become sickle shaped.
Sickle cell anaemia Red blood cell get stuck in blood capillaries, causing pain, fever swelling, tissue
damage and eventually death.
Is a genetic disorder that results in a lack pigmentation in the eyes, skin and hair. It
results when a person inherits an albinism gene from both parents. The gene is recessive
Albinism and therefore, an albino has no parents with the disorder. However, if a person inherits
two of these recessive genes, he or she will suffer from albinism. The two recessive
genes result in a lack of melanin production. Melanin is the pigment that gives colour
to the skin, hair and eyes and protects us from the sun. People with albinism suffer from
skin cancer due to exposure to direct sun and have problems with their eyesight.
Chromosome mutations
This results in chromosomes being added or deleted or being broken up or rearranged. A person with
Down syndrome has an extra copy of chromosome 21. This hugely impacts on a person `s physical
characteristics.
ECOSYSTEMS
Ecosystem
Producers and consumers are two kinds of living things in any ecosystem.
The plants that make their own food and the animals that feed on them. The plants are the
producers which supply energy to the consumers in the system.
Consumers are grouped into primary ( leaf eater or herbivores) , secondary ( carnivores &
omnivores) and tertiary consumers (decomposers).
When plants and animals die ,their bodies still contain energy and complex chemicals. These
chemicals are broken down and decomposed by micro-organisms, mostly bacteria and fungi.
These organisms are called decomposers.
NB: 1. The distribution of living components in an ecosystem is influenced by physical components
like shelter and food availability.
2. Energy from the sun flows into an ecosystem and is lost in various ways and stages.
air
25%
mineral
particles Method
45%
i. Place some soil in a funnel which
water contains wire gauze; suspend the funnel
25% organic over a beaker containing methylated
matter spirit.
5%
ii. Place a light above the funnel.
iii. Leave the set up for 36 hours.
mineral particles organic matter water air
Observations
Look at what has collected in the beaker (use a
hand lens).
Experiment 1
What caused the organisms to fall into the
Extracting soil organisms beaker?
Materials: soil, funnel, light source, beaker, Identify and describe the role of each organism.
methylated spirit, or alcohol. (8)(Do this as a home work).
Solution/answer
Soil organisms run away from light, enter into
the soil and eventually fall in methylated spirit.
Micro-organisms prefer dark and damp
environment.
Soil pH
Is the measure of how acid or alkaline the water in the soil is.
The soil pH is measured on a scale of 1 to 14, where a pH of 7 is neutral, below 7 is acidic and
above 7 is alkaline.
A universal indicator and litmus paper or red cabbage indicator are used to test the pH of soils.
Soil pH determines the types of crops grown. Most crops grow best in neutral pH.
Acidic soil changes the indicator to red.
Role of biological components in the soil
-They improve soil fertility.
-They improve drainage.
-They improve aeration.
QN 6.a) What is soil? (2)
b) Draw and label the soil profile. (5)
c) What is its composition? (6)
Experiment 3
Aim: To determine the water holding capacity
Materials: measuring cylinder, beaker, filter paper, cotton wool, water, equal volumes of sand, clay
and loam,
Procedure
1. Set up apparatus as shown below.
2. Fold filter paper in half and and then in half. Open it and place it inside the funnel.
3. Use some damp cotton wool as plug.
4. Place in each funnel the same amounts of dry sand, clay and loam.
5. Write a prediction of this experiment.
6. Slowly pour 100ml of water onto each funnel with soil.
7. Record results in table.
Conclusion
Sand soil drain water faster than clay so clay soil has good water holding capacity.
Experiment 4
To find the water content of soils
Materials: loam, sand and clay soil, evaporating dish, boiling tin, balance, stand and burner.
Method: Bio Today Bk 4 pg
Results and calculations
Mass of evaporating dish =20g
Mass of moist loam soil =50g
Mass of evaporating dish and moist loam soil =70g
Mass of dish and dry soil =60g
Mass of water evaporated =70g−60g=10g
Clay
Sand
Loam
Experiment 6
Aim: To find the air content of different soil types
Materials: sample of sand, loam and clay, measuring cylinder, three beakers,
Procedure
1. Place 200ml of each type of soil in different labelled beakers.
2. Add 250 ml of water to the measuring cylinder.
3. Add enough water to the beaker containing clay. The water will displace the air in the soil.
4. Take a reading of water left in the measuring cylinder. Calculate how much water was added to
push out all the air in the soil (Subtract the final water reading from the initial water reading).
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 for loam and sandy soil.
Results
Water sinks into the soil and the volume of mixture is reduced.
Natural ecosystem
Types of Ecosystems
Two types are the natural and artificial ecosystem.
Natural Ecosystems
There are no human interferences. Pests and diseases are part of the ecosystem and no control
measures taken. Animals graze freely and no fertilizer application. There is natural balance of nature.
In Zimbabwe the three biome are savanna, grassland and forest ecosystems.
Food Chains
A food chain is a feeding relationship in which energy in producers is transferred to consumers at
different trophic levels. Food chains start from the producer to consumers. e.g.
Producers
Primary consumers
Secondary consumers and
Tertiary consumers
At each trophic level, energy is lost due to respiration. Other processes include reproduction,
movement and metabolism.
Food Webs
Food webs are interconnections of food chains or show a complex feeding relationship between
organisms. An organism may feed on more than one organism and in turn it may be eaten by others.
However, plants are the primary food source and the sun is the only energy input.
Pyramid of energy
Nitrogen Cycle
Artificial ecosystem
It is a natural ecosystem that has been interfered with and altered by people. It is one reflecting
human interference and change e.g. fish pond, garden, orchard etc.
Artificial ecosystems are usually characterized by low species diversity e.g. mono-culture.
The natural balance that allows an ecosystem to be self-sustaining is disrupted in an artificial one.
The system may be forced to produce more than it would naturally.
Crops and animals produced are removed. To maintain self-sustaining artificial ecosystem energy,
water and fertility must be supplied.
Species Diversity
Refers to the variety of life in an area, including plants, animals, fungi, protists and bacteria.
Species are important and there are many species in Southern Africa.
Thus, there is need to conserve enormous biodiversity of organisms.
Biodiversity provides a number of natural functions that are beneficial to people (ecosystem,
biological, recreational, educational functions).
Has many plant species competing for Limited number of plants growing. Plants may have
space. been removed.
Many pests feeding on different plant Few pests as sprays are used to control pests
species.
Problems caused by farming practices and limited species diversity in artificial ecosystem
Soil erosion.
Soil infertility.
Need for the use of artificial fertilisers.
Plants and animals pests and diseases built up.
