3AOC Proceedings

“Achieving Social and Economic Development
Through Ecological and Organic

Agricultural Alternatives”
FOREWORD
The first (1AOC) and second (2AOC) editions of the African Organic Conference were
successfully hosted by Uganda and Zambia in 2009 and 2012, respectively. The third
edition of the continental conference (3AOC) is holding in Nigeria October 5 – 9, 2015
with the theme “Achieving Social and Economic Development Through Ecological
and Organic Agricultural Alternatives”. This conference is coming up in the
continent when the call for need to improve rural livelihoods of Africans is becoming
louder by the day. A veritable tool through which the livelihood of an average African
can be improved is Organic Agriculture because it has an inherent potential to reduce
production costs regularly incurred by small-medium scale farmers (principal actors in
African agriculture), reduce debts, increase income, mitigate the vagaries of climate
change, cope with market fluctuations, sustain soil fertility, minimize health hazards
etc. Little wonder, ecological organic agriculture (EOA) has been recognized as a
catalyst to redress food crisis in the continent by mainstreaming ecological organic
agriculture into the agricultural production systems of member states of the African
Union Commission by year 2020 as directed by their Heads of States in January, 2011
on organic farming (EX.CL/Dec.621 XVI).
Africa is the world's second largest continent after Asia and the world's second most
populous with about 1.1b people corresponding to 15% of the world's total population.
According to the organic agriculture data on 170 countries worldwide, there were 43.1
million hectares of land under organic in 2013 in the world with Africa accounting for
just 1.2 million hectares (3 %) and 29% of the entire producers in the world.
Furthermore, the global market reached 72 billion US$ in 2013 with the United States
of America and the European Union (EU) accounting for 43 and 40%, respectively. The
question that readily comes to mind is where is Africa in the global picture of organic
agriculture?. In deed Africa is gradually emerging as a potential continent that will soon
embrace organic farming as a tool to tackle food insecurity. To this effect, the
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) is collaborating
with relevant stakeholders in the African Organic sector, African Union Commission
(AUC) and others in its framework of “Organic Alternative for Africa Initiative” aimed
at facilitating the integration of organic agriculture into the core of African policies and
the agricultural development agenda. A very key player in the initiative is the African
Organic Network (AfrONet), established in 2012 at Zambia, with headquarters in
iii
Tanzania. AfroNet is ably coordinating the organic agriculture related activities of the
national movements in the continent and actively participates in organic agriculture
related activities globally.
It is envisaged that the 3AOC will provide an excellent platform to exchange ideas on
the role ecological and organic agricultural alternatives can play in achieving social
and economic development in the continent. A total of fifty six (56) papers were
accepted for presentation as oral (52) and four (posters) in the conference. Papers were
sent from nine (9) countries namely Nigeria, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Ghana, Sudan,
Germany and the United States of America. The papers cover different disciplines,
such as agronomy, livestock production, aquaculture, economics, rural sociology etc.
We expect the papers to give insight into:
o evolving concept of ecological organic agriculture as an organic alternative

o emerging knowledge, information and research results in the organic sector
o how organic agriculture can alleviate poverty, improve income generation,
redress food
insecurity and guarantee sustainable food production
The 3AOC scientific track is hereby documented as Book of Proceedings for the first
time since inception in 2009. This exercise has been facilitated by International Centre
for Research in Organic Food Systems (ICROFS) through the organic e-print platform
for the submission of papers, The International Society of Organic Agriculture Research
(ISOFAR), Swiss Aids and the African Organic Network for funding the production of the
Proceedings. Hopefully, a download of the Proceedings shall be made available for
ISOFAR members under the webpage of ISOFAR (www.isofar.org) after the conference.
We are most grateful to all the organizations (international, national and local) that have
contributed to the organization of the 3AOC and scientists that volunteered to assist in
manuscript review. The authors take full responsibility of the content of their papers as
the editors only edited the manuscripts submitted.
Prof. Dr. GEROLD RAHMANN (Germany)

Dr. TIMOTHY IPOOLA OLABIYI (Nigeria)
Prof. VICTOR IDOWU OLOWE (Nigeria)
October 2015
iv
EDITORS:
GEROLD RAHMANN
TIMOTHY IPOOLA OLABIYI
VICTOR IDOWU OLOWE
LIST OF REVIEWERS
Title Initials Last name Organization Country
Prof. Dr. G. Rahmann Thuenen Institute Germany
Prof. V.I.O. Olowe Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta Nigeria
Dr. T.I. Olabiyi Department of Crop and Enviromental Nigeria

Protection, Ladoke Akintola University of
Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso
Dr. O.O. Fayinminnu Department of Crop Protection and Nigeria

Environmental Biology, University of Ibadan
Prof. M.O. Liasu, Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Nigeria

Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
PMB 4000, Ogbomoso
Dr. A.O. Akinwumi Department of Animal Nutrition and Nigeria

Biotechnology, Ladoke Akintola University of
Technology, Ogbomoso
Mr. J. Ojo Department of Crop Production, Kwara State Nigeria

University, P.M.B. 1530, Ilorin, Kwara State
Dr. A.A. Olowoake Department of Crop Production, Kwara State Nigeria

University, P.M.B. 1530, Ilorin, Kwara State
Dr. M.O. Ipinmoroti Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Nigeria

Management, Osun State University, Osogbo.
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CONTENTS
Page
Foreword .............................................................. . ............................................. iii
Nursery Establishment of Moringa oleifera as Affected by Pre-Sowing Seed Treatments

in a Coarse Textured Soil
OSHUNSANYA, S.O.,FAGBENRO,J.A.,ALIKU,O.AND OKE,O.A ................................................... 1
Growth Response of Garcinia kola Seedlings to Organic and Organomineral Fertilizers

ADEJOH, O.P.,YAKUBU, F.B.,A., FOLABI, J.O AND OFORDU, C, S......................................……. 7
Optimum Returns in Irrigated Groundnut as Influenced by Poultry Manure Rates at

Kadawa in the Sudan Savanna Ecological Zone of Nigeria
USMAN IBRAHIM AND SHEHU ABDUL RAHMAN ............................................................ 15
Effects of Phosphocompost on Acidity Indices in an Acidic Soil in Ilesha,

Southwestern Nigeria
OYEYIOLA, Y. B., OMUETI, J.A.I. AND KOLAWOLE, G.O ……………………………... 21
Agronomic Performance and Seed Quality of Advanced Breeding Lines of Soybeans

(Glycine max (L.) Merrill) as Influenced by Organic Fertilizer Application
CHIDOZIE TOBECHl ONYENALI AND VICTOR IDOWU OLOWE ................... 31
Effect of Organic Fertilizer Types and Rates on the Performance of Pineapple Suckers
ATANDA, T.T. AND OLANIYI, J.O ............................................... . ......................................... 37
Evaluation of Animal Manures on the Yield of Solanum macrocarpon L. and Chemical

Properties of Soil
OLOWOKERE, F. A., DARE, M. O., OLASANTAN, F. O. AND AKANJI, M. A ……………. 43
Response of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hookf) to Different Levels of Poultry

Manure Application in an Ultisol of Southeastern Nigeria
O.B. IREN, I.D. UWAH AND V.E. EKPENYONG ..................................………………………. 47
Effect of Accelerated Compost on Soil Physical and Chemical Properties of an Alfisol

AYANFEOLUWA, O. E., O. O. ADEOLUWA, S. O. OSHUNSANYA AND
V.O.ADURAMIGBAMODUPE ....................................................... ...................................... … 53
Evaluation of Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrient Status of Two Organic Farms: Case Study of
University of Ibadan and Ogungbade Village, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
E.A. AREMU, G.O. ADEOYE AND S.A. ONI .......................... .............................................. 59
Evaluation of Velvet - Fallow and Compost Amendments on Corchorus

(Corchorus olitorus L.) yield and Soil Properties in an Organic Farming System
ADEOLUWA, O.O. AND A. BELLO............................................... …… …….. 65
vii
Efficacy of compost, NPK and Organomineral Fertilizers on Growth and Yield of Celosia argentea L.
OLOWOAKE, A.A ……………………...................................................................................... 71
Influence of Organic Fertilizer Rates and Growth Media on the Growth and Nutrient
Uptake of Oil Palm Seedlings.
ATANDA, T.T. AND OLANIYI, J.O ……………………………………...................................... 77
Influence of Cassava Peels and Poultry Manure Based Compost on Soil Properties, Growth and
Yield of Waterleaf (Talinum triangulare Jacq) in an Ultisol of Southeastern Nigeria
O.B. IREN, J.F.AKPAN, V.F. EDIENE, I.G.UDUAK AND E. E. ASANGA ……................................. 83
The Role of Composted Poultry Manure in Reducing Bioavailability of Heavy Metals

in Tissues of Celosia argentea L. Grown on Dumpsite and Garden Soils
O.A. OGUNTADE, T.O. ADEBARI, O.A. ODUSANYA AND O.B. ODUNTAN..................................... 89
Potentials of Two Brewery Waste-Based Composts on Soil Fertility for

Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) and Jackbean (Canavalia ensiformis) Intercrop
ADEOLUWA,O.O., E.Y. THOMAS, A. BELLO AND B. JOSHUA …………………......................... 93
Plantain (Musa AAB. cv Agbagba) Setts Growth in Response to Growing Media and Organic
Fertilizers in South Western Nigeria
JOSEPH-ADEKUNLE, T.T. AND W.A. BABALOLA ............................................................ 97
Gender Involvement in Ecological Organic Crop Farming in Ogun State, Nigeria

OYEWOLE, MOJISOLA FAUZIYAH. ………………............................................................. 101
Awareness of Ecological Organic Agriculture in Nigeria: Case Study of Edo State, Nigeria.
ADEWOYIN, O.B. ....................................................................................................... 107
Promotion of Ecological Organic Agriculture (EOA) Principles and Practices through

Dissemination of Organic Research Outputs: Case Study Southwest Nigeria
YEKINNI ,O.T., L.A. ADESIYAN AND P. OLANREWAJU ………............................................... 113
Assessment of Awareness and knowledge of Ecological Organic Agriculture in Southwest Nigeria

YEKINNI, O.T………………...................................................................................................... 119
The Potential of Ecological Farming in Delivering Social and Economic Development

to Small Holder Farming Families: The Rwenzori Experience
THADDEO, TIBASIIMA, AAGE DISSING, INGE LIS DISSING, JANE NALUNGA,
ELLINOR ISGREN AND LONGINO MASEREKA …………………………………………………. 125
Ecological Organic Agriculture Value Chain: Building Capacities on Identified

Knowledge Gaps in Southwest Nigeria
AJAYI, A.J. ……………………………………………......................................................... 129
.
Influence of Moringa Leaf Extract and Coconut Water as Priming Agent to Improve the
Emergence and Early Seedling Growth in Cucumber
OLUWAGBENGA DUNSIN, CHRISTOPHER ABOYEJI, AND GIDEON NAYAN ............................... 135
viii
Level of Compliance to Organic Agricultural Practice in the Practical Year Training Programme of
University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
TlJANI, S.A AND OWOLABI, G ............................................................................. 141
Organic Livestock Production Sustainable Increase of Meat Production on Natural Grasslands

in Namibia
GEROLD RAHMANN, CHRISTIAN HULSEBUSCH, JUDITH ISELE AND ANITA IDEL ... 145
Analysis of Rural Household Use of Organic Farming-Practices-Amongst Livestock Farmers

in South-South Nigeria
ATOMA, C.N., MATTHEWS-JOKU, E.C., AND NNADI, F.N................................................. 155
Influence Withdrawal period of Tetracin® on Physico-Chemical Properties

and Organoleptic Attributes of Broiler Meat
AKINWUMI, A.O., ODUNSI, A.A., OMOJOLA, A. B AND ADEMOLA, S.G. ………....................... 159
Antifungal Activity of Essential Oils from Some Tropical Plants against Penicillium digitatum
Infected Citrus sinensis Fruit during Storage
OJO, O.A. AND ADEBAYO, T.A. ………......................................,......................................... 165
The Role of Medicinal Plants in Traditionally Managed Cattle in Odeda Local Government
Area, Ogun State, Nigeria
FASAE, O.A., OLAWALE, E. O AND SHOWALE, A.G……............................................................. 175
Evaluation of Moringa oleifera Root Extract as a Biopesticide in Tomato (Solarium lycopersicum L.)
Production
FAYINMINNU, O.O., OLAOSEBIKAN, F.T.AND T.I. OLABIYI ……................................................. 181
Assessment of Bio-Nematicides on the Growth and Yield of Cowpea Planted on Nematode

Infested Soil
OLABIYI, T. I., AKANDE, V. O, ATUNGWU, J. J., FAYINMINNU, O.O. AND A. R. GBADAMOSI ........ 187
Strengthening Collaboration Between Researchers and Practitioners within the

Organic Sector in East Africa
ESTHER W. W., AWERU, CHARITON, D. B., NAMUWOZA, EUSTACE GACHANJA AND JORDAN GAMA ... 193
Opinion and Involvement of Fish Farmers in Organic Aquaculture in Osun State, Nigeria
MABEL O. IPINMOROTI............................................................................................................... 197
Opportunities and Challenges for Reinforcing Organic Agriculture Research Capacity in

East African Universities: Experience of Makerere University
FRED KABI, SYLVIA NALUBWAMA, SAMUEL KABI,NORMAN KWIKIRIZA, STEPHEN ANECHO,
MUHAMMAD KlGGUNDU. ………....................................................................................... 203
Yield Response to Type of Mulch and Time of Mulch Application in Organic

Production of Tomato (Solarium lycopersicum L.)
L. SHECHAMBO. K.P. SIBUGA, T.J. MSOGOYA AND SIGSAARD, L............................................ 209
ix
Perception of Leafy Vegetable Farmers on Neem extract for the Control of Insects in Akinyele Local
Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria
NKIRU T. MELUDU, OLOPADE TOLULOPE, OKANLAWON OLUWATOYIN
OLANREWAJU PETER ………………………………………………………. 213
The Control of Damping Off Disease of Two Tropical Vegetables with some Botanicals
OJO, O.A. AND OLANIRAN, O.A……………………………………………………….. 219
Effect of Difference Sources of Organic Manure and Mineral Nitrogen, Sole in Combination,
on the Growth, Vegetative and Seed Yield of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfaira occidentallis)
OKORO-ROBINSON M.O., OGUNJINMI, S.O., FAWOLE, T.O., OMILABU, S.K AND
ARIBISALA, L.A………………………………………………………………… 231
Responses of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato to Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers Planted in
Root Knot Nematode Infested Soil
OLABIYI, T.I., ADE-OMOWAYE, B.I.O., AKINWANDE, B.A., ADEOLA, R.G., ODEWALE, O.O.,
AND ADELEKE, M.A. ………………………………………………………….. 237
Integrated Management of Two Foliar Disease of Sesame (Sesamum inducum L)

In Maize/Sesame Intercrop
JIMOH MUIDEEN, OLOLADE ENIKUOMEHIN, VICTOR OLOWE, CLEMENT
AFOLABI………………………………………………………………………………… 243
Effectiveness of Agroecological Intensification Techniques in Enhancing Soil Nutrient

Status, Moisture Content and Crop Productivity in Semi-Arid Lands of Kenya
ONWONGA R.N., LELEI J.J AND NAMOI N.L………………………………………. 247
Chlorophyll and Protein Contents of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfaria occidentallis) Planted on

Heavy Metal Contaminated Soil in Response Different Organic Amendments
ADEJUMO, S.A…………………………………………………………………………. 257
Nitrogen Contents of Composts Enriched with Organic Nitrogen Sources

FAWOLE, F.O., AYODELE, O.J. AND ADEOYE, G.O. …………………………….. 263
Multi – Stakeholder Partnerships in Organic Value Chain Development: A case of Ntungamo

innovation platform in Western Uganda
KALIBWANI, R., KAMUGSHA, R., TWEBAZE, J., SABITI, M., KUGONZA, I., TENYWA,
M., NYAMWARO, S.O,…………………………………………………………….. 269
Organic Governance Regimes: The Best bet for Nigeria’s Organic Sector
ADEBIYI, JELILI ADEGBOYEGA………………………………………………….. 275
Effect of Climate Change on Irrigated Rice Production in Badagry Local Government Area of Lagos
State, Nigeria.
EZEKIEL, AYINDE ALANI………………………………………………………. 281
Tunisia’s Organic Agriculture Success Story: Lessons for African Organics

ADEBIYI, JELILI ADEGBOYEGA………………………………………………… 287
Organic Production of Silver Nanoparticles

ADEEYO, A.O. AND LIASU, M.O…………………………………………………. 293
x
POSTERS 299
- ENGENDERING ECOLOGICAL ORGANIC AGRICULTURE (EOA)
PRACTICES IN SCHOOL CURRICULUM WILL FACILITATE
ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT AND REDUCE RISKS OF FOOD AND
HUMAN HEALTH
MELUDU NKIRU T.; NNANNA CHUKS; OKONLAWON OLUWATOYIN AND
OLARINWAJU PETER
- ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF INCULCATING A

RURAL LIFE STYLE INTO A CITY (CIVILIZED) SETTING-TRANSFORMATION
OF THE AFRICAN RURAL WOMEN -A PERSONAL STORY AND EXPERIENCE
ODUKOYA OLUYINKA IYABODE
- NATURAL PROTECTION FOR STORED ONION SEED
- ECONOMICS OF MAIN ORGANIC PERENNIAL FOOD CROPS PRODUCTION

AND MARKETING IN RIVER NILE STATE OF SUDAN
xi
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RAHMANN G., OLABIYI T. I. & OLOWE V.I.O. (Eds.) (2015) Scientific Track Proceedings of the 3 African Organic Conference.
“Achieving Social and Economic Development through Ecological and Organic Agricultural Alternatives”,
October 5-9, 2015, Lagos, Nigeria.
Nursery Establishment of Moringa Oleifera as Affected by

Pre-Sowing Seed Treatments in a Coarse Textured Soil
OSHUNSANYA, S. O1., FAGBENRO, J. A2. , ALIKU, O1. AND OKE, O. A1.
1
Department of Agronomy, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
2
Department of Crop Production, Soil and Environmental Management, Bowen
University, Iwo, Nigeria.
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Keywords: Pre-sowing Treatment, Moringa, Germination Percentage, Growth, Biomass
Abstract
Pre-sowing seed treatments have been reported to have influence on the germination
percentage and growth performance, which could affect crop yield when transplanted to the
field. Replacing chemically expensive and laborious pre-treatment with physically pre-
treated seeds could reduce the cost of producing moringa by resource-poor farmers.
Therefore, a screen-house experiment was conducted at the Department of Agronomy,
University of Ibadan to examine effects of six pre-sowing seed treatments – dry seed with
complete coat (DSCC), dry cracked seed coat (DCS), dry de-hulled seed (DDS), soaked seed
with complete coat (SSCC), soaked cracked seed coat (SCC) and soaked de-hulled seed
(SDS) on the germination percentage and growth indicators of moringa plant. The treatments
were replicated eight times in a completely randomized design. The results indicated that
DSCC had significantly higher (p=0.05) seed germination percentage than SCC, SSCC,
DCS, DDS and SDS by 12, 43.5, 50, 56 and 75%, respectively, at 1 week after sowing (WAS).
However, DDS had significantly higher (p=0.05) total biomass weight than DSCC, DCS,
-1
SSCC, SCC and SDS on fresh basis by 1.86, 2.17, 2.40, 4.51 and 3.03 g pot . Conclusively,
pre-sowing treatments have no significant effect on germination percentage, although, de-
hulling dry moringa seeds before sowing enhanced its growth performance.
Introduction
Moringa oleifera is a fast growing perennial tree which can grow on a wide range of soil types,
especially well drained sandy or loamy soil (Oshunsanya et al., 2014; Fagbenro et al., 2015).
The seeds could be planted at a depth of 1 – 3cm and germination usually occurs within 1- 2 weeks of
sowing. Moringa seeds have no dormancy period so they may be sown as soon as they are matured. The
average weight of each seed is between 0.3-0.4 g. The seeds can be sown without previous treatment.
The peeling is not necessary; it may even weaken the germination process Padilla et al. (2012). They
further stated that soaking the seed in water for 24 hours at room temperature is recommended, and
moringa germination is rapid if new seeds are used. However, the percentage diminishes as their
obtainment time passes. They further reported that the germination is between 70 and 98% and it
diminishes when the sowing height surpasses the 1,200 m above sea level.
In view of these, only little criteria have been defined with respect to pre-seed treatments before
sowing. With some researchers exploring the use of inorganic chemicals and other agronomic practices
to enhance seed germination and plant growth (Mossler and Dunn, 2009), Nwangburuka et al. (2013)
stated that many of the inorganic chemicals to an extent have been proven effective but show significant
1
OSHUNSANYA, S.O. et al.:
Nursery Establishment of Moringa Oleifera as Affected by Pre-Sowing Seed
Treatments in a Coarse Textured Soil
side effects on the crops such as inhibition of germination and retardation of plant growth). In addition,
Nwangburuka et al. (2012) reported that high concentrations of 5 to 10% inorganic chemicals did not
significantly improve germination, seedling length and seedling vigor index. However, Anon (2011)
reported that the necessity of soaking the seeds before sowing while Perez et al. (2010) and Carballo
(2011) do not consider necessary the treatments previous to the sowing to achieve a good germination.
In order to ascertain which schools of thought could be adopted into our tropical environment, this
experiment was conducted to assess the effects of six pre-sowing seed treatments on the germination
percentage and growth indicators of moringa in a controlled environment.
Materials and Methods
The experiment was conducted in the Screen-house of the Department of Agronomy, University of
Ibadan, Nigeria. The experiment was laid out in a completely randomize design. The pre-sowing
treatments were: (i) dry seeds with complete coat (DSCC), (ii) dry cracked seed coat (DSC) – seed coats
were cracked using pliers before sowing, (iii) dry de-hulled seeds (DDS) – dry coats were completely
removed before sowing, (iv) soaked seeds with complete coat (SSCC) – seeds were soaked with water in
a container for 24 hours prior to sowing, (v) soaked cracked seed coat (SCC) – seeds were cracked using
pliers and soaked with water for 24 hours before sowing and (vi) soaked de-hulled seeds (SDS) – seed
coats were removed completely and subsequently soaked with water for 24 hours before sowing. The
sowing was done in poly-bag, 2 kg soil capacity. The treatments were replicated eight times in a screen-
house. Sowing was done with the aid of a calibrated stick to ensure uniform sowing depth of 3 cm for all
treatments.
Results
Germination Percentage and Biomass Production

The seed germination percentage as affected by the various pre-sowing seed treatments as presented in
Figure 1. The germination percentage per treatment was significantly (p<0.05) higher under SCC (88%)
than DCS (50%), DDS (44%), SSCC (56.5%), and SDS (25%). However, the highest seed germination
percentage (100%) was observed under DSCC.
The biomass on fresh and dry weight basis is depicted in Table 1. The above- and below-ground
biomass on fresh and dry weight basis were significantly (p=0.05) influenced by pre-sowing seed
treatments (Table 1). Results indicated that DSCC had higher above-ground biomass (4.85 and 1.15 kg
-1 -1
plant ) on fresh and dry weight basis as compared to SCC (2.81 and 0.65 kg plant ), respectively.
-1
However, DDS produced the highest above-ground biomass on fresh (5.67 kg plant ) and dry (1.35 kg
-1
plant ) weight basis, while SDS recorded the lowest above-ground biomass on fresh and dry weight
-1
basis, respectively as 3.25 and 1.29 kg plant .
Below-ground biomass on fresh weight basis washighest (5.60 kg plant-1) under DDS, while the
lowest below-ground biomass on fresh weight basis (3.95 kg plant-1) was registered by SCC. Moreover,
-1
DSCC, DCS, SSCC and SDS produced 4.56, 4.85, 4.73 and 4.99 kg plant below-ground biomass on
fresh weight basis. Significantly (p=0.05) higher below-ground biomass on dry weight basis was
recorded for DDS (1.19 kg plant-1) over DSCC (0.82 kg plant-1). However, SDS produced the highest
-1
below-ground biomass (1.44 kg plant ) on dry weight basis while the SCC produced the lowest value of
-1
0.76 kg plant .
2
rd
Table 1. Physico-chemical Properties of the Experimental Soil
Parameter Values
pH 6.5
Organic Compound(g/kg) 32.9
Total Nitrogen (g/kg) 1.2
Phosphorus (mg/kg) 11.4
Exchange bases (cmol/kg)
Potassium 1.5
Calcium 1.8
Sodium 1.13
Magnesium (mg/kg) 2.70
Manganese (mg/kg) 2.40
Iron (mg/kg) 2.30
Copper (mg/kg) 1.24
Exchangeable acidity (cmol/kg) 0.3
Cation exchange capacity (cmol/kg) 2.64
Sand (g/kg) 834
Silt (g/kg) 116
Clay (g/kg) 50
Textural class Sandy loam
Table 2. Effect of Seed Treatments on Moringa Biomass Production

Treatment Above-ground biomass (kg) Below-ground biomass (kg)
Fresh weight Dry weight Fresh weight Dry weight
DSCC 4.85ab 1.15a 4.56ab 0.82c
DCS 4.25bc 1.02ab 4.85ab 0.91bc
DDS 5.67a 1.35a 5.60a 1.19ab
SSCC 4.14bc 1.07a 4.73ab 0.98bc
SCC 2.81d 0.65b 3.95b 0.76c
SDS 3.25cd 1.29a 4.99ab 1.44a
Means with the same letter(s) in a column are not significantly different at p=0.05
Figure 1: Germination percentage as affected by seed treatments
3
Discussion
In spite of the fact that results from scientific research shows that certain pre-sowing seed treatments are
good options for improving moringa seed germination (Nouman et al., 2012), some others consider this
practice unnecessary (Medina et al., 2007). This study indicated that moringa seeds without pre-sowing
treatment (DSCC) fastened the seed germination. This allowed for the occurrence of optimum (100%)
germination percentage of moringa seeds. This confirms that moringa seeds, in spite of the treatments,
achieve high germination percentage. This result supports the claim that considers pre-germination seed
treatments unnecessary (Medina et al., 2007). Soaked cracked seed coat (SCC) treatment which
produced 88% seed germination after sowing resulted in lower number of the various growth indicators.
This shows that this treatment weakens the potential of the plant during its developmental growth stages.
This trend is contrary to the findings of Padilla et al. (2012) who reported that pre-germination treatment
for 24 hours which allowed for 86% seed germination also propitiated the young plant to accelerate
growth.
Conclusion
This study provides information about pre-sowing seed treatments (physical techniques) of Moringa
oleifera which could replace chemically expensive and laborious pre-sowing seed treatment techniques
for optimal Moringa biomass production. In terms of germination, pre-sowing seed treatments have no
significant effect on Moringa seed germination percentage. This indicates that resource–poor farmers
need not to treat Moringa seeds before sowing into coarse texture soil. However, dry de-hulled seeds
(DDS) produced higher above – ground biomass than other pre-sowing seed treatments suggesting that
dry coat removal could enhance vegetative growth parts of Moringa, which possess both medicinal and
nutritive values. Further studies should be carried out on a wide range of soil texture, which could affect
seed germination and field establishment.
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Fertilizer on Moringa Plant Grown in an Oxisol. Communications in Soil Science and Plant
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Medina, M. G., García, G., Clavero,T. Y., Iglesia, J. M. (2007). Estudio comparativo de Moringa
oleifera y Leucaenaleucocephala durante la germinación y la etapa inicial de crecimiento.
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Mossler, M. A., Dunn, E. (2009). Florida crop pest management profile: okra. University of Florida
IFAS Extension Publication p.1-57.
Nouman, W., Siddiqui, M. T., Basra, S. M. A. (2012). Moringaoleiferaleaf extract: An innovative
priming tool for rangeland grasses. Turk J. Agric. For. 36: 65-75.
Nwangburuka, C. C., Ezekiel, C. N., Otekale, K., Anokwuru, C. P., Evbuomwan, K. I. (2013).
Cytomorphological and antifungal analysis of Acalypha wilkesiana , Moringa oleifera
extracts, and sodiumhypochlorite on Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench. treated seeds.
Nature and Science 11(1): 31-39.
Nwangburuka, C. C., Oyekale, K., Ezekiel, C. N., Anokwuru, P. C., Badaru, O. (2012). Effect of
Moringa oleifera leaf extract and sodium hypochlorite seed pre-treatment on seed
4
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germination, seedling growth rate and fungal abundance in two accessions of Abelmoschus
esculentus (L.) Moench. Arch.Appl. Sci. Res. 4(2): 875-881.
Oshunsanya, S. O., Fagbenro, J. A., Oyewo, T. O. (2014). Growth performance and mineral
composition of Moringa oleifera seedlings as affected by soil depth under water stress
conditions. Elixir Agriculture 70: 23994 – 24000.
Padilla, C., Fraga, N., Suárez, M. (2012). Effect of the soaking time of moringa (Moringa oleifera)
seeds on the germination and growth indicators of the plant. Cuban Journal of Agricultural
Science, Vol 46(4):419-421.
Pérez, A., Sánchez, N., Amerangal, N., Reyes, F. (2010). Características y potencialidades de Moringa
oleifera, Lamark. Una alternativa para lalimentación animal. Pastos y Forrajes 33:4.
5
rd
Growth Response of Garcinia kola Seedlings to Organic and

Organomineral Fertilizers
ADEJOH O.P., YAKUBU F.B., AFOLABI J.O AND OFORDU C.S
Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria,
P.M.B. 5054, Ibadan, Nigeria,
Keywords: Garcinia kola, organic manure, organomineral fertilizer, growth parameters
Abstract
Growth responses of Garcinia kola seedlings to organic manure and organomineral

fertilizers at three different levels were examined. Seven treatments were applied: T1- 2t/ha of
Leucaena leucocephala compost (LLC), T2- 4t/ha LLC, T3- 6t/ha LLC, T4- 2t/ha of
organomineral fertilizer (OMF), T5- 4t/ha OMF, T6- 6t/ha OMF and T7- control. Garcinia
kola seedlings of same size were selected and transplanted from germination trays after
6weeks into medium sized (polypots) filled with 2kg topsoil after 6months from germination
tray. The experimental design was a completely randomized design (CRD) with five
replicates. The growth parameters assessed include plant height, collar diameter, number of
leaves and biomass production for a period of twenty weeks. The results showed that there
were significant differences among the growth parameters. Garcinia kola seedlings treated
with 6t/ha Leucaena leucocephala compost and 2t/ha organomineral fertilizers have highest
plant height(22.8±1.24cm)and collar diameter(5.02±0.16mm) respectively. Treatment
containing 2t/ha Leucaena leucocephala compost (9.2±1.74) had the highest leaf number,
weight and dry weight respectively. Correlations coefficient between the growth parameters
and total biomass production was positive. Organic and organomineral fertilizers with
optimum growth in this study are recommended for raising good and healthy Garcinia kola
seedlings in the nursery for plantation establishment.
Introduction
Garcinia kola (Heckel), commonly called “Bitter kola” belongs to the family Guttiferae. It is highly
valued multi-purpose tree for its fruits, seeds, stems, roots and barks that are used in Western and
Central African regions (Hutchinson and Dalziel, 1954).In Nigeria, it is known by various names such
as bitter kola, male kola (English name), orogbo (Yoruba), Aku ilu (Igbo) and Mijin goro (Hausa). It is
also known as male kola due to its reported aphrodisiac properties(Adebisi, 2004; Adesuyi et al.,
2013).G. kola seeds are chewed as a mastocatory substance to stimulate the flow of saliva, and widely
consumed as snackunlike other kola nuts (Kola nitida, Kola acuminata), G. kola is thought to have the
property of cleaning the digestive system without abdominal problems, even when a lot of the nuts are
eaten (Adebisi, 2004). The seed is culturally very important to the Yoruba and Igbo tribes in Nigeria
and for many other people living in sub Saharan Africa(Ofusori et al., 2008). Garcinia kola seedlings
are slow growing at the nusery stage. Organic based fertilizer such as organomineral fertilizer
improves soil structure, reduces soil erosion, lowers the temperature at the soil surface, and increases
soil water holding capacity (Roe et al., 2008). Resource poor farmers are faced with limited resources
7
ADEJOH, O.P. et al.:
to purchase mineral fertilizers, resort to use of organic fertilizer. Similarly, the detrimental effects of
mineral fertilizers on soils necessitated the need for testing the effectiveness of organic and
organomineral fertilizers to Garcinia kola seedlings in this study. Besides they are are readily
available, cheap, sustainable and environmentally friendly. Therefore, this study examined the growth
responses of Garcinia kola seedlingsto organic manure and organomineral fertilizer at three different
levels in the nursery in order to find the best level to use for plantation establishment of Garcinia kola.
Experimental Site
The study was conducted in the greenhouse of the Soils and Tree Nutrition Section, Department of
Sustainable Forest Management of Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN), Ibadan, Nigeria.
FRIN lies within latitude 07023'N and longitude 03051'E with the mean total rainfall of 1148.1 mm,
0
falling in approximately 87 days with the minimum temperature of 24.4 C, and maximum temperature
of 31.5 °C and with high relative humidity of 79.4% (FRIN 2014).
Collection and Analysis of Soil

Top soils (0–15 cm) were randomly collected with soil auger from the arboretum of Forestry Research
Institute of Nigeria.Particle size analysis was carried out using hydrometer method (Bouyoucos,
1962). The pH was determined in water (ratio 1:1, soil:water). Organic carbon was determined by wet
dichromate method (Nelson and Sommers, 1975) and available phosphorus was determined by Bray
extraction method (Anderson and Ingram, 1993). Total nitrogen was determined by Kjeldahl method.
Exchangeable cations (potassium, calcium, and magnesium) were extracted with ammonium acetate.
Potassium was determined by flame photometer method, while calcium and magnesium were
determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Copper, zinc, manganese, and iron were also
determined by the method used by IITA(1979).
Seed Source, Data Collection and Analysis

Matured fruits of Garcinia kola were collected from the mother tree at Uromi, Esan North East Local
Government Area (LGA) in Edo State, Nigeria. The seeds were extracted according to the method of
Yakubu et al., (2014). The study was carried out with a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with
five replications.The experiment consisted of T1- 2t/ha of Leucaena leucocephala compost (LLC),
T2- 4t/ha LLC, T3- 6t/ha LLC, T4- 2t/ha of organomineral fertilizer (OMF), T5- 4t/ha OMF, T6- 6t/ha
OMF and T7: control.Two months after transplanting, data were collected for twenty four weeks on
agronomic parameters, while biomass weights were determined at the end of the experiment.Data
obtained were subjected to statistical analysis of variance and means were separated Using Duncan's
Multiple Range test (Duncan, 1955) at 5% probability level.
Results
The experimental soil was sandy loam in texture and slightly acidic, medium in organic carbon and
H
Nitrogen. The P , Organic carbon, total N, Available P and K values were 6.2, 5.30%, 1.17%, 4.05%,
0.17% respectively. Most of the nutrients in this soil were low and below the critical level Adeoye and
Agboola (1985). The Nitrogen content of the organomineral fertilizer and Leucaena leucocephala
compost applied were higher than that of the experimental soil. This justifies the application of soil
8
rd
amendment in form of organic and organomineral fertilizers to G. kola seedlings (Table 1).The plant
heights of Garcinia kolaseedlingswere not significantly different between treatments at 4weeks After
Transplanting Planting (WAT), 8WAT, 12WAT,16WAT, 18WAT and 20WAT respectively. At 24WAT,
6t/ha LLC recorded the highest mean plant height of 22.8cm while the control recorded the least plant
height of 14.01cm at 24WAT. The stem diameter did not show significant differences among
treatments except at 16, 20 and 24 WAT, while control recorded the least. Treatment containing 2t/ha
OMF recorded significantly higher stem diameter than other treatments.
Table 1. Soil, Organomineral Fertilizer and Leucaena Leucocephala Compost Analysis
Soil Sample Value Organomineral Value L. Value
Fertilizer leucocephala Compost
Soil PH 6.20 PH 6.46 N 3.86
Organic matter 69.96
Organic carbon 29.76
Total N(%) 3.54
Organic C 5.30 P(%) 1.68 P 0.08
(%) Parameter(mg/kg) VALUE
Total N (%) 1.17 Cd 1.36 K 1.29
Cr 11.18
Cu 4.20
Ni 9.3
Pb 19.65
Zn 328.00
Avail P 4.05 Ca 1.09
(mg/kg)
Exchangeable Mg 0.41
Cations
(cmol/kg)
Ca 1.53 Zn(ppm) 37.05
Mg 0.75
Na 0.10
K 0.17
Exchangeable 0.57
Acidity
Base 67.91
Saturation
(%)
CEC 3.26
Available
Micronutrient
(Mgkg-1)
Mn 20.59
Fe 9.72
Cu 7.17
Zn 4.41
Physical
Analysis (%)
Sand 74.53
Silt 21.07
Clay 4.40
Textural Sandy
Class Loam
9
Table 2: Height (cm) of Garcinia kola Seedlings at Different Intervals

TREATMENTS 4WAT 8WAT 12WAT 16WAT 20WAT 24WAT
2t/ha LLC 10.08a 11.20 a 12.58 a 15.10a 15.76 17.78
4t/ha LLC 9.82a 10.90 a 11.97 a 12.56a 12.74a 16.40ab
a a a a a a
6t/ha LLC 9.98 11.53 12.48 15.30 16.40 22.80
2t/haOMF 10.02a 11.94 a 12.98 a 15.04a 16.60a 20.40 ab
a a a a a b
4t/haOMF 9.80 10.55 10.54 11.72 12.50 15.20
6t/haOMF 9.30a 10.94 a 11.80 a 14.90a 16.06a 19.16 ab
Control 10.36a 8.94 a 9.13 a 10.04a 12.90a 14.01 b
Means followed by the same letters within the same column are not significantly different (p< 0.05) T1: 2t/ha
Leucaena leucocephala compost (LLC), T2: 4t/ha LLC, T3: 6t/ha LL, T4: 2t/ha organomineral fertilizer (OMF) T5:
4t/ha OMF T6t/ha OMF and T7: control.
Table 3. Collar Diameter (mm) of Garcinia kola Seedlings at Different Intervals
a a a a a ab
2t/ha LLC 3.26 3.54 3.74 3.66 4.24 4.60
4t/ha LLC 2.89 a 3.16a 3.97 a 3.53a 4.20a 4.51 ab
a a a a a ab
6t/ha LLC 2.91 3.56 3.56 3.66 4.28 4.38
2t/haOMF 3.19 a 3.62a 3.43 a 3.69a 4.77a 5.02 a
a a a a a ab
4t/haOMF 2.68 2.86 3.09 3.26 4.40 4.43
6t/haOMF 3.07 a 3.58a 3.65 a 3.41a 4.28a 4.50 ab
a a a b b b
Control 2.69 2.94 3.13 2.99 3.04 3.92
Table 4. Number of Leaves of Garcinia kola Seedlings at Different Intervals

a a a a a a
2t/ha LLC 3.8 4.0 5.2 5.8 7.6 9.2
4t/ha LLC 3.8 a 4.4a 4.2 a 5.0a 6.2ab 6.8 ab
a a a a ab ab
6t/ha LLC 4.6 4.6 5.2 5.8 6.2 8.0
2t/haOMF 3.8 a 4.6a 5.4 a 5.4a 6.4ab 7.4 ab
a a a a b b
4t/haOMF 3.8 4.0 4.6 4.6 5.0 6.0
6t/haOMF 4.0 a 5.2a 5.4 a 5.8a 6.2ab 6.8 ab
a a a a ab ab
Control 3.6 4.2 5.6 6.0 6.8 7.6
Table 5. Height (cm) of Garcinia kola Seedlings at different Intervals
TREATMENTS 4WAT 8 WAT 12WAT 16WAT 20WAT 24WAT
a a a a a ab
2t/ha LLC 10.08 11.20 12.58 15.10 15.76 17.78
4t/ha LLC 9.82a 10.90 a 11.97 a 12.56a 12.74a 16.40 ab
a a a a a a
6t/ha LLC 9.98 11.53 12.48 15.30 16.40 22.80
2t/haOMF 10.02a 11.94 a 12.98 a 15.04a 16.60a 20.40 ab
4t/haOMF 9.80a 10.55 a 10.54 a 11.72a 12.50a 15.20 b
6t/haOMF 9.30a 10.94 a 11.80 a 14.90a 16.06a 19.16 ab
Control 10.36a 8.94 a 9.13 a 10.04a 12.90a 14.01 b
10
rd
Table 6: Collar Diameter (mm) of Garcinia kola Seedlings at Different Intervals

a a a a a ab
2t/ha LLC 3.26 3.54 3.74 3.66 4.24 4.60
4t/ha LLC 2.89 a 3.16a 3.97 a 3.53a 4.20a 4.51 ab
a a a a a ab
6t/ha LLC 2.91 3.56 3.56 3.66 4.28 4.38
2t/haOMF 3.19 a 3.62a 3.43 a 3.69a 4.77a 5.02 a
a a a a a ab
4t/haOMF 2.68 2.86 3.09 3.26 4.40 4.43
6t/haOMF 3.07 a 3.58a 3.65 a 3.41a 4.28a 4.50 ab
a a a b b b
Control 2.69 2.94 3.13 2.99 3.04 3.92
Table 7. Number of Leaves of Garcinia kola Seedlings at different Intervals

a a a a a
2t/ha LLC 3.8 4.0 5.2 5.8 7.6 9.2 a
4t/ha LLC 3.8 a 4.4a 4.2 a 5.0a 6.2ab 6.8 ab
a a a a ab ab
6t/ha LLC 4.6 4.6 5.2 5.8 6.2 8.0
2t/haOMF 3.8 a 4.6a 5.4 a 5.4a 6.4ab 7.4 ab
a a a a b b
4t/haOMF 3.8 4.0 4.6 4.6 5.0 6.0
6t/haOMF 4.0 a 5.2a 5.4 a 5.8a 6.2ab 6.8 ab
a a a a ab ab
Control 3.6 4.2 5.6 6.0 6.8 7.6
Control had the lowest stem diameter(3.92mm) at the end of the experiment.The total number of leaves
followed similar trend with the stem diameter. No significant differences were recorded from 4WAT to
16WAT. At 20WAT treatment containing 2t/ha Leucaena leucocephala compost (LLC) was
significantly different from recording (5.0) mean total number of leaves. At 24WAT the leaf number was
in the range (6.0 to 9.20). Treatment with 2t/ha LLC had the maximum number of leaves (9.20) while
treatment of 4t/ha OMF recorded the least value of 6.0.Total biomass assessment at the the end highest
wet weight 10.58g was recorded by 6t/ha OMF, was followed in this order 2t/ha LLC > 2t/ha OMF >
6t/ha LLC > 4t/ha LLC > 4t/ha OMF > Control. Dry weight was in the order 2t/ha LLC > 6t/ha OMF >
2t/ha OMF > 6t/ha LLC > 4t/ha LLC > 4t/ha LLC > Control.
At 24 weeks after transplanting, correlation coefficients of plant diameter and height (0.577),
diameter and number of leaves (0.551), height and number of leaves (0.441) were positive and
statistically significant at 1.0%. Plant diameter increases together with height and number of leaves.
Similarly plant height also increases with number of leaves. Plant height increases with wet weight
(0.342) and dry weight (0.394) at 5.0% significant level. Wet and dry weights are positively and
significantly correlated (0.961) at 1.0% significant level, they increase at the same rate (Figure 1). The
vegetative growth of Garcina kola seedlings were significantly influenced by application of 6t/ha
Leucaena leucocephala compost (22.8±1.24cm). However 2t/ha organomineral fertilizer
(5.02±0.16mm) recorded the highest plant height and collar diameter respectively. 2t/ha Leucaena
leucocephala compost (9.2±1.74) gave the highest leaf number.
11
Discussion
For centuries, the nuts have been an important part of traditional ceremonies, marking special events like
births, marriages, and conferring chieftaincy titles. A G. kola nut tree may be planted when a baby is born
with the child becoming its lifelong owner. Seedlings with good vigour at the nursery stages tend to
perform better when taken to the field after culling and hardening up.
Matured fruits of Garcinia kola were collected from the mother tree at Uromi, Esan North East
Local Government Area (LGA) in Edo State, Nigeria. The seeds were extracted from the fruits, washed
and air dried at room temperature for three (3) days in line with the method of Yakubu et al., (2014). The
effect of compost and other organic amendment on the growth of Garcinia kola may be as a result of the
interaction between the nutrient present and growth of Garcinia seedlings, as organic manure has been
found to contain auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinis (Miezah, 2008; Stoffella et al., 1997). Similar results
were observed by previous workers on application of organic and organnomineral fertilizer on tree crops
(Dania et al., 2014; Shodeke et al., 2012).
Conclusion
In this work, increased growth of Garcinia kola seedlings was enhanced mostly by 6t/ha of Leucaena
leucocephala compost. The highest plant height and collar diameter were obtained with (22.8±1.24cm.
Treatment containing 2t/ha organomineral fertilizer (5.02±0.16mm) respectively. 2t/ha Leucaena
leucocephala compost (9.29, 10.58g and 4g) gave the highest leaf number, wet and dry weights of
seedlings respectively.
References
Adebisi, A.A. (2004). A case study of Garcinia kola nut production – to- consumption system
in J4 area of Omo forest reserve, southwest Nigeria,” in Forest Products, Livelihoods and
Conservation 2: 115-132.
Adeoye O.A and Agboola A.A (1985). Critical level of soil plant available P, K, Zn, Mn, Cu and Mn on
maize leaf content in sedimentary soil of Southwestern Nigeria. Fert. Res., 6: 60-71.
Adesuyi, A.O., I.K. Elumm, F.B. Adaramola and A.G.M. Nwokocha (2012) Nutritional and
Phytochemical Screening of Garcinia kola. Advance Journal of Food Science and
Technology 4(1): 9-14.
Anderson J. M.and J. S. Ingram (1993), Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility. A Handbook of Methods,
Information Press, Eynsham, UK.
Bouyoucos G. J (1962) “Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analyses of
soil,”Agronomy Journal, vol. 53,pp. 464– 465.
Dania S. O., Akpansubi, P. and O. O. Eghagara (2014) Comparative Effects of Different
FertilizerSources on the Growth and Nutrient Content of Moringa(Moringa oleifera)
Seedling in a Greenhouse Trial. Advances in Agriculture.
Duncan EB (1955). Multiple Range and Multiple F- test. Biometrics, 11: 1-42.
FRIN (2014). Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria Annual Metrological Report.
Hutchinson, J.; Dalziel, J.M (1954) Flora of West Tropica Africa, 2nd ed.; Royal Botanic Garden, Kew:
London, UK, 1956; p. 295.
IITA(1979), Selected Methods for Soil and Plant Analysis, Manual Series 1, International Institute for
Tropical Agriculture Ibadan.
Ofusori DA, Ayoka A.O., Adelakun A.E., Falana B.A., Adeeyo OA, Ajeigbe K.O (2008)
Microanatomical effect of ethanolic extract of Garcinia kolaon the lung of Swiss albino mice.
Internet J PulmMed; 10(1).
12
rd
Shodeke D.K.A., Aluko A.P and Duyilemi O.P (2012) Assessment of the early growth and
development of Nauclea diderrichii(de wild) to NPK and some organic fertilizer.
International Journal of Organic Research and Development. 5: 96-105.
Stoffella, P. Y., M. Roe, Ozeres-Hampton, and D. A. Greatz (1997), Utilization of Organic Waste
Compost in Vegetable Production System in Asia, edited by R. A. Moris, Asian Vegetable
Research and Development Centre, Shanhua, Taiwan.
Yakubu, F.B., Bolanle – Ojo, O.T, Ogunade, O.J. and Yahaya, D.K (2014) Effects of water
soaking and light on the dormancy of garcinia kola (Heckel) seeds. European Journal of
Agriculture and Forestry Research 2(2):17-26.
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Optimum Returns in Irrigated Groundnut as Influenced by

Poultry Manure Rates at Kadawa in the Sudan Savanna
Ecological Zone of Nigeria
USMAN IBRAHIM1AND SHEHU ABDUL RAHMAN2
1
Samaru College of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
2
Department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University Gashua, Yobe State, Nigeria
Corresponding Address: [email protected]
Keywords: Regression, Gross Margin, Cost Benefit Analysis Groundnut, Poultry manure.
Abstract
Groundnut has been reported to be one of the most important oil crops in the world. It plays an
important role in the diets of rural populations, livestock feeding and soil fertility particularly
in developing world. The yield from farmers' field has been low due to several factors.
Increased groundnut production can be achieved through irrigation to complement the rainy
season production while its productivity can be enhanced by the use of a safer and available
alternative source of nutrients like the poultry manure. This work was therefore undertaken to
determine economic optimum level of poultry manure in groundnut production under
irrigation. To achieve this objectives field trials were conducted during the 2012/2013 and
2013/2014 dry seasons at the Irrigation Research farm of the Institute for Agricultural
° ' ° '
Research, Kadawa (Latitude, 11 39 N, Longitude 08 27 E,500 meter above sea level) located
in the Sudan Savanna ecological zone of Nigeria. The treatments consisted of three varieties
of groundnut (SAMNUT 11, SAMNUT 22 and SAMNUT 23) and three levels of poultry
-1
manure (0, 1.5 and 3 tonnes ha ). The treatments were laid out in a split- plot design, poultry
manure rates were allocated to the main plot while the varieties were allocated to the subplot.
The treatments were replicated three times throughout the period of experimentation. Yield
data collected were subjected to analysis of variance, where significant differences existed,
the Duncan multiple range test was used to separate the means. Result from regression
-1 -1
analysis showed that the optimum rates of 1.94 tonnes ha and 1.90 tonnes ha were obtained
-1 -1
in 2012/2013 and 2013/2014give a yield of 2,557kg ha and 2,409kgha respectively. When
these rates were subjected to gross margin and cost-benefit analysis with respect to the rates
used in this experiment it was found that application of 1.5 tonnes ha-1gave the highest gross
-1
margin and cost- benefit ratio. It can be concluded that the application of 1.5 tonnes ha which
gave the highest yield from the trials was more profitable; therefore, farmers are advice to
adopt the use of 1.5 tonnes ha-1for groundnut production in the study area.
Introduction
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) plays an important role in the diets of rural populations, particularly
children, because of its high contents of protein and carbohydrate. It is also rich in calcium, potassium,
phosphorus, magnesium and vitamin E. Groundnut meal, a by-product of oil extraction, is an important
ingredient in livestock feed. Groundnut haulms are nutritious and widely used for feeding livestock
(Mukhtar, 2009). The production of groundnut is concentrated in Asia and Africa, where the crop is
grown mostly by smallholder farmers, under rain-fed conditions with limited inputs and low income,
making it difficult for them to buy inorganic fertilizers.
15
USMAN IBRAHIM et al.:
Optimum Returns in Irrigated Groundnut as Influenced by Poultry Manure Rates at Kadawa
in the Sudan Savanna Ecological Zone of Nigeria
Fertilizer has been recognized as one of the most important agrochemical input responsible for about
60% of increment output to crops, while 40% was expected from hecterage expansion. However, the
use of inorganic fertilizer has been declining because of scarcity and high cost of the inorganic fertilizer
making it unaffordable to most peasant farmers. Furthermore the increasing concern about the effects of
inorganic fertilizers on the environment makes organic manure a safer and better available alternative
source of nutrients to crop. Adeleye et al. (2010) reported that inorganic fertilizer has not been helpful
under intensive agriculture because it is often associated with reduced crop yield, acidity, and soil
nutrient imbalance. It is a known fact that achieving global food security whilst reconciling demands on
the environment is the greatest challenge faced by mankind therefore there is the need to source for a
safer and available alternative source of nutrients like the poultry manure.
Poultry manure is an excellent source of organic manure, as it contains high nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassium and other essential nutrients. In contrast to inorganic fertilizer, it adds organic matter to soil
which improves soil structure, nutrient retention, aeration, soil moisture holding capacity and water
infiltration (Deksisssa et al., 2008).To obtain maximum economic value of plant nutrients in poultry
manure, poultry manure should be applied to match nutrient needs of crops (Mitchell, 2012). The need to
avoid wastage and over fertilization is also important, considering the fact that poultry manure is used
for other purposes such as in feeding animals such as cattle, pigs and fishes and most recently for biogas
production. Poultry manure is available to farmers in the study area but it is usually used without any
scientific recommendation (Ibrahim et al., 2013). Thus, it is important to avoid wastage by ensuring that
only the required quantities of poultry manure are applied to the crop. Rahman, (2006) concluded that in
order to boost crop production poultry manure has to be adequately supplied to meet its demand by the
farmers.
Traditionally in Nigeria, groundnut is usually grown during the rainy season however; environmental
factors for successful groundnut production found during the rainy season also prevail during the dry
season in the savanna, while moisture requirements can be adequately met by the supply of water
through irrigation (Mukhtar, 2009).Increased groundnut production can be achieved through irrigation to
complement the rainy season production while its productivity can be enhanced by the use of a safer and
available alternative source of nutrients like the poultry manure. This work was therefore undertaken to
determine economic optimum level of poultry manure in groundnut production under irrigation.
Material and Methods
Field trials were conducted during the 2012/2013 and 2013/2014 dry seasons at the Irrigation Research
° ' ° '
farm of the Institute for Agricultural Research, Kadawa (Latitude, 11 39 N, Longitude 08 27 E,500
meter above sea level) located in the Sudan Savanna ecological zone of Nigeria. The treatments
consisted of three varieties of groundnut (SAMNUT 11, SAMNUT 22 and SAMNUT 23) and three
levels of poultry manure (0, 1.5 and 3 tonnes ha-1). The treatments were laid out in a split- plot design,
poultry manure rates were allocated to the main plot while the varieties were allocated to the subplot. The
treatments were replicated three times throughout the period of experimentation. Poultry manure was
applied three weeks before planting. It was uniformly spread on the ridge and lightly worked into soils
with hoe. Irrigation was carried out using furrow method and water was supplied at 10 days intervals,
and was stopped a week before harvesting each varieties, although the amount of water used to irrigate
was not quantified.
2
The land was harrowed twice and ridged to obtain a fine tilt. The gross and net plot sizes were 18.0 m
2
(4.5 x 4) m and 6.0 m (1.5 x 4) m respectively, with 1.0m spacing between blocks and 0.5m spacing
between plots. There were 6 ridges in gross plot and 2 ridges in net plot. Hoe weeding was carried out at 3
16
rd
and 6 WAS. Assessment of yield component was carried out at harvest. Weight of pods per plot was
determined by measuring the weight of the total number of pods in each net plot using E2000 electronic
mettler balance. The pod yield (Kg) per net plot was extrapolated to per hectare basis and the value
obtained was then recorded and were subjected to analysis of variance, where significant differences
existed, the Duncan multiple range tests was used to separate the means. The yield data was subjected to
regression analysis using the scatter diagram techniques as described by Gomez and Gomez (1984).
Both the yield data and the results obtained from regression analysis were subjected to economic
analysis using the gross margin and the cost benefit analysis. The gross margin analysis is the difference
between the total revenue and the total variable cost i.e. GM= TR-TVC Where GM= Gross margin. TR=
Total revenue TVC= Total variable cost. The cost- benefits analysis which is also known as the
profitability index, measures the rate of return on investment. It gives the amount of profit on any Naira
invested under the factors considered. It is expressed as thus; Cost-benefit ratio = GM/ VC Where GM=
Gross margin and VC = variable cost of each of the factors considered. The revenue from groundnut was
obtained as a product of farm gate price of one kilograms of the crop and the yield measured in kilogram.
Farm gate price of ? 100/Kg was used in computing the revenue for pod yield. Total variable cost is the
summation of all the cost incurred for each treatment. In determining the profitability of groundnut, the
variable costs are the cost of poultry manure (? 10,000 per tonnes) and cost of application (? 5000 per
hectare).Where $1=? 166 during the period under review.
Results and Discussion
The polynomial equation that best described the relationship between yield and poultry manure is
2
shown in the Figure 1 and it gave an R value of 1 in both years and the combined. The optimum rates of
-1 -1 -1
1.94 tonnesha and 1.90tonnesha were obtained in 2012 and 2013 to give a yield of 2,557kg ha and
-1
2,409kgha respectively. When these rates were subjected to gross margin and cost-benefit analysis with
respect to the rates used in the experiment it was found that application of 1.5 tonnes ha-1gave the
highest gross margin and cost- benefit ration as shown in Tables 1 and 2.
The result from gross margin and cost benefit analysis indicated that groundnut production was
-1
profitable in both seasons. The highest gross margin obtained by the application of 1.5 tonnes ha of
poultry was due to the high pod yield produced when compared to the other treatments and this was why
the gross margin of plots applied with 1.5 tonnes ha- 1 was highest. Similarly the lowest gross margin
produced by the control was due to lower pod yield obtained. Cost- benefit analysis was highest when
-1
1.5tonnes ha of poultry was applied. This is because the cost of poultry manure was twice in plots
where 3.0 tonnes ha-1of poultry manure was applied and this did not translate to double yield. The cost-
benefit analysis for the control was higher than that of 3.0 tonnes even though the yield was lower, this is
because there was no variable cost incurred in the control plot. The cost of investment for the control
treatments was only on fixed operations thereby minimizing its cost.
17
Figure 2: Polynomial response of pod yield to poultry manure rates at Kadawa during the
2012/2013 and 2013/2014 dry seasons at Kadawa
Table 1. Economic analysis of the polynomial result at Kadawa during the 2012/2013 dry season
Treatments Pod Revenue Total Gross Cost
yield ( pod) variable margin benefit
cost ratio
Poultry manure (t ha-1)
0 1521 152,100 51,000 117,615 2.30
1.5 2504 250,400 71,000 225,060 3.16
3.0 2246 224,600 86,000 198,465 2.30
1.94 2557 255,700 75,400 180,300 2.39
Table 2. Economic analysis of the polynomial result at Kadawa during the 2013/2014 dry season
Treatments Pod Revenue Total Gross Cost
yield ( pod) variable margin benefit
cost ratio
Poultry manure (t ha-1)
0 1399 139,900 51,000 104,725 2.05
1.5 2364 236,400 71,000 207,280 2.91
3.0 2073 207,300 86,000 173,455 2.02
Conclusion
-1
It can be concluded that the application of 1.5 tonnes ha of poultry manure increased both yield and
1
profitability of groundnut. Therefore farmers are advice to adopt the use of 1.5 tonnes ha- of poultry
manure to improve yields and profitability of groundnut.
18
rd
References
Adeleye, E.O., L.S. Ayeni and S.O. Ojeniyi, (2010). Effect of poultry manure on soil physico-chemical
properties, leaf nutrient contents and yield of yam (Dioscorea rotundata) on Afisol soil in South
Western Nigeria Journal of American science, 6(10):871-878.
Deksissa T. I., Short and J.Allen (2008). Effect of soil amendment with compost on growth and water use
efficiency of Amaranth. In proceedings of the UCOWR/NIWR Annual conference:
st
International water Resources: Challenges for the 21 Century and water resources education,
July 22-24, 2008 Durham.
Gomez. K.A and Gomez A.A. (1984). Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research. An international
Rice Research Institute Book. AWiley –Inter science Publication John Wiley and Sons
Ibrahim, U., Ayinde, B.T., Dauda H., and Mukhtar, A.A. (2013) Socio-Economic factors affecting
groundnut production in Sabongari Local Government of Kaduna State International Journal of
Food and Agricultural Economics 1(1):41-48.
Mitchell, C.C. and Donald, J. 0. (2012).The Value and Use of Poultry Manures as Fertilizer. Alabama
cooperative extension system Circular ANR-244 (11/95).Alabama A & M and Auburn
Universities .
Mukhtar. A.A.(2009) Performance of three groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) varieties as affected by
basin size and plant population at Kadawa. Ph.D. Dissertation Submitted to post graduate school,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria pp 173.
Rahman S.A. (2006). Micro Level Analysis of Maize Yield Response to Fertilizer Application in Soba
Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. Journal of Crop Research, Agro Forestry And Environment 1: 59-
64.
19
rd
Effects of Phosphocompost on Acidity Indices in an