Much human and fuel energy and water is spent in maintaining an artificial productivity level
which is intended to produce more biomass than a natural ecosystem would.
Home Work
QN 2. a. What are the advantages and disadvantages of artificial and natural ecosystems? (8).
Question
5. a) What is limited species diversity? (2)
b) What are the problems caused by limited species diversity? (4)
Personal hygiene
Domestic hygiene
When the whole household takes part.
Includes proper handling, storage and preparation of water and food to prevent contamination.
Community hygiene
Is necessary to prevent epidemics such as typhoid and cholera.
It might include:
a) Proper water treatment.
b) Proper sewage disposal.
c) Proper ante and post natal care.
d) Sanitation.
e) Clean water for drinking.
f) Immunising children.
g) Building sufficient and adequate health facilities.
Modern waste management involves recycle or reuse, regular collection of wastes and sanitary
disposal of wastes.
Wastes needs to be taken to special site (waste dump sites). Wastes are dumped in a large hole
and eventually covered by soil when they are full.
Means using safe method to collect, store and dispose human wastes.
Poor sanitation allows spread of infectious diseases
Discharge of effluents into stream and rivers puts people` health at risk due to pollution and
contamination of food when water is used in homes.
Blair latrines and septic tanks and water borne sewage are best methods of disposing human
wastes.
Provision of clinics
Public health system, mission hospitals and non – governmental organisation provide health care
to the community.
Hospitals and clinics should maintain very high standards of hygiene.
All surgical instruments must be sterilised.
Health worker should be clean, wear gloves and wash hands regularly after seeing a patient.
Vaccines and medicines should be stored properly and used before expiry dates.
Disposable needles must be used once, syringes and needles must be sterilised between injections.
Waste must be disposed in a hygienic way.
In Zimbabwe free services is offered to pregnant women and children below 5 years.
Pregnant women are encouraged to visit the clinic regularly for identification of problems that
may affect the baby`s health.
Children must be vaccinated against diseases.
Diseases
Can be defined as a disorder or malfunction of the body that leads to loss of good health.
Diseases are classified into infectious and non – infectious diseases.
Infectious
Are caused by pathogens.
Can be passed on from one person to the next and this can be in following ways:
Direct contact with infected people for example skin infections and influenza.
Symptoms of Cholera
i. Severe diarrhoea followed by collapse, shock and death.
ii. Passing loose of liquid stools
iii. Vomiting, abnormal pain and weakness.
iv. Loss of salts.
Prevention
i. Strict control of sanitation and water supplies.
ii. Boiling water before drinking.
iii. People should be vaccinated.
iv. Construction of blair toilets away from water sources.
Treatment
i. To replace the body fluids, Oral rehydration therapy is important (a solution of salt and
glucose).
ii. Drugs such as tetracycline and chloramphenicol are used to treat the disease.
Malaria
When a mosquito feeds on an infected human host, they absorb the parasite`s gametes
The gametes fuse and develop in the mosquito`s gut and then moves to the mosquito salivary
glands.
When the mosquito feeds again, they pass out into the blood together with an anticoagulant in the
saliva.
The parasite enters the person `s red blood cells where they multiply.
+6Reduce the number of mosquitoes destroying breeding sites, killing using biological methods or
chemicals but chemicals can poison other animals.
Use of mosquito nets and repellents to avoid bites.
Use prophylaxis drugs to prevent infection.
Anti – malarial drugs include doxycycline, melfloquine, or atovaquone – proguanil.
Quinine is used for treatment of malaria.
Typhoid
Is caused by salmonella bacteria that live in the intestines and blood of humans.
It is transmitted through contaminated water and food.
The bacteria enters the mouth and lives for about one to three weeks in the intestines, then moves
in the intestinal walls into the blood stream.
Signs and symptoms
Treatment
Use antibiotics.
Prevention
Vaccination.
Avoiding food that is raw, uncooked.
Practice hygiene.
Bilharzia
Symptoms
Transmission
The parasitic larvae live in fresh water and can penetrate human skin, placing people at risk
through everyday activities such as washing, swimming or fetching water.
Education campaigns about risks of infection by bathing in fresh water lakes and ponds.
Praziquantel is the primary form of treatment.
A single dose of praziquantel has been shown to reduce the severity of symptoms in cases of
subsequent re-infection.
Access to safe water.
Group Presentations
Tuberculosis (TB)
Is a bacterial disease common in developing countries and can be fatal if not treated.
It spreads in overcrowded conditions and with poor sanitation.
It spreads through airborne droplets when an infected person sneezes or coughs.
Tb infects the pulmonary system. Causes inflammation and lesions of lung tissue.
Symptoms can be seen on chest X-rays.
People suffering from HIV/AIDS are more susceptible to TB.
Treatment courses given should be properly followed and completed. If not, the bacteria becomes
resistant to the drugs.
TB can be treated. Treatment involves a six month course of tablets that the patient must take
every day.
Patients must follow the prescription given and the disease should be diagnosed as early as
possible.
Some types of TB have become resistant to drugs hence special medicines are expensive.
CHEMICALS OF LIFE
The four chemicals
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of energy. They come in two kinds:
Simple sugars can provide a lot of energy for immediate usage. However, they contain no other useful
nutrients. Example : Glucose,ribose and deoxyribose,xylose
Uses of monosaccharides
Ribose and deoxyribose are building blocks of RNA and DNA respectively.
Monoccharides are building blocks for more complex carbohydrates.
Are soluble hence can be transported easily in the body of organisms and also affect the water
balance in cells.
They are good sources of energy. The body can easily store this form of energy for rapid use in future.
Example
Uses of disaccharides
To supply energy to body cells first by breaking down monoccharides such as sucrose into glucose
and fructose.
Lactose in milk is main source of energy to infants as it is broken into glucose and galactose.
Maltose is energy source from grains as it is broken into two glucose molecules.
Are also soluble and can affect the water balance in cells.
Uses of polysaccharides
Lipids
Are fats and oils. Used mainly to store energy in bodies of living things.
Are made up of three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule ( carbon, hydrogen and oxygen).
Can be solids or liquids.
Functions
Proteins
Home work
Qn. 1 State and explain four functions of Nucleic acids in living organisms. [8]
ENZYMES
Enzymes
Using Enzymes
In order to break down organic substances such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats (that chemical
detergents fail to break), such biological catalysts are used
Organic stains such as blood, oil, egg, butter etc. are broken down to simpler substances in the
presence of proteinases.
Enzymes need to have an optimum temperature and hence are extracted from thermophilic bacteria
or bacteria living near hot springs to remove the other components of the dirt and so that other
parts of the detergent work well as well.
The enzymes found in these bacteria are majorly proteases and lipases.
In order to keep these biological catalysts away from skin contact (as proteases can digest skin
cells made up of protein!), they are packed in microscopic packets that only dissolve in the
presence of water.
Experiment
Materials: a soft boiled egg, cooking oil, two beakers, biological washing powder, ordinary washing
powder, water, two teaspoons, measuring cylinder,
Procedure
b) dissolve 5ml of biological washong powder in 100ml of cold water in the other beaker.
b) place a teaspoon of york into the two beakers I,e. Beaker A and B.
Questions
Reproduction
Two types are sexual and asexual
Binary fusion
Happens in bacteria, amoeba, some algae.
One parent cell splits into 2 identical daughter cells.
When conditions are good, such as plenty of water, food, right temperatures, etc., binary fusion is
a very effective way of producing many, many offspring.
For example, the cell of a Paramecium can divide, grow, and divide again in the space of 8 hours.
Budding
Happens in yeast, hydra, and corals.
An offspring grows out of the body of the parent.
When a yeast cell is mature it grows a copy of itself in the form of a bud.
In yeasts the cell does not divide equally in two halves; instead, there is a large mother cell and a
smaller daughter cell.
Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in which females produce eggs that develop
without fertilisation. Parthenogenesis is seen to occur naturally in some invertebrates, along with
several fish, amphibians, and reptiles as well as in many plants.
Sexual reproduction
Vegetative Reproduction
Natural Method
Some plants develop specialized structures that can be used as organs of nature vegetative
reproduction.
Shoots develop from these structures and grow till they develop their own adventurous root system
and later become independent parent plant.
Examples are:-
Tubers
Are thickened underground part of a stem that
store food for the plant e.g. sweet potatoes,
yarms,
Stem tubers – these have thickened
rhizomes or stolons which are like
Runners / stolons
underground stems growing below the soil.
These are long, thin stems that grow from the
E.g sweet potatoes and yams.
parent plant on the surface of the soil. These
Root tubers – have elongated roots that
horizontal stems grow roots and shoots at every
grow deeper in the soil e.g sweet and
second node of the runner to form the new plant
cassava.
e.g. strewberry plant.
Artificial Methods
Cuttings
Are small parts of plants. These are cut off and
used for producing other plants. e.g. sweet
potatoes, sugarcane and mulberry.
Are cheaper and faster method of reproduction.
Receptacle The tip of the flower stalk that holds the flower.
Style A hollow stalk connecting the stigma to the ovary, down which
pollen must move to fertilise the ova in the ovary.
Ovule Contains female sex cells and develops into seeds after
fertilisation.
Sepals Usually green and leaf-like which protect the petals while the
flower is closed.
have long stamens which hang out of the have short stamens
flower
produce plenty of light, smooth pollen they do not produce much pollen
have small, smooth , light and dry pollen have big, rough, sticky pollen
have hairy stigma hanging out of the flower have short style with a sticky
to trap pollen easily stigma
Pollination
It is the physical transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma. It involves self-pollination
and cross-pollination.
Agents of Pollination
Wind.
Insects.
Animals such as birds.
A stamen is made up of a thin thread-like filament with an anther on top of it. If the anther is cut
in cross-section.
You can see that it contains four pollen sacs.
Pollen sac undergo meiosis to form four haploid microspores and each microspore develop into a
pollen grain.
Pollen grain contains the male gametes.
The Embryo
The embryo is made up of the radicle or future root and the plumule or future shoot.
The endosperm cells divide many times and absorb the nucellus. This is the nutrition (mainly
fats, oils and starch) for the embryo.
There are 2 types of seeds. Some are endospermic while others are non-endospermic.
In endospermic seeds the food reserve is the endosperm, which is outside the plant embryo.
Examples of this type of seed are maize and wheat (monocotyledons).
Non-endospermic / cotyledonous seeds have food reserve within the cotyledon(s) of the plant
embryo. This occurs in dicotyledons e.g. broad beans.
The fruit forms by the expansion of the ovary as the seed develops from the ovule.
The ovary wall becomes the pericarp or fruit wall.
Fruits differ in size, shape and number of they seeds they bear.
Fruits can have one or more seeds and may be edible or not.
3. Explosive / self dispersal - some fruits fall, roll and or may break open e.g peaches and fruits
granadillas. Some may become dry , twist and explode therefore casting their seeds some distances
from the parent plant e.g. acasia, musasa pods, beans and soya beans.
4. Water- seeds have fibrous coat around that trap air making it able to float e.g coconuts. The water
lily forms a fruit that floats in the water for a while and then drops down to the bottom of the lake
where it germinates.
Monocotyledonous means one seed leaf and dicotyledonous means two seed leasves. Other difference
include leaf venation, root system and number of flower parts.
Part Function
Testa Seed coat (protects seed from fungi, bacteria and
insects.
Micropyle Small poening in seed coat that allows water and
oxygen into the seed.
Radicle Embryonic roots. Develops first when the seed coat
has ruptured and grows downwards into the soil to
form primary root of the plant.
plumule Embryonic shoot with one or more leaves. It form the
shoot of the plant that photosythesise once the shoot is
out of the soil.
Hilium Scar showing place where seed was attached to the
ovary wall.
Cotyledon Source of food for germination.
Endosperm Provides food for the developing embryo.
Germination
Germination : Step Ahead Biology Bk 4 page 49-53.
Experiment 1
Investigating conditions necessary for Germination
Materials: maize seeds, containers, cotton wool, filter paper, pyrogallic acid.
Method
Question1: Explain the main functions of temperature, moisture and oxygen during germination. (6)
Answer:
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Condition Purpose for seed germination
Suitable temperature Increases enzymes activity which speeds up biological reactions and
development of the seed.
Moisture (water) To cause the testa to split and to activate enzymes.
Oxygen Needed for respiration. Oxygen is used to burn the endosperm and
/cotyledon (food sources) so that energy is released for the plumule to shoot
out of the soil and the radicle to develop into the root system.
Percentage Germination
Seeds grow into plants by germinating. Seed germination involves enzymes breaking the materials
stored in the seed down to be used in growth, energy and building cells. The seed contains stored
substances such as:
*Starch: Starch is broken down by amylase enzyme into maltose, maltose is then broken down by
maltase enzyme into glucose which is used in respiration.
*Proteins: Proteins are broken down into amino acids by Protease enzyme, amino acids are used in
building up cells and growth.
*Fats: Fats are broken down into fatty acids by lipase enzyme, they are used in making cell
membranes.
Tropisms
Tropisms are growth movements related to directional stimuli, e.g. a shoot will grow towards a
source of light but away from the direction of gravity.