Acidic Soil in Ilesha, Southwestern Nigeria
OYEYIOLA Y.B.1, OMUETI, J.A.I. 2AND KOLAWOLE, G.O.1
1
Department of Crop Production and Soil Science, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
2
Department of Agronomy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Keywords: Phosphocompost, chemical fertilizer, lime, acidity, base saturation.
Abstract
A field work was carried out to investigate the effect of phosphocompost (PC) on soil acidity
indices and cowpea yields in an acidic soil in Ilesha Southwestern Nigeria. A total of eight
treatments were studied. They were made up of two phosphocompost types (bone meal
fortified compost from rice bran and poultry manure (C1) and bone meal fortified compost
from sawdust and poultry manure (C2)) applied at 2.5 and 5.0 t/ha tagged 2.5C1, 5C1, 2.5C2
and 5C2; two chemical fertilizer treatments including NPK 15:15:15 (NPK) applied at 80
kg/ha and a blend of Urea (applied at 30 kg N/ha) and Single super phosphate (applied at 40
kg/ha) tagged Urea+SSP. Plots that received only lime at 1 t/ha and an untreated plot tagged
(AC) were included. All the PC treatments improved soil pH from initial 4.8 to as high as 5.7 in
5C1 while NPK gave a pH range of 4.0 – 4.5 and Urea+SSP 4.3 – 4.8. Available P range of
44.8 – 144.5 and 13.2 – 14.5 mg/kg were observed from PC and chemical fertilizer plots
respectively. 5C2 gave highest calcium saturation percentage (68.6%) similar to lime
(59.7%) but superior to NPK (21.3). Acidity saturation percentage (ASP) was higher in NPK
treated plot (66%) above the untreated soil (54%). ASP were lower (11 – 20.3%) in PC plots
similar to lime (20%).
Introduction
Acidification is a major soil chemical condition limiting optimum crop production in humid tropical
soils. Acidic parent materials (Oke et al., 2013) and leaching of basic cations from soils under the
influence of high torrential rainfall (Sahrawat et al., 2000; Franklin, 2012) are prominent natural factors
in the development of acidity in soils. Anthropogenic factors such as continuous cropping without
replacement of nutrients taken up by crops (Tang and Rengel, 2003) and indiscriminate use of chemical
fertilizers had been implicated to contribute to poor soil reactions (Anetor and Akinrinde,2007; Lungu
and Dynoodt, 2008; Oyeyiola et al., 2014). This poor cropping system encouraged faster depletion of
basic cations in soil solution and those retained on the soil exchange sites. The result is increasing
+
concentrations of H exchanged for the lost basic cations with drastic reduction in soil pH. Occurrence of
this encourages dissolution of Aluminum ions from stabilized forms with increasing toxicity effects on
plant roots as well as macronutrients deficiencies (low base saturation, available phosphorus).
Chemical fertilizers such as urea, single super phosphate and NPK have been instrumental in
increasing crop yield on high organic carbon soils in Nigeria (Ojeniyi, 2012), but their continuous use
have been detrimental to soil productivity. Fast soil organic carbon depletion , increasing concentration of
21
OYEYIOLA Y.B. et al.:
+
H , basic cation nutrient imbalance, low base saturation and increasing Aluminum saturation percentage are
evidences of their effects on tropical soils characterized by low activity clay (Bachmann, 2000, Amlinger at
al., 2007; Ojeniyi 2012, Oyeyiola et al., 2014). The very high acidity equivalent of these chemical fertilizers
is a major contributory factor (Tan, 2011). Lime (CaCO3) is an important liming material that has been
found to be effective in the management of acid soils for decades. Nevertheless, its indiscriminate use
has been reported to accelerate organic matter decomposition (Siqueira and Moreira, 1997) and loss of
soil aggregate stability (Zeigler et al., 1993). Its caustic nature and relative scarcity could limit its use on
soils. The practice of liming is expensive and can greatly increase cost of crop production. It is extremely
difficult to maintain high crop yield by correcting both nutrient losses and acidification by inorganic
materials alone such as chemical fertilizers and conventional liming materials (FAO, 1994).
Compost has been used for improving soil reaction, fertility and increasing crop productivity
(Oyeyiola et al., 2014). Compost fortification with nitrogen and phosphorus (phosphocompost) is a tool
to improving the nutrient composition and release intensity in compost (Oyeyiola et al., 2014). This
research was conducted to evaluate the effect of phosphocompost on acidity indices in an acidic soil.
Conventional chemical fertilizers and lime which have been used for managing acid soils for decades
were also evaluated to make for comparative study.
.
Experimental Sites Description: The field work was carried out at the arable farm of the Leventis
o o
Foundation School of Agriculture and Training, Imo, Ilesha, Osun State (N07 36”, E04 46”). Ilesha falls
within a schist belt with rich alluvial deposits which form part of the Precambrian basement rock notable
for clay rich weathered horizons (Oke et al., 2013). The experimental site has been used continuously for
more than two decades for the cultivation of maize and cassava using mainly NPK 15:15:15 for soil
fertility management. The field was randomly sampled using soil auger at 0 – 20 cm depth. Prepared soil
was subjected to routine analysis for determination of initial soil pH, organic carbon, available P, total
nitrogen, exchangeable bases and acidity.
Treatments and Experimental Design: The field was ploughed twice, harrowed and laid out into plots
of 2 m by 2 m with 1m inter plot spacing and 2m spacing between replicates. There were eight treatments
with three replications laid out in a randomized complete block design. The treatments included two
phosphocompost types tagged C1 and C2 applied at 2.5 and 5.0 t/ha: 2.5C1 (2.5 t/ha C1) 5C1 (5 t/ha C1),
2.5C2 (2.5 t/ha C2), 5C2 (5 t/ha C2). Plots that received NPK 15:15:15 at 80 kg NPK/ha tagged (NPK),
Urea at 30 kg N/ha mixed with single super phosphate 40 kgP2O5/ha tagged (U+SSP), only CaCO3
tagged (Lime) at 1 t/ha and an absolute control (AC) that received no amendment was included for
comparison. All the plots were amended with freshly chopped Gliricidia sepium leaves at the rate of 30
kg N/ha except the NPK, Urea+SSP and absolute control plots and cowpea was the test crop.
Data Collection: Three random soil samples (0-20 cm depth) were taken from each plot for the
determination of available P, exchangeable base, acidity and aluminum .The ECEC, base, Al, Ca, Mg
and K saturations were estimated using:
22
rd
ECEC = Exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K, Na) + Exchangeable acidity (H, Al)
Base Saturation (BS) = Exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K, Na) x 100

ECEC
Acidity Saturation Precentage (ASP) = Exchangeable acidity (H, Al) x 100

ECEC
Calcium saturation = Exchangeable Ca x 100

ECEC
Magnesium saturation = Exchangeable Mg x 100

ECEC
Potassium saturation = Exchangeable K x 100

ECEC
At harvesting (12 WAS), data were collected on grain yield and dry shoot weight (Data not presented).
Data Analysis: Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance using Genstat discovery edition 3
statistical package and means separated using DMRT at p<0.05.
The Chemical and Particle Size Analyses of the Soil

The soil is strongly acid (pH (H2O, 4.8) with generally low concentrations of total nitrogen (1.3 g/kg),
available phosphorus (3.6 mg/kg) and exchangeable calcium (0.98 cmol/kg) when compared with critical
levels for south western Nigeria soils (Agboola and Ayodele, 1985; FFD, 2012). Exchangeable acidity was
high and it formed the bulk of effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC). The soil is characterized by high
clay content (320 g/kg) (Table 1). The chemical properties of the amendments used are shown in Table 2.
All the amendments were alkaline in nature. Phosphorus and nitrogen contents were higher in C1 and not
.
detected in CaCO3.Calcium was however higher in CaCO3
Effects of Chemical Fertilizers, Lime and Phosphocompost on Acidic Cations Concentrations in

the Soil: The phosphocompost treatments reduced exchangeable acidity concentrations from the initial
2.1 cmol/kg to as low as 0.5 cmol/kg in 5C2 and 2.5C2 treated soil (Fig. 1). Amongst the chemical
fertilizers, NPK was poorer in exchangeable acidity management with value increasing to 3.4 cmol/kg
whereas 0.7 cmol/kg was recorded for the Urea+SSP treatment which was statistically similar to the
value recorded for the lime treatment. NPK again recorded the highest exchangeable Al (0.4 cmol/kg)
which was statistically the same with values from untreated (0.36 cmol/kg) and Urea+SSP (0.33
cmol/kg) plots. Lower application rate of each of the PC significantly reduced exchangeable Al with
comparable performance with the conventional lime. In 2.5C1, exchangeable Al was completely
absent.
23
Table 1. Initial Physical and Chemical Properties of the Soil Studied.

Parameters Values
pH (water) 4.8
OC (g/kg) 13.2
Total N (g/kg) 1.30
Bray P (mg/kg) 3.60
Exch. Cations (cmol/kg)
Ca 0.98
Mg 0.48
K 0.20
Na 0.20
Acidity 2.10
ECEC 3.96
Micronutrients (mg/kg)
Zn 2.67
Cu 166
Mn 37.0
Fe
253
Particle size (g/kg)
Sand 530
Silt 150
Clay 320
The observed reduction in exchangeable acidity and Al with application of the PC could be due to
formation of complexes by organic acids produced during decomposition and mineralization. The
ability of the functional groups of the organic acid in organic fertilizers to form complexes via ligand
exchange has been reported (Hue et al,1986; Tan, 2011). The absence of such mechanism in chemical
fertilizer and untreated plots kept exchangeable Al concentrations at higher levels in such plots.
Table 2. Chemical Composition of the Compost Types and Conventional Lime
Parameters C1 C2 CaCO3
pH (1:4 water) 9.1 9.4 12
Macronutrients
(g/kg)
N 5.5 5.2 0
Carbon 260 294 8
P 84 68 0
Ca 65 65 530
Mg 5 5 10
K 6 8 0
Micronutrients
C1= Bone meal fortified Compost (mg/kg)
prepared from Rice bran and
Poultry manure
Mn 277.8 243.6 55.1
Fe 281 284.3 1076
C2= Bone meal fortified Compost Cu 11.9 12.9 2.3
prepared from Sawdust and
poultry manure Zn 38.7 41.3 9.3
24
rd
Bars followed by same letters are not significantly different by DMRT at p<0.05.
Figure 1: Acidic Cation Concentrations in Phosphocompost, Lime and Chemical fertilizer
Treated Soil.
Conventional fertilizers contributed to increasing acidity saturation percentage (ASP) in the soil under
study. NPK fertilizer was responsible for as high as 66% of acidic cations proportion in the soil exchange
sites over 54% observed in untreated soil (Fig 2). The higher concentrations of exchangeable acidity and
Al released into the soil solution from these treatments were responsible for this high Aluminum
saturation percentage (ASP). The implication is higher chance of plant sown to such soil taking up more
acidic cations (66%) over basic cations (34%) with increasing chance of toxicity to the plant roots.
Urea+SSP proved better in basic cation release over NPK where ASP of 23.7% was recorded. The
Ca minerals in the SSP fertilizer might have contributed to this observation.
Phosphocompost and lime were responsible for ASP values of 20% and below with the least value
from higher phosphocompost application rate. This provided the cowpea roots with higher chance of
taking up more basic cations over acidic cations at every nutrient absorption time.
Figure 2: Acidity Saturation Percentage in Phosphocompost, Lime and Chemical Fertilizer
Treated Soil.
25
Available Phosphorus Status in Chemical Fertilizers, Lime and Phosphocompost Treated Plots:
Available P in the soil was improved by the entire PC treatments. This improved with increasing rate of
application. A range of 44.8 – 144.5 and 13.2 -14.5 mg/kg was recorded in PC and chemical fertilizer
plots respectively (fig. 3). The values recorded under chemical fertilizers were not statistically superior
to untreated and lime plots. The available P in lime treated plot however, was very low (6.8 mg/kg) below
the critical value (10 mg/kg) for Southwestern Nigeria soils. There is therefore the need for further input
of external P to this soil even after amelioration with lime. The improved soil pH from initial 4.8 to values
above 5 alongside complexation reaction of the carboxylic and phenolic functional groups of the
phosphocompost with the monomeric Al synergistically increased phosphorus desorption from fixed
state with soil acidic cations. (Hue et al.,1986; Tan,2011).
The mineralization products of the inorganic nutrients in the PC which were high in phosphorus and
basic cations (as reported in Table 2) contributed to improved available P.
Figure 3: Available Phosphorus Concentrations in Phosphocompost, Lime and Chemical Fertilizer
Treated Soil.
All the PC improved soil reaction from initial 4.8 to as high as 5.3, 5.4 and 5.7 at 2,8, and 12 WAS in 5C1
followed closely by 5C2 and 2.5C2 at 12 WAS (Table 3). At every observation time, soil pH from PC
plots were comparable to values from lime plots and were superior to observations from the chemical
fertilizers. PC treated plots maintained pH values of above 5.0 at every observation time except at lower
application rate at 2 WAS. These values were better with increasing weeks after sowing except at week 6
and 10 which marked the onset of flowering and peak of pod filling where very high basic cationic
nutrients were taken from the soil solution. These temporal depletion of basic cationic nutrients were
however replenished from the continued mineralization of the nutrients from the PC in subsequent
week. Chemical fertilizer treatments were responsible for lower soil pH with values dropping below that
of the untreated plot. Soil reaction from NPK were lesser than U+SSP all through the observation time.
NPK gave a range of 4.0 – 4.5 while Urea+SSP gave 4.3 – 4.8.
26
rd
Table 3: Effects of Chemical Fertilizer, Lime and Phosphocompost on Soil pH

Soil pH
Treatments 2 WAS 4 WAS 6 WAS 8 WAS 10 WAS 12 WAS
AC 4.4 cde 4.4 cde 4.7 b 4.8 b 4.8 bc 4.9 bc
LIME 4.7 bcd 4.7 bcd 5.1 a 5.5 a 5.1 ab 5.4 a
2.5C1 4.9 bc 4.8 bc 5.2 a 5.6 a 5.1 ab 5.3 ab
5C1 5.3 a 5.3 a 5.3 a 5.4 a 5.2 a 5.7 a
2.5C2 4.9 ab 4.9 ab 5.1 a 5.4 a 5.0 ab 5.5 a
5C2 5.0 ab 5.0 ab 5.1 a 5.6 a 5.2 a 5.5 a
Urea+SSP 4.3 de 4.3 de 4.4 bc 4.8 b 4.6 c 4.7 cd
NPK 4.1 e 4.1 e 4.2 c 4.5 b 4.5 c 4.5 d
Means followed by the same letter (s) in the same column are not significantly different by
DMRT at p<0.05
Effects of Chemical Fertilizer, Lime and Phosphocompost on Saturation Percentage of Basic

Cations: The K saturation percentage values from all the treatments were within the range 2-5%
considered optimum for legume production (Eckert, 1987) (Fig.4). Therefore K was not deficient in the
experimental soil. Mg saturation percentage from all the PC were above this critical value (17.23 –
19.9%) while NPK, AC and lime fell below the critical value with 8.27, 11.23 and 14.00% respectively.
Urea+SSP (17.00 %) was however sufficient in magnesium saturation. Mg saturation of 15% has been
reported satisfactory for most annual crops (Eckert, 1987).
Generally, all the PC produced the best calcium saturation percentage with 5C2 giving the highest
calcium saturation percentage (63.6%) which was statistically better than lime (59.7%). NPK treatment
aggravated calcium depletion with 30% reduction when compared with untreated plot (Fig. 4).
Figure 4: Basic Cation Saturation Distribution in Phosphocompost, Lime and Chemical

Treated Soil.
27
Conclusion
The improved soil reaction in PC treated and lime plots encouraged significantly higher cowpea grain
yield over untreated and chemical fertilizer plots (grain yield data not presented). Amelioration of acidic
soil with lime though improved soil reaction but did not lead to pronounced availability of soil P thus
making application of external input of P inevitable.
From the foregoing, two soil conditions are needed for higher cowpea grain yield:
– Improved soil reaction in terms of increasing pH to optimum range.
– Improving soil nutrient status such as total nitrogen, available phosphorus and exchangeable
bases which will help improve base saturation, reduce acidity saturation and removal of toxic
minerals like the soluble Al.
Both soil conditions were attained in the phosphocompost treated plots, only the former was attained in
lime treated plot and the later in chemical fertilizer plots.
References
Aduayi, E.A., Chude V.O., Adehusuji L.O. and Olayiwola S.O. (2002).Fertilizer use and management
practices for crops in Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development Abuja
Nigeria. pp 16.
Agboola A.A and O.J. Ayodele (1985). Prospects and problems of using soil testing for adoption of
fertilizer use in Ekiti – Akoko agricultural development project area. Proceedings of the
workshop on Appropriate Technologies for Farmers in Semi-Arid West Africa. April 2-5,
1985. Purdue University, West Leifeyette, USA pp 126-136.
Anetor M.O and Akinrinde E.A (2007). Lime effectiveness of some fertilizers in a tropical acid alfisol.
Journal of Central European Agriculture, vol 8: 17-24.
Appunu C., Reddy L.M.L., Reddy C.V.C., Sen D. and Dhar B. (2009). Symbiotic diversity among acid-
tolerant bradyrhizobial isolates with cowpea. The Journal of Agricultural Sciences, vol. 4 (3),
pp.126-131.
Bachmann, T. (2000).Restoration of soil fertility and improvement of cropping systems for sustainable
development in the humid savannas of the Ivory Coast. In Management and conservation of
tropical acid soils for sustainable crop production. International Atomic Energy Agency,
Vienna, 2000,pp 111-117.
Bouyocous C.J. (1962). Hydrometer method improved for making particle size of soil. Agronomy
Journal 54: 464-465.
Bray, R. H and Kurtz L.T.(1945). Determination of total, organic and available forms of phosphorus in
soils. Journal of Soil Science, vol. 59, pp. 39-45.
Bremner J.M. (1982). Page A.L, Miller R.H and Keeney D.R (eds). In Methods of Soil Analysis (Part
2).American Society of Agronomy, Madison.
Cassio H.A., Takashi M. and Andre F.L. (2003). Exchangeable aluminum evaluation in acid soils.
Scientia Agricola vol.60 no 3 Piracicaba.
Chapman H.D (1965). Total exchangeable bases. In: Methods of soil analysis. Black D.A. (ed).
American society of Agronomy Inc. Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
FAO (1994). Cherish the earth: Soil management for sustainable agriculture and environmental
protection in the tropics. Produced by Words and Publications, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Fatokun C. A. (2002). Breeding cowpea for resistance to insect pests. Attempted crosses between
cowpea and Vignavexillata. In: challenges and opportunities for enhancing sustainable
cowpea production.
Hue, N.V., G.R. Craddock and F. Adams (1986). Effects of organic acids on aluminum toxicity in
subsoils. Soil Science Society of America Journal, vol. 50: 28-34.
28
rd
Ibekwe A.M., Angle J.S., Chaney R.L. and Berkum P. (1997) Enumeration and nitrogen fixation
potential of Rhizobium leguminosarum bivortrifolii grown in soil with varying pH values
and heavy metal concentrations. Journal of Agricultural Ecosystem and Environment vol.
61, pp.103-111.
Lungu, O.I and R.F. Dynoodt (2008).Acidification from long term use of urea and its effects on
selected soil properties. Afican Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development.
Vol. 8(1) pp. 63-76.
Ojeniyi, S.O., Adejoro S.A.,.Ikotun O. and Amusa O. (2012). Soil and plant nutrient composition,
growth and yield of cassava as influenced by integrated application of NPK fertilizer and
poultry manure. New York Science Journal, vol.5 (9): pp 62-68
Oke, S.A., Tijani M.N. and Adeyemo O.M. (2013). Influence of bedrock weathering of the shallow
ground water system around felsic metasediment and amphibolites of the Ilesha schist belt.
Transnational Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 3 No. 1, pp 36-53.
Oyeyiola Y.B., Omueti J.A.I, Njoku N. and Oyekanmi E.(2014). Assessment of Liming Potentials of
Phosphocompost and Synthetic Fertilizers in an Acidic Alfisol for Cowpea Production.
Journal of Plant and Pest Science Vol. 1 (2): 128 – 137.
Sahrawat K.L, Jones M.P. and Diatta S. (2000).The role of tolerant genotypes and plant nutrients in the
management of acid soils infertility in upland rice. In: Management and conservation of
tropical acid soils for sustainable crop production. International Atomic Energy Agency,
Vienna, 2000,pp 29-43.
Siqueira, J.O. and Moreira F.M.S. (1997). Microbial populations and activities in highly weathered
acidic soils: highlights of the Brazilian research. Plant – soil interactions at low pH (Moniz
A.C Editor). Brazilian Soil Science Society, pp. 139-156.
Tan, K.H. (2011). Principle of soil chemistry.4th edition. New York: CRC Press.
Walkely, A. and Black I.A. (1934). An examination of the degtajareff method for determination of
organic matter and proposed medication of the chronic acid titration method. Soil Science
37: 29-38.
Zeigler R.S., Pandey. S, Miles J, Gourley L.M, and Sarkarung S. (1993) Advances in the selection and
breeding of acid -tolerance plants: rice, maize, sorghum and tropical forages. Plant soil
interactions at low pH. pp 391-406.
29
rd
Agronomic Performance and Seed Quality of Advanced

Breeding Lines of Soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) as
Influenced by Organic Fertilizer Application
2*
CHIDOZIE TOBECHI ONYENALI AND VICTOR IDOWU OLOWE
I
1
Department of Plant Physiology and Crop Production, Federal University of
Agriculture, Abeokuta (FUNAAB), Nigeria.
2*
Institute of food Security, Environmental Resources and Agricultural Research
(IFSERAR), Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (FUNAAB), Nigeria,
www.funaab.edu.ng
Keywords: Grain yield, oil and protein contents, soybean, yield attributes
Abstract
Sixteen soybean entries (three released varieties: TGx 1448-2E (check), TGx 1440-1E and
TGx 1019-2EB, 13 advanced breeding lines: TGx 2007 – 1F, TGx 2010 – 1F, TGx 2008 – 1F,
TGx 2004 – 4F, TGx 2010 – 7F, TGx 2006 – 2F, TGx 2003 – 1F, TGx 1987 – 10F, TGx 2010 –
2F, TGx 2007 – 4F, TGx 2006 – 3F, TGx 2008 – 3F, and TGx 1835 – 10E) were cultivated
during the late cropping season (June – Nov.) of 2014 to assess their agronomic performance
and seed quality as affected by organic fertilizer application. The experiment was laid out in a
randomized complete block design using a split plot arrangement and replicated three times.
Organic fertilizer was the main plot and soybean entries sub plot. Data were collected on
grain yield, yield attributes and quality (oil and protein contents) of the entries. Organic
fertilizer application did not affect any of the agronomic traits evaluated, except number of
seeds per plant. However, variety effect was significant (p<0.05) for all the traits, height to
first pod and weight of seeds per plant. Fertilizer ◊ Variety effect was not significant on nay
trait. All the sixteen entries recorded grain yields (2092.2 – 4076.5 kg.ha-1) which compared
-1
favorably well with world average (2250 kg.ha ). Thus, confirming the huge potential of
soybean in the transition zone.
Introduction
Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) is the world's leading oilseed crop in terms of production (265.31 m
tones) and consumption (255.3m tones) (CTA, 2011). The crop is mainly grown for its seed that contains
17 – 26% oil and 32 – 45% protein (Ustimenko-Bakumovsky, 1980). Unfortunately, less than 50 percent
of the installed capacity (700,000 metric tones) of the Nigerian processing sector is met through local
production despite the suitability of the transition zone for large scale production of the crop (Olowe et
al., 2006; Olowe and Adebimpe, 2009). Consequently, this study was initiated to evaluate the agronomic
performance of these soybean entries with a view to recommending those with high grain yield potential
coupled with good seed quality for cultivation.
31
VICTOR IDOWU OLOWE et al.:

The study was carried out at the Research Farm of Institute of Food Security, Environmental Resources
o o
and Agricultural Research (IFSERAR)of the Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (7 23' N, 3
39' E) during the late cropping season (June – November) of 2014. The experiment was laid out in a
randomized complete block design (RCBD) using a split plot arrangement and replicated three times.
The main plot was organic fertilizer application and sub plot 16 varieties (three earlier released varieties:
TGx 1448-2E, TGx 1440-1E and TGx 1019-2EB, and thirteen (13) advanced breeding lines: TGx 2007
– 1F, TGx 2010 – 1F, TGx 2008 – 1F, TGx 2004 – 4F, TGx 2010 – 7F, TGx 2006 – 2F, TGx 2003 – 1F,
TGx 1987 – 10F, TGx 2010 – 2F, TGx 2007 – 4F, TGx 2006 – 3F, TGx 2008 – 3F, and TGx 1835 – 10E).
Sowing of seeds was done on June 24, 2015 on the flat at a spacing of 60 x 5 cm (333,000 plant/ha). The
experiment was conducted on a loamy sand soil with pH of 6.3, Total nitrogen 0.80 g.kg-1, available
phosphorus 8.00 mg.kg-1, potassium 0.45 mol.kg-1, clay 88 g.kg-1, silt g.kg-1 and sand 858 g.kg-1. Gateway
-1 -
Organic fertilizer (2.58% N, 0.77% P, 0.04% K) was applied at the rate of 1 t.ha equivalent to 25 kgN.ha
1
which is the recommended starter dose rate of nitrogen for legumes at three weeks after sowing, WAS.
Hoe weeding was done at 3 & 6 WAS. Data were collected on phenology (number of phenological days
to flowering and physiological maturity)grain yield, yield attributes (number of branches, pods and
seeds per plant, weight of seeds and pods per plant, above ground plant weight, harvest index, height at
flowering and physiological maturity) and seed quality (protein and oil contents) on plot basis.All data
collected were subjected to analysis of variance and the means of significant treatments were separated
using the least significant difference method.
Results
Data on the main effects of organic fertilizer and variety are presented in Table 1. All the agronomic traits
evaluated in the study, except number of seeds per plant were not affected by organic fertilizer
application. On average, application of organic fertilizer resulted in 48.5% higher number of seeds per
plant (significant at p<0.05) on fertilized soybeans than the control. The sixteen entries of soybeans
were significantly (p<0.05) different from each other for all the traits, except height to first pod and
weight of seeds per plant. Five out of the sixteen entries exhibited early maturity (<100 days) while the
remaining eleven were medium maturing (100 – 120 days). The grain filling period (GFP) of the entries
ranged between 10 and 17 days. Fertilizer application ◊ variety effect did not affect any of the agronomic
traits measured. Table 2 contains data on grain yield and seed quality of the ten top yielders of soybean.
The check variety (TGx 1448-2E) ranked fifth among the entries.
32
rd
Table 1: Effect of organic fertilizer application on grain yield, some yield attributes and
seed quality of sixteen soybean entries in 2014
Treatment NDR8 GFP Seeds Pod Grain
weight yield
Number Weight (g) kg.ha-1
(g)
OF
F0 105.6 12.7 38.3 6.8 10.9 3045.6
F1 105.2 12.9 50.8 7.1 12.4 3661.1
LSD 5% ns ns 3.40 ns ns ns
Variety
TGx 1448-2E 107.0 13.7 43.2 10.3 16.0 3714.9
TGx 1440-1E 113.0 13.2 53.5 7.1 10.0 3361.5
TGx 1019-2EB 112.0 11.7 28.2 3.8 5.6 3566.1
TGx 2007-1F 104.5 10.8 28.6 5.6 8.6 2763.7 TGx 2010-1F
113.0 10.7 68.6 9.1 13.1 3019.3
TGx 2008-1F 100.5 12.7 40.3 7.4 10.8 4076.5
TGx 2004-4F 97.5 12.8 48.5 8.9 14.4 2711.2
TGx 2010-7F 107.0 14.8 74.4 10.9 16.3 3647.0
TGx 2006-2F 99.5 10.0 49.0 6.0 11.7 3632.1
TGx 2003-1F 99.2 16.7 35.0 7.4 11.5 2961.1
TGx 1987-10F 109.7 11.3 35.7 5.1 7.3 3739.9
TGx 2010-2F 112.0 17.2 48.9 6.5 11.3 3933.9
TGx 2007-4F 107.0 13.2 31

.4 7.0 12.2 3507.1
TGx 2006-3F 99.8 13.7 41.0 6.0 9.2 3945.4
TGx 2008-3F 107.0 11.3 32.7 6.1 18.2 2981.5
TGx 1835-10E 98.2 11.8 54.0 10.3 5.8 2092.2

LSD 5% 2.92 3.38 22.77 ns ns 945.66 FXV
ns ns ns ns ns ns
OF – organic fertilizer; Fo – Control; F1 – Organic fertilizer applied;

Ns – not significant; NDR8 – Number of days to physiological maturity;
GFP – Grain Filling Period
33
Table 2: Ten top soybean yielder and their seed quality, 2014
Variety Grain Oil Protein
Yield content content
(kg.ha-1) (%) (%)
TGX 2008-1F 4076.5 17.04 34.79

TGx2006-3F 3945.4 15.22 31.06
TGx 2010-2F 3933.8 16.99 34.89
TGx 1987-10F 3739.9 16.26 33.18
TGx 1448-2E 3714.9 16.08 32.81
TGx 2010-7F 3647.0 14.89 30.39
TGx 2006-2F 3632.0 15.59 31.83
TGx 1019-2EB 3566.0 14.42 29.43
TGx 2007-4F 3507.0 1445 29.50
TGx 1440-1E 3361.52 15.53 31.69
LSD 5% 945.66 0.511 0.966
Discussion
All the soybean entries exhibited tremendous potential in the transition zone by producing grain yields
higher than average values recorded on research plots in Nigeria (1700 kg/ha), USA (2000 kg/ha), Brazil
(1800 kg/ha) (RMRDC, 2004), potential average of TGx 1448-2E (1700 – 2300 kg/ha) (Asafo-Adjei
and Adekunle, 2001). Only five advanced breeding lines (TGx 2008-1F, TGx 2006 – 3F, TGx 2010 -2F
and TGx 1987-10F) produced higher grain yield than the TGX 1448-2E (check). Although, the superior
yield advantage was not significant. Number of seeds per plant and weight of seeds per plant are two
agronomic traits closely related to soybean grain yield (Pandey and Torrie, 1973). However, TGX 2010-
7F that recorded the highest seed weight and number per plant only produced the six highest grain yield.
Oil and protein contents of the ten top entries were relatively high ranging between 14.42 and 17.04%,
and 29.43 and 34.89%, respectively. These values compare favourably with the worlds reported values
for oil (17 -26%) and protein (32 – 45%) by Ustimenko-Bakumovsky (1980). The entry with the highest
-1
grain yield (4076.5 kg.ha ) combined high oil (17.04%) and protein (34.79%) qualities. These findings
confirmed the huge potential of the advanced breeding lines in this zone and the ten top yielders will be
further evaluated.
References
Asafo-Adjei, B. and Adekunle, A.A. (2001): Characteristics of Some Released IITA Soybean
Varieties and Promising Advanced Breeding Lines: Soybean Varieties for Sustainable
Agriculture in Sub-saharan Africa, IITA: Ibadan, Nigeria.
CTA (2011): Agritrade Informed Analysis, Expert Opinions: Executive brief on Oil crops Sector.
http://agritrade.cta.int/
Olowe, V.I.O., Ajayi, J.A and Ogunbayo, A.S (2006) Potentials of intercropping
soybeans (Glycine max (L) Merrill) and cowpea (Vignaunguiculata L. Walp) into
sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) at three growth stages in the transition zone of
south west Nigeria. Tropical Agricultural Research and Extension 9: 91-102.
34
rd
Olowe, V.I.O. and Adebimpe, O.A. (2009). Intercropping Sunflower with Edible
SoybeansEnhances Total Crop Productivity. Biological Agriculture &
Horticulture 26:265-377.
Pandey, J.P. and Torrie, J.H. 1973. Path Coefficient Analysis of seed yield components in soybean. Crop Science
13:505-507
Raw Materials Research and Development Council (RMRDC) 2004. Report on Survey of
Agro-Raw Materials in Nigeria: Soyabean. Federal Ministry of Science and
Technology, Abuja. 69p.
Ustimenko-Bakumovsky G.V. (1980) Soybean. In: Plant growing in the tropics and
subtropics, pp. 98 - 103. Moscow: Mir publishers.
35
rd
Effect of Organic Fertilizer Types and Rates on the

Performance of Pineapple Suckers
ATANDA, T. T. AND OLANIYI, J. O.
Crop Production and Soil Science,
Department, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
Keywords: grain yield, oil and protein contents, soybean, yield attributes
Abstract
Field trial was carried out to improve pineapple production by investigating the effects of
organic fertilizer types and rates on the performance of pineapple suckers in Ogbomoso,
Nigeria. The treatments included three fertilizer types namely; Aleshinloye grade A,
Aleshinloye grade B and Sunshine grade A applied at five rates (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg
Nha-1) each. The 3 x 5 factorial experiments were laid out in a randomized complete block
design replicated three times. Data were collected on plant height, number of leaves, number
of sprouted suckers, dry matter yield and plant nutrient uptake. Data obtained were analyzed
using ANOVA.The growth parameters of pineapple suckers were significantly (P <0.05)
increased by the organic fertilizer types. The pineapple suckers that received Aleshinloye
grade B recorded higher height (20.75 cm) and number of leaves (13.41) compared to other
fertilizer treatments, irrespective of the fertilizer rates. The growth parameters of pineapple
-1
suckers increased with increase in fertilizer application from 0 up to 150 kg Nha , thereafter
declined. The dry matter yield and nutrient uptake of pineapple suckers were significantly
affected by organic fertilizer types and rates. The highest dry matter yield and nutrient uptake
of pineapple suckers were obtained from Aleshinloye grade A closely followed by Aleshinloye
grade B treated plants while the least value was obtained from Sunshine grade A regardless of
the fertilizer rate.In conclusion, rapid multiplication as well as growth and nutrients uptake
of pineapple suckers can be improved by the application of organic fertilizer at 150 kg Nha-1
and Aleshinloye grade B organic fertilizer type produced the best pineapple suckers.
Introduction
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a tropical plant with edible multiple fruit consisting of coalescent berries
which belong to the family Bromeliaceae (Freddy, 2003). It is said to have been originated from Brazil
and Paraguy, however, little is known about the origin of the domesticated pineapple (Preston et al.,
2003). Total pineapple production worldwide is around 16 to 18 million tons (Carvalho et al., 2005;
Fermandes et al., 2008). Pineapples can be propagated vegetative and generatively. Plant materials for
vegetative propagation can be in form of shoot, slip, crown and stem cutting. The generative
propagation tends to be intended for breeding purposes (Py et al., 1987). Only through cross-pollination
between different cultivars will seeds be produced (Sri Hadiati et al., 2011).
Pineapples are largely consumed around the world in fresh or processed food as canned pineapple,
slices, chunk and dice, pineapple juice, fruit salad, sugar syrup, alcohol, citric acid, pineapple chips and
pineapple puree. Sixty percent of fresh pineapple is edible (Samson, 1986) and exported as a fresh
37
ATANDA, T.T. ET AL.:
product. The ripe pineapple has diuretic properties. Its juice also kills intestinal worms, relieves
intestinal disorders and soothes the bile. Pineapple produces Bromelain which is an enzyme that helps
the body's digestive system and also has anti-inflammatory properties. It is of great importance in the
treatment of a number of medicinal problems, including heart diseases, arthritis and upper respiratory
infections (Morton et al., 1987). Pineapple contains water, carbohydrates, sugar, vitamins A, C and
carotene beta. It contains low amount of protein, fat ash and fibre. It has an antioxidant called flavonoids,
vitamin A and these anti oxidants reduce oxidative change damage caused by free radicals and chelating
metals (Tochi et al., 2008). It contains micro-nutrients that experts believe protects against cancer and
these micro nutrients also break up blood clots and are beneficial to the heart. Pineapple juice contains
chemicals that stimulates the kidney and aids in removing toxic element from the body (Morton et al.,
1987).
Pineapple requires a good nutrient for it to realize its growth potential. The nutrient requirement of
pineapple plant varies across different regions. Plant growth depends mainly on nitrogen nutrition and
the nitrogen balance (Bartholomew et al., 2003 ). There is a constant depletion in amount of available
nitrogen in the soil through absorption by plants, fixation in the soil, leaching and volatilization.
Nitrogen is essential to the increase of pineapple fruit and total yield. On poor soils, nitrogen and
potassium levels of the plants may become low towards the end of the crop season; this must be avoided
by application of nutrients. Fertilizer application plays a very important role in crop management
(Stewart et al., 2005). The application of organic fertilizers which are made from animal excreta or other
agricultural wastes contributes to the sustainability of agriculture systems and is usually used to improve
soil structure and stability in addition to enhancing the yield and the quality of plants (Tejada and
Gonzalesz, 2003; Chang et al., 2010). The objective of this experiment was to investigate the effects of
organic fertilizer types and rates on the performance of pineapple suckers.
The experiment was carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm of Ladoke Akintola University of
Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria. The treatments were three organic fertilizer types which were;
Aleshinloye grade A (3%N), Aleshinloye grade B (1%N) and Sunshine grade A (3.5%N). These were
applied at 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg Nha-1 each. The experimental site was manually cleared and 45
sunken beds were made. There were three replicates and each replicate consisted of fifteen beds. Each
bed measured 0.5 m spacing in between beds and 1 m among replicates for easy movement during
cultural operations. Pineapple stems were obtained from the pineapple plot of the Agronomy
Department, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso. The stems were cut into 7.5 cm long sett sizes and used as
propagules, six setts were planted per bed. The 2 x 3 factorial experiments were arranged in a
randomized complete block design with three replications. The planting materials were treated with 5 ml
furadan diluted with 10 litres of water overnight, to prevent diseases and pest infestations in the field. Six
planting materials were planted on each bed irrespective of the treatments applied.
Watering was done to supplement the water supplied by the rainfall to ensure proper growth of the
pineapple. Regular weeding was done manually to control weeds on the plots. Organic fertilizers were
-1
applied at 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg Nha each to their respective beds three weeks after planting. Data
collection commenced from eight weeks after planting (8WAP) and continued fortnightly on growth
parameters such as plant height by measuring with tape rule and number of leaves by counting. Also, the
number of sprouted suckers were counted in all plots and recorded. Data collected were subjected to
analysis of variance and means compared by the least significant difference (LSD) at 5% probability
levels.
38
rd
The plant height of pineapple sucker was significantly (P <0.05) influenced by organic fertilizer types
and rates. Organic fertilizer type positively improved the plant height of pineapple. The highest plant
height (26.17 cm) was recorded from Aleshinloye grade B followed by sunshine grade A (25.27 cm)
irrespective of the fertilizer rate. Although, the plant height increased as the fertilizer rate increases from
-1
0 up till 200 kg Nha but there was no significant difference between the values obtained from 150 kg
-1
and 200 kg Nha fertilizer levels. The interactive effects of organic fertilizer type and rate improve the
plant height of pineapple suckers.
The best value (26.17 cm) was obtained from plant receiving combined treatment combination of
Aleshinloye grade B fertililizer type and at optimum rate of 150 kg Nha-1. The mean number of leaves of
the pineapple sucker is represented in table 1. The number of leaves was significantly (P<0.05) affected
by the fertilizer type and rate at 16 weeks after planting. The number of leaves of pineapple suckers
increased from 0 up till 150 kg Nha-1 and thereafter declined. Aleshinloye grade B gave the highest
number of leaves of pineapple suckers irrespective of fertilizer rates. The interactive effects of organic
fertilizer type and rate significantly increased the number of leaves of pineapple sucker.
Although the highest value (16.54) was obtained from Aleshinloye grade A and at 150 kg Nha-1
treatment combinations there was no significant difference between the values recorded from
Aleshinloye grade B at 150 kg Nha-1 and Aleshinloye grade A at 200 kg Nha-1.
Table 1. The mean growth parameters of pineapple suckers as affected by organic fertilizer
types and rates (kg)
F.rate Fert types No of leaves Plant ht(cm) dry wt(g)
0 AleshA 9.5 17.51 5.81
50 12.34 20.06 5.89
100 10.42 20.58 7.69
150 16.54 20.84 9.26
200 11.38 21.42 9.12
0 AleshB 12.17 17.22 3.96

50 12.5 18.98 6.08
100 12.92 22.13 7.29
150 14.47 26.17 10.01
200 16.42 21.27 8.43
0 SunshA 8.83 14.75 4.04

50 9.11 18.34 4.58
100 9.97 20.56 4.63
150 13.75 21.92 7.25
200 13.58 25.27 5.08
LSD (0.5)
FT: 2.35 ns 0.34

FR: 3.04 2.34 0.43
FTxFR 3.04 ns 0.15

Key: FT=fertilizer type, FR=fertilizer rate, A.A=aleshinloye grade A, A. B=Aleshinloye grade B,
S.A= Sunshine grade A
39
The dry weight of the pineapple sucker is represented in table 1. Dry weight of the pineapple sucker
was significantly (P <0.05) influenced by the fertilizer types and rates. Aleshinloye grade B fertilizer
type recorded the highest dry weight of the pineapple plant (10.01 g) closely followed by Aleshinloye
grade A fertilizer type (9.26 g) while the Sunshine grade A recorded the lowest dry weight of 7.25 g
among the three organic fertilizer types used. The combined effects of organic fertilizer type and rate had
significant (P <0.05) influenced on the dry mater yield of pineapple sucker. The highest (10.01 g) dry matter
yield was obtained at Aleshinloye grade B fertilizer type and 150 kg Nha-1 fertilizer rate treatment
combinations.
Table 2. The nutrient uptake (g/plant) of oil palm seedlings as affected by organic fertilizer rates
and types
F.rate F.types NUTRIENT UPTAKE (g/plant)
(kg/ha)
K Ca Mg N P
0 AleshA O.11 0.98 13.01 3.62 1.62
50 0.12 1.20 38.31 5.77 1.74
100 0.21 1.58 41.71 8.76 1.99
150 0.42 2.05 56.07 12.13 2.78
200 0.45 1.64 45.74 10.97 2.55
Mean 0.26 1.49 38.97 8.25 2.14
AleshB
0 0.11 0.61 7.35 2.21 0.97
50 0.18 0.92 22.47 4.03 1.25
100 0.51 2.21 57.83 11.17 3.01
150 0.47 1.45 33.86 8.35 2.05
200 0.29 1.22 27.96 6.39 1.56
Mean 0.31 1.28 29.89 6.43 1.77
SunshA
0 0.02 0.20 2.81 0.66 0.31
50 0.04 0.28 5.05 0.87 0.39
100 0.10 0.90 20.92 2.46 1.13
150 0.37 2.34 57.07 11.48 2.90
200 0.65 2.82 72.56 14.51 3.75
Mean 0.24 1.31 31.68 6.00 1.70
LSD (0.05)
FT 0.06 0.08 0.20 0.19 0.08
FR 0.07 0.11 0.26 0.24 0.10
FT*FR 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.01
Key: FT=fertilizer type, FR=fertilizer rate, A.A=aleshinloye grade A, A. B=Aleshinloye grade B,
S.A= Sunshine grade A
The nutrient uptake (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) of pineapple sucker was affected by fertilizer types and rates
(Table 2). The applied fertilizer types and rates had significant (P <0.05) influence on the nutrient uptake
of pineapple sucker. The nitrogen uptake by the pineapple sucker was significantly (P <0.05) influenced
by the fertilizer types and rates. The pineapple sucker raised in only soil as propagation medium
recorded the highest nutrient uptake value of 0.31%, irrespective of the fertilizer rate. The general better
performance in terms of growth and yield derived from this study reconfirmed the result obtained from
the findings of Tejada and Gonzalez; 2003; Change et al., 2010 who concluded that application of
40
rd
organic fertilizer which are made from animal excreta or other agricultural wastes contributed to the
sustainability of agricultural system and is usually used to improve soil structure and stability in addition
to enhancing the yield and quality of plants.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the growth parameters, nutrient uptake assessed under this study and the dry matter yield
were significantly (P <0.05) influenced by the various treatments. It can be deduced from the results
obtained that Aleshinloye grade B produced the highest plant height, number of leaves, nutrient uptake
-1
and dry matter yield at 150 kg Nha application rate but the results obtained are not significant from the
results obtained from Aleshinloye grade A fertilizer application at 150 kg Nha-1. Therefore, both Aleshinloye
-1
grade A and Aleshinloye grade B and 150 kg Nha organic fertilizer rates can be recommended for
maximum performance of pineapple suckers.
References
Bartholomew, D. P., Paull , R. E and Rohrbach, K. G; (2003). The Pineapple: Botany, Production
and Uses, CABI Publishing, Wallingford UK,. P. 21.
Carvalho, L. M. J. D., Castro, I. M. D. and Silva, C. A. B. D. 2008. A study of retention of sugars in
the process of clarification of pineapple juice (Ananas comosus, L.Merril) by micro- and
ultra-filtration. Journal of Food Engineering 87: 447-454.
Chang, K. H., Wu, R. Y., Chuang, K. C., Hsieh, T. F., Chung, R. S. 2010. Effects of chemical and
organic fertilizers on the growth, flower quality and nutrient uptake of Anthurium
and reanum, cultivated for cut flower production. Scientia Horticulturae. 125, 434-441.
Fernandes, F.A.N, Jr Linhares, F.E and Rodrigues S. (2008). Ultrasound as pre-treatment for drying
of Pineapple. Ultrasonic Sonochemistry. 15: 1049-1054.
Freddy L., Paul, R. E. and Rohrbach, K.G., (2003). Chapter 2: Morphology, Anatomy and
Taxonomy". In D.P Bartholomew, The Pineapple: Botany, Production, and Uses.
Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 0-85199- 503-9.
Morton, J. (1987). Pineapple. P18 – 28. In : fruits of climates Nutrient data for pineapple, raw, all
varieties, per 100 g serving. Nutritional data.com, USDA SR -21.
Preston, C., Richling, E., Elss, S., Appel, M., Heckel, F., Hartlieba, A., Schreier, P. 2003. On-line gas
chromatography combustion/pyrolysis isotope ratio mass spectrometry (HRGC-C/P-
IRMS) of pineapple (Ananas comosus L.Merr.) volatiles. Journal of Agriculture and Food
Chemistry. 51, 8027-8031.
Py C., Lacoeuilhe J. J and Teisson C. (1987). The pineapple cultivation and uses. G.P. Maisonneuvreet
Larose. Paris page 564.
Samson J. A. (1986). Tropical Fruits. USA, Longman Inc, New York.
Sri Hadiati, Luhputuindriyani, N.I. and Soemargono, A. (2011). The effect of planting medium on
the growth of pineapple seedling. ARPN journal of Agricultural and Biological science
Vol. 6, No 2.
Stewart, W. M., Johnston, A.E. and Smyth, T. J. (2005). The contribution of commercial fertilizer
Nutrients to Food Production. Agronomy Journal 197: 1-6.
Tejada, M., Gonzalez, J. L. 2003. Effects of the application of a compost originating from
crushed cotton gin residues on wheat yield under dryland conditions. European Journal of
Agronomy. 19, 357-368.
Tochi, B. N., Wang, Z., Xu, S.Y and Zhang, W. (2008). Therapeutic Application of Pineapple
Protease (Bromelain): A Review. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 7(4): 513-520.
41
rd
Evaluation of Animal Manures on the Yield of Solanum

Macrocarpon L. and Chemical Properties of Soil
OLOWOKERE, F. A.1, DARE, M. O. 1, OLASANTAN, F. O.2AND AKANJI, M. A.1
1
Department of Soil Science and Land Management, Federal University of
Agriculture, Abeokuta Nigeria.
2
Department of Horticulture, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta Nigeria.
Keywords: Yield, Solanum macrocarpon, Goat manure, Poultry manure, Post harvest
Abstract
Animal manures regarded as wastes could be channeled towards improving the fertility of the
soil and crop production. A field experiment was conducted at the Federal University of
Agriculture, Abeokuta Nigeria in 2013 to evaluate the effect of animal manures on yield and
chemical properties of soil grown with Solanum macrocarpon. Treatments used were: goat
manure at 10, 20 and 30t/ha (GM 10, GM 20 and GM 30 respectively), poultry manure at 10,
20 and 30t/ha (PM 10, PM 20 and PM 30 respectively), cow dung at 10, 20, 30t/ha (CD 10, CD
20 and CD 30 respectively) and control. Application of GM 30 significantly (p<0.05)
increased the height (25.90 cm), number of leaves (65), leaf yield (248.65 g/plant) of S.
macrocarpon and post harvest soil K (0.08 cmol/kg)above the control. Highest post harvest
soil available phosphorus (54.58 mg/kg) and magnesium (2.47 cmol/kg) were recorded on
PM 30 treated plots. S. macrocarponcould be grown with either goat manure at 30t/ha or
poultry manure at 30 t/ha for higher yield and improved soil quality on soils similar to the
experimental site.
Introduction
Giant egg plant (Solanum macrocarpon L.) is a vegetable crop cultivated for its various uses. The young
leaves are consumed while the fruits and roots have a variety of medicinal uses, the fruit is used as a
laxative and the leaves are used to ease throat pain. S. macrocarpon was reported by Olaniyan et al,
(2006) to be frequently grown in Nigeria on soils which lack the ability to supply necessary nutrients.
The use of chemical fertilizer on such soils has been discouraged due to high cost and non availability at
the right time (Chude, 1999). This informed the investigation into the use of cheaper materials which
could be sourced locally and regularly for S. macrocarpon production.
The study was carried out at the Organic Farm of the Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta in
2013. The soil in the area was classified by FDALR (1990) as Oxic Paleustal.
2
The experimental plot measured 3 m x 2 m (6 m ). Soil samples were taken at six points on the site
before treatment application and analysed. Treatments applied were: Poultry manure at 10, 20 and 30
t/ha (PM 10, PM 20 and PM 30), Goat manure at 10, 20 and 30 t/ha (GM 10, GM 20 and GM 30), Cow
dung at 10, 20 and 30 t/ha (CD 10, CD 20 and CD 30) and Control.
S. macrocarpon seeds were sown at 30 cm x 45 cm and at the rate of four seeds per hole on the 23rd of
43
OLOWOKERE, F.A. et al.:
January, 2013. Thinning was done to one seedling per stand at two weeks after sowing. Weeds were
manually controlled at 4 and 8 WAS.
Data were collected on plant height and number of leaves at 8 WAS, fresh yield was determined by
cutting the plant at 10 cm above soil level at 10, 12 and 14 WAS and these were weighed. Soil samples (0-
15 cm layer) were randomly collected at four points on each plot with the aid of a soil auger at the end of
the experiment, bulked and sub-sampled for analysis.
Post harvest soil total nitrogen, available phosphorus and exchangeable potassium were determined
by Kjeldahl method, Bray 1 method and flame photometry respectively. Calcium and magnesium were
determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Organic carbon was determined by wet oxidation
method and pH by glass electrode method.
Data was subjected to the analysis of variance using SAS 2002 package and significant means were
separated by Duncans Multiple Range Test at 5% level of probability.
The experimental soil was low in nitrogen and potassium, goat manure was highest in potassium but
lowest in C/N while poultry manure contained the highest nitrogen, organic carbon phosphorus, calcium
and magnesium contents (Table 1). Plant height ranged from 4.15 cm to 25.90 cm, application of GM 30
significantly (P < 0.05) increased S. macrocarpon height above all other amendments and the control
with the shortest plants (Table 2). Plants grown on plots treated with GM 30 and GM 20 recorded
significantly (p<0.05) higher number of leaves than the control and plants on plot amended with CD 30.
The highest percentage increase in yield over control (78.73 %) resulted from GM 30 application.
Percentage increase in yield over control relative to amendment application followed this order: GM 30
(78.73 %) > PM 30 (73.30) > PM 10 (62.70 %) > CD 10 (61.47 %) > PM 20 (61.35 %) > CD 30 (59.62 %)
> GM 10 (57.04) > GM 20 (56.96 %) > CD 20 (49.13 %) (Table 2). This observation may be due to early
release of nutrients by GM as a result of its low C/N. Moyin – Jesu et al, 2012 reported quick release of
nutrient by manure with low C/N.
Table 1. Properites of pre-planting soil and organic amendments