Important stimuli for plants are light, gravity, water and chemicals.
Stimulus Name of Tropism Positive response of plant part Negative response of plant part
Light Phototropism Moves towards light Moves away from light
Gravity Geotropism Moves vertically downwards Moves vertically upwards
Water Hydrotropism Moves towards water Moves away from water
Chemicals Chemotropism Moves towards chemicals Moves away from a chemical
Experiments on tropisms
Method
Soak about 20 peas in water for a day and then let them germinate in a vertical roll of moist
blotting-paper.
After 3 days, choose 12 seedlings with straight radicles and pin six of these to the turntable of a
clinostat so that the radicles are horizontal.
Pin another six seedlings to a cork that will fit in a wide mouthed jar. Leave the jar on its side.
A clinostat is a clockwork or electric turntable, which rotates the seedlings slowly about four times
an hour. Although gravity is pulling sideways on their roots, it will pull equally on all sides as
they rotate.
Place the jar and the clinostat in the same conditions of lighting or leave them in darkness for 2
days.
Result
The radicles in the clinostat will continue to grow horizontally but those in the jar will have
changed their direction of growth, to grow vertically downwards.
Phototropism in shoots
Method
Select two potted seedlings, e.g. sunflower or runner bean, of similar size and water them both.
Place one of them under a cardboard box with a window cut in one side so that light reaches the
shoot from one direction only.
Place the other plant in an identical situation but on a clinostat. This will rotate the plant about
four times per hour and expose each side of the shoot equally to the source of light. This is the
control.
Results
After 1 or 2 days, the two plants are removed from the boxes and compared.
Interpretation
The results suggest that the young shoot has responded to one sided lighting by growing towards
the light. The shoot is said to be positively phototropic because it grows towards the direction of
the stimulus.
However, the results of an experiment with a single plant cannot be used to draw conclusions that
apply to green plants as a whole.
Plant Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers found in plants and animal to control the internal environment
of the body so that it respond to the extrnal environment.
Control plant growth, plant structures such as flowers and fruits.
Are made in cells and transported through the xylem to areas of the plant where they have an
effect.
Their productionis controlled by genetic information.
Auxins:
Auxin is a plant hormone. It is produced by cells at the tip of roots and shoots of plants.
At the tip of a shoot, there is an area in which cells are being produced by dividing so that the
shoot grows. Old cells do not divide, but they grow longer instead.
The growth of these cells longer is controlled by auxins.
Control direction of plant growth.
Promote fruit development since they delay abscission.
Auxins is what makes the plant grows this is why a plant doesn’t grow if you cut its tip off.
Weed Killers
Auxins can be used to kill weeds that grow over grass or cereal crops.
If weed grows on crops, auxins are sprayed everywhere.
Weeds absorb auxins faster than crops or grass. Auxins accumulate in the weeds making them
grow very rapidly.
Fast growth of weed kills it leaving the crops or grass alive.
Auxins are used as selective weed killers.
Cytokinins
Cytokinins prevent senescence of leaves and fruit (the removal of nutrients due to ageing).
these hormones can be used in our favour for example to prevent the yellowing of lettuce leaves
after they have been picked. It is when levels of cytokinin decrease (which happens after being
picked) that senescence occurs, and this results in the yellowing of leaves – senescence is what
gives leaves their autumn colour.
Are also used in tissue culture to help with the mass production of plants. They also promote bud
and shoot growth from small pieces of tissue taken from a parent plant. This produces a short
shoot with a lot of side branches, which can be split into lots of smaller plants, and all grown
separately.
Ethylene
The gas ethene is inhibited by the hormone auxin, so as auxin levels drop, ethene is produced
which stimulates the production of cellulose in the abscission zone of a leaf.
Whilst ethene is a gas, and therefore cannot be sprayed directly, a liquid spray has been developed
which releases ethene inside the target plants.
Commercial uses include:
a) speeding up ripening of fruit (in apples, tomatoes and citrus fruits).
b) promoting fruit drop in cotton, cherry and walnut plants.
c) promoting lateral growth in some plants, yielding compact flowering stems
Gibberellins
In plants, gibberellins are involved in both cell elongation and cell division.
Under a commercial context, gibberellins may be involved in:
a) Fruit production – gibberellins delay senescence in fruit, extending the time they can be left
unpicked or in the shops.
b) Also, gibberellins acting with cytokinins can promote elongation in apples, improving their
shape.
c) brewing – adding gibberellins to the process of producing malt (in a malt house at the brewery)
speeds up production.
Productivity
Conversion efficiency of live animals can be obtained from growth curves made by plotting graphs
of live weight against time. The graph curves are used for other things such as determining the most
opportune time when animals kept for meat should be slaughtered.
NB: Conversion Efficiency = mass gained by animal per month X 100 %
mass of food fed to animal per month
Example 1 mass of food given =15kg; mass gained in one month =4.5kg – 2.5kg =2.0kg. Therefore,
F.C.E =2/15 multiplied by 100%.
Generally animal growth curves are S – shaped, that is they are sigmoid in shape, as shown in the
diagram below:
The total feed requirement can be expressed in terms of energy value because the feed is
primarily used for production of energy.
Animals at different stages have a specific energy requirement.
The nutritive ratio indicates the protein content of a feed.
The nutritive ratio is the ratio between the digestible protein compounds and the digestible non
– protein compounds ( carbohydrates and fats) in a ration or feed.
Nutritive ratio = 1: % digestible non-protein
% digestible protein
So a feed with a highly digestible protein content will have a narrow nutritive ratio (NR<1:6) and a
feed with low digestible protein content will have a wide nutritive ratio (NR>1:6).
Nutritive Requirements of Animals
For maintainance For growth For milk production For fattening For reproduction
- NR not wider - NR must be 1:5 - NR must be wide - NR must be - NR must be
than 1:8 or less 1:10 1:5 or less narrow and less
- Protein only for - Lots of protein - Protein for - Lots of protein than 1:5
the replacement of biological maintenance of biological - Lots of protein
of worn out value - Carbohydrates and value with high
tissues - Sufficient fats in large - Carbohydrates biological value
- Carbohydrates, carbohydrates quantities and fats only - Carbohydrates
fats and and fats for - Minerals and for and fats for
vitamins only maintenance vitamins for maintenance maintenance;
for maintenance and production maintenance - Sufficient increasd to
- Minerals only - Sufficient minerals and support
for the minearls and vitamins for pregnancy
replacement of vitamins growth - Sufficient
losses minerals and
vitamins
In any situation where large numbers of the same kind of animals are kept , diseases can spread
very quickly.
In livestock, diseases are caused by another organism living in or on the host animal. This
organism is called pathogen. Pathogens include parasites and micro-organisms like viruses and
bacteria. Pathogens destroy the tissues of the host animal and use its food.
Some diseases are spread or carried by another animal called a vector e.g. ticks spread red water.
Tsetse flies are vectors that spread nagana in cattle.
How parasites and diseases are controlled? Explain the points below:
Dipping
Dosing
Quarantine
Destruction of infected animals
Notifying the authorities.
Importance of Homeostasis
Constant temperature
HOMEOSTASIS concentration
Contains sense organs such as touch, temperature, pain which make us aware of changes in our bodies and
world around us.
Form a waterproof layer to pretect water loss from body tissues by evaporationand prrevent osmosis every
time youhave a bath.
Protects entry of bacteria and pathogen.
Protects the body from damage by UV light from the sun.
It sectetes wastes such as awter and urea through sweating.
Controls body temperature.
The dermis contains blood vessels, sweat glands, sensory receptors and hair follicles.
It has blood capillaries to supply food and oxygen and help to regulate the temperature.
There are sense organs to respond to touch, pressure and temperature.
Sweat is produced by sweat glands, travels through the sweat duct and evaporates to regulate the internal
body temperature.
Hair follicle produce hairthat sick out of the skin. Hair is made of a protein called keratin.
Assosiated with hair follicles are sebaceous glands or oil glands that keep hair supple and helps to keep the
skin waterproof.
Attached to the hair is hair eractor muscle. When it contracts, hair is raised and whenir relaxes, hair is
lowered down close to the skinhence regulating temperature.
In these ways, the body temperature remains at about 37 °C. We also control our temperature by adding or
removing clothing or deliberately taking exercise.
The Hypothalamus
It contains a thermoregulatory centre in which temperature receptors detect temperature changes in the blood
and co-ordinate a response to them.
Temperature receptors are also present in the skin. They send information to the brain about temperature
changes.
When it senses that you are too cold, it sends signals to muscles to make you shiver.
When you are too hot, it sends signals to sweat glands to make you sweat.
Negative feedback
A mechanism used in homeostasis, in which a change in a parameter brings about actions that push it back
towards normal.
For example, when the body temperature rises, information about the temperature change is sent to the
hypothalamus which in turn sends signals to the effectors to decrease this change.
It is termed ‘feedback’ as the information about the effects of cooling the body are fed ‘back’ to it and
‘negative’ as it is compelled to ‘stop’ doing these changes in order to stop overcooling.
Glycogen is broken down to glucose to prevent blood glucose level below 60mg /100cm3 blood.
This reaction is activated by a hormone called glycagen .
Excretion
Is the removal of toxic waste materials which are produced by metabolism of body cells.
It is necessary to maintain homeostasis, if not the will be a build of wastes in the body hence become toxic
to the body.
Is once of the seven processes that define living organisms.
Substances excreted are those that are toxic and those which are in excess to the requirements of the body.
Examples of substances which can be in excess and toxic are water, salts and bile pigments and urea, alcohol
and products from the breakdown of drugs respectively.
i. Renal capsule-a thin tough membrane that encloses and protects the kidney ( Label it on the diagram)
ii. Renal artery – brings oxygenated blood to the kidney. Blood contains cells and plasma with wastes
(urea), glucose, amino acids, proteins, fats, hormones, etc, in solution.
iii. Renal vein –takes deoxygenated blood away from the kidney to the vena cava. Contains all materials
except wastes.
iv. Ureter – runs from each kidney to the base of the bladder carrying urine.
v. Cortex – outer part of the kidney where blood is filtered by thousands of microscopic tubules.
vi. Medulla – this is the middle layer of the kidney. It is slightly light than the cortex. The nephrons run
through the medulla.
vii. Pelvis – This is funnel-shaped cavity that connects with the ureter.where the ureter leaves the kidney.
viii. Nephrons- are microscopic tubes in the cortex . they act as filtering units. They regulate the concentration
of water and soluble substances by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest
as urine. At the atart of the nephron is hollow cup of celles called Bowman`s capsule. It surrounds a ball
of blood capillaries called glomerulus where blood is filtered.
Kidneys are responsible for filtering wastes from blood. The wastes are excreted in form of urine (a dilute
solution of urea, salts, water and other waste compounds).
Keeps acid and base balance in the body.
Osmoregulation – Keeps a proper balance between water and mineral salts in the body fluids.
Make material that controls blood pressure and makes red blood cells.
NB: Urine production on a cold day is high due to less or no sweating and vice versa.
Hemodialysis is the most common treatment for chronic kidney failure (end-stage renal disease), whose
major cause is diabetes.
Peritoneal dialysis (PD) uses the body’s own stomach membrane (peritoneum) as the filter. A permanent
tube is placed in the stomach. Dialysis solution is poured through the tube and fills the space between the
stomach wall and organs. The solution draws wastes and extra fluid from the bloodstream. After several
hours, the used solution is drained from the stomach.
Kidney dialysis machine
It consists of a long coiled cellulose tube coiled up in a water bath.
The patient`s blood is led from a tube in the renal artery and pumped through the cellulose tubing.
The microscopic pores in the dialysis tubing allows small molecules such as salts, ammonia, uric acid , and
other wastes leak out into the water bath.
Blood cells and proteins do not leave the blood.
Filtration in the kidney works in the same way with the machine.
To prevent loss of glucose and salts from blood, the liquid in the water bath has a solution of salts and sugars
of correct composition so that only substances above this concentration can diffuse out of the blood into the
bath solution.
Bathing fluid is kept at body temperature and constantly changed as unwanted blood solutes accumulates in
it.
The blood is then returned to the patient through a vein in the arm.
The tubing is coiled to increase the surface area for the exchange of materials.
Kidney Transplants
Most people under treatment using a dialysis machine would rather prefer treatment using kidney transplants
as, the patient would suffer much less pain and it would enhance their quality of life.
Moreover, surgeons are even quite efficient at successfully conducting kidney transplants.
In a kidney transplant operation, the person donating the kidney is called the donor and the person receiving
the kidney is the recipient.
Living organism are sensitive to their environment. Sensitivity refers to the ability to detect a change in the
outer environment and respond to it.
A change in the environment is also called a stimulus (plural stimuli).
Actions taken by the body in order to co-operate with a stimuli are called responses.
The body detects a stimulus by parts in the body called receptors and is able to respond to it through other
parts called effectors.
Two organ systems are continuously working to detect and respond to stimuli, these organ system are called
the nervous system and the endocrine system.