Property Soil Poultry manure Goat manure Cow dung
O. C. (%) 1.62 15.57 10.56 9.25
N (%) 0.08 3.45 2.89 2.37
P (mg/kg) 32.63 0.32 0.11 0.06
K 0.05 cmol/kg 0.49 % 0.63 % 0.55 %
Ca 4.10 cmol/kg 14.15 % 1.98 % 0.41 %
pH 6.80 - - -
Mg 1.69 cmol/kg 1.58 % 0.82 % 0.44 %
44
rd
Table 2. Effect of animal manures on agronomic yield of S. macrocarpon and post harvest soil
chemical properties
Treatment Plant Number Yield TN (%) Avail. P Exch. K Ca Mg pH O. C. (%)
/ha height of leaves (g/plant) (mg/kg) (cmol/kg) (cmol/kg) (cmol/kg)
(cm)
Control 4.15b 12.50c 52.88b 0.77 20.24g 0.04b 2.61 1.02b 6.80 1.54
GM 30 25.90a 65a 248.65a 0.81 38.68c 0.08a 6.21 1.47ab 7.20 2.41
GM 20 7.25b 33b 122.86ab 0.85 31.42e 0.05ab 5.06 1.37ab 7.10 2.31
GM 10 11.35b 23bc 123.09ab 0.81 34.84de 0.05ab 2.66 1.11b 6.85 2.39
PM 10 8.10b 27bc 141.76ab 0.82 37.92cd 0.06ab 6.25 1.27b 7.10 2.32
PM 30 9.90b 25.5bc 198.24ab 0.82 54.58a 0.06ab 6.40 2.47a 7.30 2.02
CD 10 6.65b 21.5bc 137.26ab 0.79 20.89g 0.06ab 4.30 1.05b 6.85 2.07
CD 20 9.80b 23bc 103.96ab 0.81 23.78fg 0.05ab 2.69 1.05b 7.25 1.75
PM 20 6.75b 24.5bc 136.81ab 0.86 43.12b 0.06ab 5.57 1.42ab 7.20 2.14
CD 30 5.35b 13c 130.96ab 0.79 24.60f 0.05ab 2.96 1.13b 6.90 2.27
NS NS NS NS
GM – Goat Manure PM – Poultry Manure CD – Cow Dung NS – Not Significant
Post harvest soil nitrogen contents were similar in all plots. Phosphorous contents ranged from 20.24
mg/kg to 54.58 mg/kg. The highest value which is significantly (p<0.05) higher than control resulted
from PM 30 application. Potassium was highest in plots amended with GM 30, this was significantly
(P < 0.05) higher than the control plot (0.04 cmol/kg). Application of PM 30 increased the magnesium
content significantly (p<0.05) above PM 10, GM 10, CD 10, CD 20, CD 30 and control. This is in
agreement with the findings of Aboutayeb et al,2014 who reported that chicken manure significantly
increased post planting soil P above control. Adeleye et al,(2010) also observed that poultry manure
increased magnesium content of soil planted with yam.
Conclusion
Application of goat manure at 30 t/ha (GM 30) significantly increased the height, number of leaves of
S. macrocarpon and post harvest soil K above the control. Highest post harvest soil P and Mg resulted
from the application of Poultry manure at 30 t/ha (PM 30). S. macrocarpon could be planted with
either goat manure at 30 t/ha or poultry manure at 30 t/ha for higher yield and improved soil quality on
similar soils.
References
Aboutayeb, R., Elgharous, M., Abali, Z., Farouzi, B. and Koulali, Y. (2014). Short term effects of
chicken manure application on soil physicochemical properties cropped with silage maize.
International Journal of Innovation and Applied studies 9 (2): 662-671. ISSN 2028-9324 ©
2014. Innovative Space of Scientific Research Journal http://www.issr-journals.org/
Adeleye, E. O., ayeni, L. S., and Ojeniyi, S. O. (2010). Effect of Poultry manure on soil Physico-
Chemical Properties, Leaf Nutrient Contents and Yield of Yam (Dioscorea rotundata) on
45
OLOWOKERE, F.A. et al.:
Alfisol in Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of American Science 6(10):871-878.

st
Chude, V. O. (1999). Perspectives on fertilizer use in the 21 century. Book of abstracts. Soil Science
Society of Nigeria Benin, 1999 25 Annual Conf. held at Precious Palm Royal Hotel from 21st
th
– 25 th Nov. 1999.
FDALR, (1990). Soil map of Nigeria, Abuja: Soil Survey Division, Federal Department of Land
resources, FMANR.
Moyin-Jesu, E. I., Iyoha, C. S. and Akinola, M. O. (2012). Comparative Evaluation of different Organic
Media on Soil Chemical Composition, Growth and Yield of Mushroom (Pleurotus tubergium
L.), ISRN Agronomy volume 2012 (2012). Article ID 152737, 7 pages 2012. Doi:
10.5402/2012/152737.
Olaniyan, A. B., Akinloye, H. A. and Olasanmi, B. (2006). Effect of Different Sources of nitrogen on
Growth and Yield of Solanum macrocarpon in Derived savannah of Nigeria. Journal of
Agronomy, 5 : 182-185. doi: 10.3923/ja.2006.182.185.
46
rd
Response of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis, Hook f.)

to Different Levels of Poultry Manure Application in an
Ultisol of Southeastern Nigeria
O. B. IREN, I. D. UWAH AND V. E. EKPENYONG
Department of Soil Science, University of Calabar, Calabar
Cross River State, Nigeria
Keywords: Fluted pumpkin, Telfairia occidentalis, poultry manure, soil properties, fresh
yield.
Abstract
A field experiment was conducted at the University of Calabar Teaching and Research
Farmin 2011 and 2012 planting seasons to evaluate the effects of different levels of poultry
manure application on the performance of fluted pumpkin in a degraded Ultisol.
Randomized complete block design with three replications was used for the study. Five levels
of poultry manure (0, 60, 90, 120, 150 kg N/ha)were used, with the 0 kg N/ha(without
amendment) serving as control. The levels of applied poultry manure significantly (p<0.05)
enhanced the growth and fresh yield of fluted pumpkin. The longest mean vine length (168.3
cm) and highest number of leaves (79.6) were produced by plants on plots treated with 150 kg
N/ha PM whereas the respective shortest vine length (104.9 cm) and lowest number of leaves
(48.0) values were recorded on the control plots. The fresh yield of fluted pumpkin was
significantly (P < 0.05) increased across all stages of growth as a result of the levels of
poultry manure applied when compared with the control. The highest mean yield of 442.19,
648.12 and 683.24 kg/ha obtained at 4, 7 and 10 weeks after planting (WAP) respectively,
was obtained from plots treated with 150 kg N/ha PM. The study showed that poultry manure
applied at 150 kg N/ha (equivalent to 6 t/ha of poultry manure) best supports the
performance of fluted pumpkin in a degraded Ultisol.
Introduction
Fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis, Hook f.)is classified as a member of the Cucurbitaceae family
and is one of the most widely and intensively cultivated leafy green vegetable in the rainforest zone of
south eastern states of Nigeria. The tender leaves and vines are consumed as vegetables while the young
seeds are eaten as food and snacks (Badifu and Ogunsua, 1991). The leaves have also been discovered to
be blood purifiers (Aletor et al., 2002) and could therefore be useful in health maintenance most
especially among poor resource persons.
Continuous cultivation which had replaced the traditional shifting cultivation causes soil nutrient
depletion thus, crop production is not profitable without additional nutrient supply. Poultry manure
contains nutrient elements that can support crop production and enhance the physical and chemical
properties of the soil (Iren et al., 2011a & b, 2012 John et al., 2013).This study, therefore, evaluates the
response of fluted pumpkin to different levels of poultry manure application as well as establishing its
optimum rate of application for fluted pumpkin production in an Ultisol of south eastern Nigeria.
47
O.B. IREN et al.:
Response of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis, Hook f.) to Different Levels of Poultry
Field experiment was conducted at the Teaching and Research Farm of the University of Calabar,
o o o o
Calabar(5 32' and 4 27' N and 7 15' and 9 28' E) in a degraded rainforest vegetation zone of Nigeria.
The soil is classified as an Ultisol based on USDA system of classification (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).The
experimental site was manually cleared, tilled and flat beds measuring 3m x 1.5m made. The experiment
was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The experiment comprised
of five levels of poultry manure (0, 60, 90, 120, 150 kg N/ha) with the 0 kg N/ha(without amendment)
serving as control. The various rates of poultry manure were applied in dry form one week before
planting (WBP) by broadcasting with incorporation method. The chemical composition of poultry
manure used for the study is presented in Table 1.
Fluted pumpkin seeds were separated from the pulp and dried before planting. Two seeds of the
fluted pumpkin were placed flat in the soil per hole at a spacing of 75 x 75 cm. It was later thinned down
to one plant per stand few days after emergence giving a plant population of 17,777 plants/ha. The
experimental plots were kept weed free throughout the period of the experiment.
Soil samples were taken from the experimental site before and after experiment using soil auger at a
depth of 0-15 cm and analysed.
Two plants were randomly selected, tagged and used in growth measurements. Growth parameters
measured include vine length and number of leaves per plant. These parameters were assessed after 3
weeks of planting and continued at weekly interval till the end of the experiment. Weight of freshly
harvested vine was taken at 4WAP, 7WAP and 10WAP.
The soil and poultry manure samples were analyzed in the laboratory following standard procedures
as outlined by Udo et al. (2009).
Data collected were analyzed according to the procedures outlined by Gomez and Gomez (1984) for
randomized complete block design and significant means were compared using Fisher's least significant
difference (FLSD) at 5 % level of probability.
Results
The soil of the experimental site was strongly acid (pH 4.5), loamy sand with very low total nitrogen and
organic carbon as shown in Table 2. The soil was high in available phosphorus.
Table 3 shows the effects of poultry manure rates on soil chemical properties. Results obtained
indicated that there were significant differences (P < 0.05) in the soil pH among the various treatments
and control. The 150 kg N/ha poultry manure rate significantly increased soil pH from initial value of 4.5
before experiment and from the value of 4.57 obtained from control to 5.31. Total nitrogen (N), organic
carbon, exchangeable bases and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) contents in the soil were not
significantly affected by rates of application of poultry manure, although higher values were recorded as
the rate of application increased. Soil available phosphorus was significantly influenced by the
treatments with the 150 kg N/ha poultry manure treated plot having the highest value as against the value
obtained from control.
Application of different rates of poultry manure had significant effects on vine length of fluted
pumpkin at all the growth stages measured except the 3 weeks after planting (WAP) stage of growth
(Table 4). The longest mean vine length was produced by plants treated with 150 kg N/ha of poultry
manure while the shortest mean vine length was produced by the unfertilized plants. Similar effect was
observed on number of leaves of fluted pumpkin (Table 5).
The fresh yield of fluted pumpkin was significantly (P < 0.05) increased across all stages of growth
48
rd
as a result of the levels of poultry manure applied when compared with the control, with higher yields
obtained at higher levels of poultry manure application (Table 6). Relative yield increase from the 150 kg
N/ha PM treated soil when compared with control was 49.4, 64.0 and 71.9 % at 4, 7 and 10 WAP,
respectively.
Table 1. Nutrient composition of poultry manure used for the study

Parameter Value
Total nitrogen (%) 2.47
Total phosphorus (%) 1.44
Total potassium (%) 1.48
Calcium (%) 3.20
Magnesium (%) 1.90
Organic carbon (%) 29.30
Table 2. Properties of the soil before experiment

Properties Value
pH (H2O) 4.50
Total N (g/kg) 0.40
Organic carbon (g/kg) 8.30
Av. P (mg/kg) 33.50
Exch.Ca (cmol/kg) 1.20
Exch. Mg (cmol/kg) 1.80
Exch. Na (cmol/kg) 0.04
Exch. K (cmol/kg) 0.06
Exch. H+ (cmol/kg) 5.23
Exch. Al + (cmol/kg) 1.01
ECEC (cmol/kg) 9.34
BS (%) 33.19
Sand (%) 88.3
Silt (%) 18.0
Clay (%) 6.0
Texture Loamy sand
49
O.B. IREN et al.:
Table 3. Effects of poultry manure rates on soil chemical properties

Poultry pH Total Organic Av. P Exchangeable bases Exchange (ECEC BS
manure (H2O) N carbon (mg/kg) (cmol/kg) acidity cmol/kg)
levels (g/kg) (g/kg) (cmol/kg) (%)
(kg
N/ha) Ca Mg Na K H+ Al3+
0 4.57 0.6 8.40 35.90 0.80 0.81 0.05 0.06 2.59 1.25 5.56 30.94
60 5.00 0.9 9.71 49.70 1.00 0.87 0.05 0.07 1.19 1.09 4.27 46.60
90 5.02 0.9 9.80 49.85 1.13 1.20 0.05 0.08 1.01 1.07 4.54 54.19
120 5.16 1.00 10.2 53.30 1.20 1.23 0.06 0.08 1.13 0.83 4.53 56.73
150 5.31 1.10 11.2 67.40 1.33 1.30 0.06 0.09 0.85 0.64 4.27 65.11
LSD 0.13 NS NS 16.01 NS NS NS NS NS 0.78 NS 8.10
(0.05)
BS = Base saturation
Table 4. Effects of poultry manure rates on the vine length (cm) of fluted pumpkin
Poultry Vine length (cm)
manure
levels (kg 3WAP 4WAP 5WAP 6WAP 7WAP 8WAP 9WAP 10WAP Mean
N/ha)
0 42.1 44.4 63.6 89.2 117.1 134.6 166.0 182.0 104.9
60 51.0 53.9 80.8 107.0 144.7 186.0 206.0 226.0 131.9
90 51.0 55.2 86.6 107.9 142.4 185.0 204.0 223.0 131.9
120 57.6 61.8 86.6 121.8 168.2 220.0 247.0 274.0 154.6
150 61.8 65.8 99.5 131.6 190.4 241.0 266.0 290.0 168.3
LSD (0.05) NS 8.4 12.1 19.4 23.1 20.3 18.7 25.1
Table 5. Effects of poultry manure rates on the number of leaves per plant of fluted pumpkin
Poultry Number of leaves per plant
manure levels
(kg N/ha) 3WAP 4WAP 5WAP 6WAP 7WAP 8WAP 9WAP 10WAP Mean
0 16.1 20.7 28.3 30.8 45.0 67.5 76.8 88.8 48.0
60 16.3 23.0 35.0 50.7 68.3 85.7 93.8 102.2 59.4
90 18.0 24.0 34.5 49.8 66.2 86.0 94.8 103.3 59.6
120 21.3 29.8 42.2 53.3 71.7 92.5 103.0 113.5 65.9
150 22.6 33.0 48.2 66.5 88.8 114.0 126.2 137.7 79.6
LSD (0.05) NS NS 8.8 10.2 11.8 16.3 8.9 9.4
50
rd
Table 6. Effects of poultry manure rates on fresh yield (kg/ha) of fluted pumpkin
Poultry manure 4WAP 7WAP 10WAP
levels (kg N/ha)
0 223.89 233.42 192.00
60 342.63 523.48 548.00
90 376.06 561.78 602.10
120 413.49 585.82 635.11
150 442.19 648.12 682.90
LSD (0.05) 30.4 35.6 41.9
Discussion
The general increase in soil pH with increased poultry manure rates obtained in this study was similar
to the result obtained by Iren et al. (2014) when different pig manure rates were used as soil
amendment in fluted pumpkin cultivation. The ability of poultry manure to increase soil pH could be
due to the presence of basic cations. The finding in this study of having higher contents of soil organic
carbon in manure treated plots than control contradicts that obtained by Ano and Agwu (2005) who
reported higher value of organic carbon from control than from manure treated plots, but agrees with
the findings of Eneji and Uzoukwu (2012)and Iren et al. (2013) who reported significant increase in
soil organic carbon with increasing rates of manure.
The non-significant increase in vine length of fluted pumpkin by the treatments at 3 WAP could be
attributed to the slowly released pattern of nutrient from poultry manure. Similar results were obtained
by Iren et al. (2012) and Ndor et al. (2013) as they observed no significant increases in vine length of
fluted pumpkin at the initial stage of growth. The significant increases in growth parameters observed
as growth stage advanced shows that poultry manure has the potential to sustain the growth of plant for
a long period of time than planting without amendment. The noticeable differences that existed at
higher rate of poultry manureas the growth stage advanced are in line with the findings of Aderi et al.
(2011), Ndor et al. (2013) and Iren et al. (2013). They worked on the influence of organic manure rates
and inorganic fertilizer formulations on some quantitative parameters of fluted pumpkin, and reported
significant differences at higher rates of application as the growth stage advanced.
Several studies have confirmed that increasing the rate of application of organic manure
significantly increased the performance of crops (Schippers, 2000; John et al., 2011; Akande et al.,
2012;Iren et al. (2013)). In this study, the highest response of fluted pumpkin by 150 kg N/ha
(equivalent to 6 t/ha) of poultry manure rate indicated that the ceiling rate beyond which there is a
decline had not been attained. This is in line with the findings of Aderi et al. (2011) who observed no
ceiling rate from the highest rate of 16 t/ha of chicken manure used in their study for fluted pumpkin
production.
The increase in all the parameters assessed in this study reconfirmed the report of Schippers
(2000), Iren et al. (2012, 2013 and 2014) and Ndor et al. (2013) that there is a significant increase on
the growth and yield of fluted pumpkin by application of organic fertilizers. Thus, there is always a
proportional increase in all the parameters assessed when additional nutrients are applied. The study
showed that poultry manure applied at 150 kg N/ha (equivalent to 6 t/ha of poultry manure) best
supports the performance of fluted pumpkin in a degraded Ultisol. Therefore, for sustainable and better
performance of fluted pumpkin in the study area, 150 kg N/ha of poultry manure is recommended.
51
O.B. IREN et al.:
References
Aderi, O. S., Udofia, A. C. and Ndaeyo, N. U. 2011. Influence of chicken manure rates and inorganic
fertilizer formulations on some quantitative parameters of fluted pumpkin (Telfairia
occidentalis Hookf.). Nigerian Journal of Agriculture, Food and Environment. 7(1):9-15.
Akande, M. O., E. A. Makinde, I. M. Tijani, C. O. Kayode and Adediran, J. A. 2012. Effects of rate of
organic fertilizer on the growth and dry matter yield of Jatropha curcas.Nigerian Journal of
Soil Science, Vol. 22 (2):142-148.
Aletor, O., Oshodi, A. A. and Ipinmoroti, K. 2002. Chemical composition of common leafy vegetables
and functional properties of their leaf protein concentrate. Food Chemistry, 78:63-68.
Ano, A. O. and Agwu, J. A. 2005. Effect of animal manures on selected soil chemical properties (1).
Nigerian Journal of Soil Science, Vol. 15:14-19.
Badifu, G. I. O. and Ogunsua, A. O. 1991. Chemical composition of kernels from some species of
Cucurbitaceae grown in Nigeria. Plants Foods Hum. Nutrition. 41: 35-44.
Eneje, R. C. and Uzoukwu, I.2012. Effects of rice mill waste and poultry manure on some soil chemical
properties and growth and yield of maize. Nigerian Journal of Soil Science, 22 (1): 59-64.
Gomez, K. A. and Gomez, A. A. 1984. Statistical procedure for Agricultural Research. 2ndEdition. John
Wiley and Sons, New York, U.S.A, pp: 680.
Iren, O. B., Asawalam, D. O.,Osodeke, V. E. and John, N. M. 2011a. Effects of animal manures and urea
as nitrogen sources for Amaranthus growth and yield in a rain forest ultisol in Nigeria. World
Journal of Applied Sci. and Tech. (WOJAST), Vol. 3 (1): 73-78.
Iren, O. B., Asawalam, D. O., Osodeke, V. E. and John, N. M. 2011b. Comparative effects of animal
manures and urea fertilizer on soil properties in a rainforest ultisol. Journal of Agricultural
Research and Policies, 6 (2): 51-56.
Iren, O. B., John, N. M. and Imuk, E. A. 2012. Effects of sole and combined applications of organic
manures and urea on growth, crude protein and nutrient uptake of fluted pumpkin (Telfairia
occidentalis, hook f.). Journal of Agriculture, Forestry & Environment, 2(1): 78-84.
Iren, O. B., John, N. M. and Imuk, E. A. 2013. Influence of pig manure rates and NPK (15:15:15)
fertilizer on soil chemical properties and dry matter yield of fluted pumpkin (Telfairia
occidentalis Hook F.). Nigerian Journal of Soil and Environmental Research, 11: 55-59.
Iren, O. B., John, N. M. and Imuk, E. A. 2014. Effect of varying rates of pig manure and NPK (15:15:15)
fertilizer on growth, nutrient uptake and yield of fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hook
f.). Nigerian Journal of Soil and Environmental Research, 12:75 – 81.
John, N. M., Ibia, T. O., Effiong, G. S., Etokeren, U. E. and Iren, O. B. 2011. Response of maize (Zea
mays l.) to different levels of decomposed refuse in Uyo Municipality, Nigeria. World
Journal of Applied Science and Technology (WOJAST), Vol.3. No.1, 7-12.
John, N. M., Uwah, D. F., Iren, O. B. and Akpan, J. F. 2013. Changes in maize (Zea mays L.)
performance and nutrients content with application of poultry manure, municipal solid waste
and ash composts. Journal of Agricultural Science, 5 (3): 270-277.
Ndor, E., Dauda, S. N. and Garba, M. N. 2013.Growth and Yield Performances of Fluted Pumpkin
(Telfairia occidentalis Hook F.) under Organic and Inorganic Fertilizer on Ultisols of North
Central Nigeria. International Journal of Plant & Soil Science2(2): 212-221.
Schippers, R. R. 2000. African indigenous vegetables. An overview of the cultivated species. Chatham,
UK: Natural Resources Institute / ACP – EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural
Cooperation, 214pp.
Soil Survey Staff 1999. Soil Taxanomy: a basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting
soil surveys. USDA Agric. Handbook. No. 436, 2nd edition. U. S. Govt. printing office,
Washington D. C. 868pp.
Udo, E. J., Ibia, T. O., Ogunwale, J. A., Ano, A. O. and Esu, I. E. (2009). Manual of soil, plant and water
analyses.
52
rd
Effect of Accelerated Compost on Soil Physical and

Chemical Properties of an Alfisol
*AYANFE OLUWA O. E.1, O. O. ADEOLUWA2, S. O. OSHUNSANYA2AND V. O. ADURAMIGBA-MODUPE3
1
Department of Crop Production, Federal College of Agriculture, Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria.
2
3
Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Ibadan, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Keywords: Accelerated compost, Alfisol, microorganism, soil properties
Abstract
Accelerated compost (AC) is a newly developed commercial compost from market organic
wastes and animal manure with composting accelerated within twenty one (21) days using a
specific microorganism. However, information on effect of AC on soil properties is scarce.
Therefore a field experiment was conducted in Ibadan to assess the effect of an AC on the
properties of an Alfisol using maize (Zea mays L.) as a test crop. The experiment was laid out
in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The treatments were AC at
the rates of 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 kgN/ha; while NPK 15-15-15 mineral fertilizer and
conventional compost (CC) at 60 kgN/ha and an absolute control (no soil additive) were
used as checks. Data collected on post cropping soil physical and chemical properties were
subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the means separated using Duncan Multiple
Range Test (DMRT). The study revealed that the AC improved the physical (bulk density,
total porosity and volumetric moisture content) and chemical (pH, organic carbon, N and P)
properties of the soil with the 60 kgN/ha as the optimum rate.
Introduction
The regular addition of organic fertilizer to the soil increases soil organic matter, decreases soil bulk
density and enhances the soil structure and water holding capacity (Agele et al., 2005; Adeleye et al.,
2010; Adeyemo and Agele, 2010). The use of compost as soil amendment has been reported to improve
crop yields and quality (Achieng et al., 2010; Adeleye and Ayeni, 2010; Ibrahim and Fadni, 2013); this is
in addition to documented positive impacts on post soil chemical properties (Kayode et al. 2013,
Ibrahim and Fadni, 2013; äimon and Czakó, 2014).
Relative to the conventional composting where the decomposition of organic materials could take
six weeks to several months (Cooperband, 2002), the same process could be fast tracked by the
introduction of artificial catalytic microorganism agents like Trichodirma sp and Penicellum sp. making
such compost (otherwise known as accelerated compost) to mature within twenty one days (Rotor,
2008). This technology has the tendency to address the problem of lack of organic fertilizer in
developing countries thereby enhancing the rate of adoption of organic agriculture. However, there is a
paucity of information on the effects of accelerated compost on the soil properties. Therefore the
objective of this study was to assess the effect of an accelerated compost (AC) on the properties of an
Alfisol.
53
AYANFE OLUWA O.E. et al.:
This trial took place at the experimental site of the Federal College of Agriculture, Moor Plantation,
o o
Ibadan (7 22' 27.95'' N and 3 50' 20.62'' E), Nigeria. The site is a well drained greyish brown Alfisol in
the derived savannah agro-ecological zone. The pre cropping physical and chemical analysis of the site
carried out showed low N (0.9 g/kg), P (4 mg/kg), organic carbon (9.1 g/kg) and medium K (0.4
cmol/kg) which justified the need for fertilizer application.. The textural class was loamy sand according
to the USDA textural triangle. The bulk density was 1.65 and 1.79 g/cm3 at 0-15 and 15-30 cm soil depth
respectively. The total porosity was 37.74 and 32.45 % at 0-15 and 15-30 cm soil depth respectively.
3 3
While the volumetric moisture content was 0.167 and 0.21 cm /cm at 0-15 and 15-30 cm soil depth
respectively.
The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design, replicated three times. The
treatments were accelerated compost (AC) at the rates of 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 kgN/ha; NPK 15-15-
15 mineral fertilizer and conventional compost (CC), both at the rate of 60 kgN/ha as well as the absolute
control (no soil additive) were used as checks. AC is a newly developed commercial compost from
market organic wastes and animal manure with composting accelerated within twenty one (21) days
using a specific microorganism. The brand of CC used was Alesinloye compost. The depth of treatment
application was 10-15 cm. Each plot size was 3.3m x 3.3m planted to TZEE1 14 X TZEE1 57 X TZEE1
12 (extra early maturing Hybrid)variety of maize at a spacing of 75cm x 25cm. The maize plants were
thinned to one plant per stand giving a plant population of 53, 333 plants/ha. The compost treatments
were applied one week before sowing while the mineral fertilizer was applied at two weeks after sowing
(WAS). The soil samples were collected from 0-15 and 15- 30 cm depth. The post cropping soil physical
and chemical analyses were carried out after the second cropping. Data were subjected to analysis of
variance (ANOVA) and means separated using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT).
Results
The proximate composition of the composts (Table 1) showed that both the accelerated compost (AC)
as well as the conventional compost (CC) contained plant nutrients and carbon appreciably.The AC
treatments had significant effect on soil physical properties after the second cropping of maize (Table 2).
The 120 kgN/ha AC had the least bulk density (BD) value (1.55 g/cm3) at 0-15 cm soil depth, which was
not significantly different from other levels of AC, while the 60 kgN/ha NPK and the control gave the
3
highest values of 1.68 and 1.67 g/cm respectively. At 15-30 soil depth, the 120 kgN/ha AC treated soil
gave the lowest significant bulk density (BD) value of 1.58 g/cm3, followed by the 150 kgN/ha AC (1.60
g/cm3), 180 kgN/ha AC (1.65 g/cm3), 60 kgN/ha CC (1.63 g/cm3), 60 kgN/ha AC (1.68 g/cm3) while the
3
60 kgN/ha NPK gave the highest significant mean value of 1.69 g/cm . All the AC rates; 60 -180 kgN/ha
and 60 kgN/ha CC therefore resulted into significantly higher values of total porosity of 40.38 - 41.57 %
and 38.87 % respectively than the control (36.98 %) and NPK mineral fertilizer (36.60 %) at 0 - 15 cm
soil depth. The result followed the same trend at 15 - 30 cm soil depth.
In terms of the volumetric moisture content (VMC) at 0-15 cm soil depth, the 60 kgN/ha CC treated
3 3
soil gave the highest mean value of 0.081 cm /cm which was not significantly different from all the AC
3 3
levels except the 180 kgN/ha AC (0.058 cm /cm ), while the 60 kgN/ha NPK and the control gave the
lowest values of 0.048 and 0.044 cm3/cm3 respectively. At 15-30 cm soil depth, the 90 kgN/ha AC
3 3
treated soil resulted into the highest mean value of VMC (0.110 cm /cm ), followed by the 60 kgN/ha
3 3 3 3
CC (0.095 cm /cm ) and other levels of AC (0.084-0.077 cm /cm ), while the 60 kgN/ha NPK gave the
least value (0.074 cm3/cm3).
54
rd
The results showed that the fertilizer treatments applied had significant (p<0.05) effect on the soil
chemical properties after the second cropping (Table 3). The soil treated with 180 kgN/ha AC had the
highest pH value of 6.5, which was not significantly different from other AC levels (except 60
kgN/ha;AC; 6.3) and 60 kgN/ha CC, while the 60 kgN/ha NPK gave the lowest significant value of 6.1.
The 60 kgN/ha AC gave the highest mean organic carbon (14.5 g/kg) which was not significantly
different from the 180 kgN/ha AC (14.1 g/kg) but higher than others, followed by the 90 kgN/ha AC
(12.3 g/kg), while the control gave the lowest value (9.2 g/kg) which was not significantly different from
the 60 kgN/ha NPK (9.4 g/kg). In terms of total N, the 180 kgN/ha AC treated soil gave the highest mean
value of 1.5 g/kg, which was not significantly different from 60 and 150 kgN/ha AC treatments (1.3 g/kg
each), while the 60 kgN/ha NPK resulted in the lowest significant mean value of 0.9 g/kg. The 150
kgN/ha AC treated soil resulted into the highest value of available P (70 mg/kg) which was significantly
higher than others except the 60 kgN/ha AC (62 mg/kg), followed by the 180 kgN/ha AC (55 mg/kg),
120 kgN/ha AC (49 mg/kg), 90 kgN/ha AC (38 mg/kg), 60 kgN/ha AC (37 mg/kg), while the 60 kgN/ha
NPK and the control treatments gave the lowest significant mean values of 16 and 10 mg/kg P respectively.
There was no significant difference among the treatment means in terms of the exchangeable bases.
Table 1. Proximate composition of the composts used for the study

pH Total C:N
Parameter N P K Ca Na Fe Cu Mn Zn
(H2O) Carbon ratio
--------------------- (g/kg) ---------------- ----------- mg/kg -----------
AC 5.9 150 10.9 10 3 140 1 14 1321 61 405 146
CC 9.7 170 12 8 17 240 4 14 6053 11 393 1.5
AC; Accelerated compost, CC; Conventional compost
Table 2. Effects of the different levels of accelerated compost on some soil physical properties
after the second cropping
Bulk density (g/cm3) Total porosity Volumetric moisture
(%) content (cm3 /cm3 )
Treatment
15-30 15-30 15-30
0-15 soil soil 0-15 soil soil 0-15 soil soil
depth depth depth depth depth depth
Control 1.67a 1.68b 36.98c 36.60f 0.044d 0.077c
60 kg N /ha NPK 1.68a 1.69a 36.60c 36.23g 0.048d 0.074c
60 kg N /ha CC 1.62b 1.63c 38.87b 38.49e 0.081a 0.095b
60 kg N / ha AC 1.58bc 1.68b 40.38ab 36.60f 0.069abc 0.078c
90 kg N / ha AC 1.58bc 1.67d 40.38ab 36.98d 0.077ab 0.110a
120 kg N / ha AC 1.55c 1.58g 41.51a 40.38a 0.064bc 0.083bc
150 kg N / ha AC 1.56c 1.60f 41.13a 39.62b 0.069abc 0.077c
180 kg N / ha AC 1.57c 1.65e 40.75a 37.74c 0.058cd 0.084bc
Means with same letter(s) in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of probability by Duncan Multiple
Range Test (DMRT). NPK; NPK 15-15-15, AC; Accelerated compost, CC; conventional compost.
55
Table 3. Effects of the different levels of accelerated compost on soil chemical properties after the
second cropping
pH P
(H20) Org. C Tot. N (mg/kg)
Treatments 1:1 (g/kg) (g/kg) Ca Mg K Na
(cmol/kg)
Control 6.3bc 9.2e 1.2bc 10e 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.7
60 kg N / ha NPK 6.1d 9.4e 0.9d 16e 0.3 0.4 0.2 1.0
60 kg N / ha CC 6.4ab 10.0d 1.0cd 62ab 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.6
60 kg N / ha AC 6.3bc 14.5a 1.3ab 37d 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.9
90 kg N / ha AC 6.4ab 12.3b 1.2bc 38d 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.8
120 kg N / ha AC 6.4ab 11.2c 1.1cd 49c 0.3 0.4 0.2 1.2
150 kg N / ha AC 6.4ab 10.4d 1.3b 70a 0.3 0.4 0.1 1.5
180 kg N / ha AC 6.5a 14.1a 1.5a 55bc 0.4 0.5 0.2 1.0
ns ns ns ns
Means with same letter(s) in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of probability by Duncan Multiple
Range Test (DMRT). NPK; NPK 15-15-15, AC; Accelerated compost, CC; conventional compost, ns; not significant.
Discussion
The AC treatments increased the soil pH, organic carbon, N and P relative to the control and NPK
mineral fertilizer. The AC improved these soil properties relative to the initial soil status even when
applied at 60 kgN/ha. This could be attributed to quick mineralization of the AC to release nutrients to the
soil. The result confirmed the findings of Kayode et al. (2013) andäimon and Czakó (2014) that organic
fertilizers improved post cropping soil pH, organic carbon, available P and N. The result also showed
that the AC at 60 kgN/ha decreased the bulk density and consequently increased the total porosity as well
as the volumetric moisture content at 0-15 cm depth which is the rooting zone for most of the arable
crops.Relative to the initial soil status at the two soil depths, the AC improved the bulk density and the
total porosity comparable to that of conventional compost. This result is in support of the report of
Adeyemo and Agele (2010) that farmyard manure improved the volumetric moisture content of an
Alfisol in southwestern Nigeria. The improvement in the soil bulk density might be possibly due to
increase in the proportion of macro-aggregates and soil organic matter (Agele et al., 2005). The ACat 60
kgN/ha and at higher levels improving the bulk density and consequently the soil volumetric moisture
content is in accordance with the report of Adeleye et al. (2010), that the addition of organic fertilizer
improved the soil physical conditions mainly by improving the soil structure and decreasing soil bulk
density.
Conclusion
The data from the study showed that the accelerated compost improved both the soil physical and
chemical properties comparable to that of conventional compost at the same rate of 60 kgN/ha of
application. Thus the short duration of composting for accelerated compost does not pose limitation to
its ability to improve the soil properties at the optimum rate of 60 kgN/ha.
56
rd
Table 6. Effects of poultry manure rates on fresh yield (kg/ha) of fluted pumpkin
Poultry manure 4WAP 7WAP 10WAP
levels (kg N/ha)
0 223.89 233.42 192.00
60 342.63 523.48 548.00
90 376.06 561.78 602.10
120 413.49 585.82 635.11
150 442.19 648.12 682.90
LSD (0.05) 30.4 35.6 41.9
Discussion
The general increase in soil pH with increased poultry manure rates obtained in this study was similar
to the result obtained by Iren et al. (2014) when different pig manure rates were used as soil
amendment in fluted pumpkin cultivation. The ability of poultry manure to increase soil pH could be
due to the presence of basic cations. The finding in this study of having higher contents of soil organic
carbon in manure treated plots than control contradicts that obtained by Ano and Agwu (2005) who
reported higher value of organic carbon from control than from manure treated plots, but agrees with
the findings of Eneji and Uzoukwu (2012)and Iren et al. (2013) who reported significant increase in
soil organic carbon with increasing rates of manure.
The non-significant increase in vine length of fluted pumpkin by the treatments at 3 WAP could be
attributed to the slowly released pattern of nutrient from poultry manure. Similar results were obtained
by Iren et al. (2012) and Ndor et al. (2013) as they observed no significant increases in vine length of
fluted pumpkin at the initial stage of growth. The significant increases in growth parameters observed
as growth stage advanced shows that poultry manure has the potential to sustain the growth of plant for
a long period of time than planting without amendment. The noticeable differences that existed at
higher rate of poultry manureas the growth stage advanced are in line with the findings of Aderi et al.
(2011), Ndor et al. (2013) and Iren et al. (2013). They worked on the influence of organic manure rates
and inorganic fertilizer formulations on some quantitative parameters of fluted pumpkin, and reported
significant differences at higher rates of application as the growth stage advanced.
Several studies have confirmed that increasing the rate of application of organic manure
significantly increased the performance of crops (Schippers, 2000; John et al., 2011; Akande et al.,
2012;Iren et al. (2013)). In this study, the highest response of fluted pumpkin by 150 kg N/ha
(equivalent to 6 t/ha) of poultry manure rate indicated that the ceiling rate beyond which there is a
decline had not been attained. This is in line with the findings of Aderi et al. (2011) who observed no
ceiling rate from the highest rate of 16 t/ha of chicken manure used in their study for fluted pumpkin
production.
The increase in all the parameters assessed in this study reconfirmed the report of Schippers
(2000), Iren et al. (2012, 2013 and 2014) and Ndor et al. (2013) that there is a significant increase on
the growth and yield of fluted pumpkin by application of organic fertilizers. Thus, there is always a
proportional increase in all the parameters assessed when additional nutrients are applied. The study
showed that poultry manure applied at 150 kg N/ha (equivalent to 6 t/ha of poultry manure) best
supports the performance of fluted pumpkin in a degraded Ultisol. Therefore, for sustainable and better
performance of fluted pumpkin in the study area, 150 kg N/ha of poultry manure is recommended.
57
References
Achieng, J. O., Ouma G., Odhiambo, G. and Muyekho, F. 2010. Effect of farm yard manure and
inorganic fertilizer on maize production on Alfisol and Ultisol in kakamega, western Kenya.
Agriculture and Biology Journal of North America 1 (4): 430-439.
Adeleye, E. O. and Ayeni, L. S. 2010. Enhancing soil nutrient status and maize yield through Organic
wastes on Alfisol in South West Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of soil Science 20(1): 79-85.
Adeleye, E. O. Ayeni, L. S. and Ojeniyi, S. O. 2010. Effect of Poultry Manure on Soil Physico-
Chemical Properties, Leaf Nutrient Contents and Yield of Yam (Dioscorea rotundata) on
Alfisol in Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of American Science 6(10): 871-878.
Adeyemo, A. J. and Agele, S. O. 2010. Effects of tillage and manure application on soil
physicochemical properties and yield of maize grown on a degraded intensively tilled
Alfisol in southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Soil Science and Environmental Management. 1
(8): 205-216.
Agele, S. O., Ewulo, B. S. and Oyewusi, I. K. 2005. Effect of some management systems on soil
physical properties, microbial biomass and nutrient distribution under rain fed maize
production in a humid rainforest Alfisol. Nutrient Cycling Agroecosystem 72: 121-134.
Ibrahim, K. H. M. and Fadni, O.A.S. 2013. Effect of Organic Fertilizers Application on Growth, Yield
and Quality of Tomatoes in North Kordofan (sandy soil) western Sudan. Greener Journal of
Agricultural Science 3 (4): 299-304.
Cooperband, L. 2002. The Art and Science of Composting; A resource for farmers and compost producers.
University of Wisconsin-Madison. Center for Integrated Agricultural Systems.14 pp.
Kayode, C. O., Akande, M. O., Adekunle, A. F, Ogunleti, D. O. and Adeoye, G. O. 2013. Effect of cocoa
pod husk based compost on the growth, nutrient uptake and dry matter yield of Roselle.
Nigeria Journal of Soil Science 23(1) 136-142.
Rotor A. V. 2008. The hiring with nature handbook. of html?m=1.
äimon T. and Czakó, A. 2014. Influence of long-term application of organic and inorganic fertilizers on
soil properties. Plant Soil Environment 60 (7): 314–319.
58
rd
Evaluation of Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrient Status of Two

Organic Farms: Case Study of University of Ibadan and
Ogungbade Village, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
E.A. AREMU, G.O. ADEOYE AND S.A. ONI
Department of Agronomy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
Keywords: Soil fertility, plant nutrients, soil analysis, judgment sampling, organic farm.
Abstract
Two organic farms (I) Ogungbade village and (II) University of Ibadan were evaluated for
their soil fertility and nutrient status. Deficiency symptoms were assessed using Judgment
sampling technique on fifteen (15) different plant species from farm I and three (3) from farm
II while soil samples were collected beneath each of the plant sampled at 0-15cm and 15-
30cm depths. Soil and plant analyses were compared with their respective established
critical nutrient levels to make diagnosis and recommendations. The study revealed
sufficient nutrients in the soil but deficient in the plants indicating that the soils are fertile but
not productive. Beyond diagnostic survey, an effective plant analysis should accompany soil
testing programme.
Introduction
The management of nutrients in organic farming systems presents a formidable challenge, as the use of
synthetic fertilizers is not permitted (Bello, 2008). Therefore organic farmers must optimize a range of
soil, crop, rotation and manure managements to ensure a nutrient supply which will guarantee optimum
crop yield and minimize losses to the environment. The foundation of organic farming lies in the health
of the soil. A fertile soil provides essential nutrients to a growing crop/plant and helps support a diverse
and active biotic community (Mellisa, V.T., 2003).Plants require 16 essential elements for normal
growth and reproduction. Each of these nutrients has a function in plants and is required in varying
amounts in plant tissue, (Akinrinde, 2006). An important part of crop farming is being able to identify
and prevent plant nutrient deficiencies and toxicities. Conventional soil testing is inadequate in
evaluating the ability of organically managed soil to supply nutrients throughout the growing season.
This system needs a different form of soil testing. Such a soil testing system would likely be a
complex measurement of the soil organic matter and the ability of the soil to re-cycle the nutrients from
organic matter into plant available forms (Ian Cushon, 2003).
Evaluation of organic matter in soil should be based on trends over several years of tests. There can
be considerable variation among individual years because of cropping history or climate change or
fluctuations.
The study was carried out in 2013 at two locations. (I) Ogungbade village situated along Ibadan-Ife
express road while the second site was University of Ibadan (Latitude 30 48' and 400'E and between 70 25'
59
E.A. AREMU et al.: Evaluation of Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrient Status of Two
0
and 7 30'N) organic garden, situated on the teaching and Research farm University of Ibadan. Judgment
sampling technique was adopted in the collection of the samples of the deficient plants as well as the soil
samples on the two sites. Soil samples were collected at two different depths 0 – 15 cm (topsoil) and 15 –
30cm (subsoil) into well labelled sampling bags using an auger. Samples of fifteen plant species were
collected from farm I and three (3) from farm II. The soil and plant samples were then prepared for
routine analyses. Other parameters analyzed for were pH, ECEC, exchangeable bases, exchangeable
acidity, organic carbon, Micronutrients, Particle size distribution.
The soil nutrient analysis conducted on farms I and II topsoil revealed that the soil PH ranges from
moderately acidic to slightly alkaline (5.7 – 7.5) which is adequate for crop production in tropical soils
(Aduayi et al;2002.). the average soil Nitrogen for farms I and II are 2.4g/kg (moderately high) and
0.6g/kg (low) respectively with respect to their critical levels (Chude et al; 2012). The low N level
indicates that additional N input (weather synthetic, organic or organomineral) is required for optimum
plant production whereas little or no N input is needed in high N level soil. The average P value for farm I
is very high (52.26mg/kg) while that of farm II is low (6.04mg/kg) with respect to critical level of high
>20mg/kg and low 3-7mg/kg respectively. P element (which is next to the most important element N is
deficient in most of the tropical soils) is needed in large amounts by the plants to complete their life
cycles (Osiname, 2000; Obigbesan, 2000; Uponi and Adeoye, 2000 and Omueti et al., 2000). High level
of P in farm I indicates no need of additional input as crop response is unlikely, while low P soil requires
further P input. Also, the micronutrient contents of the soils from both farms are high, hence, further
addition of micronutrients may not be necessary as crop response to the fertilizer applied is unlikely and
the average ECEC values for farm I 39.29 cmol/kg (high) and farm II 11.77 cmol/kg (adequate) with
respect to critical levels according to Mark (2012).
The N and P values generally range from low to high when compared with their respective critical
ranges. Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) which are part of the CEC of the soil, fall between medium
to high when compared with their established critical ranges. The exception to this is Potassium (K)
which is generally low in both farms and this revealed that these secondary macronutrients (Ca and Mg)
are usually enough in the soil (Akinrinde, 2006) therefore, their addition as fertilizer is not always
necessary. Among the accompanied exchangeable cations only Potassium was found to be low except in
samples 7 and 8 where it is adequate, having values greater than 0.45 cmol/kg.
The average ECEC in farms I and II are high and adequate respectively.
The soil textural classes range from sandy loam to loamy sand.
Table 3 shows the Chemical and Physical characteristics of the subsoil of the two study sited. The
soil PH ranges from moderately acidic and slightly alkaline (6.0 – 7.5) for farm I, while farm II PH is
slightly acidic (6.6 – 6.7). However, the soil PH for the two organic farm is adequate for crop production
in the South western region.
Farms I and II had averages of 28.71 g/kg and 24.40 g/kg of organic carbon content respectively
which indicates the two farms were high in organic carbon with respect to the critical range (10-14 g/kg)
for an alfisol (Chude et al, 2012). The high organic carbon content is as a result of the farms being left
fallow for a period of time with an accumulation of decayed plant residues as this will promote microbial
population, improves physical properties and aeration. The average values of each element from farm I
as shown above reveals that total Nitrogen (2.34g/kg) and available P (59.0 mg/kg), were high above the
critical ranges of 1.6 – 2.0g/kg and 7-20mg/kg respectively given by Aduayi et al 2002: Chude et al
(2012), while in farm II, total N (1.6g/kg) and available P (18mg/kg) are adequate.
60
rd
The potassium content of the top soil in the farms is generally low (0.19cmol/kg) compared with their
critical level of 0.3 - 0.6 cmol/kg as stated by Chude et al (2012). This is in contrast to the general believe
that tropical soils are rich in potassium according to Enwenzor (1989); Osiname (2000).
Table 1. List of the selected plants from the two Organic farms
S/N Plants Scientific Names
1 Plantain Musa paradisiaca
2 Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas
3 Sesame Sesamumindicum
4 Pepper Capsicum spp
5 Ewedu Olitoruscochorus
6 Moringa Moringaoleifera
7 Chaya Cnidoscolusaconitifolius
8 Cocoyam Colocasiaesculenta
9 Okro Abelmoschusesculentus
10 Coconut Cocosnucifera
11 Oil palm Elaeisguineensis
12 Pawpaw Carica papaya
13 Eggplant Solanummelongena
14 Cocoa Theobroma cacao
15 Guava Psidiumguajava
16 Ewedu Olitoruscochorus
17 Green vegetable Cellosia spp.
18 Okro Abelmoschusesculentus
Samples 1-15 from Farm I and 16-18 from farm II
Table 2. Comparison of Macro and Micronutrient contents of farms I and II topsoils

(0-15cm depth) with the established critical ranges
Sample N P Ca Mg K Mn Fe Cu Zn
1 M M M L L H H H H
2 M M M M L H H H H
3 H H M L L H H H H
4 M L H M L H H M H
5 M H H H L H H M H
6 H H H H L H H H H
7 H H H H M H H H H
8 H H H H M H H H H
9 M H H M L H H H H
10 L M H M L H H H H
11 M M H M L H H H H
12 H M H M L H H H H
13 L L H L L H H H H
15 H H H M L H H H H
16 L L M L L H H H H
17 L L M L L H H H H
18 L L H M L H H H H
H = High, M = Medium and L= Low
61
Table 3: Comparison between the Macro and Micronutrients contents of the subsoils (15-30cm)
and the Established critical ranges
Sample N P Ca Mg K Mn Fe Cu Zn
1 M H H M L H H H H
2 M L M L L H H H H
3 H H H M L H H H H
4 H M H M L H H H H
5 H H H M L H H M H
6 H H H H L H H H H
7 H H H H L H H H H
8 M H H H L H H H H
9 H H H M L H H H H
10 M L H H L H H H H
12 H L H H L H H H H
15 H H H M L H H H H
18 H M H M L H H H H
H = High, M = Medium and L= Low.
Table 4. Comparison of the Macro and Micro nutrients content of the selected field crops with the
established critical nutrient range
Crops N P K Ca Mg Na Mn Fe Cu Zn
Plantain L L H H M M M H L M
Sweet potato L L M M M - L H - -
Pepper L L . . . . . . . .
Cocoyam L L M M M . L .
Okro L L L L H . . . . .
Coconut L H H H L H L L L L
Oil palm L H H L M . L . L H
Pawpaw H H L M M L L L M
Egg plant L L L M L . M L . .
Cocoa L M M . . . . L . .
Guava L L L L L . . . . .
H= High, M= Medium, L = Low and - = not available
62
rd
Conclusion and Recommendation
From diagnostic survey, soil analysis of top and subsoils were compared with nutrient content of the
plant and it was discovered that most of the nutrients were sufficient in soil but were below critical level
in plants, reflecting that the soils are rich while the plants are manifesting hidden hunger. On the other
hand, the soils are fertile but not productive. This discrepancy revealed that soil environmental
constraints are often responsible for why the sufficient nutrient in the soil was not reflected in the plant
absorption.
Conclusively, a holistic approach from nutrient diagnosis, soil analysis and plant analysis should be
carefully interpreted with the soil environment and management of the cropping system. Critical levels
of some of the plant nutrients in some crop species are scanty in literature; therefore it is recommended
that research should focus on this knowledge gap.
References
Adeoye, G.O. and Agboola, A.A., 1985. Critical levels for soil pH, available P, K, Zn and Mn and maize
earleaf content of P, Cu, and Mn in sedimentary soil of southwest Nigeria. Fertilizer Research
6:65 – 71.
Aduayi, E.A., V.O. Chude B.O. Adebusiyi and S.O. Olayiwola. (eds) 2002. Fertilizer use and
management practices for crops in Nigeria (3rd ed.). Federal Fertilizer Department, Federal
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Abuja, Pp 185-188.
Akinrinde, E.A. (2006a). Basics of plant mineral Nutrition (eds: Uche, C.A. and Kadeba, T.O.S.) In:
Lulu AMS Publishing Inc, 2005 Pp 10-50.
Bello, W.B. (2008): Problems and prospect of organic farming in Developing countries. Ethiopian
Journal of Environmental studies and management. Vol 1, No 1, Pp 36-43.
Chude, V.O., S.O. Olayiwola, C. Dauda and A. Ekeoma (eds). 2012. Fertilizer use and management
practices for crops in Nigeria (4th edition). Federal fertilizer Department, Federal Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development, Abuja, Pg 40 – 41.
Enwenzor, W.O. (ed) (1989). Fertilizer use and management practices for crops in Nigeria.
Federal Fertilizer department, Federal ministry of Agriculture and rural development, Abuja, Pp 163.
Magat, S.S.,1989. The Nutritional Deficiencies and fertilization of Coconut in the Philippines.
Philippines Coconut Authority, R & D (Report 2).
Ian Cushon, 2003. Handbook on “All things organic-soil testing may not tell the whole tale.
Mark, K.A. 2012 “Soil testing guide.” Market-Oriented Agriculture Programme of the Ministry of
Food and Agriculture 1st Edition. Pp 5-27.
Mellisa, V.T. and Sven, V. 2003, Handbook on maintaining soil fertility under an organic Management
System”.
Obigbesan, G.O. 2000. Plant Mineral Nutrition in Nigeria: My Experience. Agronomy in Nigeria. Pp
188 – 193.
Omueti, J.A.I., Sridhar, M.K.C., Adeoye, G.O. Bamiro O. and Fadare D.A. Organic fertilizer use in
Nigeria: Our experience Agronomy in Nigeria. Pp 208.
Osiname, O.A. (2000) Soil fertility in Nigeria: My experience. Agronomy in Nigeria. M. O. Akorada
(ed) Pg 183-187.
Reuter, D.J. and Robinson, J.B., 1986. Plant analysis and Interpretation manual. Pp 12 – 37 Uponi, J.I.
and Adeoye, G.O. 2000. Soil Testing and Plant Analysis: an overview. Agronomy in
Nigeria Pp 174 – 182.
Silva, J.A. and Uchida, R., 2000. Eds College of Tropical Agriculture and human resources, University
of Hawaii, Monoa.
63
RAHMANN G., OLABIYI T. I. & OLOWE V.I.O. (Eds.) (2015) Scientific Track Proceedings of the 3rd African Organic Conference.
Evaluation of Velvet-Fallow and Compost Amendments on

Corchorus (Corchorus olitorus l.) yield and Soil Properties
in an Organic Farming System
ADEOLUWA, O. O. AND A. BELLO
Keywords: Corchorus, Ibadan brewery waste based compost, Nitrogen, Residual soil fertility,
Velvet bean.
Abstract
Legumes can play an important role in management of nitrogen (N) for vegetable production,
especially in tropics where low native fertility is a major constraint to crop production. Thus,
this report therefore presents evaluation of the influence of velvet bean-fallow (residual
fertility) and compost on the yields of corchorus (Corchorus olitorus), as well as the post-
harvest soil fertility quality. Corchorus was used as the test crop. Six treatments IBBW1
(Ibadan brewery waste based grade A), IBBW2 (Ibadan brewery waste based grade B),
IBBW1 compost + Velvet residual fertility, IBBW2 compost + Velvet residual fertility, Velvet
residual fertility (Sole) and no fertilizer treatment as a control were investigated. The compost
was applied at 100 kgN/ha. The experimental was laid in a complete randomized block
design, replicated four times. The results of this experiment showed that the fertilizer sources
had significant effects on dry yield of corchorus. The sole velvet fallow resulted into the best
dry yield of 7.22 t/ha of corchorus and treatment IBBW1 + velvet fallow left the soil with better
pH, total nitrogen and available phosphorus status. In general, sole velvet plus compost
proved better fertilizers in the production of Corchorus olitorus. Thus, these treatments could
be useful in organic production system for corchorus.
Introduction
The interest to preserve soil fertility for crop production through the use of legumes as cover crops or
green manures has been known since time immemorial. This management approach is often used by
organic farmers, because it is perceived to be more environmentally sound and less expensive than the
use of inorganic fertilizers (Edmeades, 2003). Cropping without fallow and proper restoration of soil
fertility could greatly lead to decrease in soil fertility, reduced levels of soil organic matter, and lead to soil
acidification. Thus, achieving food security for a rapidly growing population will require intensification of
food production through improving soil fertility management and improved agronomic practices without
environmental degradation experienced through the uncontrolled use of inorganic fertilizers.
There is a wide range of technological options for improving soil conservation and land
management that are economically viable, ecologically sound, and socially acceptable. These options
include organic fertilizers, crop residue management, green manure, composting, farmyard manure,
agroforestry technologies, alley farming, planted fallow, cover crops, and cereal legumes intercropping
or rotation (Herencia et al., 2007).Composts are widely used assoil amendments to improve soil
structure, provide plant nutrients and facilitate the re-vegetation of disturbed soils (Brady and Weil,
65
ADEOLUWA, O.O. et al.:
Evaluation of Velvet-Fallow and Compost Amendments on Corchorus (Corchorus olitorus l.)
yield and Soil Properties in an Organic Farming System
2005).Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) is a legume cover crop that is an efficient, low-cost source of
nitrogen with considerable potential to improve soil fertility in intensified cropping systems (Carsky et
al., 1998). Gaskell, 2004 reported that pepper (as a vegetable) without prior cover crops require 90 kg of
nitrogen per acre to reach yield similar to pepper with a prior cover crop. However, information available
on the influence of velvet bean fallow on some indigenous crops like corchorus is almost none existing.
Corchorus olitorus is a vegetable food to many families in Africa, Asia and in the Middle East, it is
also used for fibre production in the Americas, known by the common name; jute or hemp. It has a
potential to become one of the major vegetables and can be grown either on its own or intercropped with
other common food crops such as maize and sorghum (Masarirambi et al., 2011). Despite the benefits of
manures, such as enhanced N2-fixation (GrM), high subsequent crop yields, and other positive effects on
soil physical and chemical properties, there is still dearth of information on Velvet fallow (residual
fertility), augmented with compost amendments in the production of corchorus. The objectives of this
report therefore are to evaluate the single and combined effects of Velvet bean-fallow and compost on
the yields of corchorus and also on the post-harvest soil fertility quality.
This study was carried out on the field of the Organic Vegetable Garden, of the Teaching and Research
0 ' 0 '
Farm of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria at latitude 7 24 N and longitude 30 54 E between January and
March 2014. It is located in the derived savannah of South West Nigeria. The treatments consisted
IBBW1 Ibadan brewery waste based grade A, IBBW2 Ibadan brewery waste based grade B, IBBW1
compost + Velvet residual fertility, IBBW2 compost +Velvet residual fertility, Velvet residual fertility
(residue of velvet planted on the soil before planting of the vegetables), and a control treatment (no
fertilizer).The compost were obtained from organic section of Teaching and Research Farm University
Ibadan and the cochorus seeds was obtained from a commercial seed outlet. Each treatment was
replicated four times, in a randomized complete block design. The experimental plot consisted of thirty-
two 2 m x 1.5 m in all with the total land area of 456.8m2 (24m x 19.8 m). The seed were sown, using drill
method with 3 cm apart and 0.5m inter-bed spacing and the corchorus plants were thinned to a planting
density of about 1.8 million plants per hectare, two weeks after planting.
Surface soil samples (0-15 cm depth) were collected from experimental field before and after the
investigation. The soil samples were air dried and sieved (<2 mm). Composites soil samples were
processed for laboratory analyses. At harvesting (4 weeks after sowing), fresh shoot and root weight
were determined using destructive samplings. Plant samples were later oven dried at 700C till constant
weight and weighed to determine the dry shoot and root weights. Data generated were analysed
statistically by analysis of variance (ANOVA) using GENSTAT and Duncan Mutiple Range Test
(DMRT) was used to seperate treatment means at 0.05 significant level.
Results
The pre planting chemical and physical soil properties are shown in Table 1. The pH of the soil was
moderately acidic (6.8). Soil total nitrogen and exchangeable potassium (K) of 0.1 g/kg and 0.2 cmol/kg
obtained respectively were lower than the critical ranges. The soil was also low in organic carbon
(2.81g/kg) and loamy sand in texture. The available phosphorus (P) of the soil was 14 mg/kg. These pre-
planting soil properties made the experimental plot suitable for the fertilizer experiment. Details of
nutrient compositions of the brewery based waste compost A and B revealed that total nitrogen ranged
from 0.93 % - 0.98%, while the phosphorus ranged from 0.92 % - 0.94 % ,as well as potassium which
66
ranged from 0.74% - 1.12%. Table 2 showed the comparative effects of different organic amendments
on dry yields of corchorus. The treatments had a significant effect at (P< 0.05) on all the yield parameters
collected. The Velvet + IBBW1 treatment resulted into the highest dried shoot weight (6.50 t/ha), Velvet
fallow resulted into the highest total dry weight (7.22 t/ha), followed by IBBW2 treatment (7.16 t/ha).
Comparative effect of Organic Amendments on the Soil Properties
Table 3revealed that fertilizer treatments significantly affect the post fertility status of the soil. The
IBBW1 + Velvet (residual fertility) increased the soil organic carbon, nitrogen, available phosphorus,
calcium and potassium, when compared with other treatments used, as well as the initial fertility status.
Table 1. Soil chemical properties and particle size distribution before planting
Parameters pH OC N Av. P Ca K Na Mn Fe Cu Sand silt Clay
g/kg mg/kg cmol/kg mg/kg g/kg
Values 6.8 2.8 0.1 14 3.1 0.2 0.5 65 67 11 650 236 114
Table 2. Comparative effects of organic fertilizer amendments on the yields of corchorus (t/ha)
after 5 weeks of sowing
Treatment Dry shoot weight Dry whole weight
Control 3.48b 4.17b
IBBW1 + Velvet residual fertility 5.46ab 6.08ab
IBBW2 + Velvet residual fertility 5.62ab 6.29ab
IBBW 1 6.50ab 7.16ab
IBBW 2 5.46ab 6.15ab
Velvet 6.50a 7.22a
Table 3. Post harvest soil analysis for corchorus