1. Sensory Neurone
Transmits impulses from the sense organ such as the eye, nose and touch receptors.
The sensory neuron have two long fibres (i) the Dendrone – which conducts impulses from a sense organ
to the cell body of neuron (ii) Axon – conducts impulses from cell body to the central nervous system.
2. Motor Neurone
Conducts impulses from the cental nervous system to effector organ such as muscles and glands.
The cell body of the motor neurone is embedded in the central nervous system.
The cell conducts impulses from other neurones to dendrites.
A long single axon carries impulses from cell body to muscle fibre or gland.
The spinal cord transmits sensory and motor impulses to and from receptors and effectors.
It relays sensory and motor to and from the brain.
Is also concerned with spinal reflexes that is automatic actions.
Reflex Action
When the hammer hits the tendon. The muscle contracts, causing the foot to jerk upward.
Stimulus is detected by receptor at the end of a sensory neurone in the leg.
An electrical impulse travels along the sensory neurone into the spinal cord until it reaches end of the cell.
The impulse jumps across to a motor neurone and travel down to the muscle of the leg.
The muscles are called effectors because they produce an effect.
Where the impulse jumps across between two neurone is a microscopic gap called synapses.
The route taken by impulses is called a reflex arc and there is a curved shape.
This is the body`s computer, every minute it will be receiving information from parts of the body.
It makes links between each new piece of information and what is already stored inside the brain cells.
This linking of new to old is the bases of the learning process.
When a person touches something hot, the immediate response is to remove the hand without thinking. This
rapid response to a stimulus is referred to as reflex action. Other examples include blinking, the pupil in dim or
bright light and the knee jerk reflex.
The Eye
Front View
The human eyeball is a slightly battened sphere about 25 mm (I inch) in diameter.
The eyes are protected from behind by the cone-shaped `bony eye sockets (orbits) which are padded by
layers of fatty cushions.
The eyebrow stops sweat running down into the eye.
Eyelashes help to stop dust blowing on to the eye.
Eyelids can close automatically (blinking is a reflex) to prevent dust and other particles getting ton to the
surface of the cornea.
Blinking also helps to keep the surface moist by moving liquid secretions (tears) over the exposed surface.
Tears also contain enzymes that have an antibacterial function.
1. Sclera – is a tough outer layer which is in the front, visible and white in colour. It protects the retina.
2. Vitreous humour – is a jelly like substance which maintains the shape of the eye ball and is found at the
back of the eye.
3. Aqueous humour – is a watery substance which is found in the front of chamber of the eye and is a watery
transparent substance which transmit light.
4. Lens – is a transparent structure behind the pupil, flexible and can change its shape in order to focus images
on the retina.
5. Suspensory ligaments – hold the lens into position.
6. Iris – is a ring of tissues which controls the size of the pupil and it gives colour to the image. The iris may
be blue, brown, green, gray, or black depending on the amount of pigment (melanin) contained in its tissue.
If no pigment is present, the iris appears to be blue. Small amounts of pigment cause the eye to have a gray
or green color and, as the amount of pigment increases, the depth of color approaches black. Eye color is a
hereditary trait, meaning that the distribution of melanin pigment in the eye is controlled by genes.
7. Pupil – is a hole in the centre of the iris which admits light. The diameter of the pupil varies and is regulated
by the amount of contraction of the two sets of iris muscles. Thus, the amount of light allowed to enter the
eye is determined by the size of the pupil. If a bright light is flashed into the eye, the circular muscles contract
very rapidly and the pupil becomes smaller. In dim light the other set of iris muscles contracts and the pupil
becomes larger.
Light travels through a transparent medium in straight lines, called light rays, at speed v c/n, where n is the
index of refraction of the medium.
Light rays do not meet / interact with each other.
A light ray continues forever unless it has an interaction with matter that causes the ray to change direction or
to be absorbed.
Between two media, light can be reflected or refracted. Within a medium, light can be scattered or absorbed.
An object is a source of light rays. We have self-luminous and reflective objects.
Rays originate from every point on the object, and each point sends rays in all directions.
Formation of images
When the light hits an object, it is reflected in all directions.
When a light ray reflected from the object hits your eye you see that object. At the back of your eye, there
is a spot on the retina called the fovea (blind spot).
This spot is full of light sensitive cells. When the light ray falls on the fovea, the light sensitive cells generate
electrical impulses that travel through the optic nerve to brain.
When the electrical impulses reach the brain, the brain generates the image you see. This all happens in less
than a fraction of a second.
But this is the general idea only. Light rays enter the eye from every direction.
If they are not focused on the fovea, they will most probably not hit it and we won’t see.
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Here comes the role of the front part of the eye. When the light ray hits the eye at an angle, it first has to
penetrate the cornea which refracts (bends) the light ray inwards.
The cornea acts as a converging (convex) lens. Then the light penetrates the lens which refracts the ray a
little more inwards focusing the light ray on the fovea.
Thus, the light ray is focused on the retina. When the ray hits the retina, the closer to the fovea the sharper
the image is.
Dilation and constriction of the pupil in bright light and dark
In bright light the pupil becomes small or constricts because the circular muscles contract and the radial
musclesrelax.
On dim light, the pupil becomes wider or dilates because radial muscles contract and circular muscles relax.
Accommodation
This is the adjustment of the lens shape to focus near and distant objects.
The light sensitive cells in the retina are stimulated to relay impulses through the optical nerve to the visual
centre of the brain where images are formed.
Images will be upside down and is corrected in visual centre of the brain.
Light from a distant object
A person can see nearby objects but cannot focus far-off objects.
Is caused by lens in the eyes bending light rays too much or due to large or elongated eyeballs.
Light from distant object is focused in front of the retina.
Correction
It can be corrected by the use of concave lens which diverge light so that it is focused on the retina as shown
below:
Hypermetropia / Long-sightedness
To correct this defect, convex lenses are used to converge the light rays further so that they will meet on the
retina.
Are caused when the lens of the eye becomes cloudy (Shanga).
When cataracts interferes with a person`s ability to seee, a doctor can do an operation to replace the cloudy
lens with an artificial lens.
The curved formation on the outside (the pinna) helps funnel sound down the ear canal to the eardrum
(Like a satellite dish).
Middle ear (air filled)
When sound waves reach the middle ear, they cause the eardrum to vibrate.
This vibration then causes the three bones to vibrate.
These vibrations are transformed into longitudinal/pressure waves in the middle ear.
Inner ear (fluid filled)
Insulin and glucagon are produced in the pancreas and their target organs are the liver and musles.
Insulin converts glucose to insoluble carbohydrate storage compound known as glycogen.