Treatments pH OC N Av. P Ca K Na Mn Fe Cu
g/kg mg/kg cmol/kg mg/kg
Control 6.3 1.7 0.2 13 2.4 0.1 0.5 471 144 9

IBBW1 + Velvet residual fertility 6.5 3.5 0.4 72 4.9 0.6 0.7 532 210 12
IBBW2 + Velvet residual fertility 6.1 2.8 0.4 53 4.1 0.4 0.7 664 431 14
IBBW1 Compost 6.5 2.3 0.3 52 3.5 0.2 0.6 504 234 13
IBBW2 Compost 6.5 2.4 0.3 15 3 0.2 0.6 557 145 13
Velvet residual fertility 5.9 2.7 0.3 23 2.9 0.1 0.7 548 250 10
Mean
6.3 2.6 0.3 38 3.5 0.3 0.6 546 236 12
SD
0.2 0.5 0.1 21 0.8 0.2 0.1 56 89 2
Legend: SD: Standard deviation, IBBW 1 – Ibadan Brewery Waste Based Grade A Compost,
IBBW 2 - Ibadan Brewery Waste Based Grade B Compost
67
Discussion
The effects of organic fertilizers were significantly different on the yield of Jute as evident in
parameters evaluated. The least performance of the plants in the control was a reflection of soil
nutrients deficit. This result is similar to one observed by Okpara et al. (2007).
Ibeawuchi et al. (2006) reported that organic fertilizers increased the nutrient status of the soil
through gradual release of nutrients to the soil. Similarly, Olanikan (2006) reported that organic
fertilizers increased organic matter status of the soil and enhanced crop production. This could have
resulted into the significant difference observed in the dry yield of corchorus. However, the
appreciable and significant difference (P =0.05) in dry weight of corchorus (7.22 t/ha) by velvet bean
fallow treatment may be due to the fact that velvet bean has the potential to improve the soil quality by
N-fixation. Ayeni et al. (2008) attributed improvement in soil health to the nutrient content and the
amount of material applied. Thus, the improvement in soil fertility by the velvet fallow and IBBW
composts could have led to increase in photosynthate accumulation (Siemonsma, 1991). Thus, the
results of this trial showed velvet bean fallow resulted in the highest yield of corchorus, while its
combination with IBBW1 increased soil fertility properties.
Conclusions
Organic farming is one of the ways to maintain soil health while retaining the productivity levels. The
result revealed velvet (residual fertility) had significant influence on the yield of corchorus and it
performed better compared to the control treatment (no fertilizer), this indicates that velvet bean
fallow is good for sustaining soil health and organic production. Post-harvest soil with velvet bean
fallowplus IBBW 1 compost treatments had better nutrient status compared to the untreated plots in
terms of nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter contents, these maybe useful of crop rotation
practices and intercrops with other fruiting vegetable crops.
References
Ayeni, L. S., Adetunji, M. T., Ojeniyi, S. O., Ewulo, B.S. and Adeyemo, A.J. (2008).Comparative and
cumulative effect of cocoa pod husk and Poultry Manure on Soil and maize nutrient content
and yield.American-Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 2(1): 92-97.
Brady, N.C, Weil, R. R (2002). The Nature and Properties of Soil.Macmillian; New York.Pp.616-
660.
Carsky, R. J., Tarawali,S. A., Becker,M. Chikoye, D. Tian,G. and Sanginga, N.,(1998). Mucuna—
herbaceous cover legume with potential for multiple uses. Resource and Crop
Management Research Monograph No. 25. IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. Chemical fertilizer uses
in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Horticultural Science 3: 1– 9.
Edmeades, D.C. (2003). The long-term effects of manures and fertilizers on soil productivity and
quality: a review. Nutrient Cycling In Agroecosystems. 66: 165-180.
Gaskell, M. (2004). Nitrogen availability, supply and sources in organic row crops. California
Organic production and farming in the new millennium. A California Research
Symposium, July15, 2004, Berkeley, CA. UC Davis. Sustainable Agriculture Research and
Education program. Pp. 13–20.
Herencia, J. F., J. C. Ruiz-Porras, S. Melero, P. A. Garcia-Galavis, E. Morillo and C. Maqueda (2007)
Comparison between organic and mineral fertilization for soil fertility levels, crop
macronutrient concentrations and yield. Agronomy Journal. 99:973-983.
68
Ibeawuchi I. I, Onwerenmadu E. U, Oti N. N (2006). Effect of poultry manure on green

(Amaranthus cruentus) and water leaf (Talinum triangulare) on degraded ultisol of
Owerri, South Eastern Nigeria Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 5 (1): 53-56.
Masarirambi, M. T., Sibandze, N., Wahome, P. K. and Oseni, T.O. (2011). Effects of Kraa Manure
Application Rates on Growth and Yield of Wild Okra (Corchorus olitorius L) in a Sub-
tropical Environment. Asian Journal of Agricultural Science, 4: 89-95.
NIHORT. (1986). Advances in fruit and vegetable research at NIHORT. A commemorative
publication, Ibadan, Nigeria. pp. 23 – 36.
Okpara, D. A., Muoneke,C.O. and Ojikpong, T.O. (2007).Effects of nitrogen and phosphorus
fertilizer rates on the growth and yield of sesame (Sesamumindicum L.) in the
southeastern rainforest belt of Nigeria. The Nigerian Agriculture Journal. pp. 38: 1-11.
Olanikan P. C (2006). Organic manure as soil amendments in eroded tropical soils of South western
Nigeria. J. Trop. Soils. 5(3): 11-18.
Siemonsma, J. S. (1991). Abelmoschus esculentus a taxonomical and cytogenical over view: In
reports of International workshop on okra genetic resources, New Delhi, India, Oct. 1990.
Inter Crop Network Series 5. pp. 63.
69
Efficacy of Compost, NPK and Organomineral Fertilizers

on Growth and Yield of Celosia argentea L.
OLOWOAKE, A.A.
Department of Crop Production, Kwara State University,
P.M.B. 1530, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.
Keywords: Celosia argentea, NPK, organic fertilizer, organomineral fertilizers, shoot yield.
Abstract
A pot trial was conducted in the screen-house of Kwara State University, Malete, Nigeria
during 2014 planting season to examine the efficacy of compost, NPK and organomineral
fertilizers on growth and yield ofCelosia argentea as well as residual effects. The treatments
comprised of Aleshinloye Grade A (Organomineral fertilizer), Aleshinloye Grade B (Un-
amended compost), Sunshine Grade A(Organomineral fertilizer), Sunshine Grade B (Un-
amended compost), NPK and control. The experiment was laid out in a completely
randomized design (CRD) with three replicates. All the treatments (except the control of no
1
soil additive) were applied at the rate of 45 kgNha- . Measurements of agronomic
parameters were taken and data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA)
using the statistical analysis system (SAS).The parameters assessed were significantly
influenced (p<0.05) by the applied fertilizer types. The results showed that dry shoot yield
values of Celosia argentea were 2.5 and 2.4 g respectively with Sunshine Grade A and
Aleshinloye Grade A. Residual effect of Celosia fresh shoot yield values obtained from
Sunshine Grade A (5.3 g) and Aleshinloye Grade A (5.6g) were significantly (p<0.05) higher
than that of the NPK treatment (3.6 g). The yield of celosia in Guinea Savanna zone of
Nigeria can be significantly improved with application of organic fertilizers fortified with
mineral fertilizer.
Introduction
Celosia argentea an edible species of the genus Celosia of the Amaranthaceae family is widely grown in
gardens and other parts of West Africa. This leafy vegetable is an essential component of people's diet in
Nigeria and other parts of West Africa. The leaves and young shoots are used in soups and stews. The
leaves contain high levels of calcium, phosphorus and iron. This plant is an important source of proteins,
calories, vitamins and minerals (Sanni et al, 2014). The vegetable is predominantly produced in Nigeria
by resource-poor farmers and compound gardens where it is intercropped with arable starchy staples to
produce enough food to satisfy their dietary and cash requirements and to minimize the risk of crop
failure (Akinyemi and Tijani-Eniola, 1997). Continuous cropping of soils with leafy vegetables is
usually associated with loss of organic matter, since almost all parts of the crop are harvested and crop
residues are removed from the field or burned. The practical way to improve the quality of soils with low
organic matter is through addition of organic materials to the soil either fresh, composted or farm yard
manures. Organic matter possesses many desirable properties such as highwater holding capabilities,
cation exchange capacity, sequester contaminants (both organic and inorganic), enhanced nutrient
uptake, and beneficial effects on the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of soil (Oroka,
71
OLOWOAKE, A.A.:
2012 and Asgharipour, 2012).The use of inorganic fertilizer to increase yield has been found to be
effective as a short term solution which demands consistent use on a long-term basis. The hazardous
environmental consequences and high cost of inorganic fertilizers makethem not only undesirable but
also uneconomical and out of reach of the poor farmers (Olowoake, 2014). Therefore, it is important to
investigate the use of locally sourced organic materials which are cheap, environment friendly and
probably an effective way of improving and sustaining the productivity of soils and arable crops such as
C. argentea. Some attempts have been made to investigate the effect of cowdung, poultry manure and
organo mineral fertilizer on Celosia argentea (Akinyele, et al., 2012) and Amarantus cruentus
(Makinde et al., 2010 and Olowoake, 2014), but the effect of these fertilizers on the growth and yield of
C. argentea has not been widely investigated in Ilorin, Southern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria. Therefore,
the objective of this study is to investigate efficacy of compost, NPK and organomineral fertilizers on
growth and yield of Celosia argentea.
The potted experiment was set up in a screen-house at Kwara State University (Latitude 80 71'N and
Longitude 40 44'E), Malete. The experiment was carried out to study the efficacy of compost, NPK and
organomineral fertilizers on the growth and yield of Celosia argentea. Eighteen pots were filled with
5.5kg of soil from Kwara State University Teaching and Research Farm. The treatments used were:
Aleshinloye Grade A (compost amended with mineral fertilizer); Aleshinloye Grade B (un-amended
compost); Sunshine Grade A (compost amended with mineral fertilizer); Sunshine Grade B (un-
amended compost); mineral fertilizer (NPK 15-15-15); and control. The treatments were arranged in a
completely randomized design (CRD) with three replicates. The soils and compost were left to
mineralize for two weeks before planting while the mineral fertilizer was applied two weeks after
planting. The pots were perforated at the bottom to allow for easy drainage and facilitate aeration.
Celosia seeds were broadcasted and thinned to two (2) seedlings per pot at two weeks after planting.
Sunshine Grade A, Sunshine Grade B, Aleshinloye Grade A and Aleshinloye Grade B were composted
commercial organic fertilizer manufactured by Ondo State Government and Aleshinloye fertilizer plant
in Ibadan, Nigeria, respectively. All the treatments except the control were applied at the rate of 45 kg
Nha-1 as recommended by Olaniyi and Ojetayo (2012) for the optimum growth of Celosia argentea. The
experiment was repeated without any fertilizer application at the second planting which started after the
first cycle. Celosia was harvested fresh at six weeks after planting (WAP). Growth and yield parameters
data collected were as follows: plant height, stem girth, number of leaves and yield components such as
fresh and dry shoot weight.
The effects of fertilizer treatments on growth parameters at first and second planting are shown on Table
1.Un-ammended compost, organomineral and NPK fertilizers had significant effect on Celosia. At 6
WAP Sunshine Grade A, Aleshinloye Grade A and NPK were significantly (p< 0.05) better than
Sunshine Grade B, Aleshinloye Grade Band control. The highest plant height of 44.7 cm was obtained
from plant fertilized with Sunshine Grade A. Also, the residual effect of fertilizer treatments at 6 WAP
shows that un-amended compost and organomineral fertilizers were significantly (p< 0.05) better than
control and NPK. The highest plant height of 17.4 cm was obtained from Celosia plant fertilized with
Aleshinloye Grade A.
72
Table 1. Effects of un-amended compost, organomineral and inorganic fertilizer on the growth of
Celosia argenteaat first and second cropping
Treatment Plant Height No of leaves Stem girth (mm)
(cm)
First Cropping
Control 20.0c 9.0d 2.0c
Sunshine Grade A 44.7a 17.2a 4.4a
Sunshine Grade B 33.0b 13.3c 3.3b
Aleshinloye Grade A 42.0a 16.3ab 4.6a
Aleshinloye Grade B 35.0b 13.0c 3.2b
NPK 15-15-15 44.3a 15.0b 4.5a
Second Cropping
Control 7.5c 7.6c 1.2c
Sunshine Grade A 14.7ab 12.5a 2.7a
Sunshine Grade B 14.7ab 11.3a 2.1b
Aleshinloye Grade A 17.4a 12.8a 2.8a
Aleshinloye Grade B 13.2ab 10.5ab 2.0b
NPK 15-15-15 10.4b 9.0b 2.1b
Means having the same letter along the columns indicate no significant difference using Duncan's
Multiple Range Test at 5% probability level.
At 6 weeks after planting (6 WAP), Celosia number of leaves in Sunshine Grade A and Aleshinloye
Grade Awere significantly (p< 0.05) higher than number of leaves from Sunshine Grade B, Aleshinloye
Grade B, NPK and control. During second planting at 6 WAP,Celosianumber of leaves in un-ammended
compost and organomineral fertilizers were significantly (p< 0.05) higher than number of leaves from
NPK and control.The response of stem girth of Celosia to application of different types fertilizers during
the first and second planting were shown in Table 1.At 6 WAP stem girth of CelosiawithSunshine Grade
A, Aleshinloye Grade A and NPK were significantly (p< 0.05) higher than stem girth of Sunshine Grade
Figure 1: Effects of un-amended compost, organomineral and NPK on fresh shoot weight of celosia argentea
during first and second planting
73
OLOWOAKE, A.A.:
B, Aleshinloye Grade B and control. However, Aleshinloye Grade Aproduced the highest stem girth of
4.60 mm. The result of residual effect on Celosiastem girth at 6 WAP shows that Aleshinloye Grade
Aand Sunshine Grade A were significantly (p< 0.05) higher than other treatments including the
control.Figure1 shows that Aleshinloye Grade A, Sunshine Grade A and NPK has the highest fresh shoot
yield and it is significantly (p< 0.05) higher than others. However, Sunshine Grade B and Aleshinloye
Grade B came second and significantly better than control. For the second cropping, Aleshinloye Grade
A and Sunshine Grade Ahas the highest fresh shoot yield, followed by NPK, Aleshinloye Grade B and
Sunshine Grade B.
Figure 2 shows that Aleshinloye Grade A, Sunshine Grade A and NPK has the highest dry shoot yield for
the first planting and it is significantly (p< 0.05) better than others. However, Sunshine Grade B,
Aleshinloye Grade B and NPK came second and significantly different from control. During the second
planting,there was no significant difference (p< 0.05) between the dry shoot values between Aleshinloye
Grade A and Sunshine Grade A.
Application of Aleshinloye Grade A and Sunshine Grade A proved most effective in ensuring good
performance in terms of growth, fresh shoot and dry shoot yieldof Celosia argentea at first and second
cropping. In agreement with these results, Akinyele et al., (2012) reported that organomineral fertilizer
significantly improved growth and yield of Celosia argentea compared to NPK. Similarly, Olowoake,
(2014) reported that growth and shoot weight of Amaranthus cruentus at first and second cropping was
markedly influenced by the application of organomineral, Aleshinloye Grade A and Sunshine Grade A. This
might be as a result of higher N, P, and K present in organomineral fertilizer than un-amended compost
(Akinyele et al., 2012). The low residual effect of Celosia argentea to NPK fertilizer as compared to
Organomineral fertilizers corroborates the response patterns reported by Ogunlade et al., (2011) on
Solanum macrocarpon and Olowoake and Ojo (2014) on Amaranthus caudatus.
Conclusion
Generally, from the study there was an increase in the performance of Celosia argentea on the
parameters measured. This implies that celosia responds well to organomineral and un-amended
compost and NPK fertilizers. However, the application of Aleshinloye Grade A and Sunshine Grade
A influences its growth than NPK fertilizer. This indicated that organomineral fertilizer is good for
the farmers to use as soil amendments for production of Celosia argentea.
Figure 2: Effects of un-amended compost, organomineral and NPK on dry shoot weight of celosia argentea
during first and second planting
74
References
Akinyele, B. O., O. P. Aiyelari and O. A. Adeleke (2012). The Comparative effects of organic
manures and inorganic fertilizer on the growth and yield of Celosia argentea. The
International Journal of Science in Society 3(2): 23 - 33.
Akinyemi, S. O. S. and H. Tijani-Eniola (1997).Effects of cassava density on productivity of
plantain and cassava intercropping system. Fruits 50: 17-23.
Asgharipour M.R (2012)Effect of vermicompost produced from municipal solid waste on growth
and yield of isabgol (Plant agoovata Forsk) and cumin (Cuminum cyminum) Journal of
Medicinal Plants Research6(9):1612-1618
Makinde E.A., L.S. Ayeni, and S.O. Ojeniyi (2010). Morphological Characteristics ofAmaranthus
Cruentus L. as Influenced by KolaPod Husk, Organomineral and NPK Fertilizers in
Southwestern Nigeria New York Science Journal3(5):130-134.
Ogunlade, M. O., E. A. Adeyemi., D. O. Ogunleti and P. S. Ibiyomi (2011). Effect of cocoa pod husk,
urea fortified cocoa pod husk and NPK fertilizers on the growth and yield of
Solanummacrocarpon. International Journal of Organic Agriculture Research and
Development 3: 1 –8.
Olaniyi, J. O. and A. E. Ojetayo (2012). Effects of Nitrogen on growth, yield, nutrient uptake and
quality of celosia (celosia argentea) varieties. Journal of Agriculture and Biological
Sciences 3(1): 227-231.
Olowoake, A. A. and J.A. Ojo (2014). Effect of fertilizer types on the growth and yield of
Amaranthuscaudatus in Ilorin, Southern Guinea Savanna Zone of Nigeria. Advances in
Agriculture, vol.2014, Article ID947062, 5 pages.
Olowoake, A. A. (2014). Influence of organic, mineral and organomineral fertilizers on growth,
yield, and soil properties in grain amaranth (Amaranthuscruentus. L). Journal of Organics
1 (1): 39-47.
Oroka, F. O. (2012). Comparative Effects of Municipal Solid Waste Compost and NPK Fertilizer on
the Growth and Marketable Yield of Celosia argentea L. New York Science
Journal5(10):34-38.
75
OLOWOAKE, A.A.:
Influence of Organic Fertilizer Rates and Growth Media on

the Growth and Nutrient Uptake of Oil Palm Seedlings
ATANDA, T. T. AND OLANIYI, J.O.
Crop Production and Soil Science
Department, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
Keywords: Organic Fertilizer, Nutrient Uptake, Oil Palm.
Abstract
Experiment was carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso, to
determine the influence of organic fertilizer rates and growth media on the growth and
nutrient uptake of oil palm seedlings. Oil palm seedlings were subjected to three growth
media (soil, soil + poultry manure and soil + saw dust) and five Aleshinloye grade A fertilizer
rates (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg Nha-1). The 3 x 5 factorial experiments were laid out in a
completely randomized design (CRD) with three replicates. The growth parameters (plant
height and no of leaves) and the nutrient uptake were assessed.Results obtained showed that
the growth parameters increased as the plant aged. Growth media significantly (P<0.05)
improved the growth parameters and nutrient uptake of oil palm seedlings. The oil palm
seedlings planted in soil + poultry manure recorded the highest growth parameters and
nutrient uptake irrespective of the fertilizer rate. The applied fertilizer rate significantly
improved the growth parameters and nutrient uptake of oil palm seedlings with the highest
-1
value obtained from the organic fertilizer rate of 150 kg Nha regardless of the growth media.
-1
The combined application of soil + poultry manure at 150 kg Nha organic fertilizer rate gave
the best performance of oil palm seedlings.In conclusion, the use of soil + poultry manure and
-1
150 kg Nha of Aleshinloye grade A fertilizer rate could be recommended for the early growth
and nutrient uptake of oil palm seedlings.
Introduction
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a tropical crop which belong to the family palmae and the family contains
about 25 genera with over 2600 species and it is the most important of the sub family cocideae (Opeke,
1987). Oil palm is a typical crop of the rainy tropical lowlands. The recent studies showed that the oil
palm spread from Senegal to Angola. The main oil palm belt of West Africa run through southern Sierra-
Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon and into the equatorial region of
Zaire and Angola (Purseglove, 1975).
Oil palm is one of the main sources of vegetable oil that is rich in carotene, a natural compound that
gives the palm oil orange-red colour. It has two distinct oil types which are palm oil and seed oil called
the kernel oil. Its carotenoids contains vitamin A which aids vision, effective antioxidant that help
strengthens the body immune system and reduce the risk of cancer, heart disease and cataract (Mpoc,
2007). Palm oil is rich in vitamin E, a powerful anti-oxidant which is capable of reducing the harmful
types of molecules (free radicals) in the body. This delay body's ageing process.The micronutrient keeps
the body cells healthy and functioning properly (Mpoc, 2008). The sap is a source of delicious drink
77
ATANDA, T.T. et al.:
which can intoxicate if left to ferment (palm wine) (Opeke, 1987).

The loss of nutrient through surface erosion and runoff has resulted in the use of fertilizer in
supplementing poor indigenous soil nutrient supply in oil palm cultivation. For good yield to be
sustained fertilizer inputs are necessary and typically constitute 40 – 50% of total field upkeep cost. The
nutrient requirement of oil palm is large and varies widely. Young nursery palms contain about 1.4%N
(Goh et al., 1999a; Mohammed et al., 2008). Nitrogen application to young palms increases leaf area,
improve leaf production and net assimilation rate thus resulting in increased biomass production (Corley
and Mok, 1972; Breure, 1982). Hence an adequate supply of N is very important during the first five
years after planting (Goh and Harder, 2005). The regulation of nutrient regime in organic farming is
achieved through balanced crop relation and application of organic fertilizers such as compost, green
manure and animal wastes (Brady and Weil, 1999;Meludu, 2005; Odiete et al., 2005; Karanatsides and
Berova, 2009).
Plant growing medium is not only a growing place but also a source of nutrient for plant growth.
Media composition used influences the quality of seedlings (Wilson et al., 2001). Generally, media for
fruit crop seedlings are composed of soil, organic matter and sand. The soil is usually used as a basic
medium because it is the cheapest and easy to get, supplementing of the sand is aimed at making media
more porous while the organic matter is to enrich the seedling with adequate nutrients. There is a better
relationship between the manure and rooting rather than conventional soil mix, and less predispose the
seedling to soil borne pest and disease (Akanbi et al., 2002).
Despite the several studies on growth media conducted on various tree crops by different
researchers in Nigeria, little is known about the effect of growth media and organic fertilizer rates on the
growth of oil palm. Therefore, there is need for research on the effect of growth media and organic
fertilizer rates on the performance of oil palm seedlings.
The objectives of this study were to determine adequate Aleshinloye organic fertilizer rate required
for optimum growth and nutrient uptake of oil palm seedlings, as well as the best growth media for
raising oil palm seedlings.
The pot experiment was carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm of LAUTECH, Ogbomoso,
Nigeria, to determine the effect of growth media and organic fertilizer rates on the performance of oil
palm seedlings. The treatments were three types of growth media (Soil, soil + poultry manure and soil +
-
sawdust) and Aleshinloye grade A organic fertilizer applied at five rates (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg Nha
1
). Sprouted nuts of oil palm obtained from the National Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR), Benin
City, Nigeria, were used as test crop.
The experimental site was cleared; topsoil was collected from the cashew plantation, poultry
manure as well as sawdust were collected and used to fill the pots. A total number of 180 pots were used
and arranged into three replicates with each replicate containing 60 pots. A replicate contained 20 pots
each of 5 kg of topsoil, 5 kg topsoil + poultry manure in ratio 2:1 and 5 kg topsoil + sawdust in 2:1 ratio.
The 3 x 5 factorial experiments were laid out in a complete randomized design (CRD) with three
replicates.
One sprouted nut of oil palm was planted per pot at the depth of 0.05 m, spaced at 0.5m within and
1m between. Five organic fertilizer rates (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg ha-1) were applied at one month after
planting to their respective growth media. Data were collected on the growth parameters while the
nutrient uptake was also assessed. Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance and means
compared by Lsd at 0.05% probability level.
78
The mean height of oil palm seedling was significantly (P<0.05) improved by the growth media (Table
1). The oil palm seedlings planted in the pot containing soil+ poultry manure as propagation medium
recorded the highest plant height (4.77 cm) while the seedlings planted in soil + sawdust gave the least
value (3.63 cm) irrespective of the fertilizer rate. The highest plant height was recorded at the optimum
-1
rate of 150 kg ha irrespective of the growth media. The interactive effects of combined application of
growth media and fertilizer rates significantly (P<0.05) improved the height of oil palm seedlings at all
sampling periods. The oil palm seedlings raised in a combined treatment of soil + poultry manure at 150
kg Nha-1 rate recorded the best plant height.
The mean number of leaves of oil palm seedlings is shown in table 1. The number of leaves of oil
palm seedling was significantly (P<0.05) improved by the growth media 8 to10 weeks after planting.
The highest number was obtained from the plant treated with soil + poultry manure (4.40) while the plant
treated with soil + saw-dust recorded the least value (3.67), irrespective of the fertilizer rate. The number
of leaves of oil palm seedlings increased with increase in fertilizer rate from 0 up till 200 kg Nha-1 but
there was no significant difference between the value obtained at 150 kg Nha-1 and 200 kg Nha-1,
irrespective of the growth media. The interactive effects of combined application of growth media and
fertilizer rates significantly (P<0.05) influenced the number of leaves of oil palm seedlings at every
sampling occasion. The combined treatment combination of soil mixed with poultry manure at 150 kg
-1
Nha rate recorded the highest number of leaves of oil palm seedlings.
The N, P, K, Ca and Mg uptake of oil palm seedlings (Table 2) showed the different concentrations as
affected by the applied organic fertilizer rates and growth media. Nitrogen (N) content of oil palm
seedling was significantly (P<0.05) improved by the applied organic fertilizer rates and growth media.
The plants propagated with soil only gave the highest N uptake (0.44 g) while those planted in soil +
sawdust gave the least (0.22 g) value, regardless of the fertilizer rate.
The highest N uptake was obtained from plant treated with soil + poultry manure at 150 kg Nha-1
fertilizer rate. The phosphorus content of oil palm seedling was significantly (P<0.05) improved by the
applied organic fertilizer rate and growth media. The highest mean P uptake (0.26 g) was obtained from
the pot containing soil + poultry manure as propagation medium while the oil palm seedling treated with
soil + sawdust gave the least value (0.05 g) irrespective of the fertilizer rate. The potassium content of oil
palm seedling was significantly (P<0.05) improved by the applied organic fertilizer and growth media.
The highest K uptake (1.98 g) was obtained from oil palm seedlings propagated in soil mixed with
poultry manure while the plant propagated in soil mixed with sawdust recorded the least value (1.22g),
irrespective of the fertilizer rate. The calcium content of oil palm seedling was significantly (P<0.05)
improved by the applied organic fertilizer rate and growth media. The oil palm seedlings propagated in
the pot containing soil alone gave the highest mean Ca uptake value (2.60 g) while plants propagated in
soil mixed with poultry manure recorded the least (1.58 g) value irrespective of the fertilizer rate. The
magnesium content of oil palm seedling significantly (P<0.05) improved by the applied organic
fertilizer rate and growth media. The oil palm seedlings planted in the pot containing soil + poultry
manure recorded the highest Mg value (2.62 g) while plant propagated in soil + sawdust gave the least
value (1.92 g) irrespective of the fertilizer rate.
The mean dry weight of oil palm seedling was significantly (P<0.05) influenced by the growth
media. The oil palm seedling raised in soil + poultry manure recorded the highest value (3.37 g) while the
oil palm seedling raised in soil + saw dust recorded the least value (2.88 g), irrespective of the fertilizer
rate. The applied fertilizer rate and interactive effect of growth media and organic fertilizer had
significant (P<0.05) influence on the dry weight of oil palm seedlings. The optimum fertilizer rate of 150
79
-1
kg ha recorded the highest value.
In conclusion, the growth parameters assessed under this study and the nutrient uptake were
significantly (P<0.05) influenced by the various treatments. The use of soil + poultry manure as growth
-1
medium and at organic fertilizer application at 150 kg Nha recorded the best growth parameters and
nutrient uptake. Therefore, the sole application of soil + poultry manure, organic fertilizer rate of 150 kg
-1
Nha and their combinations can be used in order to improve the production of oil palm seedlings.
Table 1. The mean growth parameters of oil palm seedling as affected by the growth media and
organic fertilizer rates
Growth Fertilizer No of leaves Plant height Plant dry weight

media rate
(kg/ha) 12WAP 12WAP 12WAP
Soil 0 3.83 4.25 2.52
50 4.11 4.28 2.83
100 4.22 4.55 2.88
150 4.25 4.61 3.80
200 4.22 3.36 3.15
Mean 4.13 4.21 3.04

PM 0 3.75 4.17 1.88
+ 50 4.33 4.29 3.49
Soil 100 4.50 5.19 4.42
150 4.64 5.21 4.52
200 4.78 5.0 2.52
Mean 4.40 4.77 3.37
SD 0 3.25 3.08 1.92
+ 50 3.17 3.14 2.33
Soil 100 3.72 3.83 3.39
150 3.64 4.22 4.76
200 4.55 3.88 2.04
Mean 3.67 3.63 2.88
LSD(0.05)
GM 0.54 0.86 0.35
FR 0.70 NS 0.45
GM*FR 0.37 0.86 0.16
Key: GM=growth media, FR=fertilizer rate, PM=poultry manure, SD=sawdust
80
Table 2: The nutrient uptake (g/plant) of oil palm seedlings as affected by growth media and
organic fertilizer rates
Growth Fertilizer NUTRIENT UPTAKE (g/plant)
media rate
(kg/ha)
N P K Ca Mg
Soil 0 0.19 0.03 1.36 1.83 1.95
50 0.20 0.03 1.13 2.24 1.66
100 0.30 0.15 1.82 3.46 2.58
150 0.40 0.14 1.50 2.69 1.81
200 1.15 0.17 1.64 2.77 2.25
Mean 0.44 0.10 1.49 2.60 2.05
PM 0 0.31 0.11 1.82 2.16 2.51

+ 50 0.40 0.22 2.48 3.01 3.27
Soil 100 0.21 0.15 1.11 1.82 1.45
150 0.68 0.54 2.94 0.68 3.84
200 0.25 0.30 1.54 0.25 2.04
Mean 0.37 0.26 1.98 1.58 2.62
SD 0 0.14 0.03 1.18 2.27 2.03

+ 50 0.14 0.02 0.93 1.35 1.47
Soil 100 0.13 0.04 0.83 0.25 1.25
150 0.48 0.10 2.19 3.71 3.33
200 0.22 0.08 0.96 1.67 1.53
Mean 0.22 0.05 1.22 2.05 1.92
LSD
(0.05)
GM 0.12 0.17 0.18 0.16 0.18
FR 0.16 0.22 0.23 0.20 0.24
GM*FR 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.05
Key: GM=growth media, FR=fertilizer rate, PM=poultry manure, SD=sawdust
References
Akanbi, W.B, Baiyewu R.A, Togun A.O, Adediran J.A (2002). Response of solanum macropcarpon to
plant spacing and maize stover compost. Moor Journal of Agricultural Science, 3(2): 155.
Brandy, N. C, and Weil, R. R. (1999). The nature and properties of soils. (12th Edition). Prentice Hall,
New Jersy pp. 881.
Breure, C. J. (1982). Factors affecting yield and growth of oil palm teneras inwest New Britain. In:
Pushparajah, E. and Chew P.S (eds). The oil palm in Agriculture in the Eighties. Volume I.
ISP,Kuala Lumpur, pp.109-130.
Corley R. H. V. and Mok, C. K. (1972). Effect of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium on
growth of the oil palm. Experimental Agriculture, 347-353.
81
Goh, K.J., Teo, C. B., Chew, P. S. and Chiu, S. B. (1999a). Fertilizer management in Oil palm:
agronomic principles and field practices. In: Fertilizer management for Oil palm
plantations, 20-21, ISP North-east branch, Sandakan, Malaysia: 44pp.
Goh, K. and Harder, R. (2005). General oil palm Nutrition, In: Thoma Fairhurst and Rolf hardter
(eds). Oil palm Management for large and sustainable Yield, pp 191-228.
Karanatsides, G. and Berova, M. (2009). Effect of organic fertilizer on growth and some
physiological parameters in pepper plants (Capsicum annum). Scientific conference,
special edition of academic education in biology. Pp 254-257.
Meludu, N. T. (2005). Use of human waste in sustainable crop production in Nigeria.Journal of
Environmental Extension 5: 65 - 70.
Mohamed,S. A., Ewees, S. A., Sawsan, A., Seaf, E. Y. and Dalia M. S. (2008).
Improving maize grain yield and its quality grown on a newly reclaimed sandy soil by
applying micronutrients, organic manure and biological inoculation. Resource Journal. 3:
25 - 30
MPOC (2008). Oil palm: Tree of life. Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Kuala Lumpur.
Odiete, I, Chude, V. O., Ojeniyi, S. O., Okozi, A. A., Hussaini, G. M (2005). Response of Maize to
Nitrogen and Phosphorus.
Opeke, L. K(1987). Oil palm under exploited tropical plants with promising economic value,
Nation Academy of science. Washington D.C
Purseglove, J. W. (1975). Tropical crop: monocotyledons. Longman Group Ltd, Third Edition,
London, 607pp.
Wilson, S. B., Stofella, P. J., Graetz, D. A (2001).Use of compost as a media amendment for
containerized production of two subtropical perennials. Journal of Environmental
Horticulture. 19(1):37-42.
82
Influence of Cassava Peels and Poultry Manure Based

Compost on Soil Properties, Growth and Yield of Waterleaf
(Talinum triangulare Jacq) in an Ultisol of Southeastern
Nigeria
O. B. IREN1, J. F. AKPAN1, V. F. EDIENE1, I. G. UDUAK2AND E. E ASANGA3
1
Department of Soil Science, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria
2
Department of Soil Science, Akwa Ibom State University, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
3
Department of Soil Science, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
Keywords: Waterleaf, poultry manure, cassava peels, compost, Ultisol.
Abstract
Effects of cassava peels and poultry manure-based compost and their sole applications on
soil properties, growth and yield of waterleaf were investigated at the University of Calabar
Teaching and Research Farm in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons. The experiment was laid
out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. There were seven
treatments consisting of mixture of cassava peels and poultry manure (compost), sole
application of composted cassava peels and poultry manure each applied at two rates (4 and
8 t/ha) and control (without amendment). The results obtained showed that soil pH, total
nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), exchangeable potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and
calcium (Ca) were significantly increased with levels of application of treatments compared
to control with plots fertilized with compost at 8 t/ha having a higher significant influence on
most of the soil chemical properties. There were significant differences (P<0.05) among
treatments in plant height, leaf area, number of leaves, number of branches, stem girth and
fresh yield of waterleaf. Generally, application of compost irrespective of the rate of
application, enhanced waterleaf growth and yield better compared to other treatments.
Compost applied at 8 t/ha had the best mean fresh yield of 17.86, 22.92 and22.34 t/ha at 4, 7
and 10 weeks after planting (WAP) which out yielded the control by 66.41, 77.53 and 77.44
%, respectively. This study has demonstrated that the use of cassava peels in the preparation
of compost for crop production would be more economical and will also be a useful
development in sustainable food production as well as in promoting environmental safety.
Introduction
Waterleaf (Talinum triangulare Jacq) is a dicotyledonous plant belonging to the family Talinaceae.
Waterleaf is extensively grown in Southern Nigeria, particularly in Cross River and Akwa Ibom
States and is used in soups and other delicacies in combination with other vegetables such as african
joint(Gnetum Africana),(Lasienthera bulchozianum) and fluted pumpkin (Telfaria
occidentalis).Waterleaf grows best under humid conditions with a mean temperature of about 30 °C.
Growth is most profuse when water content of the soil is close to field capacity (Schippers, 2000).
Poor and reckless use of inorganic fertilizer changes physical, chemical and biological properties of
the soils as well as reduces the fertility status of the soils.
83
O.B. IREN et al.:
Most often cassava peels are commonly found in farm locations and processing sites as heaps that are
generally perceived as hazard to the environment. These materials, however, could be utilized more
effectively and sustainably through recycling. Poultry manure contains nutrient elements that can
support crop production and enhance the physical and chemical properties of the soil (Iren et al.,
2011a and b; John et al., 2011).
This study, therefore, evaluates the effects of cassava peels and poultry manure-based compost
on soil properties, growth and yield of waterleaf.
Experimental Site: The experiment was conducted at the Teaching and Research Farm of the
o o
University of Calabar, Calabar, southeast Nigeria. Calabar lies between latitude 5 32' and 4 27' N and
o o
longitude 7 15' and 9 28' E in Nigeria.
Land preparation, Experimental Design and Treatments: The experimental site was manually
cleared, tilled and plots measuring 3 m x 1.5m marked out. The experiment was laid out in a
randomized complete block design with three replications.
Compost was prepared using dry cassava peels and well –cured poultry manure in the ratio of 1:1
(dry weight basis). Cassava peels alone were also composted. The materials were allowed to
decompose for a period of 12 weeks. There were seven treatments consisting of mixture of cassava
peels and poultry manure (compost), composted cassava peels and poultry manure each applied at
two rates (4 and 8 t/ha).There was also a control (without amendment).
Field studies: Prior to land preparation, one composite soil sample was collected from 0 – 15 cm
depth using soil auger for physico-chemical analysis. The treatments were evenly distributed and
incorporated into the soil one week before planting(WBP) as recommended by Iren et al.
(2011c).Waterleaf was planted manually at a spacing of 5cm x 5cm using stem cuttings of 10 cm
length with leaves still attached. Weeding was done manually by hand pulling within the plots and
using hoe to weed around the plots.
Twenty plants were randomly selected, tagged and used in growth measurements. Growth
parameters measured were plant height, number of leaves per plant, number of branches per plant,
leaf area and stem girth. These parameters were assessed after 4 weeks of planting (WAP) and
subsequently at three weeks intervals. Weights of freshly harvested waterleaf were taken from an
area of 50 cm x 50 cm within each experimental plotat 4, 7and 10 WAP. At the end of the experiment,
composite soil samples were taken per plot for chemical analysis.
Laboratory studies: The composite soil samples collected before and after experiment were air-
dried and sieved through a 2mm mesh. The following analyses were carried out on the samples using
standard procedures as described in Udo et al. (2009): Particle size distribution, soil pH, organic
carbon content, organic matter, total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), exchangeable bases and
exchangeable acidity.
Data Analysis: Data were analyzed statistically and means were compared using Fisher's Least
Significant Difference (FLSD) at 0.05 probability level (Wahua, 1999).
84
Soil properties before experiment and nutrient contents of the amendments used
The physicochemical analysis of the soils used for the experiment in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons
revealed that the soils were extremely acid (pH < 4.5) and sandy loam in texture (Table 1). The soils were
low in organic carbon, total nitrogen, exchangeable cations and effective cation exchange capacity
(ECEC) but high in available phosphorus. The low levels of nutrients obtained in the experimental soils
indicate low fertility status which necessitates the need for additional nutrient supply to the soil to
increase crop productivity. The nutrient contents of the amendments used are as presented in Table 1.
Changes in soil chemical properties after experiment

Changes in soil chemical properties after experiment are presented in Table 2. The amendments used
significantly (P < 0.05) improved the pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available P, exchangeable K, Mg,
Ca and base saturation of the soil compared to the control (without amendment). The improvement in most
of the soil chemical properties by the compost treatment is in line with the findings of Eneje and Nwosu
(2012) who observed highest improvement in exchangeable Ca and ECEC with the admixture of cow dung
and cassava peels.
Influence of cassava peels and poultry manure -based compost on waterleaf growth and yield
At 4 and 7 WAP, there were significant increases in plant height by all the amendments compared with
the control except the plants treated with 4 t/ha of cassava peels, but at 10 WAP all the amendments
significantly increased waterleaf height relative to control (Table 3). There were significant increases in
leaf area of waterleaf amongst treatments with the highest leaf area obtained from plants treated with 8
t/ha compost (Table 3). Number of leaves per waterleaf plant was significantly increased by all the
treatments across all growth stages relative to control (Table 4), with the highest value (28.57) obtained
from plants treated with 8 t/ha compost. The highest number of branches (9.70) was obtained from plants
treated with 4 t/ha of compost at 10 WAP (Table 4), while the biggest stem girth (2.27 cm) was obtained
from plants treated with 8 t/ha compost at 10 WAP, though not significantly different from other
treatments except control (Table 5). The responses of waterleaf growth to fertilizer application in an
Ultisol of Southeastern Nigeria have also been reported by Ndaeyo et al. (2013).
Fresh yield of waterleaf was significantly (P < 0.05) increased by all treatments at all growth stages
compared with control (Table 5). The best mean fresh yields of 17.86, 22.92 and 22.34 t/ha obtained at 4,
7 and 10 WAP, respectively by 8 t/ha compost treated soil out yielded the control by 66.41, 77.53 and
77.44 %, respectively. Significant growth and yield increases with the use of compost have been
reported by John et al. (2011 and 2013). The consistent increases in growth and yield of waterleaf by
plants treated with compost, poultry manure and cassava peels over the control in this study is an
indication that the amendments are able to supply the required nutrients for good growth and yield of
waterleaf. This is in line with the findings of Iren et al. (2014) that application of organic manure
increased crop growth and yield.
The use of cassava peels in combination with poultry manure gave better improvement in soil
chemical properties, growth and yield of waterleaf and is therefore recommended for sustainable
production of waterleaf as well as in promoting health and environmental safety.
85
O.B. IREN et al.:
Table 1. Properties of the soil before treatment application

Parameter Value Parameter Poultry Cassava Compost
2013 2014 manure peels
Sand (g/kg) 830 911 pH (H2O) 7.4 5.4 7.8

Silt (g/kg) 113 56 Org. carbon (%) 8.52 12.57 7.48
Clay (g/kg) 57 33 Total N (%) 1.89 1.47 2.10
Textural class SL SL C/N Ratio 4.51 8.55 3.56
pH (H2O) 4.2 4.4 Total P (%) 1.47 0.79 2.13
Org. carbon (g/kg) 7.98 7.82 Total K (%) 0.37 0.11 0.65
Total nitrogen (g/kg) 0.54 0.62 Total Ca (%) 2.24 1.89 2.68
Av. P (mg/kg) 20.00 25.70 Total Mg (%) 0.87 0.81 1.08
Exch. K (cmol/kg) 0.09 0.10 Total Na (%) 0.016 0.012 0.019
Exch. Ca (cmol/kg) 2.00 1.84
Exch. Mg (cmol/kg) 1.40 1.44
Exch. Na (cmol/kg) 0.06 0.06
Exch.acidity (cmol/kg) 2.43 2.20
ECEC (cmol/kg) 5.98 5.64
BS (%) 59.36 60.99
SL =Sandy loam, BS =Base saturation, Compost = cassava peels and poultry manure
Table 2. Influence of cassava peels with poultry manure based compost on soil properties
Compost = cassava peels with poultry manure
86
Table 3. The mean plant height and leaf area of waterleaf as influenced by cassava peels and
poultry manure based compost
Treatment Plant height(cm) Leaf area (cm2)
4WAP 7WAP 10WAP 4WAP 7WAP 10WAP
Control 10.30 10.70 8.23 5.36 5.01 4.07
4 t/ha Poultry manure 13.10 13.30 11.27 8.86 9.11 6.39
4 t/ha Cassava peels 10.33 11.70 10.90 6.20 7.14 5.89
4 t/ha Compost 15.93 16.33 15.33 10.62 10.88 7.72
8 t/ha Compost 17.53 18.87 16.03 11.69 14.55 12.43
LSD (0.05) 1.13 1.45 0.6 0.52 1.12 1.10
Table 4. The mean number of leaves and branches per plant of waterleaf as influenced by cassava
peels and poultry manure based compost
Treatment Number of leaves Number of branches per plant

Control 9.23 8.80 9.70 3.57 4.83 4.16
4 t/ha Compost 16.53 25.97 22.83 6.83 8.87 9.70
8 t/ha Compost 16.50 28.57 24.57 6.08 7.90 8.23
LSD (0.05) 1.21 1.33 1.97 0.98 1.2 1.6
Table 5. The mean stem girth and fresh yield of waterleaf as influenced by cassava peels and
poultry manure based compost
Treatment Stem girth (cm) Fresh yield (t/ha)
Control 1.11 1.10 1.18 8.00 7.15 7.04
4 t/ha Compost 1.56 1.87 1.73 17.40 18.03 15.88
8 t/ha Compost 1.75 2.17 2.27 17.86 22.92 22.34
LSD (0.05) 0.24 0.18 0.81 2.03 3.19 5.34
87
O.B. IREN et al.:
References
Eneje, R. C. and C. J. Nwosu (2012). Cow Dung and Cassava Peel Effect on Selected
Soil Nutrient Indices and Germination of Maize. ScienceJournal of Agricultural Research &
Management, Volume 2012, Article ID sjarm-152, 6pp.
Iren, O. B., D. O. Asawalam, V. E. Osodeke and N. M. John (2011a). Effects of animal manures and
urea as nitrogen sources for Amaranthus growth and yield in a rainforestultisol in Nigeria.
World J. of Applied Sci. and Tech. (WOJAST), Vol. 3 (1): 73-78.
Iren, O. B., D. O. Asawalam, V. E. Osodeke and N. M. John (2011b). Comparative effects of animal
manures and urea fertilizer on soil properties in a rainforest ultisol. Journal of Agricultural
Research and Policies, 6 (2): 51-56.
Iren, O. B., D. O. Asawalam and V. E. Osodeke (2011c). Effects of Time and Method of Pig Manure
Application on Growth Parameters and Yield of Amaranthuscruentus in a Rainforest Ultisol
in Nigeria. Production Agriculture and Technology (PAT) Journal, Nasarawa State
University, Keffi, 7 (1): 103-116.
Iren , O. B., N. M. John and E. A. Imuk (2014). Effect of varying rates of pig manure and NPK
(15:15:15) fertilizer on growth, nutrient uptake and yield of fluted pumpkin (Telfairia
occidentalis Hook f.).Nigerian Journal of Soil and Environmental Research, 12:75 – 81.
John, N. M., T. O. Ibia, G. S. Effiong, U. E. Etokeren and O. B. Iren (2011). Response of maize (Zea
mays l.) to different levels of decomposed refuse in Uyo Municipality, Nigeria. World
Journal of Applied Science and Technology (WOJAST), 3 (1): 7-12.
John, N. M., Uwah, D. F., Iren, O. B. and Akpan, J. F. (2013). Changes in maize (Zea mays L.)
performance and nutrients content with application of poultry manure, municipal solid waste
and ash composts. Journal of Agricultural Science, 5 (3): 270-277.
Ndaeyo, N. U., A. O. Ikeh, K. K. Nkeme, E. A. Akpan and E. I. Udoh (2013). Growth and Foliar Yield
Responses of Waterleaf (Talinum triangulare Jacq) to Complementary Application of Organic
and Inorganic Fertilizers in a Ultisol. American Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 3(2): 324-
335.
Schippers, R.R. (2000). African Indigenous Vegetables. An Overview of the Cultivated Species.
Natural resources institute/ACP. EU Technical centre for agricultural and rural co-operation,
Chatham, United Kingdom, 214 pp.
Udo, E. J., Ibia, T. O., Ogunwale, J. A., Ano, A. O. and Esu, I. E. (2009). Manual of soil, plant and water
analyses.
Wahua, T. A. T. (1999). Applied statistics for scientific studies. Afrika-Link Books, Ibadan, 356 pp.
88
The Role of Composted Poultry Manure in Reducing

Bioavailability of Heavy Metals in Tissues of Celosia
argentea L. Grown on Dumpsite and Garden Soils
O. A. OGUNTADE, T. O. ADEBARI, O. A. ODUSANYA AND O. B. ODUNTAN
Department of Crop Production, College of Agricultural Sciences, Olabisi Onabanjo
University, P.M.B. 2002, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria
Keywords: Bioaccumulation, composted manure, heavy metals, leafy vegetable, plant part.
Abstract
This study elucidates the effects of composted poultry manure on heavy metals bioaccumulation
in tissues of celosia grown on dumpsite and garden soils in a pot culture. Manure rates of 0, 10, 20
and 30 t ha-1were applied on 5 kg soils replicated three times in a Completely Randomized
Design. Celosia seeds were sown in potted soils, irrigated with 200 ml of water every day and
seedlings thinned to one plant per pot at two weeks after planting (WAP). At 6 WAP plants
were harvested, separated into its edible (shoot) and non-edible (root) parts. Metal content of
celosia tissues was analysed and uptake determined on dry weight basis. Concentrations of
metals in the soils and manure were also determined. Results indicated no significant difference in
heavy metal bioaccumulation in celosia tissues with manure rates. Manure rate of 30 t ha-1 reduced
iron and zinc levels in celosia shoot proportionately.
Introduction
Population pressure and eventual competition for arable land has led to cultivation of crops including
vegetables on dumpsite soils. Generally, dumpsite soils are believed to be rich in plant nutrients but soils
around dumpsites have been regarded as most polluted part of ecosystem (Magaji, 2012). Crop plants
such as leafy vegetables grown in polluted soils and environment could absorb high concentration of
heavy metals in its tissues (Suruchi and Pankaj, 2011). However, at both local and international levels,
regulatory bodies have set the maximum allowable limits within which metals in food items must be
maintained due to increased awareness of health risks associated with the toxic metals in food chain
(Radwan and Salama, 2006, Suruchi and Pankaj Khanna, 2011). The potential health risk of high
concentration of heavy metals in food crops grown on contaminated soil depends on their bioavailability
(Iwona, 2011). Apart from the beneficial role of manure in enhancing crop growth, it has also been
helpful in metals immobilization in contaminated soils (Chiu et al., 2006).In spite of these information,
little is documented on the effects of mature composted poultry manure in reducing bioaccumulation of
heavy metals in edible and non-edible parts of Celosia argentea L. grown on garden and dumpsite soils
in the study area.
Materials and Method
Soil sampling and experimentation

Soil sample (dumpsite soil) was collectedfrom age-old dumpsite in Ayetoro, Ogun state while control
89
O.A. OGUNTADE et al.:
soil sample (garden soil) was collected from Teaching and Research farm of the College of Agricultural
Sciences, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ayetoro. The soil samples were air-dried and sieved with 2 mm
mesh. Five kilogram each of the soil in 5 L capacity plastic bucket was used for the 24 potted experiment.
Poultry manure collected from the livestock section of Teaching and Research farm College of
Agricultural Sciences was composted by heap method for 8 weeks. The air dried and 2 mm mesh sieved
composted poultry manure was thoroughly mixed with each 5 kg soil at the rates of 0, 10, 20, 30 t ha-1 and
left for two weeks prior to seed sowing. The experiment was replicated three times and arranged in a
Completely Randomized Design. Sub-samples of soils and the composted manure were analyzed for its
chemical properties including heavy metals (Iron, Zinc, Lead and Cadmium) following standard
procedures (Udo et al., 2009). Celosia seeds were sown in each potted soil and irrigated with 200 ml of
water every day for six weeks. At 2 WAP celosia seedlings were thinned to one plant per pot. Plants were
harvested at 6 WAP and separated into its edible (shoot) and non edible (root) parts for laboratory
analysis. Heavy metal concentration of the tissues was determined on dry weight basis using Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) Buck 210 VGP model.
The pH of the composted manure was slightly alkaline (7.20) with 5.88 % organic carbon. The
phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na) and potassium (K) contents were high
with 1730.0, 41824.0, 9145.0, 3927.0 and 3354.0 mg kg-1, respectively. The concentration of heavy
metals especially iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and lead (Pb) which were 9558.20, 946.30 and 51.23 mg kg-1,
-1
respectively were also high (Epstein, 1965) while the cadmium (0.97 mg kg ) was low in the manure.
The high content of the metals in the manure could be due to their presence in high concentrations in the
poultry diet. The physicochemical properties of the two soils used are presented in Table 1. The pH of the
soils ranged from slightly acidic in garden (6.60) soil to slightly alkaline in dumpsite (7.60) soil. Total
organic carbon, total nitrogen, available P, exchangeable Ca, Mg, K, Na and Effective Cation Exchange
Capacity (ECEC) were higher in dumpsite than in garden soil. Except for Fe, the concentrations of Zn
and Pb in the dumpsite soil were also higher than in garden soil.
Out of the four heavy metals assessed only Fe and Zn bio-accumulated at detectable levels in the
celosia tissues (Table 2). In garden soil bioaccumulation of Fe in celosia shoot decreased with increased
manure rate. But Zn content in celosia shoot initially increased with manure rate up to 20 t ha-1 and
-1
decreased at 30 t ha . However, in celosia grown on dumpsite soil bioaccumulation of Fe in edible shoot
-1
increased initially with manure rate of 10 t ha over control and then decreased steadily with increased
manure rates. Meanwhile, shoot bioaccumulation of Zn in the celosia decreased with increased manure
rate although with no significant difference. The high contents of these metals in root tissue and the
subsequent translocation to shoot could be due to their elevated concentrations in the soils or in the
manure applied. The decreased heavy metal bio-availability at higher manure rate could be attributed to
the roles of organic compounds in the manure which act as a chelating agent (Cooper et al., 2011). It
could also be due to influence of humic substance which immobilized the toxic metals in the soil
(Tlustoö et al., 2006). At the different manure rates applied to garden soil Fe in celosia shoots were higher
than permissible limit. Meanwhile, in dumpsite soil, shoot bioaccumulation of Zn was higher than 0.30
mg kg-1 allowable limit in vegetable by FAO/WHO/FEPA at all manure rates except at 30 t ha-1.
90
Table 1. Physicochemical properties of garden and dumpsite soils used.

Properties Garden soil Dumpsite soil
pH (in water 1:1) 6.60 7.60
Total organic C (%) 1.55 1.87
Total N (%) 0.12 0.16
-1
Available P (mg kg ) 7.43 52.48
-1
Calcium (cmol (+) kg ) 13.08 51.75
-1
Magnesium (cmol (+) kg ) 3.44 5.29
Potassium (cmol (+) kg-1) 0.78 1.38
Sodium (cmol (+) kg-1 ) 1.45 2.54
-1
Al+H (mg kg ) 0.07 0.05
ECEC (cmol (+) kg-1) 18.82 61.01
Iron (mg kg-1) 5.05 2.15
-1
Zinc (mg kg ) 15.60 54.8
-1
Cadmium (mg kg ) BDL BDL
-1
Lead (mg kg ) 0.19 0.26
Sand (%) 85.40 77.50
Silt (%) 7.40 8.30
Clay (%) 7.20 14.20
Textural classes Loamy sand Loamy sand
BDL= Below Detection Limit of 0.002 mg kg-1
Table 2. Mean heavy metal uptake by shoot and root tissues of Celosia at 6WAP
Iron Zinc Lead Cadmium
mg plant-1
Soil type Manure shoot root shoot root shoot root Shoot root
rate
0 1.19 0.159 0.186 0.023 BDL BDL BDL BDL
Garden 10 1.06 0.162 0.198 0.029 BDL BDL BDL BDL
20 0.73 0.137 0.222 0.019 BDL BDL BDL BDL
30 0.54 0.201 0.160 0.009 BDL BDL BDL BDL
LSD 1.60 0.26 0.27 0.04
0 0.19 0.018 0.43 0.16 BDL BDL BDL BDL
Dumpsite 10 0.27 0.024 0.40 0.11 BDL BDL BDL BDL

20 0.25 0.046 0.38 0.09 BDL BDL BDL BDL
30 0.14 0.023 0.23 0.04 BDL BDL BDL BDL
LSD 0.17 0.03 0.12 0.13
FAO/WHO/FEPA 0.30 0.30 0.10 0.10

Limit
-1 -1
BDL Below Detection Limit (Pb= 0.005mg kg , Cd =0.002mg kg )
91
O.A. OGUNTADE et al.:
Conclusion and Recommendation
It is evident from this study that vegetables grown by farmers on dumpsite soil in the study area are
potential accumulators of heavy metals particularly Zn. Unfortunately the garden soil used also had
elevated concentration of Fe which was translocated to edible shoot of celosia. Hence, the role of manure
is germane in lowering bioavailability of these metals in tissues of leafy vegetable grown in such soils to
prevent metal biomagnifications in food chain. Meanwhile, assessment of trace metals in the organic
amendment may be necessary before its use. It is therefore suggested that farmers should avoid using
dumpsites for cultivation of vegetables as consumption of such crops could transfer toxic metals into
human body. Composted poultry manure at 30 t ha-1could reduce bioavailability of the trace metals in
leafy vegetable.
References
Chiu, K. K., Ye, Z. H. and Wong, M.H. (2006). Growth of Vetiveria zizanioides and Phragmities
australis on Pb/Zn and Cu mine tailing amended with manure compost and sewage sludge: a
greenhouse study. Bioresource Technology.97:158-170.
Cooper, J., R. Sanderson, I. Cakmak, L. Ozturk, P. Shotton, A. Carmichael, R. Sadrabadi, C. Tetard-
Jones, N. Volakakis, M. Eyre and C. Leifert. (2011). Effects of organic and conventional
crop rotation, fertilization and crop protection practices on metal contents in wheat
(Triticum aestivum). J. Agric. Food Chem. 59: 4715-4724.
Epstein, E. (1965). Mineral nutrition, pp. 438-466. In: J. Bonner and J. E. Varner (eds.). Plant
biochemistry. Academic Press, Inc.: Orlando, FL.
Iwona, G. (2011). Reduction of heavy metals transfer into food. Polish J. of Environ. Stud. 20 (3): 635-
642.
Magaji, J. Y. (2012). Effects of waste dump on the quality of plant cultivated around mpape dumpsite
FCT Abuja, Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management 5 (4)
(suppl. 2) 567-573.
Radwan, M. A. and A. K. Salama (2006). Market basket survey for some heavy metals in Egyptian
fruits and vegetables. Food Chem. Toxicol., 44: 1273-1278.
Suruchi and Pankaj Khanna, (2011). Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Different
Vegetables Grown in and Around Urban Areas. Research Journal of Environmental
Toxicology, 5: 162-179.
Tlustos, P., J. Szakova, K. Korinek, D. Pavlikova, A. Hanc and J. Balik. (2006). The effect of liming on
cadmium, lead and zinc uptake reduction by spring what grown in contaminated soil. Plant
Soil Environ. 52: 16-24.
Udo, E. J., Ibia, T. O., Ogunwale, J. A., Ano, A. O. and Esu, I. E. 2009. Manual of soil, plant and water
analyses. pp 183.
92
Potentials of Two Brewery Waste-Based Composts on Soil

Fertility for Amaranth (Amaranthus Caudatus) and Jackbean
(Canavalia Ensiformis) Intercrop
ADEOLUWA O. O., E.Y. THOMAS, A. BELLO AND B. JOSHUA
Keywords: Amaranth, Ibadan brewery waste based compost, Jackbean, soil fertility.
Abstract
The need for an increased production of vegetables to meet the human dietary needs
necessitate a research in the use of different organic resources, for improving the soil fertility
as well as improved yield and quality of amaranth. Thus, this report investigated the potential
of two brewery waste based composts on soil fertility for amaranth (Amaranthuscaudatus)
and Jackbean (Canavalia ensiformis) intercrop. Six treatments; Compost IBBW1 (Ibadan
brewery waste-based compost Grade A), Compost IBBW2 (Ibadan brewery waste-based
compost Grade B), Compost IBBW1+ Jackbean (JB), Compost IBBW2+ Jackbean (JB),
Jackbean and control (no fertilizer) were used. The compost was applied at the rate of 100
kgN/ha. The experiment was laid in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) of with four
replications. The results revealed that the treatments had a significant effect on the total yield
(fresh weight and dry weight in t/ha) of amaranths as well as some post soil chemical
properties. Compost IBBW2 produced a significantly highest total fresh and dry weights of
31.3 and 2.64 t/ha respectively, that were better than control of 16.5 and 2.03 t/ha, but not
different from those from IBBW1. The control was significantly better than fertilizer treatment
combination with Jackbean. Based on the results from this experiment, both grades of the
brewery waste-based compost increased the yield and improved the soil fertility, however
IBBW2 compost performed better. Thus, the IBBW2 compost is recommended for amaranth-
jackbean intercrop.
Introduction
Poor soil fertility has emerged as one of the greatest constraints to increasing agricultural productivity
that is currently threatening food security (Mugwe et al., 2009). Application of compost is one of the
steps usually taken in addressing soil fertility management in organic crop production. However,
different composts could behave differently under different soil and crop systems. This could be due to
the composition of the composts in term of nutrient status, age and processing (Pietro et al., 2013).
Adoption of improved and sustainable farming system in order to guarantee improvements in crop
productivity is alternative to soil fertility improvement (Landers, 2007). Among these farming systems
is the use of integrated soil fertility management practices (ISFM) which has intercropping with
legumes as one of its main components (Mucheru-Muna et al., 2010). This farming system is popular
among farmers due to the ability of legumes to reduce the risk against total crop failure, conserve soil and
improve soil fertility. Furthermore, intercrop can give higher yields than sole crop yields, greater yield
stability, and more efficient use of nutrients. Despite these beneficial effects, intercropping of legumes
with cereals and vegetables could accelerate soil nutrient depletion, particularly for phosphorous. This is
93
Potentials of Two Brewery Waste-Based Composts on Soil Fertility for Amaranth
(Amaranthus Caudatus) and Jackbean (Canavalia Ensiformis) Intercrop
could be due to soil nutrient mining through the harvested crops (Mucheru-Muna et al., 2010). However,
augmenting soils with organic fertilizers like composts, in an organic crop production system could
change the scenario.
Amaranth is a fast growing and highly nutritional leaf vegetables in the tropics. However, one of the
major limitations to the cultivation of amaranths is that it requires high amount of nitrogen, which is one
of the limiting nutrients in the tropical soil. Thus, this report investigated the potentials of two brewery
waste based composts on soil fertility, for Amaranthus (Amaranthuscaudatus) and Jackbean (Canavalia
ensiformis) intercrop.
The research work was carried at the Organic Vegetable Garden, Teaching and Research Farm of the
University of Ibadan, Nigeria (70 24' N and 300 54' E), between May and June, 2014. The experiment was
laid in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) of six treatments, with four replications. The
dimension of each bed was 1.8m ◊ 1.2 m. Fertilizer treatments used were; control (no fertilizer),
Compost IBBW1 (brewery waste-based compost Grade A), Compost IBBW2 (brewery waste-based
compost Grade B), Compost IBBW1+ Jackbean (JB), Compost IBBW2+ Jackbean (JB) and jackbean.
The compost treatment was applied at the rate of 100kgN/ha. Jackbean seed and the compost were
obtained from organic section of the Teaching and Research Farm, University Ibadan, while the
Amaranth (Amanranthus caudatus) seed was obtained from a commercial outlet.
Jackbean was sown with a spacing of 40 x 40 cm apart, with a seeds per hole and amaranth was
introduced in between the rows, two weeks after sowing the Jackbean, using the drilling method. Soil
samples were collected at 0-15 cm before and after the experiment, to determine the pre and post
planting nutrient status of the soil. The amaranth plants were then thinned to a population of 1.8 million
plants/ ha equivalent and the plants were harvested fresh at four weeks after sowing (WAS), to determine
0
the fresh shoot weight and whole plant weight. Plant samples were later oven dried at 70 C to a constant
weight, to determine the dry weights. All the parameters measured were subjected to analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and means were separated using Least Significance Difference (LSD) at p<0.05.
Results
Chemical properties of soil before and after treatment application are shown in Table 1. The initial soil
was slightly alkaline (7.3). The total nitrogen of the soil with the value of 0.6 g/kg was below the lower
limit of the critical range for N (1.5 – 2.0g/kg). The organic carbon content of the soil (17.4 g/kg) was
below the critical range of 20 – 30g/k, however, the available phosphorus of 25mg/kg was high. The
exchangeable potassium (0.2cmol/kg) was medium. This revealed that the soil was suitable for
experimental trials and application of compost should show some measurable responses as results . The
post-harvest soil revealed soil pH remained the same for IBBW2 (7.0) treated soils, while those with
IBBW1 decreased to 7.2. However, the Control (with no fertilizer additive), became slightly acidic
(6.6). The organic matter content of the soil decreased in Control (1.44 g/kg), this was below the critical
range of organic carbon (20-30g/kg). However, there was an increase in the organic matter content of the
soils treated with compost IBBW1 (27.5 g/kg) and IBBW2 (35.3 g/kg), which was above the critical
range of organic matter of the tropical soils. The post planting nitrogen content of all the soils was low;
compared to the initial pre-planting level of 0.64g/kg, although, there was a little increase in the nitrogen
content of the soil compared to control. Available phosphorus increased in all the treatments and calcium
levelalso increased in all treatments, except control. The soils treated with IBBW2 showed an increased
94
in potassium level(0.6cmol/kg).
Effects of Fertilizer Treatments on Fresh and Dry Weight yield of Amaranth (t/ha)
Effects of fertilizer treatments on fresh and dry yield of amaranth are shown in Table 2. The IBBW2
compost produced a significantly higher fresh whole weight (31.3 t/ha) at 4 weeks after sowing, which
was not significantly (p=0.05)different from those of IBBW1 (28.2 t/ha), but both better than yield of
16.5 t/ha from the control treatment. Control treatment was however significantly better than the
IBBW1+Jackbean (9.7 t/ha), IBBW2+Jackbean (9.9 t/ha) and Jackbean alone (11.3 t/ha). Although,
there was no significant difference in the dry weightsof plants treated with IBBW1 (2.21 t/ha), IBBW2
(2.64 t/ha) and control (2.03 t/ha), but they were significantly better than IBBW1+Jackbean (1.21 t/ha),
IBBW2+Jackbean (1.34 t/ha) and Jackbean alone (1.64 t/ha).
Table 1. Comparative chemical properties of pre and post planting soils

Treatments pH OC N Av. P Ca K Na Mn Fe Cu
g/kg mg/kg cmol/kg mg/kg
Pre- planting soil analysis
Initial 7.3 17 0.6 25 3.7 0.2 0.6 687 77 11
Post soil analysis
Control 6.6 1.4 0.11 41 3.1 0.3 0.8 668 69 5
IBBW1 Compost 7.2 27.5 0.14 52 5.0 0.2 0.6 675 101 6
IBBW2 Compost 7.0 35.3 0.16 43 4.4 0.6 0.5 624 78 11
Mean 6.9 21.4 0.1 45 4.2 0.4 0.6 655 83 10
Standard deviation 0.3 14.7 0.2 11 0.8 0.2 0.1 27 14 3
Table 2. Comparative effects of organic amendments on the yields of amaranths (t/ha)after

4 weeks of sowing
Treatments Fresh shoot Fresh whole Dry shoot Dry whole
weight weight weight weight
CONTROL 10 16.5 1.5 2.03

IBBW1+JACKBEAN 7.4 9.7 0.31 1.21
IBBW2+JACKBEAN 7.5 9.9 0.64 1.34
IBBW1 18.4 28.2 1.21 2.21
IBBW2 23.1 31.3 1.44 2.64
JACKBEAN 7.3 11.3 1.34 1.64
LSD (=0.05) 12.2 8.7 1.2 1.8
LSD: Least Significant Difference
Discussion
Ibadan brewery waste-based grade B compost (IBBW2) had significant influence on the fresh and dry
yields of amaranth and it performed better compared to other treatments. The best fresh mean yield of
31.4 t/ha obtained from this study is greater than the fresh yield of 30 t/ha reported by Grubben and
Vanslotten (1978), but lower compared to the fresh yield of 34 t/ha reported by AdeOluwa et al. (2009).
95
Potentials of Two Brewery Waste-Based Composts on Soil Fertility for Amaranth
(Amaranthus Caudatus) and Jackbean (Canavalia Ensiformis) Intercrop
The influence of the treatment on amaranths dry weight took the same trend and the variation observed
could be due to N content in the fertilizer materials applied and the season of planting. The low yield
obtained from the intercrop and treatment combinations with jackbean could be due to the shading
effects of jackbean on the amaranths which in turn inhibited the photosynthesis activities of amaranth.
This is consonance with the findings of Chuang et al. (2014) who reported that shading resulted in
decrease in the uptake and transportation of CO2 during photosynthesis; this could have reduced the
growth and yield of the amaranth plants. Post-harvest soil with IBBW2 treatment had better nutrient
status, compared to the control in terms of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and organic matter content.
This is in accordance with findings of AdeOluwa and Cofie (2011), which revealed that organic
fertilizer (human Urine), improved soil exchangeable cations and pH. Hepperly et al. (2009),reported
that compost treatments supported both high yields and increased soil carbon and nitrogen contents.
This revealed that the IBBW composts used without combination with jackbean could improve soil
fertility and yields of amaranths.
Conclusion
Although, legumes have potential to improve soil fertility, this study revealed that the intercrop of
Jackbean and amaranths augmented with compost did not work well. The results of this experiment
revealed that both brewery waste-based compost grade A and grade B (IBBW1 and IBBW2)gave good
yields that were significantly better than control of no fertilizer additive. However, Compost IBBW2
gave better yield compared to Compost IBBW1. The post-harvest soil analysis showed that IBBW2 is a
good option to improve soil fertility and for soil fertility management due to the residual nutrient status
of the soil post planting in amaranth-jackbean intercrop.
References
AdeOluwa O. O., Adeoye G. O, Yusuff, S.A. (2009). Effect of organic nitrogen fortifiers on growth parameters
of green Amaranths(Amaranthus caudatus. L). Renewable Agriculture and food System 24 (4): 245 -
250.
AdeOluwa O.O. and Cofie O. (2011). Effects in Amaranths (Amaranthus caudatus) production. Renewable
Agriculture and Food Systems, Cambridge, UK 24(4); 245–250.
Chuang-Dao Jiang, Tao Li, Li-Na Liu, Yu-Jun Liu and Lei Shi., (2014). Effect of mutual shading on the
regulation of photosynthesis in field grown Sorghum .Journal of photochemistry and photobiology:
Biology 137; 31-38.
Grubben, G. J. H. and Van Sloten, D. H., (1981). Genetic resources of amaranths: a global plan of action, including a
provisional key to some edible species of the family Amaranthaceae by Laurie B. Feine-Dudley.
International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, Rome, Italy pp. 57.
Hepperly P. Don Lotter, Ziegler Ulsh C, Seidel R. and Reider C. (2009). Compost, Manure and Synthetic
Fertilizer Influences Crop Yields, Soil Properties, Nitrate Leaching and Crop Nutrient Content.
Journal of Compost Science & Utilization, (2009), Vol. 17, No. 2, 117-126.
Landers, J. N., (2007). Tropical Crop–livestock Systems in Conservation Agriculture: The Brazilian Experience.
Integrated Crop Management. Vol. 5. FAO. Rome.
Mucheru-Muna, M., Pypers, P., Mugendi, D., Kung'u J., Mugwe, J., Merckx R., Vanlauwe, B. (2010).
Staggered Maize–Legume Intercrop Arrangement Robustly Increases Crop Yields and Economic
Returns in the Highlands of Central Kenya.Field Crops Research 115 (2010) 132–139.
Mugwe, J., Mugendi, D., Mucheru-Muna, M., Merckx, R., Chianu, J., Vanlauwe, B. (2009). Determinants of
the Decision to Adopt Integrated Soil Fertility Management Practices by Smallholder Farmers
in the Central Highlands of Kenya. Expl Agric. 45: 61–75.
Pietro Toscano, Teresa Casacchia, Diacano, M. and Montemurro, F. (2013). Composted Olive Mill By-
products: Compost characterization and application on olive orchards. Journal of Agricultural
Science and Technology. Vol. 15:627-638.
96
Plantain (Musa AAB. cv Agbagba) Setts Growth in Response

to Growing Media and Organic Fertilizers in
South Western Nigeria
JOSEPH-ADEKUNLE, T.T. AND W.A. BABALOLA
Department of Horticulture, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State
Keywords: Bits, growth media, organic, plantain corms, plantlets, setts
Abstract
The increasing demand for plantain fruit in the recent times had led to tremendous increase in
demand for vigorous plantain plantlets or suckers for the establishment new plantations,
expansion of the existing and or rehabilitate the moribund ones. A study was conducted
between November 2012 and April 2013 at the organic skill demonstration plot, Federal
University of Agriculture Abeokuta (7° 15' N, 3° 25' E) to examine the effects growing media
and organic fertilizers on the setts of Plantain cv Agbagba as a rapid local and adaptive
alternate means of suckers multiplication. Treatments consisted of three growing media and
two organic fertilizers at two rates and were laid out in a CRD with four replicates. The
growth media were top soil (TS), sawdust (SD) and a mixture of TS and SD (TSSD). The
organic fertilizers were fortified Gateway organic fertilizer (GOMF) and Cured poultry
manure (CPM) applied at 10 t/ha and no fertilizer as control (C).Setts from plantain corms of
freshly harvested stands were pared, cut into bits of 300g, dusted with wood ash and air dried
for a week prior to planting. Data were collected from 5 weeks after planting (WAP) on
number of leaves, plant height, stem diameter, leaf area, canopy diameter, root length and
number of root. The result indicated a superior performance of setts planted in TSSD with
CPM (26.7cm, 4.0, 62.4 cm, 24.7 cm) for plant height, number of leaves, canopy and stem
circumference compared to plantlets in TS only with or without organic fertilizer with lowest
values (0.7 cm. 2.3, 62.2cm, 9.0 cm) respectively.
Introduction
Plantain of family Musaeae is an important staple food for more than 50 million people ranking third
among starchy staples after cassava and yam in Nigeria and other tropical regions where banana plays an
important role in family diet (Venkatachalam et al., 2007). The fruit remains starchy at maturity and
needs some minimal processing before consumption (Robinson, 1996). Nigeria is one of the leading
producers of plantain globally with estimated annual production of 2.103 million tons from harvested
from 389,000 ha (FAO, 2006).
There is currently under supply due to increasing demand for the fruits by processors who are
involved in small and medium scale industries a (SME) producing value-added product (easy and
convenient foods and snacks) in the urban centres. Plantain can occupy a strategic position in rapid food
production because it is a perennial ratoon crop with a short gestation period(Akinyemi et al.,2010). All
stages of the fruit are used as a source of food in one form or the other. The immature fruits are processed
into powder and consumed as 'plantain fufu' The mature fruits (ripe or unripe) are consumed boiled,
roasted, steamed, baked, pounded or sliced and fried into chips. Industrially plantain fruits serve as
97
JOSEPH-ADEKUNLE, T.T. et al.:
Plantain (Musa AAB. cv Agbagba) Setts Growth in Response to Growing Media and
Organic Fertilizers in South Western Nigeria
composite in the making of baby food such as (Babena and Soyamusa), bread, biscuit and others (Ogazi,
1996). Despite the huge potential of this crop, the far below supply with demand has hampered its status
as a foreign exchange earner and under supply at home due to the shortage or inadequate supply of
vigorous suckers for increasing large scale production. The study was therefore carried out to examine
response of plantlets from setts from corms to growth media and organic amendments. The objectives of
the study were to assess the effects of growing media on growth of setts and determine the influence of
organic fertilizers on growth of the plantlets.
Perforated plastic buckets were filled with 12 kg of topsoil (TS), sawdust (SD) and mixture of topsoil
and sawdust (TSSD). Gateway Organo-mineral fertilizer (GOMF) and Cured Poultry manure (CPM)
were added at 2kg/pot (10t/ha) as described by Baiyeri & Tenkouano (2007), watered and allowed to
stand for 14 days. Corms from recently harvested plantain stands were pared and cut into 300g setts,
dusted with wood ash and air dried for 7days and planted in the growth media. The treatments were
replicated four times and laid out in a CRD. Weeding of individual pot was done by rouging and watering
was done once in a week with 1 litre of water per pot. Data collection on growth parameters started 5
weeks after planting (WAP) and continued at weekly intervals till 21 weeks after planting. Plant height
(cm) was taken using measuring rule, number of leaves by count, stem circumference was determined
by multiplying the value of the diameter measured using digital vernier calipers by formula D (i.e 3.14
multiplied by the obtained diameter (D) value), leaf breadth and leaf length, canopy diameter using
measuring rule. Leaf area was calculated using the formula (Y = 0.65X – 0.22 (r = 0.97) Aiyelaagbe,
2
1991. Y = Leaf area (m /plant), X = leaf length (m/plant). Number of roots and chord root length (cm)
were assessed at 21 WAP. Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and
significant treatment means separated with DMRT at 5 % probability level.
At 5WAP setts planted TSSD and SD with addition of CPM produced tallest plantlets and were not
significantly different from those planted in TSSD with addition of GOMF. Setts planted in TS and SD
only were not different from TSSD mixture. Application of GOMF in TS or SD produced the shortest
plantlets. SD amended with CPM had comparable valueto the taller plantlets in TS, TSSD amended or
not. Similar trend was observed up to 11 WAP for TSSD mixture with CPM application and TSSD
mixture amended with GOMF. Between 13 and 19 WAP the treatments had significant differences on
the plantlets. Setts planted in SD treated with CPM produced tallest plantlets, followed by plantlets in
TSSD mixture with GOMF and CPM application. At 21 WAPTSSD mixture treated with GOMF
produced the tallest plantain plantlets. Other treatments recorded lower values; TS with GOMF
produced the shortest plantlets throughout (Table 1).
The media and applied organic fertilizers had significant effects on number of leaves. Highest
number of leaves was recorded on TSSD mixture amended with GOMF at 15 WAP although it was not
significantly different from values obtained between 9 and 15 WAP for SD amended with GOMF. This
was followed by SD andTSSD amended with CPM between 7 and 15 WAP which produced
significantly higher number of leaves per plant than other treatments while other treatments had
significantly lower values(Table 2).
98
Table 1: Effects of growing media and organic fertilizers on plantain plantlets

Treatment 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
TS 3.1bc 9.7abc 11.9ab 13.4ab 15.5abc 16.8abc 16.8abc 18.1abc 22.8abc
SD 2.4bc 6.4abc 8.2abc 8.8abc 9.5bcd 10.0bcd 10.9bcd 12.0bcd 15.5bc
TSSD 1.6bc 3.7bc 5.1bc 6.0bc 6.5cd 7.5cd 7.5cd 8.8cd 13.3cd
TS +CPM 2.8bc 8.0abc 9.9abc 10.8abc 12.7abc 13.9abc 13.9abc 14.9abc 17.7abc
SD+CPM 7.7abc 13.6ab 15.8ab 16.9ab 21.0ab 25.0a 25.3a 26.6a 30.0a
TSSD+CPM 11.9a 16.2a 17.9a 18.7a 21.2ab 22.2ab 22.2ab 23.2ab 26.7abc
TS+ GOMF 0.7c 0.7c 0.7c 0.7c 0.7c 0.7c 0.7c 0.7c 0.7c
SD +GOMF 0.7c 7.0abc 10.5abc 11.5ab 18.0ab 22.0ab 22.0ab 23.3ab 29.0ab
TSSD+GOMF 9.4a 14.9a 16.8a 18.0a 21.6a 24.6a 25.1a 26.3a 31.0a
Table 2. Effects of Growth media and fertilizer on number of leaves

Treatment Canopy Leaf area Stem Leaf area Number Chord root
(cm/plant) (cm 2) Circumf. (cm 2) of roots length (cm)
(cm)
TS 46.3a 12.6ab 45.8b 12.6ab 9.9ab 58.0bcd
SD 46.8a 12.1ab 46.5b 12.1ab 12.0ab 118.0a
TSSD 38.0a 12.1ab 39.6b 12.1ab 10.8ab 101.0a
TS +CPM 34.2a 9.2ab 39.3b 9.2ab 6.4bc 20.8de
SD+CPM 57.3a 13.9ab 77.6a 13.9ab 15.5a 97.2abc
TSSD+CPM 62.4a 13.1ab 62.2ab 13.1ab 17.4a 52.6cd
TS+ GOMF - 0.2c 2.2c 0.2c 0.7c 0.7e
SD +GOMF 53.3a 12.1ab 59.7ab 12.1ab 14.3ab 77.5abc
TSSD+GOMF 62.8a 16.0a 59.7ab 16.0a 16.8a 81.0abc
References
Aiyelaagbe I.O.O. (1991). Leaf area determination in plantain. Banana Newsletter, 14, 44.
Akinyemi, S.O.S., Aiyelaagbe I.O.O. and E. Akyeampong. (2010). Plantain (Musa spp.)
cultivation in Nigeria: a review of its production, marketing and research in the last two
decades. Proc. IC on Banana and Plantain in Africa. Eds. T. Dubois et.al., Acta Hort. 879,
ISHS 2010 pp 211 - 218.
Akyeampong, E. 1999. Plantain production, marketing and consumption in West and central Africa.
Proc International Symposium on banana and food security. Douala, Cameroun 10 - 1,
November. Pp 353 - 359.
Baiyeri K.P and Aba, S.C. 2005. Response of Musa species to macro-propagation. I: Genetic and
initiation media effects on number, quality and survival of plantlets at nursery and early
nursery stages. African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. (3), pp. 223 - 228.
Food and Agriculture Organization, 2006. Production Yearbook 2004 FAO Rome.
Robinson, J.C.( 1996). Bananas and Plantains. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. p238.
Ogazi, P.O. (1996). Plantain: Production, processing and utilization. Paman and associates Limited,
Uku-Okigwe. pp 305.
Venkatachalam L, Sreedhar RV, Bhagyalakshmi N. (2007). Micro-propagation in banana using high
levels of cytokinins does not involve any genetic changes as revealed by RAPD and ISSR
markers. Plant Growth Regul. 51:193-205.
99
JOSEPH-ADEKUNLE, T.T. et al.:
Plantain (Musa AAB. cv Agbagba) Setts Growth in Response to Growing Media and
Organic Fertilizers in South Western Nigeria
Gender Involvement in Ecological Organic Crop Farming

in Ogun State, Nigeria
OYEWOLE, MOJISOLA FAUZIYAH
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development,
University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
Keywords: Gender, Involvement, Ecological, Organic.
Abstract
This study investigates the gender involvement in ecological organic crop farming
agriculture in Ogun state Nigeria. Two local government areas were purposively selected in
Ogun state and systematic sampling technique was used to select ten percent of the one
thousand two hundred (120) ecological organic agriculture registered farmers to give a total
sample size of 120 respondents. Structured interview schedule was used to collect data and
were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Sixty two percent of the male
farmers and 38% of the female farmers were between the age 35 and 45 years. Majority (96%
females and 95% males) were married, 84% of the female and 72% of the male farmers had no
education, while 56% male were involved in land clearing activities while 51% of the female
farmers were involved in processing activities. The male farmers (70%) had high knowledge
while the female farmers (30%) had low knowledge in ecological organic agriculture. The
male farmers (65%) had higher level of involvement while the level of involvement of female
farmers (45%) was low. This study concludes that the low level of knowledge by the female
farmers in ecological organic crop agriculture brings about their low level of involvement. It
can be recommended that awareness on ecological organic agriculture needs to be created to
sensitize the people, particularly female organic farmers on health, environmental, and
ecological benefits of organic agriculture.
Introduction
Organic agriculture has many positive environmental effects, chiefly enhancing biodiversity and
reducing the energy use for agricultural production. (Ziensemer, 2007). It has emerged as a viable
alternative to the dominant conventional farming. It eliminates the use of synthetic pesticides, growth
hormones, antibiotics and gene manipulation in the crop production system which poses a challenge to
the crop and pest management specialists to device new tactics for crop production (Codex Alimentarius
Commission, 2001). Organic agriculture combines traditional innovation and science to benefit the
share environment and promote fair relationship and good quality of life for all gender (IFOAM, 2007).
According to Obasi (2004), gender refers to the many socially constructed characteristics, qualities,
and roles which different societies ascribe to females and males. Gender also refers to social differences
between men and women which vary widely among societies and cultures (Nwankwoala and Daniel,
2011). Different roles and responsibilities of men and women in organic agriculture are closely linked to
environmental change through their economic and household activities.
Organic agriculture supports gender equality because it makes the women contribution more
visible, offer economic opportunities such as low start up and production cost. It also support health of
101
OYEWOLE, MOJISOLA FAUZIYAH:
organic agricultural workers due to prohibition of synthetic chemicals and thus their ability to participate
in income generating activities is not compromised. Among several benefits of organic agriculture
emphasis on gender equity is one important aspect which makes it unique as it is believe to empower
women (Subrahmanyeswari and Chander, 2010). Organic agriculture may have positive effects on the
income of women, who make up a large sharing of small holding farms, particularly in sub- Saharan
Africa and Asia (ESCAP, 2003).
The attempt to increase food production in the country has brought about the expansion of farmlands
as well as increase in the use of agro chemicals by the farmers but its long term effect does not support
sustainable agriculture. In an effort to ensure high production of agricultural produce at sustainable
level, the second national conference on organic agriculture was held in Nigeria, under the regulation of
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) where male and female
participants were charged with responsibilities of making agriculture works in Nigeria (IFOAM, 2007).
This study therefore aimed to assess the level of gender involvement in ecological organic crop farming.
The study was carried out in Ogun state, Nigeria. Ogun state is located in southwestern part of Nigeria. It
covers an area approximately 16,762 square kilometers. It lies between latitude 6.20N and 7.80N. It
borders with Lagos state and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, Ondo state to the east, and in the north is
Oyo and Osun states. It also shares an international border with Republic of Benin to the west It has the
population 3, 751, 40 (NPC, 2006). Agriculture is one of the major occupations of the people. Purposive
sampling technique was used to select two local government areas namely Abeokuta north and Yewa
south local government areas given the fact that the dwellers in these areas are involved in organic crop
farming agriculture. Simple random sampling was used to select 5% male farmers and 5% female
farmers of the one thousand two hundred (1200) registered organic farmers in the study area, to give a
sample size of 60 male farmers and 60 female farmers to give a total sample size of 120 respondents. The
data was obtained through the use of interview schedule and were analyzed using descriptive and
inferential statistics
The result on table 1 shows that 62% of the male farmers and 38% of the female farmers were between
the age35-45 years. This implies that the respondents were in their active age. Majority (96% females
and 95% males) were married, 84% of the female and 72% of the male farmers had no education, 85% of
the female farmers and 70% male farmers had small farm size, while 65% of the male farmers and 70%
of the female farmers had farming experience between 5-10 years. Cassava crop is the most cultivated
crops (43%) by male farmers while the female farmers cultivate vegetable crops (48%) most.
Table 3 shows that Male farmers (56%) were involved in land clearing activities while 51% of
female farmers were involved in processing activities. This implies that clearing of land activities is
tedious for the female farmers. The result from table 4 shows that both male (65%) had high level of
knowledge while the female respondents had low level of knowledge. This implies that only the male
respondents were knowledgeable than their female respondents. Table 5 shows that the male farmers
(65%) were more involved in ecological organic crop farming than their female farmers (45%) that were
involved in ecological organic crop farming.
The result of analysis on table 6 reveals that there is a significant relationship between knowledge
and their level of involvement in ecological organic crop farming. This implies that knowledge had great
102
impact on their level involvement in ecological organic crop farming. This is according to the findings of
Oyesola and Obabire (2011) that that having good knowledge of organic farming could influence high
level of involvement of farmers in organic farming.
Table 1. Distribution of respondents on their socio-economic characteristics (n= 120)
Socio-economic characteristics Male Female
F % F %
Age 37 62 23 38
35- 45 12 20 19 32
46- 56 6 10 10 17
57- 67 5 8 8 13
>68 60 100 60 100
Total
Marital status 57 95 58 98
Married 1 1 1 1
Single 2 4 1 1
Widow
60 100 60 100
Total 43 72 51 84
Education 12 20 6 10
None
3 5 2 4
Primary 2 3 1 2
Secondary 60 100 60 100
Tertiary 42 70 51 85
Total 13 22 7 12
Farm size 5 8 2 3
Small
60 100 60 100
Medium 39 65 38 63
Large
13 21 12 20
Total 8 14 10 17
Farming experience 60 100 60 100
5 -10 years 25 43 8 14
11- 20years
18 32 13 23
< 30years 7 12 6 11
Total
5 8 27 48
Types of crops cultivated 2 2 2 2
Cassava 1 1 1 1
Maize 2 2 3 3
Yam
60 100 60 100
Vegetables
Fruits
Plantain
Melon
Others
Total
103
Table 2. Distribution of respondents on involvement of crop production activities by gender

Activities Male Female
F % F %
Land clearing 33 56 3 5
Land preparation 12 21 4 7
Planting 3 5 6 10
Weeding 2 3 3 5
Harvesting 7 12 5 8
Processing 1 1 31 51
Marketing 2 2 8 14
Total 60 100 60 100
Table 3. Distribution of respondents on their level of knowledge on ecological crop organic

agriculture
Scores Male Female Minimum score Maximum score Mean
F % F %
Low ( < 9.4) 30 77 3 22 9.4

High ( > 9.4) 70 23
Total 100 100
Table 4. Distribution of respondents by level of Involvement in ecological crop organic agriculture

Scores Male Female Minimum Maximum Mean
F % F %
Low (< 15.2) 35 45 3 22 15.2
High (> 15.2) 65 55
Total 100 100
Table 5. Relationship between knowledge and gender involvement in ecological crop organic
agriculture
Variable r- value p- value Remark Decision
Knowledge 0.472 0.000 Significant Reject
Conclusion
It can therefore be concluded that the level of knowledge of female farmers in ecological organic crop
farming is low and this brings about their low level of involvement in ecological organic crop farming.
This study recommends that extension agents should create awareness on the health, environmental and
ecological benefits of organic agriculture over conventional farming.
References
Codex Alimentarius Commission (2001). Guidelines for the production, processing labeling and
marketing of organically produced foods. Retrieved Jan 2015.
http:/wwwcodexalimentarius/downloads/standards/360/cxg032e.pdf.
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM, 2001).Environment Benefits of
104
Organic Agriculture Movement. Retrieved February 10, 2015

http://www.ifoam.org/aboutifoam/principles/index.html
Ziensemer, J. (2007). Energy use in organic food system. Natural management and environment
Department of Food and Agriculture Organization. Rome.
Nwankwoala, C.C. and Daniel, A.A. (2011). The Girl Child Development: the effect of belief. Journal
of International Gender studies, 7, 248 – 257.
Obasi, V.A. (2004). Curriculum for gender- neutral education. Worec Journal of Gender studies, 1(2),
65 – 73.
Oyesola, O.B. and Obabire I.E (2011). Farmers Perception of Organic Farming in Selected Local
Government Areas of Ekiti State, Nigeria. Journal of Organic system, 6(1).
Subrahmanyeswari and Chander (2010). Organic Agriculture: A way forward to achieve gender
equalit. Journal of Organic System, 6(3), 2011 ISSN 117-4258.
105
Awareness of Ecological Organic Agriculture in Nigeria

Case Study of Edo State, Nigeria
ADEWOYIN O.B
Federal University of Oye Ekiti, Department of Crop Science and Horticulture, Oye Ekiti.
Keywords: Ecological Organic agriculture, crop farmers, awareness, Nigeria.
Abstract
Ecological Organic Agriculture is a production management system that promotes and

enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is relies on a minimal
use off-farm inputs and management practices, to restore, maintain or enhance ecological
harmony. The primary reason for organic agriculture is the need to optimise the health and
productivity of interdependent communities of soil, plant, animal and people. Survey was
conducted on the awareness of organic agriculture in Edo State, Nigeria to examine the level
of awareness of ecological organic agriculture among crop farmers by the use of structured
questionnaires. Three hundred(300) respondents were randomly selected from five(5) local
governments and (3) three communities. Data were analysed using frequency distribution
and percentages. The results revealed that most of the farmers were married and between
ages 21 and 30 years with majority having household size of 3 to 5 dependants and post
primary school education. Farming activities were carried out manually without financial
assistance from government. Most respondents (77%) were informed about ecological
organic agriculture through internet and friends; most of the farmers (24%) do not apply
synthetic fertilizer. The research also revealed that ecological organic agriculture produce
has high level of market attraction and brings good financial returns. The evaluation of
respondents' perception of organic agriculture revealed strong agreement in the beneficial
effect of ecological organic agriculture on the health of man and its environment. Based on
the research, it is therefore recommended that there is need for government intervention on
the adoption of ecological organic agriculture through NGO's, private organization and
international organization for proper growth and development and to ensure environmental
sustainability with a global partnership for development.
Introduction
Organic farming originated from England from the theories developed by Albert Howard in his
Agricultural Testament in 1940. By the end of 1970s, organic farming came to the forefront in response
to the emerging awareness of environmental conservation issues (Ojeniyi, 2000). It is an ecological
production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity and soil biological activity. It
is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices to restore, maintain or enhance
ecological harmony (Abdullahi and Kutama, 2012).Organic farming took off, when production method
continued to develop along with consumer's interest in almost all parts of the world. At the same time the
public were gradually recognizing organic farming, as research topics and adopting its legislation. Until
2004, there was no known organic agriculture network in Nigeria. In the same year, an interdisciplinary
team under the aegis of Organic Agricultural Projects in Tertiary Institution of Nigeria (OAPTIN) began
a process of converging national conference that held in 2005 at the University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
107
ADEWOYIN O.B.:
where stakeholders in organic agriculture adopted the project name and discussed the way forward. To
further strengthen the impact of various organic groups, the Nigerian Organic Agricultural Network
(NOAN) was formed which was supported by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movement (IFOAM). OAPTIN has successfully trained 23 agriculture graduates under the Work, Learn
and Earn Project (WLEP), 4 senior agricultural development programme staff, 9 university teachers and
practicing farmers in advanced courses on organic agriculture in collaboration with foreign partners.
Organic agriculture movement is in its infancy in Nigeria, compared to other countries in Africa like
Kenya, Uganda and Ghana where organic development started in the last 10-15 years. Organic farming
could increase more farming jobs by more than 20%(Kutama et al, 2013). It can therefore be stated that in
Nigeria, organic farming increases access to food on several levels. First, increased quantity of food
produced per farm, leads to household food security. Second, the production and selling of food surpluses at
local markets means farmers can benefit from higher incomes, which increases their purchasing power.
Third, fresh organic produce becomes available to more people in the community. Finally, organic farming
enables new and different groups in a community to get involved in agricultural production and trade where
previously they were excluded for financial or cultural reason. Objective of the study is to determine the
awareness of ecological organic agriculture among crop farmers in Edo State, Nigeria.
Methodology
Edo State, Nigeria lies between longitude 60 4'E and 60 43' E and latitude 500 44' N and 70 34'N. Edo State
has a tropical climate characterised by two distinct seasons: wet and dry seasons. The temperature ranges
0 0
between 25 C to 28 C. The main crop grown in Edo State are rubber, oil palm, cocoa, yam, cassava,
maize, rice plantain, sugar cane, cashew, groundnut, soya beans, tomatoes, cotton, and tobacco, fruit
crops (pineapples, coconut, oranges, avocados) and vegetables. Purposive sampling technique was used
to select five (5) local governments out of the eighteen (18) local government. These are Oredo, Ikpoba-
Okha, Orhiomwon, Egor, Ovia South local government areas. Purposive sampling techniques were also
used to select twenty respondents from three (3) communities each from the five (5) local governments
making a total of three hundred (300) crop farmers for the study. Questionnaires was used to collect
primary data from the respondents which were later subjected to statistical analysis using percentages.
Majority of the respondents were within the age range of 21-30 years. This implied that most of the
respondents are within the most active age to adopt new innovation which can improve the upcoming
generation and will enhance sustainability. Most of the respondents had a household size of 3-5 persons.
Most of the respondents were married. This implied that respondents were responsible individuals. The
results indicated that majority farm manually and are well educated and this will drive them to want to
get better in their farm work. The respondents had constraints such as low income, non-availability of
labourers and land unavailability. The respondents do not make use of inorganic fertilizer in their farm.
The respondents are aware of organic agriculture. The respondents were informed of organic agriculture
through Seminars while other through internet and colleagues. Majority of the respondents are into
organic vegetable farming. The correlation result on awareness of organic agriculture and socio-
economic relationships showed that the relationship between sex and awareness of organic agriculture
has a significant p-value of 0.015. Also, the correlation between marital status and awareness of organic
has a significant p-value of 0.006. Finally, educational qualification and the awareness of organic
agriculture showed a significant level of 0.002.
108
Table 1. Socio economic characteristics (N=282)
Age Frequency Percent (%)

Below 20yrs 36 12.8
Between 21-30yrs 103 36.5
31-40yrs 8 29.8
41-50 40 14.2
Above 50yrs 19 6.7
Total 282 100
Household Size Frequency Percent (%)

Less than 3persons 90 31.9
3-5persons 103 36.5
Above 5persons 89 31.6
Total 282 100
Marital Status Frequency Percent (%)

Single 114 40.4
Married 148 52.5
Divorced 4 1.4
Separated 5 1.8
Widowed 11 3.9
Total 282 100
Educational qualification Frequency Percent (%)

No formal Education 8 2.9
Primary Education 15 5.3
Secondary Education 44 5.6
Post Secondary Education 180 63.8
Others 35 12.4
Total 282 100
109
ADEWOYIN O.B.:
Table 2. Distribution of Respondents Based on Method of Farm Operation (N=282)
Method of farm operation Frequency Percent %
Manual 200 70.9

Semi mechanized 82 29
Total 282 100
Inorganic fertilizer used Frequency Percentage (%)

None 214 75.9
NPK 67 23.8
Phosphate 1 0.3
Total 282 100
Areas of Specialization Frequency Percent (%)

Vegetable farming 60 21.3
Arable crop farming 85 30.1
Livestock production 56 19.9
Cash crop production 37 13.1
Others 44 15.6
Total 282 100
Table 3. Distribution of Respondents Based on the Awareness of Organic Agriculture (N=282)

Awareness of organic agriculture Frequency Percentage
Yes 216 76.6
No 66 23.4
Total 282 100
Source of Awareness of organic Frequency Percentage

agriculture
Through a friend 47 16.7
Through seminar 117 41.5
Through Mass Media 45 16
Through others (Internet, Colleague) 73 25.9
Total 282 100
Challenges of using organic Agriculture Frequency Percent (%)

No Financial 217 77
No Land availability 34 12.1
Non-availability of labourers 13 4.6
Soil quality is affected 18 6.4
Total 282 100
110
Table 4. Perception of Respondent about Organic Agriculture (N=282)

(4) (3) (2) (1) MEAN
Statement Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree
Disagree
(1) organic product
are farm product 23 (8.2) 32 (11.3) 87(30.9) 140(49.6) 1.78
without chemical
(2) organic food

contain more nutrients 13 (4.6) 13 (4.6) 110(39.0) 146(51.8) 1.24
(3) organic farm is

good for the environment 7 (2.5) 26 (9.2) 105(37.2) 144 (51.1) 1.77
(4) market demand 14 (5.0) 18 (6.4) 110(39.0) 140 (49.6) 1.67

for organic food
Table 5. Correlation Result of Awareness of Organic Agriculture and Socio – economic

Characteristics (N=282)
Relationship R-value P-value Significance Decision
Sex Vs Awareness of Agriculture 0.148 0.015 S Accept H0

Marital Status Vs Awareness 0.167 0.006 S Accept H0
Educational qualification Vs Awareness 0.197 0.002 S Accept H0
H/size Vs Awareness 0.043 0.488 NS Reject H0
Significant @ 0.05 levels
Conclusion
The research showed that over 76 percent of the respondents were aware of ecological organic
agriculture. Most farmers who are aware of organic fertilizer had financial constraints. In order to
improve the awareness of ecological organic agriculture in Nigeria, there is need to include ecological
organic agriculture education in our secondary school curriculum. Its inclusion in the universities should
be boosted by research and government funding. On the level of rural farmers, extension services should
be enhanced and equipped to inform farmers on ecological organic agriculture. Capacity building and
training by government, research institutions, national and international organization for farmers should
be encouraged. The recent endorsement of support for ecological organic agriculture by African Union
and subsequent developing framework and strategies for organic farming should be implemented on
states and local government levels and also backed up with favourable policies. In line with this,
government should provide or encourage the production of organic inputs such as bio-fertilizer and bio-
pesticides at subsidised rates and create certification agency that would promote certification of farms
and marketing of organic foods internally and externally. There should be organised standard sales
outlets for organic products to bring producers closer to potential buyers and consumers should be well
informed on the health values of organic through advertisement and other means. Regulations and
quality control measures should be developed and strictly followed to conform to international
standards to attract foreign trade.
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ADEWOYIN O.B.:
References
Abdullahi A. and Kutama A.S (2012): Revamping the Nigeria Agriculture Sector. An Indispensable
Tool for National Development and Food Security. International Journal on Development
Studies 5(4): 113-120.
Abdullahi, M. A., Umar S.,Binta, U. B. and Ahmedm M. K. (2013): Organic Farming in Nigeria:
Problems and Future Prospect.
Ojeniyi, S. O: (2000): Effects of Goat Manure on Soil Nutrients and Okra Yield in Rainforest Area of
Nigeria. Applied Tropical Agriculture, 5:20-23.
112
Promotion of Ecological Organic Agriculture (EOA)

Principles and Practices through Dissemination of Organic
Research Outputs: Case Study Southwest Nigeria
YEKINNI, O. T., L. A. ADESIYAN AND P. OLANREWAJU
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
Keywords: Research, Dissemination, Ecological Organic Agriculture, Promotion
Abstract
Research is one of the most important tools for the furtherance of development and promotion
of organic food and farming. This study was conceived to assess how the research
dissemination efforts promoted Ecological Organic Agriculture (EOA). The study
investigated the research outputs on ecological organic agriculture and its dissemination to
farmers in Southwest Nigeria. Multistage sampling procedure was used to select 86 research
scientists from universities and research institutes in Ogun, Oyo and Ekiti states. Data were
obtained and analysed using frequency counts, percentage and Pearsons Product Moment
Correlations (PPMC). Results revealed that 52.2% of the respondents were between age 36
and 45years, 79.1% were male,55.9% held masters degree and majority (56.0%) had
between 1 and 10 years of work experience. Most of the research findings were published
(x=6.0) in journals and disseminated ( x=452.36) to farmers through seminar/workshop.
Significant correlation existed between organic research published and dissemination to
farmers (r=0.21; p < 0.05). Substantial research activities were carried out to enhance the
promotion of EOA in the study area and the major channel of dissemination of findings to the
end users (farmers) is seminar/workshops.
Introduction
Scientific research should be the main driving forces behind the endeavours to find solutions to the key
problems facing society; to develop innovations, to ensure growth, productivity and competitiveness of
agricultural enterprises. Agricultural research and technological development are and will continue to
be prerequisites for increasing agricultural productivity and generating income for farmers and the rural
work force as opined by Adeoye (2005). However, the broader benefits of organic farming and agro-
ecology (in terms of enhancing food security, environmental sustainability, social inclusion and
reducing exposure to toxic pesticides) often go unrecognised or are simply ignored due to lack of enough
research evidences, technology development and dissemination of available technology (IFOAM,
2006).
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2001) reported that technology adoption
is affected by the development, dissemination and application of research information at the farm level
about existing and new biological, chemical and mechanical techniques, all of which are encompassed
in farm capital and other inputs. It is also affected by education, training, advice and information which
form the basis of farmers' knowledge and experiences. Oladele (2011) observed that adequate
agricultural information about new innovations, which tends to help inform farmer's decision-making
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YEKINNI, O.T. et al.:
regarding land, labour, livestock, capital and management. Recent increase in agricultural research
outputs from Nigeria research institutes has led to a large pool of new agricultural technologies, which
are yet to be utilised by farmers (Oladele, 2006). Aina and Mooko (2007) pointed out that most of these
technologies do not reach the farmer's field because the medium for dissemination are not effective in
West Africa and Nigeria in particular.
Recent study on selected Nigerian research institutes revealed that, the scientists have high
knowledge on EOA and favourable perception to promoting organic agriculture as measure to climate
change effects and increase farmers' income through sustainable practices (Olanrewaju, 2011). This
finding shows the potentials of scientists to develop technologies that could be disseminated to farmers
who are willing to be involved in organic agriculture production. Despite this increase in research
activities on EOA, especially in Nigerian research institutes and universities, it is pertinent to find out the
extent to which the research outputs have been disseminated to farmers.
The objective of the study is to ascertain the dissemination research findings on organic agriculture
to farmers in Southwest Nigeria. The specific objectives are to:
1. Describe personal characteristics of the respondent in the study area,
2. Ascertain number of published research outputs on EOA,
3. Determine the numbers of farmers reached with the published research outcomes.
The study hypothesised that there is no significant correlation between organic research findings
publications and dissemination of findings to farmers.
Area of Study
The study was carried out in south-western Nigeria comprising of Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ondo and
Ekiti states. The respondents of the study were selected using multistage sampling procedure. Fifty
percent of the states (Oyo, Ogun and Ondo) were selected using random sampling technique, which
gave rise to a sample size of 100 respondents. Questionnaire and In-depth Interview were used as the
research instrument for the study to elicit information on scientists' personal characteristic, area of
research, innovation developed, dissemination strategies, and constraints to disseminations vis-à-vis the
level of utilization among farmers. Data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics such as
frequencies, percentages and mean, while inferential statistics such as PPMC to test for relationship
between the variables in the stated hypotheses of the study.
Personal characteristics of the researchers
The result shows that 52.5% of the researchers are between the ages of 36 and 45 years. This implies that
middle aged researchers were more in the study area. This suggests reasonable years of experience and
vigour by the young persons in their activities. Harnessing these potentials of future looking young
scientists for ecological organic agriculture research would enhance sustainability of the ecosystem.
Result also shows that majority (79.1%) of the respondents were male. This shows that males are
involved in research more than females in the study area. The result shows that majority (55.9%) of the
respondents had Masters degrees, 39.5% had Ph.D., 2.3% had M.Phil. while 2.4% had below masters
degree. This implies that most of the research personnel had substantial resource endowment. This is an
indication of a viable potential for possible meaningful innovation development for promoting
ecological organic agriculture in the study area, provided such becomes research focus. This finding is in
114
line with that of Olanrewaju (2011) who found that human resources endowment is in abundance in
Nigeria research institutes as well as tertiary institutions.
Figure 1: Distribution of respondents by age
Figure 2: Distribution of respondents by sex
Figure 3: Distribution of respondents by educational attainments
115
Years of experience: The distribution of the respondents' year of experience is such that majority
(56.0%) of the respondents had between 1 and 10 years of experience in research, 33.7% of them had
between 11 and 20 years of experience, 5.9% had between 21 and 30 years of experience, with a mean of
11.2±8.2 years, this implies that the researchers that substantial years of experience, which is expected to
be an advantage for the research and promotion of EOA in the study area.
Figure 4: Distribution of respondents by years of experience
Publications on Organic Agriculture
Table 1 shows that most of the respondents published their organic agriculture researches findings in
journals (x =6.0), followed by proceedings (x =1.9) and technical reports (0.9). This implies that most
results or findings of the researches on organic agriculture are yet to be published, which may have
negative implication on the promotion of organic agriculture. Farmers’ access to the technologies
developed from the research findings would therefore be limited and may be a waste of effort if not
disseminated to them through other channels of disseminating research findings.
Table 1. Distribution of respondents' publications on organic agriculture

SN Publications Mean Standard deviation
1 Journal 6.0465 13.69492 1
2. Proceedings 1.9651 3.12277 2
3. Technical Reports 0.9186 2.09882 3
Source: Field Survey, 2014
Number of Farmers Reached through Dissemination Strategies
Results on Table 2 shows that seminar/workshop strategy was used to reach an average of 452.36
farmers; radio was used to reach 363.35, television 215.12, handbill 141.90, demonstration 80.10 and
extension agent 60.19 farmers. Others are video, with which 12.74 were reached, training 6.10 and
one on one strategy 0.63. This implies that most of the research findings on EOA are presented to
farmers at seminars/workshops. This should be taken to higher levels involving extension agents,
field demonstration and training of trainers among farmers.
116
Table 2. Distribution number of farmers reached by strategies

SN Strategies Mean Rank
1. Seminar/workshop 452.36 1
2. Radio 363.35 2
3. Television 215.12 3
4. Handbill 141.90 4
5. Demonstration 80.10 5
6. Extension Agent 60.19 6
7. Video show 12.74 7
8. Interview Session 2.81 8
9. Training 6.978 9
10. One by one 0.63 10
Source: Field survey, 2014, multiple responses
The study also established that significant relationship existed between organic research publication and
dissemination of findings to farmers. This implies that the more the researchers published their findings
on organic practices, the more they would disseminate the findings among the farmers. This implied that
the researchers are committed to disseminating their research findings, which is a good development
that would encourage the promotion of the EOA initiative in the study area.
Table 3. Pearson product of Moment Correlation (PPMC) analysis on relationship between

organic research findings publication and dissemination of findings to farmers
Variables r-values p-values Decision
Publications 0.206 0.057 Significant