Glycogen is stored in the liver and musles.
The normal blood glucose level is +/- 100mg / 100cm3 .
After a meal reach in carbohydrates, the blood glucose level will rise dramatically.
The amount of insulin secretion increases in a situation and excess glucose is converted to glycogen or fat
in the liver.
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Most of the body cells absorbs glucose, the level return to normal hence insulin release stops (Negative
feedback).
If blood glucose level are too low, glucagon is secreted to convert glycogen to glucose.
Diabetes Mellitus
Increased blood glucose level, presence of glucose in urine, high production of urine, fatigue – feeling very
weak all the time, a strong thirst, increased appetite, weight loss, blurred vision, nausea – feel like vomiting,
bladder, skin and vaginal infections and tingling or numbness on feets and fingers.
If diabetes is not treated for long time, it results in kidney failure, blindness and nerve damage.
Extreme cases of insulin malfunction can cause “diabetic coma”.
A skeleton is a system of bones inside the body which provide support and acts as levers for movement and
locomotion.
The skeleton is made up of bones and cartilage.
Bones and cartilage are living tissues.
As one grows, the skeleton system also grows. It is made up of 206 bones.
Human Skeleton
At the hip there is a thighbone (femur) which is attached at the pelvic girdle by the ball and socket joint. See
Fig 24.5(b).
The pelvic girdle protects organs fron injury.
At the knee, the femur makes a hinge joint with tibia (lower leg bone). See Fig 24.4.
The fibula runs parallel to the tibia.
Hence, the hind limb consists pf the fumur, patella, fibula,, tibia, 7 tarsals, 5 metatarsals and 14 phalanges.
The forelimbs are attached to the pectoral girdle. The pectoral girdle is made up of scapula and clavcle.
Humerus is the upper arm bone which is attached by the ball and socket to the shoulder blade.
Humerus is attached at the elbow by the hinge joint to the lower arm bones.
The radius and ulna can partly rotate round each other so that the hand can be held palm up and palm down.
See Plate 32.
Therefore, the forelimbs are made up of femur, ulna, radius, 8 carpal bones that form the wrist, 5 metacarpal
bones forming the palm of the hand and 14 phalanges forming the fingers.
Types of Joints
Immoveable / Suture – provide strength and support for the body for protection of delicate organs e.g. the
skull, pelvic girdle.
Partially moveable
(a) gliding joints – they are separated by cartilages. These are joints between vertebrates wrist. The
bones glide over each other to a limited extent. It provides wide range of movement and also
strengthens the limb.
(b) Swerved / rotating joint – is a joint between atlas and axis. It permits shacking of hands, head
from side to side.
Freely moveable / synovial joint – they are articulating bone surfaces which are covered by cartilage and
separated each other by synovial cavity containing synovial fluid.
Hinge joint – found on the elbow, knee and finger. Permits movement in one plane about an axis capable of
bearing heavy load. See Fig 24.4 and Plate 32.
Ball and socket joints – it is found on shoulder and hip. Permits movement in all directions. Unable to bear
heavy loads [See Fig 24.5 (a) and (b)].
Parts and functions of synovial joints
Structure of muscles
Are attached to bones and responsible for voluntary movement such as running and bending your arm.
Voluntary muscles are made up of cells called muscle fibres.
Are attached to bones by tendons.
Muscles need a lot of energy released in the mitochondria during respiration.
Refers to a DNA molecule that incorporates DNA from more than one species of organism.
Also termed genetic engineering.
Genetic engineering
Changing the genetic material of an organism by removing, changing and inserting individual genes.
Production of insulin
Crop improvement for example development of plants that are resistant to pests, diseases and even drought.
Production of human insulin which is safer, with no allergic reactions.
Production of vaccines.
Produces animals like cows for better milk or meat.
Improvement of fermentation and industrial processes.
GENETICS
Variation
Continuous/environmental variation
Shows a gradual range of differences between organisms and is due to interactions between the environment
and the gene make up of an organism. E.g. (i) a person may have the genes required for tallness but if they
are malnourished they may not grow to their potential full height.
Examples include Size of leaves, height, weight/mass, number of seeds in pods etc.
Activity1: Measuring shoe size or height of pupils (form 4). Pupils to construct a graph showing continuous
variation, in groups of five or six.
Discontinuous /genetic variation.
This shows clear cut differences with no intermediates between the individuals that there have
characteristics.
Discontinuous variation is genetically determined. It is not usually affected by environment. Examples
includes colour of maize, tongue rolling, blood group, sex etc.
Activity 2: Construct a graph showing discontinuous variation i.e. gender in the class or tongue rolling and non-
tongue rolling.
Factors that cause variations
Genetic factors – these are due to in-built mechanism and they are genetic and heritable. These variations result
when new mixtures of genes occur during sexual reproduction.
Environmental factors – there are due to environmental differences of organisms. They are non-heritable or
cannot be passed from one generation to the other.
Causes of variation
Cause Notes
Mutation Mutation is the change in the base sequence in the DNA.
In meiosis, homologous chromosomes exchange genes and separate from one
another.
Meiosis Thus the genes formed are not exactly the same.
When two haploid gametes fuse together and form a zygote, an organism that is
completely different from its parents (in terms of genotype) is born.
Selection
Is a process of perpetuating desirable organisms, while undesirable ones die out of a population.
The fact that variations either small or marked do occur and can be passed on to offspring provides a
mechanism for a species population to change.
Plants that are better able to resist certain diseases and to tolerate drought may be produced. They will have
been selected for by nature to survive better in unfavourable conditions.
Types of selection
Natural selection
Used to describe the effect of the environment on the survival of organisms. Organisms that are better adapted
to any changes in the environment will survive and pass on their genetic make up to the next generation.
Artificial selection has now become more complex. It can involve the transfer of a selection of a gene into
another organism of different species in the processes of genetic engineering.
For example genes for resistance to disease can be identified in plant species and transferred into the cells of
different plant species so that they also develop resistance to diseases.
Other examples of genetic engineering include genes for tolerance to drought, high yields of fruit, high yields
of milk and meat etc.
Increase grain size in cereal crops for example maize.
Breeding
a. Desirable characteristic are produced. The cattle will be worth more money and provide good breeding stock
for future generation.
b. Improvement of genetically controlled characteristics.
c. Improved quality.
d. Increased productivity.
-Good qualities of an organism are maintained from one generation to the next.
Disadvantages
a) It is less productive.
b) Variation is reduced.
c) Undesirable characteristics increase.
d) Natural selection is reduced.
e) Adaptation to the environment is also reduced.
Biodiversity
Is the variety of life on Earth, it includes plant and animal species, their genetic variation and ecosystem
they form.