Correlation is significant at 0.05 levels
Source: Field Survey, 2014
In conclusion, human potentials, research outputs to enhance promotion of EOA is high in the study area
and major channel of dissemination of findings to farmers is seminar/workshops. Thus, for effective
dissemination of research findings on organic agriculture practices, other media of dissemination such
as demonstration, training and radio should be given more attention for rapid promotion of organic
agriculture principles and practices in Nigeria.
Acknowledgement
We like to acknowledge the Swiss Development Corporation that made fund available through
Biovision African Trust for the execution of the research under the University of Ibadan organic
agriculture research team.
References
Adeoye, G. O. (2005). A review and possible Adoption for food security in Nigeria. In proceedings of
the 1st national conference on Organic Agriculture, UNAAB, Abeokuta, Nigeria 25-28th
October, pg 4-11.
117
Aina, L. O., Kaniki, A. M., and Ojiambo, J. B. (1995). Information and agriculture in Africa (eds.), In:
Agricultural Information in Africa, Ibadan, Nigeria: Third World Information Services,
Pp. 1-11.
International Federation of Organic Movement (IFOAM) (2004). Network building for lobbying in
Africa. Compiled by Souleymane Bassoum, René Tokannou and Nguji Mutura. IFOAM,
Bonn NO 72 (March 2002). Pg 6.www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/.../00157678-
EN-ERP-72.PDF, accessed, August, 2013.
Kutama1, A. S., Abdullahi, M. A., Umar, S., and Binta, U. B. and Ahmad, M. K. (2013). Organic
farming in Nigeria: Problems and future Prospects Global Advanced Research Journal of
Agricultural Science (ISSN: 2315-5094) Vol. 2(10) pp. 256-262, Available online
http://garj.org/garjas/index.htm, accessed August 23, 2014.
Oladele, O. I. (2006). Multilinguality of farm broadcast and agricultural information access in
Nigeria. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 15(2), 199-205.
Oladele, O. I. (2011). Effect of Information Communication Technology on agricultural information
access among researchers, extension agents and farmers in South Western Nigeria. Journal
of Agriculture and Food Information, 12, 167-176.
Olanrenwaju, P. (2011). Agricultural Scientists Perception to Promoting Organic Agriculture in Research
Institutes in Ibadan Metropolis. Unpublished M.Sc. Project in the department of Agricultural
Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
118
Assessment of Awareness and Knowledge of Ecological

Organic Agriculture in Southwest Nigeria
YEKINNI, O. T.
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
Keywords: Awareness, knowledge and involvement in EOA activities.
Abstract
Organic agriculture is a production management system that promotes and enhances agro-
ecosystem health; including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity.
Organic farming is labour and knowledge-intensive whereas conventional farming is
capital-intensive, requiring more energy and manufactured inputs. Therefore, information
about organic farming has to be made available to encourage practitioners in this sector of
agriculture. The study was carried out in south-western Nigeria consists of Lagos, Ogun,
Oyo, Osun, Ondo and Ekiti states. Multistage sampling procedure was used to select 320
respondents for the study. Questionnaire was used as the research instrument for the study to
elicit data from the respondents. Data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics
such as frequencies, percentages and mean, while inferential statistics such as Pearsons
Product Moment Correlations (PPMC) to test for relationship between the variables in the
stated hypotheses of the study. Result showed that 53.1% of the respondents are within the
category of high level of awareness of EOA in the study area, 53.1% of them were in the
category of high level involvement in organic agriculture practices, 53.1% had a high level of
knowledge of organic agriculture while 60.6% of the respondents had unfavourable
perceptions towards the EOA activities. The study established that opinions of the
practitioners significantly (r=0.136) influenced their involvement in the EOA activities.
Favourable opinion about ecological organic agriculture activities led to significant
involvement in the activities.
Introduction
Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-
ecosystem health; including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasizes
the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that
regional conditions require locally adapted systems. It is a production system that sustains the health of
soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local
conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition,
innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good
quality of life for all involved.
The issue of organic agriculture is thus knowledge oriented, which has its own principles and
procedure, about which most people are oblivious. The definition and appropriate conceptualisation of
Ecological Organic Agriculture (EOA) is very important in order to facilitate dissemination of
appropriate information to new entrants into the practices. The organic food and farming sector is very
119
YEKINNI, O.T.:
dynamic, it is showing rapid growth and constant development, both of which need to be supported by
new technologies. Research needs depend upon the evolution of the sector and in particular upon factors
like diversification of production, new marketing possibilities and also changes in and/or updating of
relevant legislations (European Commission, 2012). According to Halberg (2006), organic farming is
labour and knowledge-intensive whereas conventional farming is capital-intensive, requiring more
energy and manufactured inputs. Therefore, information about organic farming has to be made available
to encourage practitioners in this sector of agriculture. Generally, basic information on organic
agriculture is lacking in Nigeria while information about organic production techniques are also lacking
among farmers.
In order to promote and engender ecological organic agriculture practices in Nigeria, detailed and
comprehensive information of the current state of knowledge and information need about ecological
organic agriculture practices will be necessary. Given the foregoing, the study proposed to assess the
level of awareness and knowledge of farmers about ecological organic agriculture in south-west
Nigeria. Specifically, the study is to:
– ascertain farmers' level of awareness of ecological organic agriculture
– find out the extent of involvement in EOA activities in the area
– determine the farmers' knowledge on ecological organic agriculture
– find out the opinions of farmers about ecological organic agriculture
The study hypothesised that there is no significant relationship between the knowledge of
farmers about EOA activities and their perceptions of organic agriculture in the study area.
The study area is south-western Nigeria consists of Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ondo and Ekiti states.
Organic agriculture farmers constitute the population for the study. Multistage sampling procedure was
used to select the respondents for the study. Fifty percent of the states (Oyo, Ogun and Osun) were
selected using random sampling technique. In each of selected states 20% of the organic agriculture
groups were selected. Thereafter, 10% of the members of each of the selected groups were selected; this
gave rise to a sample size of 320 respondents.
Questionnaire was used as the research instrument for the study; it was however administered as
interview schedule to illiterate respondents. Data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics
such as frequencies, percentages and mean, while inferential statistics such as PPMC to test for
relationship between the variables in the stated hypotheses of the study.
Results
Awareness of EOA
The result of the study about awareness of EOA revealed that 53.1% of the respondents are within the
category of high level of awareness of EOA in the study area. The implication of this finding is that
awareness of the farmers in the region will lead to involvement in ecological organic agriculture production
with the attendant benefits; ecological benefits, health, environmental, as well as the potentials at increasing
the level of income of the farmers in the study area.
120
53.10%
54.00%
53.00%
52.00%
51.00%
50.00%
46.90%
Perce nt
49.00%
48.00%
47.00%
46.00%
45.00%
44.00%
43.00%
Low High
Level of awareness
Figure 1. Distribution of respondents by level of awareness of EOA
Involvement in EOA
The study assessed the involvement of farmers in ecological organic agriculture activities; this is as
regards extent of use of the various EOA innovations. Results on Figure 2 showed that more than half
53.1% of the respondents were in the category of high level involvement in organic agriculture
practices, while 46.9% are in the low level category. This finding is encouraging despite the generally
unfavourable opinions about the activities. This level of achievement can only be explained by the
promotion activities, which has raised awareness substantially among the farmers.
54.00%
53.10%
53.00%
52.00%
51.00%
50.00%
Percent
49.00%
48.00%
46.90%
47.00%
46.00%
45.00%
44.00%
43.00%
low high
Figure 2 : Distribution of respondents by level of involvement in EOA
Level of knowledge of EOA

The results of the survey reveals that majority (53.1%) of the respondents had a high level of knowledge
of organic agriculture. This result is not surprising, as it agrees with the earlier findings where majority
of respondents were aware of organic agriculture practices, as well as more than half in high level in
terms of use of EOA innovations.
121
YEKINNI, O.T.:
73.10%
80.00%
60.00%
Percent
26.90%
40.00%
20.00%
0.00%
Low
High
Figure 2. Distribution of respondents by level of knowledge on EOA
Farmers' opinion about EOA

The study gauged the opinions of farmers about EOA practices; results from the survey revealed that
60.6% of the respondents had unfavourable perceptions towards it, while only 39.4% had favourable
opinion towards the concept. This finding is not strange given the fact that the essence of the concept is
yet to be appreciated generally, even among the elites in the society. The public opinion about it is not
expected to be different from the opinion of the farmers about it, given the fact that public appreciation of
the concept will definitely influence their opinions about it. This will influence their perceptions of
ecological organic agriculture as well their adoption of its practices.
70.00%
60.60%
60.00%
50.00%
39.40%
40.00%
Percent
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Favourable Unfavourable
Opinion categories
Figure 3. Distribution of respondents by opinions on EOA
Relationship between perceptions and of EOA

The study sought to establish relationship between opinions about EOA practices and extent of
involvement in the activities. This is with the aim of ascertaining the extent to which the opinions of the
practitioners influenced their involvements in the EOA practices. The result of the PPMC analysis in
122
Table 1 shows that opinions of the practitioners significantly (r=0.136) influenced their involvement in
the EOA activities. This means that those who had favourable opinion about EOA are substantially
involved in the activities. Though the relationship is statistically significantly, low (13.6%) strength of
relationship implied that there are practitioners who still had unfavourable opinion about the concept,
which as explained earlier, stemmed from the general opinion about ecological organic agriculture
among the people generally in the society.
The picture depicted by significant relationship between opinions and involvement in EOA
practices fulfilled the a priori expectation that it is those who have favourable opinion about an issue that
would be involved in it. The finding was equally supported by other studies that established significant
relationship between attitude and adoption of organic agriculture innovations (Rezvanfaret al, 2011 and
Malek-Saeidi et al, 2012).
Table 1. PPMC for test of relationship between opinions and involvement in EOA practices
Variables r-value p-value

Involvement in EOA activities 0.136* 0.015
vs.
Perceptions on EOA
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Conclusions
Favourable opinion about ecological organic agriculture activities led to significant involvement in the
activities. There must be conscious efforts at promoting opinions about organic agriculture to the larger
society in order to ensure its acceptance by the people and profitability by the practitioners.
Acknowledgements
The study acknowledged the funding by Swedish Society for Nature Conservation -SSNC) through the
Biovision Africa Trust and the Nigerian Organic Agriculture Network (NOAN). The contribution and
efforts of the project country coordinator, Dr O. O. AdeOluwa, his genuine concerns and effective
monitoring are duly acknowledged.
References
European Commission (2012): Organic farming; good for nature, good for you. Directorate for
Agriculture and Rural Development of the European Commission. Accessed at URL
http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/eu-policy/research-projects_en on 15 October
2012.
Halberg, N. (2006). Global development of organic agriculture: challenges and prospects. CABI. p.
297.
Rezvanfar, A., G. Eraktan and E. Olhan (2011): Determine of factors associated with the adoption of
organic agriculture among small farmers in Iran. African Journal of Agricultural Research
Vol. 6(13), p. 2954.
Malek-Saeidi H., K. Rezaei-Moghaddam, and A. Ajili (2012): Professionals' attitudes towards
organic farming: the case of Iran. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology. J. Agr. Sci.
Tech. Vol. 14: 37-50.
123
YEKINNI, O.T.:
The Potential of Ecological Farming in Delivering Social and

Economic Development to Small Holder Farming Families:
The Rwenzori Experience
THADDEO TIBASIIMA, AAGE DISSING, INGE LIS DISSING, JANE NALUNGA,
ELLINOR ISGREN AND LONGINO MASEREKA
SATNET P.O BOX 884 Fortportal, Njara Hill Road, Uganda.
Corresponding Authors: [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]
Keywords: Farmer family learning, Traditional, Ecological, Social responsibility, Cohesion.
Abstract
The benefits of ecological/organic farming alternatives are innumerable compared to the

requirements for attaining such a valuable production system. The ecological farming
alternatives have been easily adopted through the use of participatory community based
agricultural farmer extension approaches such as the Farmer Family Learning Groups
(FFLGs) in the Rwenzori region. During the five years of the FFLGs in the Rwenzori region,
adoption of ecological/organic farming alternatives has fostered the Culture of sharing agro-
inputs, Social capital building, Learning and innovation collaborations, Guaranteed trust,
Appreciation for indigenous knowledge, Cost cutting along the value chain, Cost effective
Seed management systems, Ecological resilience to economic losses, Labor efficiency,
Increased production, productivity and associated income rises. Thus, ecological farming
alternatives present a strong solution to most constraints that trap majority of the farmers in a
vicious cycle of poverty. This paper presents a case for the upscaling and out scaling of
ecological/organic farming alternatives.
Introduction
Sustainable Agriculture Trainers' Network (SATNET) in collaboration with National Organic

Agriculture Movement of Uganda (NOGAMU) and Organic Denmark (OD) has since 2009 seen the
establishment of over 130 ecological FFLGs in the Rwenzori region. An FFLG is a group of 15-30 small
holder farmers who come together to improve their livelihoods through ecological farming alternatives.
The practical learning is done in rotation such that every farmer's farm is uniquely studied to cater for the
variations from one farm to another. In every FFLG, learning is guided by a Community Process
Facilitator (CPF). A CPF is someone knowledgeable and experienced in ecological farming and has
innovative skills to lead the group into achieving its agreed goals. A typical FFLG therefore is
characterized by learning with and from each other the ecological/good traditional farming methods,
working on each member's farm as a group, savings and credit schemes, joint marketing of produce and
taking communal social responsibility (Mette et al., 2012).
The Rwenzori region of Uganda is a mountainous area, highly populated, endowed with relatively
naturally fertile alluvial soils that are inherently capable of giving life to a diversity of crops and animals.
According to the 2008 baseline survey for the FFLG project, majority of farmers in the Rwenzori use
practices that fall between traditional and ecological farming methods by default. This is partly due to
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THADDEO TIBASIIMA, AAGE DISSING, INGE LIS DISSING, JANE NALUNGA, ELLINOR ISGREN AND LONGINO MASEREKA:
The Potential of Ecological Farming in Delivering Social and Economic Development to Small Holder
Farming Families: The Rwenzori Experience
the poor agricultural extension system, low income and the possibility to produce crops and animals
without use of external synthetic inputs. Small holder farmers in the Rwenzori region are faced with
several challenges such as; vulnerability to emerging pests and diseases, diminishing soil fertility,
climate change, reducing available land for agriculture due to population growth, limited technology to
handle laborious farm activities and high post harvest losses due to limited value addition.
The general aims and objectives of the FFLG project on which this paper is based are to:-
– Institute an action learning system for transitioning into ecological farming alternatives by
farming families of Rwenzori.
– Create a massive advocating voice for ecological small holder farmer friendly policies.
– Organize small holder farmers into joint producer and marketing initiatives to access good
markets.
Through the project period, the project team comprising the SATNET staff, NOGAMU staff and organic
Denmark volunteers conducted monthly mentoring and coaching follow up meetings to the FFLGs.
While meeting with FFLGs; individual farmer interviews, focus group discussions, key informants and
field observations were carried out. Workshops for community process facilitators' learning and most
significant change evaluation processes including external project evaluation were conducted resulting
into various project documents. This paper is based on the comprehensive review of the above project
documents and verified through field observations and focus group discussions with FFLGs in 2015.
Discussion of findings
Compared to the forms of conventional agriculture in which much effort has been invested in this part of
the country, the FFLGs in the Rwenzori region clearly demonstrate the social and economic benefits of
agricultural development approaches based on ecological/organic alternatives and strengthening of
farmer collaboration. While environmental dimensions form an important motivation behind these
efforts, the social and economic benefits explained below are equally important in justifying the FFLG
approach and must be made more visible not least given their potential role in convincing other
stakeholders of the merits of these efforts as elaborated below:-
Social aspects
Promoting/sustaining the culture of sharing agro-inputs

Ecological/organic farming systems adopted by FFLGs have enabled farmers to share agro-inputs such
as compost and seed. Since the price of synthetic fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides is unaffordable
especially among the small holder farmers; sharing among conventional farmers is therefore made
impossible. The sharing of the locally made agro-inputs in the FFLGs has promoted social cohesion that
extends to ensuring that the entire farmer group is utilizing the shared resource appropriately while
gaining from the same through increased productivity.
Social capital building

All ecological FFLGs have contributed to the development of their community through making
sacrifices such as investing a percentage of their profits in the education of less privileged children,
supporting elderly women by cultivating their land, clearing a village access road and maintaining a
village water source (Mette et al 2012). Such self-help initiatives have increased the appreciation of the
126
group by the community hence encouraging collaboration and the spirit of self-help initiatives. Socially,
this has become a building block for the community social movements to act together to solve their own
problems.
Learning and innovation collaborations
Following that organic agriculture is knowledge-intensive; there is need for effective learning and
innovation in FFLGs for farmers to convert from traditional farming methods to sustainable ecological
methods. Farmers in the FFLGs learn from each others' farm and provide the site specific practical
solutions to each farm through the Agro-Ecosystem Analysis of each specific farm under study. Such
interaction and encouragement has strengthened farmer groups and stimulates innovation to overcome
farming related and general life challenges (Mette et al 2012).
Guaranteed trust
Trust building through the Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) among ecological farmers has
enabled joint marketing of produce. PGS being a trust and confidence based approach to product
promotion, has built both the social and economic strength of the FFLGs and members through
collaborative action and increased incomes associated with going together to the market. According to
an external evaluation of the FFLGs in 2013, although over 50% of FFLGs had no PGS, the steps that
had been taken enabled over 70% of FFLGs to associate around a similar enterprise for marketing.
Consequently the FFLGs have been enabled to generally fetch prices 30% higher than the individual
large scale holding conventional farmers marketing their products solely.
Appreciation for indigenous knowledge

Ecological farming builds on the existing indigenous/traditional farming methods hence building the
confidence among the farmers to use and own the innovations. In the FFLGs, knowledge has been
generated to adapt to climate change effects for example through developing appropriate intercropping
patterns, soil and water conservation methods, pest and disease management and splitting planting
periods. These indigenous based innovations have been strongly owned and built confidence and
cohesion among the small holder farmer families.
Economic aspects
Cost cutting
In all FFLGs, avoidance of costs of synthetic and safety gear that is required in the use of synthetic
agricultural inputs has enabled FFLGs to maximize profits(Investing in agriculture innovations 2013).
Due to limited investment capital by small holder farmers, there is great need to avoid unnecessary
expenditures on external inputs. Small holder farmers in the FFLGs have been able to share labor
intensive work e.g. on digging trenches for water and soil Conservation, preparing their own compost
and are using natural enemies in the control of pests. Given the life and environmental friendliness of
nature based agro-inputs, by their use, the farmer certainly overcomes the unbearable costs associated
with the purchase and precaution that must be taken while using synthetic inputs.
Cost effective Seed management systems

Seed security in FFLGs rely on the use of own saved and shared seed. This has enabled avoidance of
costly seed yet made possible timely planting that has translated into strengthened socialization among
the farmers. As such, FFLGs have overcome the climate change hazards that are more pronounced
among conventional farmers who rely on purchased seed that is often delayed and adulterated.
127
THADDEO TIBASIIMA, AAGE DISSING, INGE LIS DISSING, JANE NALUNGA, ELLINOR ISGREN AND LONGINO MASEREKA:
The Potential of Ecological Farming in Delivering Social and Economic Development to Small Holder
Farming Families: The Rwenzori Experience
Ecological resilience to economic losses

Ecological farming methods build resilience of farms through diversification that cushions climate
change disruptions. The diversified farming in FFLGs comes with various ecological benefits such as
soil fertility improvement, reducing input costs through for example serving crop residue to feed
livestock during drought; trees providing shade to livestock during hot sun and in case of failure of one
enterprise; the farmer is able to reap from another enterprise.
Increased production, productivity and associated income rises

An evaluation conducted five years after initiation of the FFLGs indicates that over 3255 farming
families registered increased produce and productivity on their farms by over 40% for each enterprise
resulting into average 25% income increase per household. This according to the evaluation report is
associated with the enhanced soil fertility, use of better farming methods and cultivation of more than
one crop on a unit of land and other factors of production. The double benefit of increased production and
productivity reciprocating into food and income security is attributed to none other than the adoption of
ecological farming alternatives in the FFLGs.
Labor efficiency
As a result of increased collaboration among farmers in the FFLGs, farmers work together and produce
more work than when working individually. This reduces the cost of labor and enables timely farm
operations hence overcoming the loss associated with short rain seasons. According to farmer level and
FFLG level records, most FFLGs reported having ably opened up an acre of land in one day by 15
persons as opposed to the 25 days that are required for the same work when done by one individual. This
saves a farmer 10 days of work.
Conclusion
Based on the experience in the Rwenzori region, we uphold that there is need for more emphasis to
explore and confide in ecological farming alternatives at both small and large scale farmer levels.
The Farmer Family Learning Groups in the Rwenzori region is a reliable proof of the potential of
ecological/organic farming alternatives in enabling attainment of sustainable social and economic
development particularly among small holder farmers who form the majority of animal and crop
producers world over. Therefore, adoption of the ecological/organic farming alternatives facilitated by
practical farmer learning approaches is a reliable strategy for addressing the social and economic
constraints that hinder majority of small holder farmers from realizing their full potential.
References
Mette Vaarst, Jane Nalunga, ThaddeoTibasiima, Aage Dissing and Inge Lis Dissing (2012): The
Rwenzori Experience: The Farmer Family Learning group approach to human and social
capital building, environmental care and food sovereignty.Third world Network.
Investing in agricultural innovations (2013): Building Of Capacity, Social and Human Capital and
Advocacy Through Self-Sustaining Farmer Family Learning Groups For Local Food
Security and Improved Market Access. http://www.satnet.org.ug/ SATNET Fortportal
www.satnet.or.ug-Unpublished.
SATNET (2008): Project baseline survey for establishment Farmer Field Schools in Rwenzori region.
SATNET Fortportal-Un published.
128
Ecological Organic Agriculture Value Chain: Building

Capacities on Identified Knowledge Gaps in
Southwest Nigeria
AJAYI, A. J.
Department of Crop Production Technology,
Federal College of Agriculture, Akure, Ondo State
Keywords: Ecological Organic Agriculture, Value chain, Capacity building
Abstract
The lack of knowledge about ecological organic agriculture (EOA) makes many to perceive
the shift to organic agriculture practice as risky. Farmers and other actors in the agricultural
value chain production need adequate training and practical skills in EOA to enhance their
capacity towards ensuring the availability of ecological organic products. Short course
training was organized for actors in EOA value chain and the objective of the training focused
on enhancing the capacity of actors in EOA value chain to translate the acquired knowledge
into production and availability of organic products. A day short course training was
organized for selected actors in the EOA value chain at the Federal College of Agriculture,
Akure on September 25, 2014. The training was designed to equipped participants with
requisite knowledge in EOA value chain. Thirty-two participants were trained in various
aspect of organic agriculture such as basic principles in EOA, benefits and opportunity,
technical tips on production in organic agriculture, EOA value chain framework and
marketing. The training was delivered through lectures, discussion and participation by
trainees, interaction and critical analysis of feedbacks and question. Feedback from
participants revealed that new knowledge was impacted on the participants towards ensuring
availability of organic produce.
Introduction
The ever increasing world population and the need to feed the entire populace resulted in pressure on
land resources due to increasing land area under cultivation and intensification of production per unit
land area. Massive use of external inputs that increases the cost of production became the order of the
day in last few decades due to neglect in management of land resources required to sustain productivity
(Ajayi and Bifarin, 2014). However, no respite has come to us in the food production sector with the
practice of high input and high energy based production technology. Instead, myriads of challenges such
as environmental problem, loss of biodiversity and health problems resulting from consumption of
unwholesome products are associated.
In addressing the challenges associated with the conventional agriculture, sustainable farming
system that draw on agro-ecology, the science of applying ecological concepts and sustainable
management of agro-ecosystem must be adopted. The practice of ecological organic agriculture (EOA)
satisfies these conditions of sustainability. EOA ensures sustainable production without jeopardizing
the environment with the use of eco-friendly agricultural practices.
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AJAYI, A.J.:
Ecological Organic Agriculture Value Chain: Building Capacities
on Identified Knowledge Gaps in Southwest Nigeria
In Organic Agriculture eco-functional intensification is achieved by higher inputs of knowledge,

observation skills and agro-ecological methods to intensify the beneficial effects of eco-system
functions including, biodiversity and soil fertility, minimizing losses from material cycles and utilizing
the self regulating mechanisms of biological systems to achieve stable farming systems (IFOAM,
2009). However, the knowledge component of the inputs required for organic agriculture as mentioned
by International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) has been found inadequate.
This knowledge GAP can only be filled through adequate training.
Most of the major players in the food production sectors are either trained or exposed to production
system under conventional agriculture. Even our tertiary institutions curriculum for training specialist in
agriculture is designed towards the conventional agriculture. Hence, manpower that plays major role in
production system is not exposed to basic knowledge in organic agriculture. If this is the situation, there
should be no expectation of understanding of the concept among the farmers that are supposed to be
trained by these agriculture experts. Even in situations where knowledge of organic agriculture is
claimed in Africa, it is often premised on equating organic agriculture with the use of organic fertilizers
or claim of organic agriculture by default. This shows the extent of lack of knowledge among the actors
in production system. FAO (1998) had reported that much organic knowledge would become common
knowledge if the management were to be practiced by many and over several generations, so that the
need for a certain kind of information will decrease over time.
In as much as awareness about the consumption of healthy food as proffered by organic concept is
important, there is need for availability these wholesome agricultural produce for consumer to access.
However, there are lots of knowledge or skill gap, misunderstanding and misinformation about the
concept and practices of ecological organic agriculture. Aiyelaagbe et al. (2011) had also reported
perceived skill gap in organic agriculture.
The lack of knowledge about ecological organic agriculture makes many to perceive the shift to
organic agriculture as risky (FAO, 1998). Farmers and other actors in the agricultural value chain
production need adequate training and practical skills in EOA to enhance their capacity towards
ensuring the availability of ecological organic products. It is therefore imperative that specific and
targeted steps be taken to ensure that these actors are trained in order to fill the knowledge gap.
In order to solve the problem of the identified knowledge gap, intervention program targeted at
addressing the lack of EOA knowledge among actors through short course or training was put in place by
Association of Organic Practitioner of Nigeria (NOAN), through a funding provided by Swiss
Development Corporation (SDC) through Biovison African Trust (BvAT) and the course implemented
by Federal College of Agriculture, Akure. The objective of the training is to enhance the capacity of
actors in EOA value chain to translate the acquired knowledge into production and availability of
organic products. The capacity building through short course training for targeted actors in EOA value
chains is set out to fill the knowledge gap that exist among the actors of EOA value chain.
Training Location
The short course training was carried out in Akure, Ondo State located in the rainforest zone, South-west
of Nigeria. Akure is surrounded by mainly agrarian communities in different local government area of
the state. Akure was selected as the preferred location for the training based on the knowledge about the
spread of NOAN'S activities in Oyo/Osun state region. Several training had been conducted on EOA by
NOAN in this zone (training for trainers and farmers). However, various vocational training conducted
by the Federal College of Agriculture, Akure in the last two years had revealed lack of knowledge about
130
EOA among actors in the agriculture value chain in this area. Over 100 individuals were exposed to
rudimentary training on EOA through this platform of the college. The choice of this location will help
the spread the awareness and adoption of EOA practices. The training was then targeted at actors in the
agriculture value chain that has been part of any form of training of EOA implemented on the platform of
the Federal College of Agriculture, Akure in order to build on their basic knowledge and to fill the
existing knowledge gap.
Selection of Target Audience and Resource Persons

The first step taken to achieve the objective was to determine the composition of the participants and to
select the appropriate audience is to train through a one day training program that will build on their
previous basic knowledge in organic agriculture through lectures, discussion, and field visit.
Forty (40) targeted actors were selected and invited for the training from the pool of the various
groups of vocational trainee on the college platform. This comprised mainly farmers, youths, and
women within the catchment area of Ondo State who had previously been exposed to some form of
training in one area of organic agriculture or the others that had no such opportunity.
Planned Output
The planned output was to support short course trainings for targeted actors in EOA value chain to build
capacities on identified gaps.
Implementation
The short course training was conducted on Thursday, September 25, 2014 at the main auditorium of
Federal College of Agriculture, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
Training Session
To achieve the objective of the course, training was designed and implemented through lectures,
discussion, questions and answers after each session, critical analysis of feedback and question,
interaction and field visit to organic farm at the college.
The subject areas of discussion during the training include:
– Review of basic principles of Ecological Organic Agriculture (EOA), benefits and opportunities
– Technical guide for production in organic agriculture:
– Value chain in organic agriculture
o Sustainable ecological organic agriculture value chain

o Principles of value addition in organic agriculture
– Marketing strategy and development for organic agriculture
– Discussion forum:
o How to ensure production for the market and the sustainability
Attendance and Participation in the Programme

There were thirty two (32) registered participants for the short course training and two representations
from the Ecological Organic Agriculture Initiative in Nigeria namely; Mr. Gbadamosi Oyewole who is
the project manager for EOA and Dr. Taofeeq Yekinni, the Pillar Implementing Partner for Pillar 1,
University of Ibadan Organic Agriculture Research Team.
131
AJAYI, A.J.:
Evaluation of the Short Course Training

At the end of the training programme, course evaluation was carried out by the research to determine the
effectiveness of the training.
Short course trainings for targeted actors in EOA value chain to build capacities on identified knowledge
gaps was carried out in Akure, Nigeria. The activity is a training intervention programme to build
capacity of actors in EOA value chain under pillar 1 activities and was implemented by Federal College
of Agriculture, Akure.
Activity: The activity is to train actors in EOA value chain.
Performance/objective verifiable index (OVI): The OVI for this activity is the number of actors
trained.
Number of actors trained: Thirty two (32)

The actors trained comprise of male and female, youth and adults. In the course of the short course
training, thirty two (32) actors were trained through series of lectures, discussion and interaction
designed to equip them with adequate knowledge about the basics of ecological organic agriculture, the
value chain and marketing strategies in order to ensure eventual translation of knowledge into
production and availability of organic produce. The focus of each presentation is as follow:
o Training objectives: this session intimate the participants about the assignment to be accomplished
by the training, the objective and the importance of the training. The expected impact of the training
and what it should translate into.
o Lecture titled basics of ecological organic agriculture focused on principles of organic agriculture,
the features and benefits.
o The lecture on technical tips for organic crop production focused impacting knowledge of good
agronomic practices to participants. Also this session addressed the issue of pest control and different
strategies required.
o The session on development of sustainable ecological organic value chain framework focused on
description and constraints of EOA value chain, the interrelationship of different components. The
understanding of this concept will stimulate the interest of all the actors in the agricultural business
clusters to develop a formidable framework on ecological organic. New opportunities in the EOA
value chain were also identified.
o The lecture on marketing of organic produce explained what an organic produce, the challenges of
local market development and strategies of marketing organic.
Observations in the course of the training revealed that participants were eager to learn and have
developed interest in the organic agriculture. During the course of the training, several questions
were asked by the participants and the questions were adequately attended to.
Conclusions
The need to adequately train farmers and other actors in the EOA value chain production cannot be
overemphasized. Adequate training and practical skills will enhance their capacity towards ensuring the
132
availability of ecological organic products.

Thirty-two participants were trained during a one day short course training program to build their
capacity in EOA. The participants were exposed various aspect of EAO including the basic principles in
EOA, value addition and marketing.
Feedback from the participants revealed that the training exposed the participants to existing
knowledge gap in EOA and the participants were enthusiastic in taking steps and networking towards
achieving the set objective of making ecological organic agriculture produce available.
It is suggested that further training be implemented to enhance the capacity of EOA actors through
continuous learning using opportunity like field visit. Also, the group actors trained under this short
course need to be followed up in order to sustain their motivation.
Acknowledgement
We acknowledge the Swiss Development Corporation that made fund available through Biovision
African Trust for the execution of the short course training for targeted actors in the EOA value chain
References
Ajayi A. J. and Bifarin J. O. (2014) A Review on Achieving Food Security at the Expense of the
Environment: an Advocacy for Organic Agriculture Practices in Nigeria. Environtropica,
11:50-59.
Aiyelaagbe, I. O. O., Harris, P. J. C., Olowe, V. I. O., Adedokun, T. A. and Trenchard E. J. (2011)
Bridging Skill Gap in Organic Agriculture in Nigeria. Proceeding of Organic is Life
Conference, 17th IFOAM OWC VOLUME 1.
FAO (1998): Evaluating the potential contribution of agriculture to sustainability goals. FAO technical
contribution to IFOAM's Scientific Conference Mar del Plata, Argentina. November 16-19
1998.
IFOAM (2009). High Sequestration, Low Emission, Food Secure Farming Organic Agriculture - A
Guide to Climate Change and Food Security. 28pp.
133
AJAYI, A.J.:
Influence of Moringa Leaf Extract and Coconut Water as

Priming Agent to Improve the Emergence and Early
Seedling Growth in Cucumber
OLUWAGBENGA DUNSIN, CHRISTOPHER ABOYEJI, AND GIDEON NAYAN
Department of Crop & Soil Sciences, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara-State. Nigeria
Keywords: Cucumber, Moringa leaf extract, Coconut water, Seed priming.
Abstract
Rapid and uniform field emergences are two essential prerequisites to increased yield,
quality, and ultimately profits in annual crops production. Priming with plant growth
regulators have been widely reported to improve seedling vigor and emergence. This study
was conducted to evaluate the possibility of improvement in emergence and early seedling
growth in cucumber by treating the seeds of cucumber for 18 hours in aerated solution of
FMLE, SMLE and FCW. Priming with plant growth regulator improved the emergence rate
and uniformity and early seedling growth. However, seed treatment with FMLE was more
effective in reducing the mean emergence time, and improving the final emergence % and
emergence energy and number of roots. However, maximum seedling fresh and dry weights,
root length were recorded from seed treatment with fresh coconut water. Seed treatment with
moringa leaf extract and/or coconut water can be successfully employed to improve the
germination and seedling growth in cucumbers.
Abbreviations: FMLE=Fresh moringa leaf extract; SMLE=Stored moringa leaf extract;

FCW=Fresh coconut water; MET=Mean emergence time; FEP=Final emergence
percentage; EE=Emergence energy.
Introduction
Rapid and uniform field emergences are two essential prerequisites to increased yield, quality, and
ultimately profits in annual crops production. Uniformity and percentage of seedling emergence of
direct-seed crops have a major impact on the final yield and quality (Wurr and Fellow, 1983). Rate and
uniformity of emergence are inherent to seed quality and environmental conditions during seedling
emergence. Slow emergence result in smaller plants (Parera and Cantiliffe, 1994) and seedlings.
Seed priming is commonly used to reduce the time between seed sowing and seedling emergence
(Parera and Cantliffe, 1994). Evenari (1980) reported that ancient Geek farmers soaked the seed of
cucumber in water or milk and honey before sowing to increase germination rate and emergence.
Nelson & Govers, (1986) reported delayed and reduced seedling emergence is major setback to achieve
uniform and vigorous crop stand in early spring planted cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) Moreover,
erratic and non-uniform seedling emergence due to poor seed germination causes non-uniform plant
development, thereby extending cucurbit fruit maturation for early markets.
Application of plant growth regulators or nutrients during pre-soaking, priming and other pre-
135
OLUWAGBENGA DUNSIN et al.:
Influence of Moringa Leaf Extract and Coconut Water as Priming Agent to Improve
the Emergence and Early Seedling Growth in Cucumber
sowingtreatments in many crops have improved seed performance that results in overall plant growth
and productivity particularly under adverse conditions, such as temperature extremes or salinity (Afzal
et al., 2008).Among different natural sources used extract of plant growth regulators are, Moringa
oleifera L. is gaining a lot of attraction (Foidl et al., 2001) and Coconut water.
Moringa belongs to family Moringaceae. There are about 13 species of moringa of which M.
oleifera is most widely grown. The leaves of moringa are rich in zeatin, it can be used as natural source of
cytokinin (Fuglie, 1999). Inaddition, moringa leaf is also rich in ascorbates, carotenoids, phenols,
potassium and calcium, which have plant growth promoting capabilities and often applied as exogenous
plant growth enhancers (Foidl et al., 2001). Antioxidants such asascorbic acid and glutathione, which
are found at high concentrations in moringa chloroplasts and other cellular compartments, are crucial for
plant defense against oxidative stress (Noctor and Foyer, 1998).
The coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is an important fruit tree in the tropical regions and the fruit can be
made into a variety of foods and beverages. The edible part of the coconut fruit (coconut meat and
coconut water) is the endosperm tissue. Coconut water (coconut liquid endosperm), with its many
applications, is one of the world's most versatile natural product which is consumed worldwide as it is
nutritious and beneficial for health. (Jean et al 2009). Some of the most significant and useful
components in coconut water are cytokinins, (e.g., kinetin and trans-zeatin) which are a class of
phytohormones (Kende and Zeevaart, 1997.), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), the primary auxin in plants
(Wu and BU, 2009), and other components like sugars, sugar alcohols, lipids, amino acids, nitrogenous
compounds, organic acids and enzymes (Santoso et al,1996.), and they play different functional roles in
plant and human systems due to their distinct chemical properties.
In view of all these reports, it is hypothesized that priming with leaf extract from moringa and
coconut water, having a number of plant growth promoters, mineral nutrients and vitamins in a naturally
balanced composition, may promote the plant growth and vigor. Therefore, the aim of this study is to
evaluating the influence of pre-sowing Moringa leaf extract and Coconut water seed treatments on
germination and early seedling growth of cucumbers.
Seed Materials: Seed of cucumber, cv. Nabil, were obtained from Premier Seed Nigeria limited. Zaria
Kaduna State. Fresh moringa leaves were collected from a mature moringa tree and juice was extracted
by a locally fabricated juice extraction machine following the method of Foidl etal. (2001). While fresh
coconut was harvested form the mature tree and the water was extracted. Seeds were primed with
respective aerated solutions of FMLE, FCW, and SMLE for 18 h. Non-primed seeds were considered as
controls. Continuous aeration was provided using small aquarium pump. After each soaking treatment,
seeds were dried on filter sheets for 48 hours at room temperature.
Evaluation of vigor: Control and primed seeds were sown in 20◊20 cm plastic trays (25 in each)
containing moistacid/water washed sand, replicated three times in a growth chamber using a completely
randomized design. Numbers of emerged seedlings were recorded daily according to the seedling
evaluation of the Association of Official Seed Analysts (1990) until a constant count was achieved.
Mean emergence time (MET) was calculated according to the equation of Ellis and Roberts
(1981).Energy of emergence (EE) was recorded on the fourth day after sowing. The percentage of
emerging seeds 4 d after sowing is relative to the total number of seeds tested (Farooq et al.,2006). On the
fifteenth day after emergence, seedlings were tested for vigor after being carefully removed from the
sand. Number of roots, shoot and root length of five randomly selected seedlings were recorded per
136
replicate and averaged. Seedling fresh weight was determined immediately after harvest; dry weight
was taken after drying at 70oC for 7days.Graphical representation of data was made using Microsoft
Excel program (Microsoft Corporation, Los Angeles, CA, USA). Standard error was computed using
Microsoft Excel programme for comparison of treatments and parallels were drawn between emergence
and seedling growth.
Results
All the priming treatments were effective in reducing the mean emergence time (MET), while
enhancing final emergence percentage (FEP) percentage and emergence energy (EE) as compared to
that of unprimed seeds which had low seed vigor and poor seed performance; (Fig. 1&2). It was noted in
this study that seed priming resulted in improved seedling growth as indicated by increased root and
shoot length, seedling fresh and dry weight (Fig. 3a & b; 4a & b;).
Seed priming can enhance the germination and early seedling growth in cucumber. Priming of
cucumber seed with plant growth regulator decreased the emergence time and increased seedling
emergence and seedling fresh and dry weight. Seed Priming not only resulted in earlier and more
uniform emergence and emergence percentage, energy of emergence was also improved.
Discussion
The present study shows that hormonal priming with plant growth regulators can be employed to
improve early emergence and seedling growth in cucumber. Emergence rate, root shoot lengths,
seedling biomass are all important contributors of seed vigor. Higher emergence rate is the main
foundation, which ensures an improvement of overall seedling performance. The results of present
study indicated that seed priming with FMLE resulted in earlier emergence, reduced MET and improved
the final emergence and emergence energy as compared to FCW and SMLE (Fig. 1& 2). Increase in
germination percentage after treatment might be the consequence of higher nutrients and vitamins of
FMLE and/or high content of zeatin a natural cytokining found in the leaf of moringa. Seedling vigor
was also improved by treating cucumber seeds with plant growth regulator, it was noted that seed
priming with fresh coconut water has the highest seedling fresh and dry weights (Fig. 4a & 4b) which
might be due to increased cell division within the apical meristem of seedling roots (Fig. 3b) from the
phytohormones found in the coconut water (Kende & Zeevaart, 1997), while FMLE improved the
seedling shoot length.
Hence, seed priming with Plant growth regulator (FMLE and FCW) can be successfully employed
to improve the germination and seedling growth in cucumbers.
In conclusion, fresh moringa leaf extract and coconut water is effective for improving germination
and early seedling growth and needs further investigation for its role in cucumber flowing and yield
under various temperature.
137
Treatments
Figure 1: Influence of seed priming on (a) seedling fresh weight and (b) seedling
dry weight ± s.e. in cumber
References
Afzal, I., S.M.A. Basra, N. Ahmad, M.A. Cheema, E.A. Warriach and A. Khaliq, 2002. Effect of
priming and growth regulator treatment on emergence. Int. J. Agric. Biol., 4: 306–306
Evenari M., 1980/81. The history of germination research and the lesson it contains for today. Isr. J.
Bot. 29, 4-21.
138
Farooq, M., S.M.A. Basra and K. Hafeez, 2006. Seed invigoration by osmohardening in coarse and
fine rice. Seed Sci. Technol., 34: 181–187.
Foidl, N., H.P.S. Makkar and K. Becker, 2001. The potential of Moringa oleifera for agricultural and
industrial uses. In: Fuglie, L.J. (eds.), The Miracle Tree: The Multiple Attributes of Moringa,
pp: 45–76. Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Fuglie, L.J., 1999. The Miracle Tree: Moringa oleifera: Natural Nutrition for the Tropics, p. 68.
Church World Service, Dakar.
Jean W. H. Yong, Liya Ge, Yan Fei Ng and Swee Ngin Tan; Molecules 2009, 14, 5144-5164;
doi:10.3390/molecules14125144.
Kende, H.; Zeevaart. J. The five “Classical” plant hormones. Plant Cell 1997, 9, 1197–1210.
Nelson, H. and A. Govers, 1986. Salt priming of muskmelon seeds for low temperature germination.
Sci. Hort., 28: 85–91.
Noctor G. and C.H. Foyer, 1998. Ascorbate and glutathione: Keeping active oxygen under control.
Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol., 49: 249–279.
Parera, C. A. and D. J. Cantliffe 1994. Pre-sowing seed priming. Horticultural Review. 16:109-141.
Santoso, U.; Kubo, K.; Ota, T.; Tadokoro, T.; Maekawa, A. Nutrient composition of kopyor
coconuts (Cocos nucifera L.). Food Chem. 1996, 57, 299–304.
Wu, Y.; Hu, B. 2009. Simultaneous determination of several phytohormones in natural coconut juice
by hollow fiber-based liquid-liquid-liquid microextraction-high performance liquid
chromatography, J. Chromatogr. 7657–7663.
Wurr D, Fellows J, 1983. The effects of the time of seedling emergence of crisp lettuce on the time of
maturity and head weight at maturity. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 58:561-566.
139
Level of Compliance to Organic Agricultural Practice in the

Practical Year Training Programme of University of Ibadan,
Nigeria
TIJANI, S. A AND OWOLABI, G.
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Keywords: Compliance, organic agriculture, practical year training programme, students.
Abstract
The study assessed compliance to organic agricultural practice in the practical year training
programme (PYTP) of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. A total of 122 PYTP students were
sampled. Data were collected through well-structured questionnaire and analysed with
frequency counts, percentages and means. Study revealed that 73.1% have high level of
knowledge on organic agriculture. Quest to meet up with required planted crops (amaranths,
celosia and chocorus) yield, weed control and pest and diseases were the top constraints to
compliance. Less than half (47.8%) of respondents had a high level of compliance. However,
high knowledge of organic agricultural practices did not translate to high level of compliance to
standard practice. Students must be made to adhere strictly to principles being taught by the
instructor and other means of grading rather than yield should be employed.
Introduction
Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems, biodiversity and
people. It relies on ecological processes and nutrient cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the
use of external inputs. Organic agriculture combines traditional knowledge, innovation and modern
science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all
involved (IFOAM, 2004; AdeOluwa, 2010). The aim of organic agriculture is to create integrated
humane, environmentally and economically viable agricultural systems that rely on local or on-farm
renewable resources; management of ecological and biological processes (United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development UNCTAD, 2008).
Organic agriculture helps in the improvement of the natural environment, farmers and household
incomes. Organic farms are more profitable than conventional agriculture (Twarog 2006; Gibbon and
Bolwig, 2007).
Edozien (2002) believed that Nigeria future lies in the participation of youths in agriculture. This led
to establishment of practical year training programme (PYTP) in all tertiary institutions offering
agriculture. The programme exposes 400 level students of the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry to the
practical aspect of agriculture. During this period each student is allowed to have her own plot and
cultivate her crop to the harvesting level. The students are divided into two groups in which one of the
group practices organic agriculture and the other practices conventional farming. However, organic
agriculture practice is governed by some principles. Unfortunately, students in a mission to acquire good
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TIJANI, S.A. et al.:
Level of Compliance to Organic Agricultural Practice in the Practical Year Training
Programme of University of Ibadan, Nigeria
grades in their practical do everything possible to improve their yield despite the fact that the training is
not profit oriented in monetary term. This attitude of students may negate the principles of organic
agriculture. Also, if agricultural students that are meant to be information carrier of organic agriculture
donot comply with all the principles then what is expected from rural farmers? The implication is that
overtime, agricultural resources will be endangered. A dearth of knowledge on the extent to which
students of organic agriculture know and comply with the standard of organic agricultural practice
necessitated this study.
The study area was university of Ibadan. University of Ibadan was founded in 1948 and located in the
ancient city of Ibadan the capital of Oyo state. It has over 12,000 students and ten faculties including
Agriculture and Forestry aside the College of Medicine (Alabi and Ibiyemi, 2000). All PYTP students in
2012/2013 set were the target population. Sixty-seven (67) respondents purposefully sampled practised
organic agriculture while the rest fifty- five (55) randomly sampled did not practice organic agriculture
and data was obtained with the use of structured questionnaire. The level of compliance was measured
by asking respondents to react to a list of expected/standard practices of organic agriculture through Yes
or No. Scores of 1 was assigned to yes and 0 to no. A score of compliance was generated by summing all
the scores obtained from the items indicated. The mean score was calculated and used as the benchmark
for categorizing respondents into low and high compliance.

Respondents' Level of Knowledge on Organic Agriculture
The result shows that majority of respondents knew that precautionary measures are taken to avoid the
contamination of organic sites (0.97), use of cover crops, green manure and crop rotation are important
cultural practices (0.94), manure to be used on organic farm should be from organic source only (0.88)
health, ecology and fairness are the major principles in organic agriculture (0.89). However, 0.54knew
that conventional chemically untreated seeds, seedlings and planting material may be used in organic
production, primary ecosystems such as primary forests and wetlands shall not be cleared or drained for
the purpose of establishing organic production (0.52), Meanwhile, respondents are still undergoing
training. Table 1 shows that majority (73.1%) have high level of knowledge while 26.8% have low level
knowledge. Hence, PYTP on organic agriculture can be adjudged fair in terms of passing the right
knowledge across to students.
Table 1. Respondent's level of knowledge on organic agriculture
Level of Score Frequency % Minimum Maximum Standard Mean
knowledge deviation score
Low 5 – 17 18 26.8 5 22 3.98 17.1
High 17.1-22 49 73.1
Constraints to compliance with organic agriculture practices by the respondents

Table 2 reveals that meeting up with required planted crops (Amaranthus, Celosia and Chocorus) yield,
weed control, pests and diseases and untimely information in that order were the major constraints to
compliance while competition with fellow students for mark ranked lowest. The prominence given to
quest to meet required yield arises because of the limited resources supply by the management.
142
Table 2. Constraints to compliance to organic agricultural practice

Constraints Mean Rank
Quest to meet up with required yield 0.90 1
Pests and diseases 0.75 3
Competition with fellow students for mark 0.48 7
Weed control 0.82 2
Untimely information 0.70 4
Marketing 0.67 5
Acceptability of organic food in the market 0.64 6
Compliance of respondents to organic agriculture

Table 3 indicates that respondents paid attention to some standards more than the others. More
respondents paid attention to non-application of fertilizer (80.6%) but for use of manure; only few
paid attention (26.9%). This might be due to inability to find organic animal farm around to supply
such to them.
Table 3.Level of compliance of respondents to organic agricultural practices

Compliance statements Yes No
Fertilizer was applied on my farm 19.4 80.6
All seeds planted are from organic source 58.2 41.8
Manure used on my farm are strictly from organic sources 73.1 26.9
Herbicides and pesticides were used on my farm 19.4 80.6
Land has been used for conventional agriculture in the last two years 38.8 61.2
I used chemically untreated seeds for my production 62.7 37.3
I borrow farm tools from my colleagues who practiced non organic farming 13.4 86.6
I washed thoroughly the borrowed farm tools before using on my plot 4.5 9.0
At the selling point, inorganic produce were not mixed with organic produce 74.6 25.4
My organic produce were sold separately from produce of conventional farming 71.6 28.4
I wet my plants with hygienic water 74.6 25.4
Categorization of respondents based on compliance to organic practices

Result on Table 4 shows the minimum score of respondents to be 2 and the maximum score to be 8 while
the mean score is 5.13.Therefore, respondents with scores below the mean score were considered to
have low compliance while those with scores of mean and above were considered to have high
compliance. Results show that 47.8% of the respondents have high level of compliance to the standards
of organic agriculture while 52.2% of the respondents have low level of compliance with organic
agriculture practice. This implies that less than half of the respondents had high level of compliance to
organic agricultural practice.
Table 4. Level of compliance to organic agriculture

Compliance to Score F % Minimum Maximum Standard Mean
organic practice deviation
Low 2 -5.0 35 52.2 2 8 1.86 5.13
High 5.13 - 8 32 47.8
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TIJANI, S.A. et al.:
Level of Compliance to Organic Agricultural Practice in the Practical Year Training
Programme of University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Categorisation of respondents' knowledge difference shows high level of knowledge among those that
practice organic agriculture than those who did not with 73.1% and 43.6% respectively. This implies that
practice improves knowledge and for those who did not practice, going in to organic agriculture may be
difficult.
Conclusion
The findings shown that majority who practiced organic agriculture though have high level of
knowledge but they have low compliance. Also, the respondents who practiced organic agriculture
have a higher level of knowledge than their counterpart and therefore it can be deduced that practice
enhances knowledge. Organic agricultural practice should be made an integral part of practical year
training programme for all the students so as to bridge the gap in knowledge and practice. Instructors
should pay more attention to students in order to adhere strictly to principles being taught during
practice. Compliance to the organic agriculture principles should be used in grading organic agriculture
students rather than expected yield which has become a major constraint to them and may lead to going
through shortcut in order to meet up.
References
AdeOluwa, O.O (2010). Organic Agriculture and Fair Trade in West Africa. Rome: Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Edozien, N. N. (2002). Empowering the poor through micro finance. A Paper Presented at 20th
Biennial Conference of the Development Finance Department of Central Bank of Nigeria.
Gibbon, P. and Bolwig, S. (2007). The Economics of Certified Organic Farming in Tropical Africa:
A preliminary analysis. Subseries on Standards and Agro-Food Exports (SAFE).
IFOAM (2004).Network Building for Lobbying in Africa. Compiled by Souleymane Bassoum, René
Tokannou and NgujiMutura. Bonn: IFOAM.
Twarog (2006). Organic Agriculture: A Trade and Sustainable Development Opportunity for
Developing Countries: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
UNCTAD (2008).Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa.
144
Organic Livestock Production Sustainable Increase of Meat

Production on Natural Grasslands in Namibia
GEROLD RAHMANN1, CHRISTIAN HÜLSEBUSCH2, JUDITH ISELE3AND ANITA IDEL4
1
Thuenen-Institute of Organic Farming, Trenthorst, Germany, [email protected]
2
DITSL, German Institute of Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture, Witzenhausen, Germany
3
Springbockvley farm and Polytech of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia
4
Mediator and Consultant “Biodiversity and Animal Health”, Feldatal, Germany
Keywords: Organic Livestock, meat production, natural grasslands
Abstract
Improvement in grazing systems are necessary to increase the productivity and

sustainability of grassland utilisation in semi-arid Africa. Changes in stock density and
stocking rate as described in the concept of “Holistic Management” can be an option of
improvement. This management concept has not been tested scientifically yet, despite
farmers report good success. Since 1993, “Holistic Management” carried out on the farm
was Springbockvley in Namibia. From 2014, the grazing system has been changed to prove
the concept. Approximately 800 head of cattle and 3,000 head of sheep are used in different
herd densities have been introduced on a 9,500 ha farm. The vegetation and the stock
productivity were assessed for the first experimental year. The designed methodology seems
to be applicable for a scientific assessment of some “Holistic Management” tools. The
preliminary results are, that the best way to assess the biomass is cut and assessing. But this
is labor intensive. The use of a Platemeter® is recommended. It was observable that the
biomass does change due to the experimental stock densities and rates. The stocking rate
varied between 17 (1995) and 43 kg liveweight (2012) per hectare. The livestock had no
adaptation problem (body performance, weight gain) with double stock density. The meat
production (liveweight) per hectare between 5.3 (1995) and 15.2 kg (2013).
Introduction
Given the prominent role of herbivore livestock in grasslands, livestock must be addressed explicitly
as a source of products such as meat, milk, hide, wool, fuel, manure and social security (Fresco and
Steinfeld, 1998; Steinfeld et al., 2006) and as a major factor of ecological impact on the soils, the
water and the vegetation of the pastures, which supply > 90% of livestock feed in the grassland-based
livestock systems (Seré and Steinfeld, 1996).
Food production in the Southern African semi-arid countries like Namibia hinges to a large
extent on effective management and utilization of the bulk of land, which consists of natural
grassland, savannah systems, and rangeland-based farming systems with pockets of crop production
(Bakker et al., 2006). Thus, the whole food system is essentially rangeland based and requires
constant efforts to balance rangeland productivity with maintaining the natural resource base,
including water saving technologies and strategies for combating or reversing the loss of land to
desertification (Mills et al., 2005).
145
GEROLD RAHMANN, CHRISTIAN HÜLSEBUSCH, JUDITH ISELE AND ANITA IDEL
Due to the agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions combined with the land use history
and past and current management practices, the grassland based food system in Namibia (as well as
other semi-arid savanna areas of Africa) today faces the following problems, leading to a) loss of
livelihoods, b) reduced ecosystem services and c) reduced development potential for remote,
marginal areas.
Given the above problem setting, the main challenges for food systems based on grazing systems
in semi-arid Africa (Scherr et al., 2010) lies in the sustainable improvement of natural grassland
utilization starting out with the improvement of livestock management (production performance,
health condition) and the integration of livestock and crop production (feed-manure chain). The
utilization of the vast grasslands must maintain or even increase resource use efficiency (water, energy,
nutrients, labour and land). The results will increase sustainable food production and profitability of
rangeland use (food and income security). This is only possible if the results are understood, accepted,
adapted, and applicable for farmers, stakeholders, and food policy decision makers.
Namibia is a semi-arid country with large savannah areas. The climate in Namibia is semi-arid
(250-500 mm rainfall/year), with mono-modal distribution (rainy season Nov–Mar), and with high
seasonal, annual, and spatial variability. The agro-ecological conditions can be taken as an example
for similar areas throughout Africa.
Today, in Namibia livestock is kept in fenced pastures on farms, herded on communal farmland and
non-farmland areas such as roadsides, forests, nature reserves, or kept as free roaming livestock close to
the settlements (Zimmermann, 2009). Resettlement programmes tried to lease farmland out to
individuals, but fencing and maintenance of water infrastructure is expensive for the individual farmer.
Goal of the Research