Three levels of biodiversity are— genetic, species and ecosystem diversity.
1. Genetic diversity is all the different genes contained in all the living species, including individual plants,
animals, fungi, and microorganisms.
2. Species diversity is all the different species, as well as the differences within and between different
species.
Species Richness is the total count/number of species in a defined area.
Species Abundance is the relative numbers among species.
3. Ecosystem diversity is all the different habitats, biological communities and ecological processes, as
well as variation within individual ecosystems.
Threats to Biodiversity
Deforestation
Why are forests important?
What are the causes and effects of defoestation?
How can it be controlled?
Conservation - is the sustainable use of resources and encompasses protection as well as exploitation and;
Preservation - is an aspect of conservation meaning to keep something without altering or changing it.
ECOSYSTEMS
Management of ecosystems
Ground cover
Ground cover takes the form of natural litter, artificially applied mulching and cover of ground by ground level
plants and taller trees.
Advantages of ground cover
Increases water holding capacity.
Decreases evaporation of water from soil.
Improves humus content.
Improves soil fertility and texture.
Reduces weed growth and reduces soil composition.
Adds to the organic matter.
Helps entry of water into the soil.
Helps reducing water run-off
Effects of human activity in ecosystems
-Agriculture, industrial, mining and social pressures on ecosystemscauses:
Soil inferility
Soil erosion.
Desertification.
Reduced bio-diversity.
Overgrazing.
Eutrophication. Define the term. (4)
Pollution which can cause acid rain and global warming or greenhouse effect.
Qn: Suggest measures to the harmful human activities mentioned above. [6]
Good farming practices or methods.
Use of technological methods such as irrigation.
Providing training, information and support.mixed cropping and intercropping.
Provide good quality water for irrigation.
Organic farming and pest control to avoid use of pestcides and other chemicals.
Carrying capacity
It is the maximum number of animals which can be sustained by an area of land without damaging it. Plant
biomass determines the carrying capacity. The limiting factors are oxygen, food, water, space and shelter.
Ways of maintaining and controlling animal populations within carrying capacity of a habitat.
Culling – killing of animals to maintain carrying capacity.
Destocking – reducing numbers to sustainable levels.
Paddocking – keeping animals in paddocks and rotating them accordingly
Drugs
A drug is any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body is called as
a drug.
Medical drugs are used to help prevent or cure a disease or infection. These include painkillers, antiseptics,
antibiotics, sedatives and even contraceptives.
Antibiotics
Antibiotics like penicillin are chemicals that kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls. They do not hurt
body cells when doing so.
They are very useful for killing bacteria unless they are used intensively (as intensive use exerts a selection
pressure upon them, causing the bacteria to get resistant to them)
However, they are useless against viruses as viruses don’t have cell walls! So next time you have a cold or
‘flu they won’t be any use.
Alcohol is a very commonly used drug as people enjoy its effect on the body. It helps them get rid of their woes
and worries and boosts their ability to interact socially with people.
1. Alcohol lengthens reaction time: which means that it acts like a depressant and slows down the metabolic
reactions in the body. This can be very risky during situations when people drink and drive.
2. Alcohol can boost aggression in some people: Intake of alcohol can cause a person to succumb to committing
crimes and being violent with family members.
3. Enormous volumes of alcohol consumption can kill: Alcohol is like a poison; it can be life threatening if a
person consumes alcohol in huge volumes, resulting in ecstasy, excitement, confusion, stupor, coma and
even death.
Alcoholism is a disease where a person gets addicted to alcohol. Alcoholics drink huge volumes of alcohol
regularly.
Liver cirrhosis: Alcohol is poisonous to cells and can damage them. One such example is the liver which has
the task of breaking it down. In liver cirrhosis, fibres grow inside the liver. This can be fatal.
Brain damage: Alcohol consumption can also cause loss of memory and a lot of confusion.
Alcohol in the body fluids draws water out of the cells through osmosis:
a) When this happens with the brain cells, they get irreversibly damaged.
b) This damage gets worse when alcohol prohibits the secretion of a hormone that is responsible in the re-
absorption of water. This causes too much of urine to be produced in a dilute form, resulting in low water
levels in the blood.
Tobacco smoking
The main components of tobacco are carbon monoxide, nicotine, tar and carbon particulates
Effects of Nicotine
Nicotine is addictive
It is also a stimulant (a substance that makes the person feel more alert)
Nicotine damages the circulatory system
It makes the smoker’s blood vessels to get narrower
This can cause an increase in blood pressure
And finally, cause hypertension
Nicotine is the substance behind Coronary Heart Disease.
Effects of Tar
Carbon particulates are tiny smoke particles that get into the smoker’s lungs.
Soon they travel through respiratory passages and reach the alveoli
The alveolar walls are extremely delicate and when these smoke particles get stuck in them, WBCs try to
eradicate them by secreting chemicals.
While the chemicals remove the smoke particles, they also damage the delicate alveolar walls.
This leads to Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
It causes the surface area of the lungs to decrease and thus decreases the efficiency of obtaining oxygen.
The person is said to have emphysema.
A person with emphysema is forced to be less active to such an extent that they may not have the energy to
even walk.
When the chemicals present in cigarette smoke enter the circulatory system, they:
Depressant means that it slows down the functions of the brain and the hypothalamus hence slow down reactions.
Smoking can cause coronary heart disease by developing a high blood pressure.
These activities are done by a component in cigarette called nicotine.
Nicotine damages the circulatory system.
It also makes blood vessels narrower.
Moreover, nicotine decreases the elasticity of arteries, disabling them to stretch and recoil much.
Smoking also increases the probability of a blood clot being formed in the coronary artery.
4025 Paper 1
Paper 2
Paper 3
REFERENCES
References
1. Avis, J, Chafanza, E, Madzinga, W and Ritchie, E (2017) Step Ahead: Biology, Learner`s Book 3. Pearson.
CapeTown.
2. Avis, J, Baxter, F. Chavhunduka, K. (2017) Step Ahead: Biology, Learner`s Book 4. Pearson. CapeTown.
3. Darwin, A. (2005) Focus on O`Level Biology . College Press. Harare.
4. Jokomo E. (2007) Biology Today. ZPH Publishers (Pvt). Harare
5. Jones, M. and Jones, G. (2014) IGCSE Biology.
6. Mackean D. G. (2000) Introduction to Biology.
7. Mackean D. G. and Hayward, D. (2014) IGCSE Biology, 3rd Edition. Hodder Education. UK.
8. Science Kit Manual Handout (Ministry of Primary and Secondary).
DHLIWAYO P
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