The vast grassland systems in countries like Namibia need to be developed to become a more
productive and well integrated part of the overall food system, and there is increasing evidence that
there are new paradigms of improved livestock management and crop-livestock integration that can
sustainably integrate crop and livestock operations and increase production (MAWF, 2010).
Farmer's experiences with different innovative rangeland and grazing management approaches
such as Holistic Management (HM) will be taken as starting point to assess and develop novel and
accepted grassland food systems for Africa. In the 1970s, the Holistic Management Approach (HM)
was developed by Savory and Butterfield (1999) for a sustainable use of the vast semi-arid grasslands
of Africa. The main principles of the HM approach are close to what in science is termed the
“ecosystem services approach” (Fynn, 2008).
So far, this approach lacks a thorough peer reviewed scientific evaluation. The “Springbockvley
project” was launched in 2013 and by analyzing some minor aspects of the total approach wants to
start a scientific assessment of HM to combat the future challenges in meat production on African
savannah farming systems.
Research Questions:
– Which methodology is suitable to measure biomass production and grazing days?
– How does the changing of stock densities (LU/ha) influence biomass production?
– How does the changing of stocking rates (LU/ha/a) influence biomass production?
Material and Methodology
For the HM experiments, a 9,500 ha Organic cattle and sheep farm “Springbockvley” was used
(Figure 1). The farm is located in the southern central part of Namibia, 180 km southeast of the capital
Windhoek, on the Western edge of the typical Kalahari dune landscape but in almost completely flat
146
countryside. With an average yearly rainfall of 260 mm Springbockvley is situated in an area of

average production capacity which provides appropriate fodder for cattle and sheep alike. The farm
has been managed according to the Holistic Management decision making framework since 1990
and is certified 'Namibian Organic' since 2013 (Isele 2014). In an inter-annual average, on the farm
are about 800 Nguni cattle and 3,000 Damara sheep.
Figure 1: Location of the Springbockvley farm and climate conditions in the region
The Nguni cattle are an indigenous and robust breed and have an average live weight LW of 400 kg (thus,
one cow is less than one Livestock Unit LU which is 450kg). The cows deliver every year a calf, which is
suckling 6 to 8 months. Then calves are weaned and kept as fattening cattle in a separate “oxen herd”.
Between weaning and slaughtering at 3 years of age they gain about 300 kg and by then have an average
live weight of 450 kg (1 LU). Taking into account different ages, sex and performance, the average live
weight of the total cattle herd is considered to be 300 kg per total head of cattle including calves. The fat
tailed Damara sheep are also a hardy indigenous breed. The ewes have an average live weight of 45 kg
(10 ewes are one LU) and deliver about 1 lamb per year (natural lambing peak is May to August). The
Figure 2. Nguni cattle and Damara sheep on Springbockvley
147
average live weight of the total sheep flock is considered to be 35 kg per ewe including lambs. The
average annual total live weight of all livestock depends on the available fodder, and since 2005 varied
between 235 to 415 tons, which is about 25-44 kg LW per hectare (see Figure 2).
Different stocking densities and stocking rates have been taken as starting point to assess and
develop sustainable stock densities and stocking rates on grassland in Namibia. In 2013,
Springbockvley has changed the grazing management system (4 herds rotated in 4 farm sections) into a
full farm rotation with 3 herds: cows, oxen and sheep (see figure 3). The three herds are in following
structure (with inter- and intra-annual changes, recent figures March 2015) and sum up to a total live
weight of 414,250 kg (920.6 LU) and a resulting stocking rate on the farm of 43.6 kg per hectare:
– Cows herd: consisting of 505 cattle: 134 cows with small calves, 123 pregnant cows that have
recently weaned their calves, 40 pregnant heifers, 70 heifers ready to be bred, 15 bulls with an
average live weight of 3,000 kg and a total liveweight of 151,500 kg (336.7 LU).
– Ox herd: consisting of 308 cattle: 194 oxen from weaning to slaughter age, 52 weaning heifers and
54 culled cows with 8 calves with an average live weight of 3000 kg and a total liveweight of 92,400
kg (205.3 LU).
– Sheep flock: consisting of 3,950 sheep and 107 cattle: 1,950ewes with lambs, 50 rams with an
average live weight of 35 kg and a total liveweight of 138,250 kg (307.2 LU) plus 107 young bulls
from weaning to slaughtering age with and average live weight of 300 kg and a total live weight of
32,100 kg (71.3 LU). Thus the total Sheep flock and bulls her has an average live weight of 170,350
kg (378.5 LU).
Figure 3: Grazing management system with the three herds of cows, oxen and sheep on
Springbockvley
148
The changes of herd composition and grazing management have not increased the overall stocking rate,
but the stocking density (about 133% compared to the conditions before 2013). The expected impact
was further increase of biomass production, consequently an increase in carrying capacity and thus
ultimately more meat production per ha, or, alternatively higher stability in the case of droughts (more
fodder available for dry periods).
All three herds have followed the „red grazing line“ on the farm and provide average resting periods
between 80 and 100 days for every grazed plot during the non-growing season and average recovery
periods between 100 and 140 days during the growing season. That means, that every herd/flock has
grazed every paddock approximately 1 to 1,3 times a year. Grazing plans are drawn up according to
Holistic Management Planned Grazing(Savory and Butterfield 1996) after an annual estimation of
animal consumable biomass (grazing days per ha) for every paddock using different methodologies. For
the project two stocking and thus grazing treatment variations have been integrated:
– HighSD: Increased stocking density (The paddock will be subdivided with a mobile electric fence
into a number of parcels equivalent to the planned days for the respective camp to be grazed in the
current selection. Every day a new parcel will be opened for the herd to graze.)
– DoubleSR: Increased stocking rate (The paddock will be grazed for twice the duration of planned
days for the camp to be grazed.)
– Control: These experimental grazing variations will be compared with the current system of stock
density and stocking rate.
For these experiments, four replications have been selected on the farm. The goal of the research is to
prove if these changes can be measured scientifically. The experiment will be done for 3 years, from
May 2014 to May 2017.
Table 1. Experimental plots for different stocking rates and densities

DoubleSR HighSD Control
Replication 1: “H” (House) “H9” (95 ha) “H2” (90 ha) “H1” (80 ha)
Replication 2: “S” (Sand) “S7“ (130 ha) “S11” (150 ha) “S10” (145 ha)
Replication 3: “A” (Achab) “A3” (145 ha) “A6” (160 ha) “A5” (160 ha)
Replication 4: “P” (Pan) “P9” (150 ha) “P4” (160 ha) “P3” (150 ha)
The variation of the herd management has been done while the routine grazing modus, following the
„red grazing line“. There was no fixing of the date, when the herds entered the paddock. The herds have
entered each paddock in compliance with the grazing plan designed as per description above. The fodder
availability expressed in grazing days per ha have been assessed in May of each year. The selected
paddocks have been managed according to the grazing plan, and this has been assessed. The line“ has
been modified so that the herds/flocks will always graze two normal paddocks (managed according to
the current grazing regime) before they entered a treatment paddock (increased stocking density or
double stocking rate). This is an adaptation period for the animals before entering treatment. The second
of the normal paddocks between two treatments serves as control (Table 1 and map above).
From May 2014 until February 2015, the different herds have utilized the control and treatment
plots in following time and densities (Table 2).
149
Table 2. Grazing management from May 2014 until February 2015
* Cow herd: breeding female cattle (cows, heifers and calves) with an average LW of 300 kg,
** Sheep herd = on breeding unit of ewes, rams and lambs (average LW of 35 kg) and breeding bulls (300 kg LW).
*** Oxen herd = fattening cattle (oxen, finished cows, fattening heifers) with an average LW of 300 kg.
Livestock Assessment
– Cattle: All cattle are weighed once every year during the compulsory vaccination routine (Anthrax,
Brucella). The livestock is weighed always while they are close to the weigh scale (water point
Mahali, 500 m east of farm house).
– Sheep: A randomly selected group of sheep will be weighed: clustered by age and function (lambs
<6 months; lambs 6-12 months; adult sheep > 1 year). The average number per group should be 50
animals. The result is assumed to be the average weight of all the other sheep in that respective same
cluster.
– All cattle and sheep will be estimated in liveweight as soon as they enter the experimental paddocks
to have the most accurate liveweight of the herds.
– The wild game will be assessed for the experimental paddocks (in estimated kg liveweight).
– All routinely gathered weight data of livestock (liveweight, carcass weight, birth weights) will be
included in the data base to improve the data as much as possible.
– Births weights of calves and lambs will be recorded randomly (50 calves and 200 lambs per season).
– All livestock records will be included in the study: losses, sales and purchases, livestock diseases,
treatments, calvings, etc.
150
P9DoubleSR12.-22.5.5.-15.9.6.-16.12.
27.12.-3.1.
25.-30.9.
2.-6.6.
LW)P4HighSD
tons
122.4
cattle:
(408
herd
Cow
LW)22.-27.12.
tons
99.6
cattle:
(332
herd
Oxen
20.-25.9.
LW)
tons
132
bulls:
67
sheep,
(3200
herd
Sheep
27.-5.-2.6.
P3Control
16.-30.1.
1.-11.10.
1.-11.7.
A3DoubleSR
12.-18.2.
20.-25.10.
21.-26.7.
A6HighSD
LW)
tons
172
bulls:
121
sheep,
(3,900
herd
Sheep
5.-12.2.
LW)
tons
125.7
total
cattle:
(419
herd
Cow
15.-20.10.
LW)
tons
85.5
total
cattle:
(285
herd
Oxen
16.-21.7.
A5Control
24.1.-3.2.
5.-9./11.-13.10.
27.6.-5.7.
S7DoubleSR
19.-27.2.
23.-28.10.
15.-20.7.
S11HighSD
LW)
tons
154
total
cattle:
(513
herd
Cow
11.-19.2.
LW)
tons
160
total
bulls:
90
sheep,
(3,800
herd
Sheep
18.-23.10.
LW)
tons
138
total
cattle:
(460
herd
Cow
10.-15.7.
S10Control
4.-7.12.
19.-25.8.
12.-17.5.
H9DoubleSR
13.-16.12.
30.8.-2.9.
2.-5.6.
H2HighSD
LW)
tons
80.4
total
cattle:
(268
herd***
Oxen
11.-13.12.
LW)
tons
152
total
bulls:
88
sheep,
(3,600
herd**
Sheep
28.-30.8.
LW)
tons
120
total
cattle:
(400
herd*
Cow
31.5.-2.6.
H1Control
Herd
to
…
from
Herd
to
…
from
Herd
to
…
from
Treatment
2015
Feb
-
2014
Dec
Grazing
2014
Oct
-
Aug
Grazing
2014
July
-
May
Grazing
Replication
Vegetation Assessment
The main proof of the herd management will be on the assessment of the vegetation (Glatzle 1990).
Because it is not clear, which methodology of biomass measurements can be used, a tool test
(methodology assessment) has been included in the study. Seven different methodologies have been
chosen for comparison:
– Platemeter test: Transect walk with a platemeter on all treatment and control paddocks. Done every
May from corner to the opposite (diagonal) corner (between 1 and 2 km), every second step one
measurement. The inter-annual comparison of the „average biomass height“ will be the indication
of growth and biomass.
– Vegetation cut test: on 200 m randomly chosen transect, not closer than 100 m from the paddock
fences or other unusual parts of the paddock. Every 20 m a 1 sqm vegetation cut (10 samples per plot)
will be done and can be assessed (biodiversity, biomass, feeding value). This will be done every
May.
– Vegetation estimation test: on a 50x50 m (2,500 sqm) permanently defined and marked Estimation-
parcel (minimum 100 m apart from the paddock fence and special parts of the paddock) the
methodologies of
* Klapp (Biodiversity and biomass estimation combined with special values: feeding value,
grazing tolerance etc) and
* Braun Blanquet (Biodiversity and coverage of vegetation, bare land and dead material).
These methodologies will be done according to international standards of grassland
estimations. The assessment will be done every May and just before and after each grazing
event of the treatment and control paddocks.
– Transect test: on a 200 m quadrant line (the borders of the parcels in test 3) qualitative biomass
assessment (occurrence and abundance of plant species) will be assessed.
How and when to be done: Every meter along the 200 m line the a) alive plant, b) dead plant, c) litter
and d) bare soil will be assessed (where the line touches on ground every m). This will be done in
May each year.
– Picture test: every year, a transect line picture will be done. Comparison over the years.
How and when to be done: Every May and before and after the grazing a picture is taken always from
the main marking pole in the direction of the two adjacent marking poles (50 m distance).
– Quadrant test: in the corner of the parcel from test 3, a visual estimation will be done on how big one
grazing day would be (estimation of the lateral length of the square that feeds one LU for one day).
To be done every May and before and after each grazing event.
– STAC method test: the two diagonals of the parcel from test 3 will be measured according to the
STAC method. Every second footfall the average bulk biomass will be estimated in grazing days per
hectare. The average of all values will be taken as estimated grazing days per hectare for the area. To
be done every May and before and after each grazing event.
The comparison of these seven very different vegetation tests is assumed to allow answers about the
best, cheapest and most useable measure (also for farmers) to assess the vegetation coverage, biomass
and grazing days estimations in heterogeneous semi-arid savannah-type grasslands. Although test 6 and
7 are rather subjective estimation methods they have been included in the tool test in order to reflect the
necessity to provide reliable means to assess biomass in day to day farming life of practitioners.
151
Results
The meat production on Springbockvley was assessed by farm records from 1994 till 2012, the last year
before converting towards organic farming and the novel grazing management system. The rainfall was
uncertain and between 61 mm (1995) and 680 mm per year (2011), surprisingly with a slight increasing
trend. The stocking rate and the meat production do follow the annual rainfall performance (Figure 4).
The stocking rate varied between 17 (1995) and 43 kg liveweight (2012) per hectare, the meat
production (liveweight) per hectare between 5.3 (1995) and 15.2 kg (2013).
Figure 4: Development of annual stocking rate, annual rainfall and meat production (kg/ha LW)
1994 - 2012
The average number of different plant species on the different experimental grazing was assessed on
2,500 sqm plots before and after the three herds of cow herd, oxen and sheep have used the plots (Table
3).The total average number of species found in sampling plots before grazing events is higher than after
grazing events. This applies to all grazing treatments, double stocking rate, high density and normal
grazing respectively.
Table 3: Average number of different plant species found in sampling plots before (pre-assessment)
and after (post-assessment) grazing treatments
Cows Oxen Sheep Average
Before After Before After Before After Before After
DoubleSR 9.3 8.7 10.0 8.3 10.7 9.7 9.9 8.9
HighSD 12.0 12.7 13.0 10.0 10.7 9.0 11.8 10.6
Control 12.7 11.7 10.7 9.0 10.3 11.3 11.2 10.9
DoubleSR: double stocking rate; HighSD – high stocking density; Control: normal grazing; measured with method
“Brown Blanquet” after grazing with the herd of cows, oxen and sheep respectively. Average across four replications.
152
Table 4. Potential grazing days per hectare (GD/ha) estimated by means of the Quadrant method
(see above, tool test 6) in sampling plots before and after grazing treatments
Cows Oxen Sheep
before after before after before after
DoubleSR
A 20.7 18.9 44.4 25.0 n.a. n.a.
H 25.0 29.2 6.9 5.7 25.0 13.7
P 11.1 n.a. 14.8 10.4 30.9 13.7
S 100.0 39.1 n.a. n.a. 59.2 27.7
HighSD
A 14.8 14.8 34.6 17.4 n.a. n.a.
H 44.4 20.7 n.a. n.a. 14.8 16.0
P n.a. n.a. 18.9 17.4 30.9 25.0
S 51.0 30.9 n.a. n.a. 20.7 20.7
Control
A 34.6 30.9 39,1 39,1 n.a. n.a.
H 11.1 16.0 13,7 n.a. 16.0 18.9
P n.a. n.a. 27,7 18,9 34.6 44.4
S 69.4 34.6 n.a. n.a. 34.6 30.9
DoubleSR = double stocking rate; HighSD = high density; Control = normal grazing; across four
replications “A”, “H”, “P” and “S”.
Conclusion
The grazing systems in the semi-arid savannah area of Namibia are not well managed. Changes in stock
density and stocking rate as described in the concept of “Holistic Management” could be an option of
improvement. This management tools have not been tested scientifically yet, despite farmers reported
good success. Different herd densities have been introduced on a 9,500 ha farm in Namibia in 2014 to
prove the promises of the Holistic Management. The vegetation and the stock productivity have been
assessed. The methodology seems to be applicable for a scientific assessment of Holistic Management.
References
Bakker, E.; Ritchie, M.E.; Olff, H.; Milchunas, D. and Knops, J.M.H.(2006): Herbivore impact on
grassland plant diversity depends on habitat productivity and herbivore size. Ecology Letters
9:780-788.
Fresco, L.O. and Steinfeld, H.(1998): A food security perspective to livestock and the environment. In:
Nell AJ (ed.) Proc. International Conference on Livestock and the Environment,
Wageningen (Netherlands), 16-20 Jun 1997. FAO, Rome (Italy), 5-12.
Fynn, R.W.S. (2008): Savory insights – is rangeland science due for a paradigm shift?. Grassroots:
Bulletin of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa, September 2008, Vol 8(3):25-37.
Glatzle, A. (1990): Weidewirtschaft der Tropen und Subtropen. Ulmer publisher, Stuttgart, 286p.
Isele, J. (2014): Bridging drought. Resilience in Rangeland Management in Times of Climate Change.
Proceedings of the practitioner track of the OWC 2014, Istanbul, 44-46.
MAWF (2010): National Rangeland Management Strategy. Policy for Namibia, Windhoek.
Mills, A.J. and Fey, M.V.(2005):Interactive response of herbivores, soils and vegetation to annual
burning in a South African savannah. Austral Ecology 30:435-444.
Savory, A. and Butterfield, J.(1999): Holistic Management - A New Framework for Decision Making.
Island Press, Washington DC, USA, 616p.
153
Scherr, S.J.; Wallace, C. and Buck, L.(2010): Agricultural Innovation for Food Security and Poverty
Reduction in the 21st Century: Issues for Africa and the World. Issues Paper for State of the
World 2011: Innovations that Nourish the Planet. Ecoagriculture Partners, Washington, D.C.,
www.worldwatch.org/files/pdf/ SOW11 %20Issues%20Paper_Full%20Version_Fin al.pdf.
Seré, C. and Steinfeld, H.(1996): World livestock production systems: current status, issues and trends.
FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 127, Rome, 390p.
Steinfeld, H.; Gerber, P.; Wassenaar, T.; Castel, V.; Rosales, M. and de Haan, C.(2006):Livestock's
Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. FAO, Rome, Italy, 436p.
Zimmermann, I.(2009): Causes and consequences of fenceline contrasts in Namibian rangeland. Ph.D.
Thesis, University of the Free State, pp 222.
154
Analysis of Rural Household Use of Organic Farming-

Practices- Amongst Livestock Farmers in
South-South Nigeria
ATOMA C.N.1, MATTHEWS-NJOKU, E.C.2, NNADI F.N.2
1
Department of Agricultural Extension and Management, Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro, Nigeria
2
Department of Agricultural Extension, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria
Keywords: Livestock farmers, Organic Farming Practices.
Abstract
The paper focused on the use of organic farming practices amongst livestock farmers in
South-South Nigeria.-Multistage sampling technique was used and three states (Bayelsa,
Akwa Ibom and Delta States) were randomly selected from the six states that make up South-
south Nigeria. Data for the study was obtained with a structured questionnaire administered
to a sample size of one hundred and sixty two (162) livestock farmers. Twenty two (22)
organic livestock farming practices were identified and respondents indicated their- use
level on a four point likert type scale of High = 4, moderate = 3, low = 2, not at all = 1. A
decision rule of mean score of 2.50 was established. Descriptive statistics, ANOVA and
Scheffe model was used to analyze data. Findings revealed that use level was low in organic
farming practices for livestock. Use of organic farming practices was high only in fresh
drinking water and adequate feeding. There -was a significant difference among the three
states in their level of use as revealed by the analysis of variance . The scheffe model
indicated where actually the differences lied, Use level was significantly different between
respondents in Bayelsa State (Mean=36.2692) and Akwa Ibom State (mean=46.1538).
Also between Delta State (Mean=35.2979) and Akwa Ibom State (Mean=46.1538).
However, there was no significant difference in use between Bayelsa State (mean =36.2692)
and Delta State (mean =35.2979). Adequate campaign and training programs on
awareness, use and benefit of organic farming practices for the farmers were recommended.
Introduction
Organic farming is an agricultural technique of naturally producing quality crops, vegetables, or

animals without harming the environment, people, animal as well as other micro organisms. Studies
have shown that organically grown foods are more nutritious, safe and of high quality. It offers improved
food security and an array of other economic, environmental, health and social advantages ( UNCTAD
2008 ).They are more important in ensuring human health compared to foods grown under conventional
methods ( Barec 2006; Worthington 2001).
According to Willer and Kilcher (2011), organic farming is practiced in 160 countries and 37.2
million hectares of agricultural land managed organically. Global sales oforganic food and drink
reached US$ 54,9 billion in 2009. Animal products however, constitute a small share of the organic
market compared to fruits, cereals and herbs ( Willer and Keller 2011 ).
155
ATOMA C.N. et al.:
Analysis of Rural Household Use of Organic Farming- Practices- Amongst Livestock
Farmers in South-South Nigeria
Organic livestock farming is the production of livestock with the use of organic and biodegradable
inputs from the ecosystem for their upkeep, feeding, health, housing and breeding. Synthetic inputs such
as drugs, feed additives and genetically modified inputs are avoided. According to Vaarst et al,. (2006)
some key considerations in organic animal husbandry that producers and other stakeholders need to take
into account are:
Origin of livestock :All livestock that are sold, labelled or advertised as organic must be raised under
continuous organic management.
Livestock feed: The total rations of livestock that are produced under organic management must consist
of agricultural products that have been organically produced and handled organically. These include
pasture, forage and crops.
Living conditions: An organic livestock producer must create and maintain living conditions that
promote the health and accommodate the natural behaviour of the animal. These living conditions must
include access to the outdoors, shade, shelter, fresh air, direct sunlight suitable for the particular species
and access to pastures for ruminants.
Waste management: Organic livestock producers are mandated to manage manure so that it does not
contribute to the contamination of crops, soil or water and optimizes the recycling of nutrients.
Health care: Organic livestock production requires producers to establish preventive health care
practices. Producers cannot provide preventive antibiotics but are encouraged to treat animals with
appropriate protocols, including antibiotics and other conventional medicines when needed, but these
treated animals cannot be sold or labelled as organic.
Record keeping: Organic livestock operations need to maintain records for a number of reasons.
Certainly, records are important for the financial management of any organic livestock production.
Therefore, this study was undertaken to study the level of awareness of organic farming practices
amongst livestock farmers in South-south Nigeria.
Methodology
Livestock farming was selected from the three prominent agricultural enterprises of fishery, livestock
and crop. Multistage sampling technique was used. Firstly, three states- Delta, Bayelsa and Akwa-Ibom
were selected from the six states that make up South-south Nigeria. Data for the study was obtained with
a structured questionnaire administered to a sample size of one hundred and sixty two livestock farmers.
The instrument elicited information on level of use of organic livestock farming practices identified with
responses on a four point rating scale of very regularly = 4, regularly =3, rarely =2 never =1. A decision
rule of mean score of 2.50 was established. Descriptive statistics, ANOVA and sheffe model was used to
analyse data.
Level of Use of Organic Farming Practices Amongst Livestock Farmers

Table 1 shows that level of use was low generally in several Organic Farming Practices for livestock.
Entries in the table indicated that farmers have high level of use offresh drinking water and adequate
feeding. There was low level use of other practices since their mean score was below 2.50. The result
showed that organic livestock production practices in South south Nigeria is 11.11% which is very low
compared to countries like India with 75% (Prabir and Mahesh 2012). Though Indian farmers according
to him cannot be regarded as practicing organic livestock farming. Even though 75% organic practices
156
were used, some of the important principles of organic livestock production were not practiced. For
example feed source was not organic and no evidence of record keeping. In South south, feeding is not
organic with mean score of (2. 17) and record keeping (2.07) . Apart from fresh drinking water and
adequate feeding all other practices were low with average below 2.50.
Analysis of variance in difference of organic farming practices in the three states

The analysis of variance table shows that there were significant differences in the level of livestock
organic production practices among the three states since. A post hoc multiple comparison test using
scheffe model was carried out to test where the difference lie. From the scheffe model (Table 3), it was
observed that level of use was significantly different between respondents in Bayelsa state (Mean=36.2979)
and Delta state (mean =35.2692). Also between Bayelsa State (Mean=36.2979) and Akwa Ibom State
(Mean=46.1538). However, there was no significant difference in use between Bayelsa State (mean
=36.2979) and Delta State (mean =35.2692).
157
ATOMA C.N. et al.:
Analysis of Rural Household Use of Organic Farming- Practices- Amongst Livestock
Farmers in South-South Nigeria
Table 3. Scheffe model

States N Mean level
of use
Delta 26 35.2692
Bayelsa 47 36.2979
AkwaIbom 26 46.1538
Mean scores with different letters are significantly
different at 0.05 le
Conclusion and Recommendations
Organic Livestock Production Practices of farmers in South-South Nigeria is very low. To enhance
the practice of organic livestock production in the study area. There should be:
i. The creation of awareness on the benefit of organic farming and the dangers associated with
conventional livestock production.
ii. Development of domestic market where the distinction between organic and conventional
produce can be created. For example foods can be tagged organic or conventional. Consumers
often pay for quality products (Prabir and Mahesh 2002).
iii. Training on organic production practices to be emphasised in Extension activities.
References
Worthington V (2001). Nutritional quality of Organic versus conventional fruits, vegetables, and
grains. Journal of complementary medicine 7 (2) 161-170.
Willer, H. And Kilcher L. (eds) (2011). – The world of organic agriculture: statistics and emerging
trends 2011. International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, Bonn & Research
Institute of Organic Agriculture, Frick, Switzerland. Available at: www.organic-world.net/
yearbook-2011- contents.html
Barec F. (2007). Organic production and use of alternative crops CRC Press, London pp 241.
Prabir Kr P and Mahesh C (2002). Paper presented in '' National Workshop on Organic Animal
Husbandry Standards, IVRI, Izatnagar, 26-27 November. 2002.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2008). – Organic agriculture and
food security in Africa. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)- UNCTAD
Capacity-building Task Force on Trade, Environment and Development. UN, New York and
Geneva, 47 pp.
Vaarst M., Roderick S., Byarugaba D.K., Kobayashi S., Rubaire-Akiiki C. & Karreman H.J. (2006). –
Sustainable veterinary medical practices in organic farming: a global perspective. In Global
development of organic agriculture (N. Halberg, H.F. Alrøe, M.T. Knudsen & E.S.
Kristensen, eds). CABI, Wallingford, United Kingdom, 241–276.
158
Influence of Withdrawal period of Tetracin® on

Physico-Chemical Properties and organoleptic
attributes of Broiler Meat
1 1 2 1
AKINWUMI , A.O., ODUNSI , A.A., OMOJOLA , A. B AND ADEMOLA , S.G.
1
Department of Animal Nutrition and Biotechnology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
2
Meat Science Laboratory, Department Animal Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Keywords: Withdrawal periods, Tetracin®, Physico-chemical properties, Organoleptic

properties.
Abstract
Failure to observe withdrawal period of antibiotics drug is a major cause of residue in meat.
This study evaluated the impact of withdrawal period of Tetracin® (a feed grade antibiotic) on
quality and sensory attributes of broiler meat. One hundred and fifty (2 weeks old) broiler
®
chick were randomly assigned to graded level of veterinary Tetracin and were fed
conventional broiler starters and finishers. The withdrawal period was observed for 15 days,
7 days and 0 day prior to slaughter at sixth week of the experiment. Thereafter the physico-
chemical and organoleptic properties were analyzed and compared. Significant (P<0.05)
differences were observed in cooking loss, drip loss, chilling loss, and water holding capacity
(WHC) of the meat. Reduced losses (P<0.05) were recorded for all the physical properties at
15 days withdrawal period. Highest Crude Protein(21.32%) and EE (7.03%) were recorded
at day 0 but progressively decline as the withdrawal days increased, although the values were
not significantly (P>0.05) difference. The taste panelists did not found any (P<0.05)
difference in colour, flavour and general acceptability but reported significance (P<0.05) in
juiciness and tenderness. Observing withdrawal period for 15 days on the use of
Tetracin®improved the physical properties of meat and has no adverse effect on the chemical
composition and the general acceptability of broiler chicken.
Introduction
Drug and pesticide residue concerns are among the reasons adduced for Africa's denial into European
and American livestock markets (Aliu, 2004). According to the author, residues of drug in threaten
human health by being acutely or cumulatively allergenic, organotoxic, mutagenic, teratogenic or
carcinogenic. Despite the ban on antibiotics in Europe, the drug is still being used in many developed
countries like the United States of America and Africa especially including Nigeria. Antibiotics control
many infections that are promoted by livestock production in present day farming conditions, making
meat cheaper and more plentiful. The constant usage however promotes the development of microbes
resistant to these drugs which is a threat to human (Steinfield, 2003).
Among other factors, failure to observe the withdrawal periods of a drug has been reported to be the
major cause of antibiotic residues in food producing animals (Van Dresser and Wilcke, 1989). Booths
(1988) defined withdrawal period as the interval required for the residue toxicology concern to reach
159
AKINWUMI, A.O. et al.:
Influence of Withdrawal period of Tetracin® on Physico-Chemical Properties
and organoleptic attributes of Broiler Meat
safe concentrations in the tissue of the animal or the interval from the time an animal is removed from
medication until the permitted time of slaughter. The purpose of withdrawal periods is to ensure that
residues are at acceptable levels, taking into account the method of administration, the rate of absorption,
metabolism and excretion of the drug. Adherence to withdrawal time maybe considered burdensome,
inconvenient and expensive (Sundlorf, 1989; Akinwumi et al., 2013). Also improper maintenance of
treatment records, or failure to identify treated animals adequately, and attempting to salvage terminally
ill animals for slaughter purposes that recently have been treated with antibacterial drugs can lead to
abbreviated withdrawal periods. Akinwumi et al., (2013) stated that most farmers (91%) in Nigeria
claimed to be aware of the withdrawal period but their frequencies of observing (54%) it showed that
some farmers are not always conscious of it and this could be counter-productive to the consuming
public.
Apart from the reports on effect of antibiotics on resistance and existence of the residue, not much is
known about the potential influence on meat quality of veterinary drugs. Overall quality traits of meat
comprise hygienic aspects in relation to safety and toxicology (presence of undesirable microorganisms
or residues such as antibiotics, hormones or chemical contaminants), nutritional value and technological
and sensory attributes (Cavani et al., 2009). As reported by Aliu (2004) the palatability, aroma and
quality of meat could also be affected by drug residues. However, Hughes and Heritage (2004) reported
direct beneficial effects on the product quality, such as decreased fat and increased protein in the meat,
and indirect benefits such as a reduction in the amount of feed needed, and therefore a reduction in the
amount of waste.
The study determined the effect of withdrawal period of antibiotic (Tetracin®)on physico-chemical
properties and organoleptic properties of broiler meat.
Material and Methods
A 6- week experiment was conducted with 150, 2 week old broilers chicks that were randomly assigned
to graded levels of veterinary antibiotic Tetracin®. Tetracin® (feed grade antibiotics) drug was bought at
a reliable veterinary store and administered through Conventional broiler starter (CP – 23%, ME
3000kcal/kg) and broiler finisher (CP – 20%, ME 2900kcal/kg) diets at different inclusion levels.The
withdrawal period (the feed grade antibiotic was stopped for selected birds) was observed for 15 days, 7
days and 0 day prior to slaughtering. Fifteen days was the actual label withdrawal period for Tetracin®.
Five birds for each group were slaughtered by severing the jungular veins and carotid arteries,
oesophagus and trachea, without severing the spinal cord.
Following slaughtering, Physico-chemical parameters of the meat from these birds were analyzed
and compared. WHC of the samples were determined by the filter press method as modified by Tsai and
Ockerman (1981). Cooking loss and thermal loss were calculated as the difference in percentage terms
between pre - and post-cooking weight and length respectively (Honickel, 1998). Warner Brazter shear
force (WBSF) determination was performed on the boiled meat samples using the modified Warner
Brazter Shear Force procedure (Bouton and Harris, 1978). Proximate analysis was use to determine the
chemical attributes of the broiler meat according to A.O.A.C (1999). The organoleptic properties was
conducted using a 10 member trained panelists according to the procedures of AMSA (1995). The
trained panelists evaluated the samples for colour, flavour, juiciness, tenderness and general
acceptability. The assessment was based on a 9 point hedonic scale.
All data obtained were processed and subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using statistical
analysis software (SAS, 1999). Significantly different means were separated using Duncan's multiple
Range (DMR) test.
160
Results
There were significant (P<0.05) differences observed in cooking loss, WHC, drip loss and chilling loss
of the broiler chicken (Table 1). At 15 days withdrawal period, a lower (P<0.05) cooking loss (18.42%)
was observed compared to values obtained for 0 day (24.45%) and 7 days (21.34%) withdrawal periods.
The WHC for the meat samples expectedly showed similar trend with the cooking loss but in an inverse
way. The highest (P<0.05) value was obtained in 15days withdrawal period with 81.60% and the least in
0day (74.82%). Both drip loss and chilling loss showed a progressive decrease with an increase in the
days of withdrawal period and the least values were found in the 15 days withdrawal period. Shear force
showed no significant differences (P>0.05) as the days of withdrawal period increased. The withdrawal
periods of the antibiotics had no significant (P>0.05) effect on the chemical composition of the meat
(Table 1). The CP, EE and ash numerically decreased as the withdrawal periods increased. When
withdrawal periods are not observed (0 day), the highest CP and EE were recorded as 21.32% and 7.03%
respectively. Significant (P<0.05) difference was also observed in the moisture content as the lowest was
found in day0 of the withdrawal period.
The sensory evaluation of the panelist is as shown in Table 2. The withdrawal period had no effect
(P>0.05) on the colour, flavor and general acceptability of the broiler meat. The tenderness and the
Table 1. Effect of withdrawal periods of Tetracin®on physical and chemical properties of broiler
chickens
Withdrawal periods
Parameters (%) 0day 7days 15days SEM
Physical properties
Thermal loss 12.34 11.89 10.57 2.43
Cooking loss 24.45a 21.34b 18.42c 1.34
c b a
WHC 74.82 78.06 81.60 2.34
a b c
Drip loss 3.66 3.47 3.21 0.23
Chilling loss 5.79a 4.34b 3.42c 0.54
Shear force 2.24 2.29 2.14 0.07
Chemical properties
Crude protein 21.32 19.51 19.31 1.82
Ether Extract 7.03 5.96 6.00 0.34
Ash 1.13 1.19 1.08 0.04
Moisture content 70.15b 72.37a 73.23a 0.42
a,b,c:
Means along the same row with different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05)
Table 2. Effect of withdrawal periods of Tetracin®on organoleptic properties of broiler chickens

Withdrawal periods
Parameters (%) 0day 7days 15days SEM
Colour 6.42 6.34 6.53 0.42
Flavour 5.37 5.52 5.68 0.25
Juiciness 6.62b 6.67b 7.16a 0.33
Tenderness 6.34a 5.83ab 5.00c 0.21
General Acceptability 7.42 7.32 7.51 0.53
a,b,c:
Means along the same row with different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05
161
juiciness of the meat samples were however significantly (P<0.05) influenced significantly (P<0.05) by
the withdrawal periods. An increase (P<0.05) in value was observed in the values for juiciness while a
decrease (P<0.05) was observed in the tenderness as the days of withdrawal increased.
Discussion
The ability of fresh meat to retain moisture is arguably one of the most important quality
characteristics of raw products. Product weight losses due to purge loss entail the loss of a significant
amount of nutrients (Melody et al.,2004). Lower WHC indicated losses in the nutritive value through
exudates that are released and result in drier and tougher meat (Dabes, 2001; Akinwumi, 2006). It was
however observed that the physical properties (especially cooking loss and the WHC) improved when
withdrawal periods were observed at 15days.
This study corroborated the earlier findings of Hughes and Heritage (2004) that antibiotics in
animal feeds result in a better meat quality with a reduced fat and increased protein contents. Higher
values for protein was reported when withdrawal periods was not observed, it was also puzzling to
observe a decline in the fat contents as the withdrawal periods of the antibiotic increased.
No influence was observed by the panelist on the withdrawal periods of the general acceptability
of the broiler meat. It was rated as moderately liked. This means with or without observation of
withdrawal period of antibiotic, consumer will still like the meat and will be willing to consume it.
This was in agreement with Ristic (2003), who reported that production system did not affect overall
sensory attributes. Omojola et al. (2012) also stated that meat acceptability was mostly based on
attractive colour, desirable flavour in the first instance, and on the combined effects of tenderness,
juiciness and texture of a particular meat as evaluated by an individual consumer. However, the
juiciness increased while the tenderness reduced with the increase in days of withdrawal period, this
could be attributed to the improved values in WHC and cooking loss. But all this was to no avail with
the overall panelists rating of the meat. This result corroborated Aberle et al.,(2001) who reported that
experience of eating meat did not cause separate impressions of tenderness, juiciness, and flavour, but
rather an overall impression.
Conclusively, this study has revealed a better cooking loss and WHC with no adverse effect on
proximate composition of meat when withdrawal period of antibiotic was observed. The overall
acceptability of the meat showed that with or without observation of withdrawal period of antibiotic,
consumer will be willing to consume it.
References
A. M. S. A. (1995). Research Guidelines for Cookery, Sensory Evaluation and Instrumental

Measurements of fresh meat. National Livestock and Meat Board. Chicago, IL, USA.
Aberle, E. D., Forrest, J. C., Gerrard, D. E. and Mills, E. W. (2001). Principles of Meat Science. 4th ed.
Kendall/Hunt Publ. Co., Dubuque, IA.
Akinwumi A. O., Odunsi A.A., Omojola A. B. and Shittu M. D., (2013): Assessment of antibiotic
usage in some selected livestock farms of Oyo state, Southwest, Nigeria. Nigeria
Journal of Animal Science (NJAS) 15: 216 -228.
Akinwumi, A.O. (2006). Pysico-chemical and eating qualities of Rabbit meat as influenced by graded
levels of growth promoters (Testosterone Propionate). M.Sc. Thesis. Department of Animal
Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria. pp 80-86.
Aliu, Y.O (2004). Veterinary Drug Residues in Nigeria's Food. A paper presented at National
Awareness Training Programme on Food Contaminants and Residues. Women Development
162
Centre, Kaduna, 6-7 May 2004 and NAFDAC Auditorium, Oshodi, Lagos, 20-21 May 2004.
AOAC, Association of Official Analytical Chemist. (1999). Official Methods of Analysis, Volume 2.
AOAC Inc., Virgina, USA, Helrich, K. (ed.). 17th edition.
Booths, H. N. (1988). Drug and Chemical Residues in the Edible Tissues of Animals In Veterinary
Pharmacology and Therapeutics Sixth Edition. Nicholas, H. Booth and Leslie, E. McDonald
(ed) Lowa State University Press, Ames. 1149-1205.
Bouton P.E, and Harris P.V. (1978). Factors affecting tensile and Warner- Bratzler shear values of raw
and cooked meat. J. Text. Stud. 9: 395- 413.
Cavani, C., Petracci, M., Trocino, A., and Xiccato, G. (2009). Advances in research on poultry and
rabbit meat quality. Ital. J. Anim.Sci. vol. 8 (Suppl. 2), 741-750.
Dabes, A. C. (2001). Propriedades da carne fresca. Revista Nacional de Carne 25:32–40.
Honickel, K.O., (1998). Reference methods for the assessment of physical characteristics of meat.
Meat Science 49: 447–457.
Hughes, P., and Heritage, J. (2004): Antibiotic growth promoters in food animals. In: Assessing Quality
and Safety of Animal Feeds. FAO Animal Production and Health Papers Series No160. Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, pp. 129–152.
Melody, J. L., Lonergan, S. M., Rowe, L. J., Huiatt, T. W., Mayes, M. S., and Huff-Lonergan, E. (2004).
Early postmortem biochemical factors influence tenderness and water-holding capacity of three
porcine muscles. Journal of Animal Science, 82, 1195–1205.
Omojola, A. B., Apata, E. S. and Fagbuaro, S. S. (2012). Comparison of Skinning versus Scalding and
Singeing: Effect on Temperature, pH and Meat Quality in Goats. Journal of Animal Science
Advances, 2(9): 740-748.
Ristic, M. (2003). Quality of poultry meat obtained using different production systems and EU
regulations for production and marketing of poultry carcasses. Tehnol. Mesa 44(3/4):149 – 158.
SAS. (1999). SAS/STAT Institute Inc, User's Guide Version 8 for Windows. SAS Institute Inc. Cary, NC.
US.
Steinfeld, H. (2003). Economic constraint on production and consumption of animal source food for
nutrition in development countries. Journal of nutrition, 133:4054S-4061S.
Tsai, T.C. and Ockerman, H.W. (1981). Water binding measurement of meat. J. Food Sci., 46: 697-707.
Van Dresser, W.R. and Wilcke, J. R. (1989). Drug Residues in Food Animals. Journal of American
Veterinary Medical Association 194. 12: 1700-1710.
163
Antifungal Activity of Essential Oils from Some Tropical

Plants against Penicillium Digitatum Infected Citrus Sinensis
Fruit during Storage
OJO, O. A. AND ADEBAYO T.A
Department of Crop and Environmental Protection,
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
Keywords: Cybopogon flexuosus, Xylopia aethiopica, Ocimum gratissimum, Cybopogon citratus,

Pycathus angonensis, Penicillium rot, Essential oil, Citrus.
Abstract
Increasing public concern over the level of pesticide residues in food, especially fresh produce, has built up
adequate pressure for scientists to look for less hazardous and environmentally safer compounds for
controlling post-harvest diseases. This study, therefore identify the essential oils with antifungal activity
from some Nigerian plants and their potential application as antifungal compounds against Penicillium
digitatum infected Citrus sinensis fruit in an in-vivo experiment. The Cybopogon flexuosus oil exhibited
significantly (P < 0.05) highest antifungal activity of 100% mycelial inhibition at 1200 part per million
(ppm). Similar trends were observed on the effect of essential oil of Cybopogon flexuosus on spore
germination, germ tube elongation and weight of mycelial of P. digitatum. This was followed by that of
Xylopia aethiopica which also gave significantly (P < 0.05) high degree of mycelial and spore
germination inhibition. The essential oil of Pycathus angonensis did not show any inhibitory effect on
mycelial growth of P. digitatum even at the highest concentration. While the essential oil of Ocimum
gratissimum and Cybopogon citrutus respectively gave the significantly (P < 0.05) least degree of
mycelial and spore germination inhibition. Spore germination and germ tube elongation of the pathogens
in potato dextrose agar were significantly (P < 0.05) decreased with increase in the concentration of
Cybopogon flexuosus oil. The same concentration of this oil reduced the percentage of decayed Citrus
sinensis. This result showed that the essential oil of C.flexuosus gave the significantly (P < 0.05) least fruit
rot of 21.91% at the 21 days after incubation (DAI) and concentration of 1200ppm. The result showed that
the essential oil of C. flexuosus at the highest concentration of 1200ppm gave the significantly (P < 0.05)
least fruit rot of 21.91% at the 21 DAI compared with the artificial inoculated fruit with no treatment that
gave significantly (P < 0.05) complete fruit rot of 100%. In addition, when unwounded naturally infected
Citrus sinensis fruits were treated with different concentrations of essential oil of C.flexuosus only 8.92%
fruit rot was recorded at the concentration of 1200ppm and 21 DAI. The fruit rot in unwounded and
naturally infected Citrus sinensis was significantly (P < 0.05) lower than the wounded and artificially
inoculated Citrus sinensis fruits. The result showed that Citrus sinensis fruits were better protected
against fruit rot, whether artificial or naturally inoculated over a period of 21 DAI using essential oil of
Cybopogon flexuosus. Whereas, the significantly (P < 0.05) highest fruits rots of 70.14% was observed at
21 DAI when the fruits were not wounded and 100% fruit rot in the artificially inoculated fruit. The
inhibitory effect of the essential oil of C.flexuosus significantly (P < 0.05) increased with increase in
concentrations. Application of essential oils for postharvest disease control of fresh produce, as a
novel emerging alternative to hazardous anti-fungal treatments will allow a safer and environmentally
more acceptable management of postharvest diseases.
Introduction
Citrus sinensis originated in Asia, mainly South-east, where many species can be found growing in the
wild and belongs to the family Rutacea. The world production of citrus is greater than that of any other
fruit crops (Okwu and Emenike, 2007). Citrus is the world number one fruit crop in terms of production
165
OJO, O.A. et al.:
Antifungal Activity of Essential Oils from Some Tropical Plants against Penicillium Digitatum
Infected Citrus Sinensis Fruit during Storage
being 78.2 million metric tonnes in 1991; followed by grape, banana and apple which were 55.9, 47.8
and 39.6 million metric tonnes respectively (FAO, 1994; Mary et al., 2003). Citrus fruits and citrus juice
have several beneficial health benefits and nutritive properties (Ezeibekwe and Unambi, 2006). They
are rich in ascorbic and folic acid. Citrus flavonoids are widely distributed group of polyphenolic
compounds with health related properties, which are based on their antioxidant activity (Dim, 2004).
These properties have been found to include anti-carcinogenic, antiviral, anti-inflammatory activities,
effects on capillary fragility and ability to inhibit human platelet aggregation. In addition, some citrus
flavonoids and their derivatives in the field of food technology are well known for their ability to provide
a sweet taste and as bitterness inhibitor (Dim, 2004).
Apart from being rich in ascorbic and folic acids, citrus fruits are good sources of dietary fiber. They
are fat free, low in sodium content and without cholesterol (Ezeibekwe and unamb, 2009). Citrus fruits
are also helpful to reduce the risk of pregnant women to have children with birth disease (Dim, 2004).
Due to the hesperid in content as well as diosmine and other flavonoids, the citrus fruits reinforces the
ability of the capillary vessels and improves venous blood flow (Timmer, 1994; Dim, 2004). They are
useful in cases of swollen legs, edema, varicose veins, hemorrhoids, thrombosis and emboli (Ezeibekwe
and Unamb, 2009). It is also recommended for people who suffer from higher blood pressure
(Ezeibekwe and Unamb, 2009). In Nigeria the major citrus producing states are Benue, Taraba, Oyo,
Imo, Ebonyi, Kwara, Kogi, Kaduna, Ogun, Ondo, Ekiti, Edo, Delta and Osun (Adisa and Fajola, 1983).
Some of the important species within the genus are Citrus sinensis commonly called sweet orange.
Many moulds and yeasts are involved in the spoilage of citrus fruits. Jay (2001) found Hansenula sp and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, to be responsible for spoilage of citrus fruit, such as sweet orange and
tangerine. Akinsumire (2011) reported Penicillium digitatum as causing considerable loses in Citrus
sinensis during marketing in the tropics. A number of bio-deteriorative moulds such as Penicillium
digitatum have been found to be associated with citrus fruits especially sweet orange (AbdAlla et. al,
2013; Ojo, 2013). Dim (2004) found Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp., and Rhizopus sp., were found to be
responsible for spoilage of oranges. Timmer and Menge (2000) reported these genera of yeasts as being
involved in the spoilage of citrus fruits: Candida, Cryptococcus, Hansenula, Rhodotorula, Kloekera,
Pichia, Saccharomyces and Trichosporon. Application of essential oil is a very attractive method for
controlling postharvest diseases. Production of essential oils by plants is believed to be predominantly a
defense mechanism against pathogens and indeed, essential oils have been shown to possess antimicrobial
and antifungal properties (Ahmet et al., 2005, Abd-alla, et al., 2013, Kavoosi et al., 2014). Essential oils
and their components are gaining increasing interest because of their relatively safe status, their
wide acceptance by consumers and their exploitation for potential multi-purpose functional use
(Jobling, 2000). Essential oils are made up of many different volatile compounds and the composition of the
oil quite often varies between species (Mishra and Dubey, 1994). It is difficult to associate the antifungal
activity to single compounds or class of compounds. It seems that the antifungal and antimicrobial effects
are the result of many compounds acting synergistically (Kavoosi et al., 2014). Thus, there would be
negligible chance of development of resistant races of fungi after application of essential oils to
fruit and vegetables (Kavoosi et al., 2014). As a consequence essential oils are one of the most promising
candidate groups of natural compounds for the development of safer antifungal agents. Therefore, the
objective of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effects of essential oils extracted from five
plant species against Penicillium digitatum and to evaluate the potential application of essential oils
to control Penicillium rot of stored Citrus sinensis fruit.
166
Plant material: The fresh leaves of the following plants: Cybopogon flexuosus, Ocimum gratissimum,
Cybopogon citratus, Pycathus angonensis and fruits of Xylopia aethiopical were collected from
Ogbomoso and environs. These were identified at the Department of pure and Applied Biology, Ladoke
Akintola University, Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Plant materials were freed from foreign materials and
carefully rubbed between soft cloths to remove dust.
Extraction of essential oil: The essential oil extraction of the fresh plants was done through hydro-
distillation at Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Ladoke Akintola University Ogbomoso Nigeria.
The air-dried plants material weighing 200g was placed in round bottom flask containing 150 ml water
and distilled. The distillate was saturated with NaCl and transferred to a separator funnel where it was
extracted with diethyl ether. The organic phase was recovered and concentrated on a steam bath to yielding
2.8 g/100 g plants material. The essential oils were stored in bottles at 4°C in a refrigerator.
Isolation of fungi: Fungi were isolated from deteriorating Citrus sinensis fruits purchased from the
market in Ogbomoso, Nigeria using Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) containing 100 mg chloramphenicol per
ml and identified with the aid of the appropriate taxonomic keys following the method of Ainsworth et
al., (1973). The isolates were maintained on PDA slants at 4°C till needed.
In vitro antifungal assay:
Effects of different concentrations of Essential oils on Mycelial Inhibition of Penicillium
digitartum: PDA was autoclaved and cooled in a water bath to 40°C. The essential oils were mixed with
sterile molten PDA to obtain final concentrations 0, 100, 300, 600, 900 and 1200 Part Per Million (PPM).
-1
The PDA was poured into 90 mm Petri plates (15 mL plate ) that were then inoculated with 6 mm
plugs from 7-days-old cultures. Three replicates were used per treatment plates were incubated for 7
days at 28°C. Fungal growth was recorded after 7 days. Growth inhibition was calculated as the
percentage of inhibition of radial growth relative to the control. Experiments were performed three
times. Using the formular of Amadioha (1998):
Mp = M1 – M2 x 100
M1
= Percentage inhibition of mycelial growth.
M1 = Mycelial growth in the control petridish
M2 = Mycelial in the petridish containing different concentration of each plant extract.
Effect of different concentrations of Essential oil of Cybopogon flexuosus on spore germination

and germ tube length of Penicillium digitatum: The effect of Cybopogon flexuosus oil on spore
germination and germ tube elongation of the pathogens were tested in Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB).
Cybopogon flexuosus oil was added to a 10 ml glass tube containing 5 mL PDB to obtain final
concentrations 0, 100, 300, 600, 900 and 1200 ppm. At the same time, aliquots (100m L) of spore
suspensions (1◊107 spores mL-1) of P. digitatum were added to each tube. After 20 h of incubation at 28°C
on a rotary shaker (200 rpm), at least 100 spores per replicate were observed microscopically to
determine germination rate and germ tube length (Droby et al., 1997). The percentage inhibition was
calculated from the data obtained following the formular of Amadioha (1998) % inhibition:
= SC – St x 100
SC
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OJO, O.A. et al.:
Where Sc = Spore germination in the control plates.

St = Spore germination in the treated plates.
Effects of Extract of different Plant at Various Concentration on Fresh and Dry Weight of
Mycelial Growth of Penicillium digitatum Association with Citrus sinensis.
Concentrations of essential oil of different plant species obtained were evaluate on the fresh and dry
weight of mycelial growth of various Penicillium digitatum associated with Citrus sinensis seed
according to the method of Amadioha (1998). One ml of each of the concentration of different plant
extracts was added to the Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB) in sterilized 200ml conical flask separately. Each
flask was inoculated assay disc (5mm in diameter) cut from advancing margin of 7day old healthy
growing mycelium of Penicillium digitatum. For the controls, sterile distilled water was added to the
sterilized flask containing potato dextrose broth. Each flask was replicated five times and incubated at
26oC. For the assessment of mycelial weights of the Penicillium digitatum, four harvest were taken at
intervals of 7-days each. The mycelial fragment for the pathogen was separated from the potato dextrose
broth by filtration using two layers of sterile muslim cloth. The fresh weight of mycelial of the
Penicillium digitatum was collected, on pre-weighed filter paper and recorded, and its dry weight was
o
determined after 24hours oven drying at 60 C.
In vivo applicability of Cybopogon flexuosus oil in control of post-harvest Penicillum digitatum

Citrus sinensis:
Effects of Cybopogon flexuosus oil on decay development in artificially inoculated and
wounded fruits: Fruits were selected for freedom of injuries and infections and were placed in 1.5 L
plastic boxes. Fruits were dipped in the solution of 1% sodium hypochlorite for 2 min, rinsed with
tap water and air-dried before wounding. Citrus sinensis were wounded with a sterile puncher to
make one uniform 2 mm deep by 5-mm wide wound on their peel at the equatorial region. Aliquots of
20m L of 100, 300, 600, 900 and 1200 ppm Cybopogon flexuosus oil and sterile distilled water (control)
4
was pipetted into each wound site. After 0.5 h, 10m L of conidial suspension of P. digitatum (5◊10 spores
mL-1) was pipetted into each wound. Treated Citrus sinensis were stored at 20°C. The percentage of
infected fruits was recorded at three days intervals for 21days after incubation. Each treatment was
replicated three times with 20 fruits per replicate.
Effects of Cybopogon flexuosus oil on naturally infected development in unwounded fruit: The
concentration of the Cybopogon flexuosus oils were prepared by dissolving the requisite amounts
in 25 mL of 0.05% Tween-80 and then mixing with 475 mL of sterile distilled water. The control
sets were prepared similarly using equal amounts of sterilized water in place of the essential oil. Citrus
sinensis were dipped into the solutions for 1 min at room temperature and air dried. Fruits were dipped
into sterile distilled water, which served as control and air dried. Treated Citrus sinensis were stored at
20°C for 21 days. The percentage of infected fruits was recorded at three days intervals for 21days
after incubation. Each treatment was replicated three times with 20 fruits per replicate.
Data Analysis
Data obtained in percentages were arcsined transformed before statistical analysis. The data obtained
were subjected to statistical analysis using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The means were separated
using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level of probability.
168
Results
The result on the effect of different concentrations of essential oil of some tropical plants on mycelial
inhibition of Penicillium digitatum the causal agent of blue mold disease of Citrus sinensis is
presented in Table 1. The result showed that the essential oil of all the tropical plants with the exception
of Pycathus angonensis significantly (P < 0.05) inhibited the mycelial growth of their pathogen
comparison to the control (Table 1).
The essential oil of Cybopogon flexuosus gave significantly (P < 0.05) highest mycelial inhibition
P. digitatum, that is one hundred percent inhibition at concentration of 1200 part per million (ppm)
concentration (Table 1). The essential of Xylopia aethiopica exhibited a significantly (P < 0.05)
moderate to high antifungal activity against the tested pathogen, ranging from 70.50-82.71% at 900
and 1200 ppm respectively. In addition, significantly (P < 0.05) lowest mycelial growth inhibition of
P. digitatum by Ocimum gratissimum and Cybopogon citratus oil with inhibition percentage from
10.11-35.51 and 24.4% respectively. While Pycathus angonensis essential did not inhibit growth of P.
digitatum. The result on the inhibitory effect of different concentration of essential oil of some tropical
plants on spore germination of P. digitatum is presented in Table 2. It is clearly revealed that essential oil of
Cybopogon flexuosus strongly inhibited the spore germination and germ tube length P. digitatum
respectively (Table 2).
Table1. Inhibitory Effects of Different concentrations Essential oils of some Nigeria Plants on
Penicillium digitatum
Essential oils Mycilia inhabitation (%) at different concentrations (part per million
(ppm)
100 300 600 900 1200
Cybopogon flexuosus 21.31a 54.68a 71.06a 100.00a 100.00 a
a a b b
Xylopia aethiopica 17.80 49.11 60.73 71.20 83.70b
b b c c
Ocimum gratissimum 0.00 0.00 10.11 29.30 35.57c
b b c c
Cybopogon Citratus 0.00 0.00 12.23 21.01 30.01c
b b b c
Pycathus angonensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 c
b b c c
Control (water) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 c
Data are average of five replicates from four separate experiment followed by a similar Data having the
same Alphabets are not significantly different at 5% level of probability using Duncan Multiple Range Test
(DMRT).
Table 2. Effect of different concentrations of Cybopogon flexuosus oil on spore germination and
germ tube elongation of Penicilliun digitatum
Treatments Spore germination (%) Germ tube length (µm)
Contro 100.00 a -
100 ppm 60.91b 99.03a
300 ppm 34.38c 85.91b
600 ppm 15.61d 56.01c
900 ppm 08.13e 32.76d
f d
1200 ppm 02.11 29.21
Transformed before subject to Analysis of variance. Values in the same column followed by a similar
Alphabets are significantly at 5% level of probability using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT).
169
OJO, O.A. et al.:
Table 3. Effect of Different Concentrations of Cybopogon flexusosus on Fresh Weight of Penicillium

digitatum at Different Days of after Incubation
Concentrations of Infected Citrus sinensiss Fruit (%) after Days of Incubation
Cybopogon Part Per Million (DAI)
(Ppm) 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Control 10.11a 17.20a 25.73a 50.01a 70.81a 85.13a 100.00a
100 08.53b 13.54b 20.90b 28.13b 35.18b 47.07b 50.08b
300 05.91c 10.76c 14.91c 22.50c 28.00c 39.11 c 43.00c
600 04.71d 07.11 d 10.00d 15.00d 20.00d 28.80d 35.71d
900 02.83e 05.38e 07.11 e 10.79e 15.61e 21.17e 28.00e
1200 01.01f 03.00f 05.03f 08.00f 11.04 f 16.46f 21.91f
Data are average of five replicates from four separate experiment. Values in the same column followed by a
similar Alphabets are significantly at 5% level of probability using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT).
Table 4. Effect of Difference Concentrations of Cybopogon flexuosus on inhibition of Penicillium

digitatum on Artificially Inoculated Citrus sinensis
Treatments Mean weight of Penicilliumdigitatum at Different Days of Incubation
Part Per Million Fresh weight (g) Dry weight (g)
(ppm) 7 14 21 28 7 14 21 28
Control 70.23a 81.05a 93.25a 98.90a 48.00a 60.03a 71.00a 78.11 a
100 62.09b 70.01b 77.11 b 85.00b 30.71b 35.93b 41.08b 46.99b
c c c c c
300 50.11 58.53 63.07 71.93 21.15 27.00c 34.05c 40.00c
d d d d d d d
600 38.30 46.00 54.11 66.00 12.30 16.07 22.00 31.78d
900 23.00e 31.93e 36.01e 41.75e 07.03e 09.71e 14.79e 20.99e
f f f f f f f
1200 05.11 07.28 10.87 12.91 02.11 03.05 04.81 09.98f
Data are average of five replicates from four separate experiment.

Data in percentages were arcsinne transformed before subject to statistical analysis.
Data in the same column followed by the same alphabet are significantly different at 5% level of probability
using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT).
Table 5. Effect of Different concentrations of Essential oil of Cybopogon Citratus on Natural

infected Penicillium digitatum in Unwounded Citrus sinensis
Treatment part per Infected citrus sinesis fruit (%) at different Days after incubation DAI)
million (ppm) 3 6 9 12 15 18
0 00.00a 15.30a 25.00a 34.13a 50.00a 70.14a
a b b
100 00.00 10.00b 15.13 25.45 30.38b 41.30b
a
300 00.00 06.51b 08.13c 13.30c 20.00c 28.38c
600 00.00a 03.31c 04.91d 08.00d 11.91 d 20.15d
a e
900 00.00 0.00d 02.30 04.10e 09.10e 14.30e
1200 00.00a 00.00d 00.00f 02.00f 06.00f 09.92f
Data in percentage were arcsined transformed before statistical analysis. Data having similar alphabets
are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.
170
The inhibitory ability of Cybopogon flexuosus increases significantly (P < 0.05) with increase in its
concentration. The significantly (P < 0.05) least spore germination inhibition of 2.11% was recorded in
the control (Table 2). The result on the effect of different concentrations of essential oil of Cybopogon
flexuosus on fresh and dry weight of Penicillium digitatum at different days after incubation was
presented in Table 3.
The result showed that the mean fresh and dry weight of P. digitatum decreases significantly (P <
0.05) with increase in concentration of essential oil of Cybopogon flexuosus and days after incubation
respectively (Table 3). The result on the effect of different concentration of Cybopogon flexuosus on
inhibition of Penicillium digitatum decay artificially inoculated Citrus sinensis is presented in Table 4.
The result showed that the essential oil of C. flexuosus significantly (P < 0.05) reduced fruit rot when the
Citrus sinensis was artificially inoculated with P. digitatum (Table 4).
The result also showed that essential oil of C. flexuosus gave the significantly (P < 0.05) least fruit rot
of 21.91% at the 21 DAI compared with the artificially inoculated fruit with no treatment that gave
significantly (P < 0.05) complete fruits rot of 100% (Table 4). Also, when unwounded Citrussinensis
fruits were treated with different concentration of essential oil of C. flexuosus, only 8.92% fruit rot was
recorded at the concentration of 1200ppm at 12 DAI (Table 5).
The result showed that the Citrussinensis fruits were better protected against rot when artificially
inoculated or unwounded over a period of 21 DAI. The significantly (P < 0.05) highest fruit rot of
70.14% was observed at 21 DAI when the C. sinensis fruits were not wounded, and 100% fruit rot when
it was artificially wounded
Discussion
In an attempt to reduce the use of synthetic pesticides, over the past two decades extensive
investigations have been made into the possible exploitation of plant compounds as natural commercial
products, that are safer for humans and the environment (Amadioha, 1998; Antunes and Cavaco,
2010; Gachango et al. 2012; Victoratos et. al. 2013; Kavoosi et al.,2014). The natural and bio-control
fungicides might be a good alternative to the use of synthetic fungicides and in turns fulfil consumer
requirement for more natural and healthy foods (Martinez-Romero et. al. 2008; Gato et. al, 2011;
Gachango et. al, 2012). The essential oils are reported to have some fungicidal properties against certain
post-harvest diseases of tropical fruits, and vegetables (Wilson et. al., 1997; Mee pagala et. al., 2002;
Imelouane et. al., 2009; Abd- Alla and Wafaa, 2013; Kavoosi et al., 2014). It is clearly revealed in this
study that Cybopogon flexuosus gave significantly highest mycelial and spore germination inhibition. In
addition, it gave the significantly lowest percentage fruit rot. It also reveals that the inhibitory potential of
this essential oil increases with increase in its concentration. This results could be corroborated with the
result of Abd-Alla and Wafaa (2013) and Vitoratos et al., (2013) working on post-harvest pathogens.
Enikuomehin (2005) and Okigbo et al., (2010) have also use C. flexuosus to control leaf spot and fungal
tuber rot respectively. Dubey et al., (1997) described that essential oil from some tropical plants had an
antifungal activity against post-harvest fungal pathogens of some tropical fruits. In addition, they found
that essential oils had an inhibitory effect on pectinase and cellulase, the two important enzymes
produced by phytopathogenic fungi in disease development. Victoratos et al., (2013) reported that the
anti-microbial activity of essential oil could be related to the presence of an aromatic nucleus and OH
group that can affect hydrogen bonds of enzyme in micro-organisms. Feng and Zheng (2007) studied the
effects of cassia oil on decay development in artificially and wounded tomatoes fruits, the result
indicated that when wounded cherry tomatoes were treated with cassia oil, all concentrations with the
exception of 100ppm significantly inhibited A. alternaria on tomatoes fruit stored at 200C for 5 days. In
171
OJO, O.A. et al.:
similar study, Abd-Alla and Wafaa, 2013 reported that essential oil of basel, orange lemon and mustered
significantly inhibited mycelial growth of Collectotrichum gloesporiodes in mango fruit and reduced
the percentage of fruit rot when compared with untreated fruits. Shelef (1983) described that within
several components available in essential oils, the antimicrobial activity of phenolic compounds were
higher than that of alcholic components. It is known that cell wall of pathogens is the main target of the
phenolic compounds and these may disrupts the permeability barrier of cell membrane and thereby
inhibit respiration. It has been postulated that the hydrophobia nature of essential oils and their
components enables these compounds to penetrate the lipid of fungal cell membrane and mitochondria
which thereby disrupts their structures (Cox et al., 2000; Abd-Alla et al., 2013). In addition, they stated
that these components accumulated in the cell membrane of the pathogen causing energy depletion.
Furthermore, in some studies Nychas (1995) and Maqbool et al., (2010) stated that essential oils affects
proteins and also caused damage to the enzymatic activities of the fungal cell membrane.
Conclusion
The results of this present study showed that the essential oil of Cybopogan flexuosus significantly
reduce the mycelial growth of spore germinating and mycelial weight of Penicilliumdigitatum the
causal agent of Blue mold of Citrus sinensis fruit as well as reduce fruit rot. Therefore, essential of C.
flexuosus can be used as a potential source of sustainable eco-friendly botanical fungicide in the storage
of C. sinensis fruit. But it is important to state that further work needs to be carried out on the effects of
this essential oil on post-harvest quality of C. sinensis during storage.
Acknowledgements
In this study the assistance of Dr. S.O. Oladoye of the Department of Pure and Applied chemistry,
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria is highly appreciated. The inspirational
leadership of Professor A.A. Odunsi, Dean, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ladoke Akintola
University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria is highly commendable and appreciated.
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OJO, O.A. et al.:
The Role of Medicinal Plants in Traditionally Managed Cattle

in Odeda Local Government Area, Ogun State, Nigeria
FASAE O.A., OLAWALE E.O AND SHOWALE, A.G.
Department of Animal Production and Health, Federal University of Agriculture,
P.M.B 2240, Abeokuta, Nigeria
Keywords: Cattle, medicinal plants, Odeda, south west Nigeria
Abstract
This study investigates into the role of indigenous medicinal plants used in traditionally
managed cattle in five locations of Odeda local government area, Ogun state, humid zone of
Nigeria. A structured questionnaire was used to collect personal data of cattle rearers, plant
specimens and pertinent information on plant use. Results showed that cattle rearers were
majorly men from the Fulani tribe with no formal education. A total of twenty (20) plants
were identified and evaluated for the treatment of cattle parasites and diseases, with various
parts namely leaves, stems, bark, seeds, fruits and twigs been used, the leaves been widely
utilized. However, the mode of preparation and application of these plants parts require
different methods. These traditional remedies are more preferred because they are locally
available, cheaper, safer and effective compared to the orthodox veterinary medicines. Some
of these plants provide multipurpose remedies, preventing or curing several kinds of
ailments. It was therefore concluded that the study areas are a rich source of medicinal plants
for disease management in the traditional cattle production system. However, there is need to
scientifically ascertain the authenticity of the claimed use of these plants.
Introduction
The use of medicinal plants to treat various diseases in livestock has been part of human culture since
ancient times and is relied upon in most developing countries as a major source of natural therapeutic
remedies for the treatment of different diseases (Ody, 1993). Nowadays, natural products of plant
sources have been the centre of focus as the main source of new, safer and more effective bioactive
compounds with medicinal properties (Nitta et al., 2002).
The use of indigenous medicinal plants in the management of livestock, also referred to as
ethnoveterinary medicine has been reported to be widespread among herdsmen and found to be of great
value in areas where allopathic or orthodox veterinary medicines are often beyond the reach of the poor
livestock producers. Majority of these farmers rely on these traditional healthcare practices to keep their
animals healthy as most of these herbal plants have been used for centuries in the management and
prevention of a wide range of livestock diseases. The users believe that medicinal plants are more
efficacious for treatment of cattle ailments than modern medicines, simply because they are readily
availability, easy to prepare and/or administer, at minute and at free of cost to the farmer (Jabbar et al.,
2005).
Hence, this study was designed to generate information on the role of indigenous medicinal plants
used in traditionally managed cattle in Odeda local government area, Ogun state, humid zone of Nigeria.
175
The study was carried out in five different locations namely Oojo, Alabata, Odeda, Isolu and Apakila in
Odeda local government area of Ogun state, humid zone of Nigeria. These villages were selected
because of the dominance of the nomadic cattle rearers in these areas.
Information was collected by interviewing the cattle rearers, using a structured questionnaire, which
contain the personal data, various common pest and diseases incidence among their animals, plants or
plant parts used in ethno-veterinary practices and the preparation and administration of these plants
parts. Consent was obtained from all the participants prior to the administration of the questionnaire. A
total of 60 respondents were selected and interviewed from various communities. The plants that were
singly and most frequently used by the cattle rearers were sought for during the survey. Collected plant
samples were identified and authenticated. Data obtained are presented tables. They were analyzed
using simple descriptive statistics to generate frequencies and percentages with the aid of SPSS (2007).
The frequency distribution of the respondent is shown in Table 1. A total of 60 respondents were
interviewed, with all the herd owners in the study area being men and from the Fulani tribe. The rearers
were majorly between 40 and 49 years of age (38.3%) with 85% married. Majority of the respondents
(71.7%) are illiterate with no formal educational background while 28.3% had a form of Arabic
education. This is in line with the reports of UNESCO (2003) and Iro, (2004) that cattle rearers have no
form of formal education. Despite the importance of education, many Fulani have not embraced it. This
is partly due to the fact that cattle rearing are time consuming and does not give room for school
enrollment.
Table 1. Frequency distribution of respondent's personal data (n= 60)
Personal data Frequency Percentage
Gender 100
Male 60
Female - -
Age Group
10 -19 3 5.0
20 – 29 11 18.3
30 – 39 13 21.7
40 – 49 23 38.3
50 and above 10 16.7
Ethnic group
Fulani 60 100
Other - -
Marital status
Single 9 15
Married 51 85
Educational attainment
Arabic School 17 28.3
No formal Education 43 71.7
176
Table 2. Medicinal plants used by cattle herdsmen in Odeda local government area, Ogun state.
Scientific name Common Local Part used Diseases cured Application
name Name*
Hibiscus esculentus Okra Ila Stem Placenta ejection Pound dry stem /add water.
Drench the animal with liquid.
Ficus exasperate Fig tree Opoto Leaves Fever/Malnutrition Mash leaves, mix with water, give
the liquid extract to animal
Azadirachta indica Neem Dongoyaro Bark/ Worms/ parasites Soak leaves or bark in water
leaves Trypanosomiasis and give orally or drench the
animal.
Parkia biglobosa Locust bean Iru Seeds Foot pain Use grinded seeds to rub affected
part till symptoms disappear.
Vernonia conferta Bitter leaf Ewuro Leaves Diarrhoea Macerate in water and administer
orally.
Spondias mombin Hog plum Iyeye Leaves Retained placenta/ Dry the seeds and mix with water,
mastitis then administer orally.
Dioscorea dametorum Bitter yam Esuru Root Blindness Pound extract with water and drop
into the eye
Solanum aculestrum Love apple Odu Fruits Streptothricosis Roast fruits, slice into halves.
Scrub the affected area for 1-3
days.
Mangifera indica Mango Mongora Leaves/ Diarrhoea/ dysentery Grind leaves/ bark, mix with
Bark water and give animal
Citrus aurantifolia Lime Osan-wewe Leaves Diarrhoea Give the liquid extract to animal
orally until symptoms disappear
Ficus platyphylla Broad leaf Epo-Obo Bark Bovine contagious Dry/pound the bark into powder
fig pleuropneumonia and add salt, administer orally
with the liquid.
Newbouldia laevis Boundary Akoko Leaves Constipation Leaves are squeezed and given to
plant animals.
Nicotiana tabacum Tobacco Taba Leaves Cold Mash leaves and give animal to
lick.
Piliostigma thonningii Monkey Abefe Twig Muscular weakness Tie the twig to the affected joints
bread of animal for few days to recover.
Annona senegalensis Wild Abo Leaves Anti-biotics Macerate in water and administer
custard orally to the animal
apple
Khaya ivorensis African Oganwo Bark Reduced fertility/ Dry and pound the bark, add salt
mahogany Diarrheoa with water and give animal to
drink
Tephrosia vogelii Fish bean Orobeja Leaves Tick Pound leaves, soak with wood ash
in water, stir, filter and add animal
urine. Bathe animal with solution.
Zea mays Maize Agbado Grain Diarrhoea Roast and feed animal.
Phaseolus vulgaris Common Nyebbe Leaves Milk ejection Pound and add water. Drench the
bean animal with the liquid.
Phaseolus vulgaris Common Nyebbe Leaves Milk ejection Pound and add water. Drench the
bean animal with the liquid.
Acacia albida Apple ring Gawo Leaves Stuffy eye Macerate in water and drench the
animal.
*Local names are either in Hausa or Yoruba languages
177
Figure 1: Reasons for preference of the use of medicinal plants by cattle rearers
In terms of the reasons associated with the preference for the use of medicinal plants among the cattle
rearers, Figure 1 shows that majority of the respondents preferred these plants because of easy
accessibility (89.5%), while 81.25% and 51.33% of the respondents prefer it because it is economical
and traditional in nature, respectively. However, 77.5% of the respondents claimed its simplicity and
effectiveness in healing without visible adverse effects.
Table 2 presents the list of plant species and other traditional methods used in the treatment and
management of diseases of cattle in the study area. Twenty (20) plants were identified by respondents for
the treatment of cattle diseases and parasites. It was evident that various plants were extensively used
through different herbal preparations administered to the animals.
It was also observed that various plant parts namely the leaves, bark, roots, leaves, twigs, seeds and
sometimes the fruits were used as remedies for a variety of disease conditions in the traditional cattle
production system, with the leaves been widely used. This confirms reports that indicated preference for
the use of plant leaves because it is more convenient to collect leaves than root parts, flowers and fruits
(Giday et al., 2009).
Plant leaves have also been known to be actively involved in photosynthesis and the production of
metabolites (Ghorbani, 2005). Thus, the numerous constituents found in leaves could explain their
efficacy in the treatment of various ailments in both humans and animals. This therefore suggests that the
basic active ingredients used for treating various ailments are accumulated in the different parts of plants
being used, showing that most of these plants contain some physiologically active compounds, which
are known to be potent medicines (Iwu, 1993). However, the mode of preparation and application of
these plants parts require different methods.
Some of the medicinal plants recorded in this study have been found by earlier researches to contain
antimicrobial activities. Vernonia confertahas been used for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders
(Iwu 1993). Acacia albida, Piliostigma thonningii and Parkia biglobosahave been reported to be used
by Fulani herdsmen in the management of animal diarrhoea in Plateau State, Nigeria (Offiah et al.,
2012).
Moreover, some of these plants appeared to provide multipurpose remedies, preventing or curing
several kinds of ailments. For example, Spondias mombin are used for treating retained placenta and
178
mastitis.The potential of Azadirachta indicaas trypanocidal and anthelmintic has being reported (Nok et
al., 1993, Jabbar, 2006). The root and twig of Piliostigma thonningii has also been used for the treatment
of dysentery, fever, snake bites, hookworm and skin disease as well as laxative, antihelmintic and anti-
inflammatory agents (Fakae et al., 2000; Igoli et al., 2005).
Also, Ficus platyphylla extracts which was identified in this study for the treatment of Bovine
contagious pleuropneumonia have also been found to be used for the treatment of various ailments such
as dysentery, cough, diarrhoea, tuberculosis and pain relief (Sandabe and Kwari, 2000). The extracts of
Annona senegalensis though used as an antibiotic in this study also possess trypanocidal properties
(Ogbadoyi et al., 2007). From the accumulated information obtained in this study, it could be concluded
that the study areas are a rich source of medicinal plants which can be used in the management of
diseases in traditional cattle production system. However, there is need to scientifically ascertain the
authenticity of the claimed use of these plants. The use of these medicinal plants if adequately harnessed
could be an option for cattle rearers involved in organic programs as well as those that cannot afford the
use of allopathic drugs in the treatment and control of cattle diseases.
References
Fakae, B.B., A.M. Cambell, J. Barrett, I.M. Scott, P.H. Teesdale-Spittle, E. Liebau and P.M. Brophy, 2000.
Inhibition of gluthathione S-transferase (GSTs) from parasitic nematodes by extracts from
traditional Nigerian medicinal plants. Phytother. Res., 14: 630-634.
Ghorbani, A. 2005. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran
(Part 1): general results. J. Ethnopharmacol. 102:58-68.
Giday, M, Asfaw Z and Woldu Z. 2009. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopia: An
ethnobotanical study. J. Ethnopharmacol. 124:513–521.
Igoli, J.O., Ogali O.G., Tor-Anjiin, T.A. and Logli, N.P 2005. Traditional medicine practice amongst the
Igede people of Nigeria, Part II, Afr. J. Trad. Complementary Altern. Med., 2: 134-152.
Iro, I. 2004. Nomadic Education and Education for Nomadic Fulanis, African development foundation,
Washington DC, USA.
Iwu, M.M., 1993. Handbook of African Medicinal Plants. C.R.C. Press Boca Taton, Ann cbor Tokyo
London.
Jabbar, A., Raza M.A., Iqbal Z., and Khan M.N., 2006. An inventory of the ethnobotanicals used as
anthelmintics in the southern Punjab (Pakistan). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 108: 152-154.
Nitta, T., Arai, T., Takamatsu, H., Inatomi, Y., Murata, H., Iinuma, M., Tanaka, T., Ito,T., Asai, F., Ibrahim, I.,
Nakanishi, T. and Watabe, K., 2002. Antibacterial activity of extracts prepared from tropical and
subtropical plants on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Health Science 48,
273–276.
Nok, A.J, Esievo, K.A.N, Longdet I., Arowosafe, S., Onyenekwe P.C., Gimba C.E., Kagbu, J.A. 1993.
Trypanocidal Potentials of Azadirachta indica: In Vivo Activity of Leaf Extract against
Trypanosoma brucei., Gun. Biochem. Nutr., 15, 113-118.
Offiah, N.V, Dawurung, C.J.,Oladipo O.O , Makoshi, M.S., Makama S., Elisha I.L., Gotep, G.J. , Samuel
A.L. and Shamaki, D. 2012. Survey of herbal remedies used by Fulani herdsmen in the
management of animal diarrhoea in Plateau State, Nigerian Journal of Medicinal Plants
Research, 6, 4625-4632.
Ody, P., 1993. The complex medicinal herbal. Dorling Kindersley Limited, New York, pp. 132–171.
Ogbadoyi, E.O., Abdulganiy A.O., Adama T.Z. and Okogun J.I. 2007. In vivo trypanocidal activity of
Annona senegalensis Pers. leaf extract against Trypanosoma brucei. J. Ethnopharmacol., 112(1):
85 – 89.
Sandabe, U.K and Kwari H.D. 2000. Some aspects of ethno-veterinary medicine among Kanuri and Bura
of Borno state. Q. J. Borno Museum Soc., pp. 44-45; 5-10.
SPSS, 2007. SPSS for Windows, version 16.0. Chicago: SPSS Inc.
UNESCO 2003. Inter - cultural Education. A United Nations Educational, Scientific Cultural Conference
held on June 15-18, Jyvaskyla, Finland.
179
rd
Evaluation of Moringa oleifera Root Extract as a Biopesticide

in Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) Production
FAYINMINNU, O.O.1; OLAOSEBIKAN, F.T.1AND T.I. OLABIYI.2
1
Department of Crop Protection and Environmental Biology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
2
Department of Crop and Environmental Protection, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
PMB. 4000, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
Keywords: Solanum lycopersicum, Moringa oleifera, phytochemicals, Helicoverpa

armigera, biopesticide, insect.
Abstract
Pot experiment was carried out at the open roof top garden of the Department of Crop
Protection and Environmental Biology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, to evaluate the
biopesticidal potential of Moringa oleifera on Helicoverpa armigera insect pest of Solanum
lycopersicum (Tomato). There were five treatments replicated four times and laid out in a
completely randomised design (CRD). The treatments were 20g/L, 40g/L, 60g/L of root
powder of M.oleifera prepared as extract in 1 litre of water respectively, Cypermethrin
(0.125ml/L) and control (no insecticide). They were applied on tomato plants from five weeks
after sowing (WAS) till final harvest. Data collected were on plant height, number of leaves,
number of branches, number of fruits and fruit weight/yield of S. lycopersicumand analyzed
using descriptive statistics and ANOVA at P = 0.05. Results revealed the presence of
alkaloids, saponis, reducing sugar, triterpenoids and anthraquinone as the phytochemical
compounds present in M. oleifera rootpowder. There were no significant differences
(p>0.05) observed among the treatments in growth parameters but significant difference
(p<0.05) was observed on yield (fruit weight) parameter of S. lycopersicum. The potency
and efficacy of M. oleifera rootextracts at 60g/L and other treatments on Helicoverpa
armigera insectpest compared favourably with synthetic cypermethrin (0.125ml/L) in
recording highest growth parameters while the synthetic recorded the lowest values in all
parameters in the study. This study revealed that Moringa oleifera root extract could
suppress Helicoverpa armigera insectpest population and could be used as a natural
pesticide in tomato production with additional economic benefit in enhancing organic
farming for food sustainability.
Introduction
Pesticides are applied to agricultural fields to optimize crop yield and their global use is substantial.
Indiscriminate applications of synthetic insecticides to vegetables have been reported to cause variable
changes in brain on consumption (Ecobichon et al., 1994). These highly stable and persistent
compounds can last for years and decades before breaking down in the environment and have wide
range of being globally transported (Williams, 2000).Pesticides have been linked to causing the number
of adverse effects on health problems, notably death, several diseases (cancer, allergies etc) and birth
defects among human and animals (Maroni, 1990).
th
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is the most important vegetable grown in Nigeria, ranking 6
behind root and tuber crops and cereal crops (FAO, 2011). Tomatoes contain calcium, iron, carotenes,
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FAYINMINNU, O.O. et al.:
riboflavin, vitamins and antioxidants furthermore; the lycopene it contains is active against prostate and
breast cancer. The productivity of this vegetable crop in Nigeria is however challenged by an array of
pests that make its cultivation difficult and also low in yield production. The insect pests' infesting
tomato include tomato fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera and white flies (Umeh et al., 2002).Control of
these pests has been mostly through the use of synthetic chemical insecticides. Farmworkers are highly
vulnerable to health threats due to intensive exposure to a variety of pesticides, either from applying
these chemicals or from harvesting pesticide-sprayed agricultural products.
However, fears concerning the effect on workers' health of these chemicals, have led to the
development of more environmentally acceptable, cost effective control alternatives(Grzywacz and
Leavett, 2012), low cash input, readily available and with a minimised environmental impact to manage
pests (Fayinminnu et al., 2013). Research efforts have geared towards an ecofriendly approach; this is
with plants/ biopesticidal products (Bekele et al., 1997). Most of these plant products are known to have
insecticidal properties (Mariani et al., 2008; Fayinminnu and Shiro, 2014).
Moringa oleifera Lam. is one of the most useful multi-purpose plants known to man. It has been
found to be useful in the treatment of medical conditions like malaria, diabetes, hypertension,
gastritis/ulcers, heart burn, asthma, impotence and stress (Kasolo et al.,2010). Balogun et al.(2004)
found M. oleifera seed powder to compare most favourably with Fernazzan D (a chemical fungicidal
material) in inhibiting the mycelial growth of Aspergillus flavus isolated from stored maize grains. It has
also been found that when the toxic root bark of Moringa is removed, the flesh contains alkaloid
spirochin which can cause nerve paralysis on organisms (Morton, 1991).
The objective of this study is therefore, to evaluate the efficacy of the biopesticide product of
Moringa oleifera root extract for the pest management of Helicoverpa armigerain tomato production.

Sources of Planting Materials
The experiment was carried out between April and July 2015, at the open roof top garden of the
department of Crop Protection and Environmental Biology (CPEB), University of Ibadan, Ibadan,
Nigeria. Tomato seeds Roma VF (Improved variety) were purchased from Agrotropic Nigeria Limited,
Ibadan while the Moringa oleifera roots were harvested from Okoro village, Eleyele, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Phytochemical Screening
This was performed on the milled to powder, extracted M. oleifera root and analysed for phytochemicals
in the Organic laboratory of department of Chemistry, University of Ibadan, using the method of
Ajaiyeoba et al., (2006).
Preparation of Moringa oleifera Root Powder Extract
Extraction procedure was carried out in Toxicology laboratory of CPEB according to the method of
Ojiako et al. (2013) with a modification. Moringa roots harvested were chopped and air dried for four
weeks at room temperature of 27°C ±2oCin the Ecology laboratory of CPEB and milled into powder.
Twenty (20), 40 and 60 grams of the root plant materials were dissolved in 1 liter of water respectively
and soaked for 24 hours; the solution was filtered through muslin cloth to remove the debris. Filtrate
obtained was passed through Whatman No.1 filter paper. The final filtrates of plant part were made to
obtain 20g/L, 40g/L, and 60g/L (v/v) strength. The extracts were labeled and stored in refrigerator at
20oC for 24hours prior to use to prevent putrefaction and degradation of phytochemicals present in them.
The extracts were used for the bioassay. Cypermethrin insectide was bought from Jubaili Agrotec,
Ibadan, Nigeria.
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Pot Experimental Work

This was carried out at the open roof top garden of the department of Crop Protection and Environmental
Biology (CPEB), University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. The top soil was obtained from the farm garden
o
of CPEB and sterilized at 170 C. The soil of 5kg was allotted into each experimental pot of 23cmx16cm
with five treatments replicated four times and laid out in a completely randomised design (CRD).
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) seeds were sown on sterilized soil and raised in the nursery for three
weeks at the CPEB screen house and were later transplanted to the experimental pots. Seedlings were
allowed to stabilise for two weeks after transplanting (WAT) before treatments commenced. The three
treatments of Moringa root extracts at 20g/L, 40g/L and 60g/L, Cypermethrin 0.125/L (recommended)
and control (no insecticide) were applied as insecticides on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants
weekly till harvesting. A 2- litre hand-pumppressure sprayer was used for the application. Fresh
mixtures were compounded each time they were needed.
Data Collection and Statistical analysis

At 2 weeks interval, tomato plants were assessed for growth parameters by measuring the plant height
(using meter rule), number of leaves produced, number of branches, days to flowering and number of
fruits and fruit weight/yield at harvest. All data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance
(ANOVA), the means were compared by Duncan`s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at P = 0.05 for
significance.
The results as shown in Table 1 revealed the phytochemical compounds in Moringa oleifera root
extracts such as alkaloids, saponins, reducing sugar, anthraquinone and triterpenoids.
At five (5) weeks after sowing (WAS) before treatment application, the tomato plants were observed
to have insect-pest attack of Helicoverpa armigera. By 3 weeks after the treatments commenced
(8WAS), the insect pest reduced especially within the plots treated with Moringa root extracts. The
growth parameters on tomato plants: plant height, number of leaves and number of tomato plant
branches (Figs.1 -3) showed no significant differences (p>0.05) among all the treatments from two
weeks after treatment (WAT) to eight WAT. All the growth parameters followed the same trend whereby
plots treated with 60g/L of Moringa root extract recorded highest values over other treatments, closely
followed by 40g/L treated plots while the lowest values were observed in cypermethrin treated plots.
Table 1. Phytochemicals Present in Root Powder of Moringa oleifera

Compounds Powdered Root Water Extract
Alkaloids +
Saponins +
Steroid -
Reducing Sugar +
Flavonoids -
Tannins -
Anthraquinone +
Coumarins -
Triterpenoids +
+ indicates presence - indicates absence
183
CPY= Cypermethrin in litre, MRE=Moring Root Extract in litre
CPY= Cypermethrin in litre, MRE=Moring Root Extract in litre
The yield parameters; number of fruits of tomato plant recorded no significant difference (p>0.05)
among the treatments (Fig.4) while the fruit weight (yield) recorded significant differences (p<0.05)
among the treatments (Fig.5). The 20g/L Moringa root extract treated plots recorded the significant
highest number of tomato fruit weight (yield) over other treatments; closely followed by 40g/L Moringa
root extract treatment while the cypermethrin treatment recorded the lowest yield. The entire Moringa
root extracts at 20g/L, 40g/L and 60g/L compared favourably with the synthetic cypermethrin at 0.125/L
(recommended) in growth and yield parameters.
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rd
This study revealed the potency and efficacy of different concentrations of Moringa root extracts on
Helicoverpa armigeraandwhite flies in having potent insecticidal potential(Ojiako et al., 2013). The
excellent performance of the Moringa root extracts may be due to the presence of high concentrations of
the phytochemicals; alkaloids, saponins, reducing sugar, triterponoids and anthraquinones which is in
agreement with Morton, (1991).Also the fact that water exhibited stronger reactions thus being able to
extract more phytochemicals means that there are more non-polar phytochemicals in the root in line with
the work of Kasolo et al., (2011). The secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, saponins (anti-feedant),
(Isman, 2006; Fayinminnu and Shiro, 2014), triterponoids and anthraquinones (minor chemicals) are
also toxic to insects. Moringa root,however,had been reported to contain alkaloid- spirachin (a nerve
paralyzant) and the potent antibiotic and fungicide, pterygospermin (Panchall et al.,2012). According to
Ojiako et al.(2013), it was found that Moringa plant (root and seeds) extracts were able to control the
targeted storage and field insect pests of cowpea.
Conclusion
The use of biopesticide products should be well hard-earned to especially in developing countries
because they could control the targeted pests and hence reduce the environmental pollution due to
synthetic pesticides and increase biodiversities. Moringa oleifera is a household tree recently; therefore
the products from it are readily available and cheap.The evidence is that the root extracts of Moringa
olifera root as a natural insecticide against Helicoverpa armigeraandwhite flies fits in sustainable
agriculture with additional economic benefit. This biopesticide product is therefore recommended to
farmers.
However, further studies needs to be carried out on pesticidal activities of Moringa oleifera as a bio-
pesticide, to remove limitations potency variations, standardization of extraction methods and active
ingredients and shelf life. This will enhance organic farming, Integrated Pest Management and increase
global food production for sustainability.
References
Ajaiyeoba E, Falade M, Ogbole O, Okpako L, Akinboye D. (2006). In vivo antimalarial and cytotoxic
properties of Annona senegalensis extract. Afr. J. Trad. CAM, 3(1): 137 – 141
Balogun SO, Idowu AA, Ojiako FO, (2004). Evaluation of the effects of four plant materials and
Fernazzan Don the mycelia growth of Aspergillus flavus isolated from stored maize grains.
The Plant Scientist 4:105 -14.
Bekele, A.J., Obeng-Ofori, D., Hassanali, A., (1997). Evaluation of Ocimum (Ayobangira) asSource
of repellents, toxicants and protectants in storage against three stored product insectpests.
Journal ofApplied Entomology 212, 169-173.
Ecobichon DJ, Joy RM (1994). Pesticides and Neurological Diseases. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC: 13.
Elbetieha, A., S. I. Da'as, W. Khamas and H. Darmani, 2001: Evaluation of the toxic
potentials of cypermethrin pesticide on some reproductive and fertility parameters in the
male rats. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 41(4): 522-528.
FAO (2011). http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx
Fayinminnu, O.O and Shiro, O.O (2014): The pesticidal potential of Alternanthera brasiliana (L) O.
kuntze in solving pest problem in organic agriculture. Proceedings of the 4th ISOFAR
Scientific Conference. 'Building Organic Bridges', at the Organic World Congress 2014, 13-
15 Oct., Istanbul, Turkey pp 875-878.
Grzywacz D, Leavett R, (2012). Biopesticides and their role in modern pest management In West
Africa. Natural Research Institude/University of Greenwich Collaboration. http://www.nri.org
185
/news/archive/2012/20120413-biopesticides.htm
Isman, M.B. (2006). Botanical insecticides, deterrents, and repellents in modern agriculture and an
Increasingly regulated world. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 51: 45-66, ISSN: 0066- 4170.
Kasolo J.N, Bimenya, G.S, Ojok L, Ogwal-okeng J.W, (2011). Phytochemicals and acute Toxicity of
Moringa oleifera roots in mice. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy; 3(3): 38-42.
Mariani,C., A. Braca, S. Vitalini, N.D. Tommasi F. Visioli, Gelsomina Fico (2008). Phytochemistry:
69, 1220-1226.
Maroni, H. M., (1990): " Studying the effects of pesticides on humans (International Commission
on Occupational Health)", Proceedings of the 9th International workshop, International
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May 1990.
Morton, J.K (1991). The horseradish tree, Moringa pterygosperma (Moringaceae)- A boo to
aridlands? Econ. Bot. 45.313-333.
Ojiako, F.O., Agu, C. M., and Ahuchaogu, C. E (2013):Potentiality of Moringa oleifera Lam.
Extracts in the Control of some Field – Store Insect Pests of Cowpea. International Journal
of Agronomy and Plant Production. Vol., 4 (S), 3537-3542
Panchal1 M, Shah B, Murti K, Shah M, (2012). Phytochemical investigation and antidiabetic
activity studies of Moringa oliefera roots. Ref. ID: PHARMATUTOR –ART – 1081.
http://www. pharmatutor.org/articles/phytochemical -investigation- and-antidiabetic-
activity-studies-of-moringa-oliefera-roots.
Umeh, V.C.,Kuku F. O., Nwanguma, E.I., Adebayo O. S., and Manga, A. A. (2002). A Survey of the
Insect Pests and Farmers' Practices in the Cropping of Tomato in Nigeria. Tropicultura 20
(4): 181-186.Williams Michael, (2000):" Nutrition and the Environment", ACC SCN 21
Report, Geneva Switzerland..
186
rd
Assessment of Bio-Nematicides on the Growth and Yield of

Cowpea Planted on Nematode Infested Soil
1 1, 2 3 1
OLABIYI, T. I. , AKANDE, V. O. ATUNGWU, J. J. , FAYINMINNU, O.O. AND A. R. GBADAMOSI
1
2
Department of Crop Protection, Federal University of Technology, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
3
Department of Crop Protection and Environmental Biology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Keywords: Bio-nematicides, cowpea, nematodes, black soap.
Abstract
Nematodes remain global treats to the cultivation of cowpea. Use of synthetic nematicides
have been the usual practice for the control of nematode pests of cowpea, but most times they
are not available in market for the use of farmers and not eco-friendly. Their persistency in the
soil is dangerous to soil health. All these side-effects of synthetic nematicides have prompted
the scientists to search for environment friendly control measures. Application of bio-
nematicides is one of the suggested measures because of their bio-degradable and non-
persistency natures. The objective of this research was to assess the effects of plant-based bio-
nematicides on the growth and yield of cowpea planted on nematode infested soil. The bio-
nematicides were formulated from the combination of black soap and dried leaf
ofChromolaena odorata, Hyptis suaveolens, Lantanacamara and Nicotiana tabacum.Single
application of black soap and water served as control experiment 1 and 2 respectively. The six
treatments was fitted into randomized complete block design and replicated four times.
Nematodes identified in the soil includes: Meloidogyne, Pratylenchus, Helicotylenchus and
Xiphinema species. The results showed that the root damage and soil population of
nematodes were significantly (P<0-05) reduced in the plots where plant-based bio-
nematicides were applied when compared with the controls. The growth and yield of cowpea
treated with the plant-based bio-nematicides were significantly (P<0-05) more enhanced
than those that were not treated. Research work is ongoing to characterise the plant-based
bio-nematicides.
Introduction
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) is one of the ancient crop known to man which, is now broadly
adapted as highly variable crop, cultivated worldwide, primarily for seed which is a cheap source of
protein for both urban and rural consumers (Singh, 2002; Chinma et al., 2008). Infections caused by
plant parasitic nematodes are of great concern to growers of agricultural or garden crops because
nematodes lives mainly in the soil, feed on the plant roots thereby causing significant reduction in the
yield and quality of susceptible economic crops (Maggenti, 1981; Jonathan and Hedwig, 1991).
Cowpea is susceptible to a wide range of insect pests and pathogens that attack the crop at different
stages of growth. Most cowpea varieties are susceptible to nematodes (Izuogu et al, 2014). It has been
established that plant parasitic nematodes in conjunction with other pests and pathogens, are some of the
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OLABIYI, T. I. et al.:
factors that account for low yield in cowpea. Out of plant parasitic nematodes that cause severe
infections on cowpea, root knot nematodes, caused the major serious infection (Sasser, 1979). Root knot
nematodes are probably the major obstacle to the production of sufficient food, vegetables and fibre
crops in many developing countries.
Control measures recommended for root knot nematodes are chemical, physical, cultural and host
resistance. But chemical control is rated best because of its potential of killing nematodes instantly
(Olabiyi, 2004). Nevertheless, the high costs as well as hazards associated with their applications are
problems that cannot be ignored. Therefore, researchers are searching for environment friendly
measures for nematode control. The objective of this research was to assess the effects of plant-based
bio-nematicides on the growth and yield of cowpea planted on nematode infested soil.
Experimental location
The experiment was conducted at Teaching and Research Farm, Ladoke Akintola University of
0 0
Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria. The temperature of the year ranges between 28 C and 33 C, with
annual average rainfall of 1000 mm and relative humidity of about 74%.
Preparation of bio-nematicide
The fresh leaves of the plants with nematicidal properties (Chromolaena odorata, Hyptis
suaveolens,Lantana camara and Nicotiana tabacum) were collected within theUniversity premises, air
o
dried at ambient temperature (28 + 2 C) on the laboratory benches for 14 days. The leaves were grinded,
using attrition mill, into powder. The powder was soaked for 48 hours at the rate of 2 kg plant-based bio-
nematicide into 10 litres of water. The content was sieved with muslin cloth. The filtrate was mixed with
black soap, which served as adjuvant, at a ratio of 1:10 (adjuvant: bio-nematicide).
Field preparation
The experimental field was ploughed twice and harrowed once. The experimental site was laid out into 4
blocks. Vegetable beds of 3 m by 2 m were manually constructed with 1 m spacing between beds.
Planting materials and field establishment

Seeds of cowpea (TVX-3236) were obtained from International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA),
Ibadan, Nigeria. Three seeds were planted per hole with spacing of 50 cm by 25 cm and planting depth of
approximately 5 cm and later thinned down to 2 healthy seedlings per stand at full crop establishment.
Inoculation
Cowpea was inoculated with 10 g per stand of chopped galled roots (root knot infested roots) of Celosia
argentea at two weeks after planting.
Treatment application
The treatments were: Chromoleana odorata leaf + black soap, Hyptis suaveolens leaf + black soap,
Lantanacamara leaf + black soap, dried Nicotiana tabacum leaf+ black soap, black soap (control 1) and
water (control 2). The treatments were applied at the dilution rate of 3 litres of stock solution to 15 litres
of water at4 and 6 weeks after planting as soil drench.
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Cultural practices
Cultural practices like weeding was carried out as at when due. Spraying of the cowpea plants against
insects was done using neem seed extract on 4th, 7th and 10th week after planting.
Data collection
Data were collected on plant height, number of leaves per plant, number of branches, number of pod per
plant, number of seed per pod, weight of seed per pod, weight of seed per plant, root gall index, initial
nematode population in the soil, final nematode population in the soil.
Data analysis
All data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SAS package and mean was
separated using Duncan multiple range test at 5% level of probability (P<0.05).
Results
Enhancement of growth on crops in soil treated with certain bio-pesticide could be attributed to the
effective control measure of such bio-pesticide on the specified pathogen. Usually, it is required of an
effective bio-nematicide to suppress the population of soil inhabiting plant parasitic nematodes, and also
enhance the growth and yield of crop. This assertion was evident in Table 1 as it shows how bio-
nematicides significantly enhanced the growth of cowpea planted in nematode infested soil.
Table 1. Effect of bio-nematicides on the growth of cowpea planted on nematode infested soil
Treatments Mean plant Mean number of Mean number of
height leaves per plant branches per plant
C. odorata leaf + black soap 62.7b 53.7c 3.3b
H. suaveolens leaf+ black soap 61.3b 78.2a 4.9a
L.camaraleaf + black soap 70.7a 64.7b 4.0a
N. tabacumleaf + black soap 58.3c 59.4c 5.7a
Black soap (control 1) 46.2d 31.9d 2.8bc
Water (control 2) 38.0e 27.9d 2.4c
Figures followed with same letter along the same column are not significantly different (P<0.05).
Table 2. Effect of bio-nematicides on the yield of cowpea planted on nematode infested soil.
Treatments Mean number Mean number Mean weight Mean
of pod/plant of seed/pod of seed/pod weight of
seed/plant
C. odorata leaf + black soap 36.0a 10.3a 1.2a 26.0b
H. suaveolens leaf+ black soap 29.0b 12.1a 1.5a 23.7b
L.camara leaf + black soap 20.3c 10.3a 1.8a 24.8b
N. tabacum leaf + black soap 32.0a 11.6a 1.7a 32.5a
Black soap (control 1) 8.0d 4.9b 0.6b 4.0c
Water (control 2) 7.8d 3.2b 0.4b 2.8d
Figures followed with same letter along the same column are not significantly different (P<0.05).
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Table 3. Effect of bio-nematicides on the soil nematode population and root damage of
cowpea planted on nematode infested soil
Treatments Initial nematode Mean Final nematode Mean Root gall
population population index
C. odorata leaf + black soap 675a 412b 1.2a

H. suaveolens leaf+ black soap 680a 315a 1.0a
L.camaraleaf + black soap 669a 430b 1.0a
N. tabacumleaf + black soap 670a 307a 1.0a
Black soap (control 1) 670a 698c 3.5b
Water (control 2) 672a 1210d 4.2c
Figures followed with same letters along the same column are not significantly different (p<0.05)
Table 2 shows the effect of bio-nematicides on the yield of cowpea planted on nematode infested soil.
The cowpea plants that were treated with bio-nematicides have significantly higher yield when
compared with the controls (single applications of black soap and water). The soil population of
nematode were significantly (P<0.05) reduced in the soil treated with bio-nematicides (Table 3). While
the population of nematodes were significantly reduced in the soil treated with bio-nematicides, they
were significantly increased in soils that were not treated (single applications of black soap and water).
The degree of root damage, a measure of root gall index, was significantly (P<0.05) reduced on cowpea
plants that were treated with the bio-nematicides. Cowpea plants that were not treated with bio-
nematicides have significantly (P<0.05) higher root damage (root gall index).
Discussion
The results from this research have shown that bio-nematicides improved the growth and yield of
cowpea planted on nematode infested soil and this corroborate findings from other researchers. Olabiyi
et al (2004) have reported the bio-nematicidal properties in some plants, including H. suaveolens. In
2006, Olabiyi et al (2006) also reported the bio-nematicidal properties in African marigold, rattle weed,
nitta and basil. Akinyele et al (2009) also reported reduction of nematode population in plantain after the
application ofTithonia diversifolia as bio-nematicide.
Acknowledgement
This research was funded by Year 2009/2010/2011/2012 TETFUND Research project Intervention:
Support on Institution-based Research. The lead author is grateful to the Federal Government, Nigeria;
Academic Planning Unit, LAUTECH and LAUTECH University Management.
References
Chinma C.E., Alemede, I. C., Emelife, I. G. (2008). Physicochemical and Functional Properties of
Some Nigerian Cowpea Varieties. Pak. J.Nutr., 7(1): 186-190.
Izuogu, N. B., Fabiyi, A. O., Osuwa, O. V., Olabiyi, T. I. (2014). Field evaluation of
Trichodermaharzianum T22 for the management of Meloidogyneincognita (kofoid and
white) Chitwood on cowpea varieties. International Journal of Agricultural Sciences and
Natural Resources. Vol. 1, no. 1, pp 7-12.
Jonathan, D.E. and Hedwig, H.T. (1991). Root-Knot Nematodes, Meloidogyne Species and Races.
190
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In: Manual of Agriculture Namatology, William, R. and A. Nickel (Eds.). Marcel Dekker
Inc., New York, pp: 191-192.
Olabiyi, T. I. (2004). Assessment of nematicidal properties of extracts from Tagetes reacta,
Ocimum gratissimum, Hyptis suaveolens and Crotalaria retusa. Ph. D thesis submitted to
the Department of Crop production, University of Ilorin. 177pp.
Olabiyi, T.I.; Oyedunmade, E.E.A. and Oke, J,M. (2006). Bio-nematicidal potentials of African
marigold (Tagetes erecta L,), Rattle weed (Crotalaria retusa L.), Nitta (Hyptis suaveolens
Poit.) and Basil (Ocimum gratissimum L.). Journal of Agricultural Research and
Development. 5(1) 27-35.
Maggenti, A. (1981). General Nematology. (New York: Springer-Verlag).
SASSER, J. N. and KIRBY, M. F., (1979). Crop cultivars resistant to root knot nematodes,
Meloidogyne species. Department of Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC.
Singh, B. B. (2002). Recent genetic studies in cowpea. In: Fatokun CA, Tarawali SA, Singh BB,
Kormawa PM, Tamo M (eds) Challenges and Opportunities for Enhancing Sustainable
Cowpea Production. Intl Inst Tropical Agric, Ibadan, Nigeria, pp. 3–13.
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Strengthening Collaboration Between Researchers and

Practitioners within the Organic Sector in East Africa
ESTHER W. WAWERU, CHARITON D.B. NAMUWOZA, EUSTACE GACHANJA AND JORDAN GAMA
1
International Center for Research in Organic Food System (ICROFS), Denmark,
www.icrofs.org E-mail: [email protected]
2
National Organic Agricultural Movement of Uganda (Nogamu), Uganda,
www.nogamu.org.ug E-mail: [email protected]
3
Kenya Organic Agricultural Network (KOAN), Kenya, www.koan.co.ke
E-mail: [email protected]
4
Tanzania Organic Agricultural Movement (TOAM), Tanzania
E- mail: [email protected]
Keywords: Participatory research, communication, partnership.
Abstract
There has been a longstanding debate on how to bridge the gap between research and
practice and improve communication between researchers and practitioners. It has been
argued by a number of scholars that there are clear divides between academics and
practitioners and areas which remain unique to each. However, some experiences show that
there are many coinciding areas that both institutions have observed. The objective of the
paper is to illustrate the collaboration between the researchers and organic movements and
the experiences of knowledge sharing between these actors. In conclusion the experiences
from the project show that a collaborative relationship and partnership does serve multiple
purposes as well as symbiotic for the partners.
Introduction
Collaboration between universities and non-governmental organisations can have many benefits.
However, bridging the gap between the research environment and practice can sometimes be a
challenge. The research and capacity building project 'Productivity and Growth in Organic Value Chains
(ProGrOV) is a platform where researchers and organic farming movements in East Africa share
knowledge and experience in order to develop the organic food farming sector.
ProGrOV focuses on improving productivity and growth in existing organic value chains in
Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania through research that is informed by the needs of the sector and addresses
development of agro-ecological methods, governance, management of organic value-chains, and
capacity development in participatory and interdisciplinary approaches. Experience has shown that
there are many coinciding areas in which to collaborate, such as problem identification, research needs,
fieldwork facilitation, data collection trainings and dissemination. The result is participatory research.
Participatory research emerged in response to limitations of top-down research and development
approaches. Researchers based their work on the transfer-technology model which they presumed
would be adoptable by and beneficial to small farmers. It was discovered the key to success lies in
creating better extension services provided by local non-governmental organisation (NGOs). These
local organisations are highly motivated by solidarity; they have direct contact to the local population
193
and enjoy a better knowledge of the local people's circumstances and needs. (Ponzio,et al 2013)
ProGrOV implements this ideology. The organic movements in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania have
been continuously involved in the steps towards strengthening the organic sector in this region. Together
with major organic food chain operators, they have identified specific research and adaptation needs in
primary production processing and chain management. These identified research areas were the basis of
discussion with the partners in ProGrOV.
Before the project, the Universities from the three countries had little association with the organic
movements of their countries even though one of the universities (Sokoine University of Agriculture
Tanzania) had organic agriculture in their curriculum. However since the start of ProGrOV, their
collaboration emerged to be one that was crucial for the success of the project as well as beneficial to
both the academic institutes and the organic movements. Some of the gains realised through the project
include:
– Identification and prioritization of relevant research areas: The project approach encouraged
having all parties involved in the project formulation and the inception of the project ensured that
research questions were relevant to problems faced in the field.
– Stakeholders' engagement: Collaboration links the university and the organic sector stakeholders,
such as policy makers, exporters and farmers. Much of the research data was generated from or
through stakeholder engagement and their involvement contributed to enriching research. This has
further lead to more participation in policy dialogues by researchers who have influenced the policy
development process that affects the organic sector in the region.
– Dissemination and communication: There are arrangements that synthesised research findings will
be translated through national organic movements into popular language, thus easing dissemination.
Not an easy task

Our experiences from the past ProGrOV field work and research is that it is not an easy task to bridge the
looming gap between researchers and farmers. There is still the issue of a “top-down” perspective which
is mainly seen with researchers as they work and communicate with the farmers and other actors.
Consequently, this approach limits capacity of information flow that is necessary for the researchers to
conduct relevant studies. Expected recipients of results also find it difficult to adopt or adapt knowledge
and /or practices “handed down” to them by “strangers”. In such situations, the farmers' motivation sets
back the research because they demand “other” incentives from the researchers during their fieldwork.
The result is that fewer farmers participate in the research, more time is consumed in problem
identification, “imaginary” problems are addressed, and students and organic movements find it hard to
persuade participation. However the farmers who participate in research do feel short-changed as the
final findings are more often not synthesized in a way that farmers could understand or use at their level.
Paving the way for more collaboration

The platform created by ProGrOV has opened up new avenues for the universities and organic
movements to further work together in other projects and joint initiatives.
In Uganda both Makerere University (MAK) and National Organic Agriculture Movement of Uganda
(NOGAMU) have joined forces with other organizations across Africa to implement the Ecological
Organic Agriculture (EOA) initiative. EOA is an African led initiative by the African Union to
mainstream ecological organic agriculture into the African Development Agenda. Both institutes are
involved in 2 pillars i.e. the information, communication and networking pillar and the value chain and
marketing pillar. The Ugandan partners have also established a National Platform for experience sharing
and have a continuous dissemination strategy. This will not only target the value chain actors but the
194
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general public as well. Their key focus is to use local media in creating awareness as well as advocate for
organic agriculture and its research.
The relationship between the Tanzanian partners has had new developments as Tanzanian team
leader from Sokoine University of Agriculture is currently a board member in Tanzania Organic
Agriculture Movement TOAM. This involvement has further lead to other joint activities and events i.e.
'Nane-Nane' a farmers' shows that is held annually by Sustainable Agriculture Tanzania (a member of
Tanzania Organic Agriculture Movement TOAM). The exhibition is held at university grounds (for free)
where they have demonstrations such as sack gardens and hill farming. Students from the university
benefit from the exhibition as they visit them as part of their organic course. The Tanzanian organisations
are in the process of developing an MOU for a long-term collaboration. Some of these future
collaborations include;
– Adding a course on the organic certification in the university curriculum and having members of
Tanzania Organic Agriculture Movement as guest lectures;
– Plan on opening a research centre, the Organic Centre of Excellence;
– Establish a demo farm on organic agriculture on a piece land that was offered to them by the
former head of the Crop science department in the University.
In Kenya, the project partners feel that their relationship has been beneficial as the networking has made
it easier to bring the four arms in the organic sector (the producers, the market, the consumers and the
researchers) together to this platform. The two are currently developing a demonstration farm on the
university grounds where organic farming practices will be taught. This will also be a place/market where
the organic farmers can bring their produce together and it would be packed and sold to consumers. Kenya
Organic Agriculture Network (KOAN) and University of Nairobi (UON) have recently established an
Organic Consumer Alliance (OCA) which is an online platform for information and advocacy on organic
consumption. The board, chaired by Professor Wahome (Kenya-ProGrOV manager), comprises of leading
organic product processors, distributors and retailers.
Across the borders, the three organic movements and the University of Nairobi UON are also partners
of 'Enhancing the Coordination of Organic Products access to Markets in East Africa' - ECOMEA, a regional
project funded by Danida and whose objective is to enhance the coordination of markets in EastAfrica.
Conclusion
ProGrOV has shown that a collaborative relationship and partnership does serve multiple purposes, for
example in formulation of relevant research questions, having interaction with different actors throughout
the research process, supporting data collection and analysis, and providing outlets for sharing, feedback
and dissemination. This initiative also demonstrates that such a partnership is symbiotic for the partners
i.e. the organic movements have provided access to empirical experience and evidence, while the
universities have brought theoretical framing and methodological expertise which are key in the
development of organic agriculture sector in East Africa. Development organisations such as the
NOAMs have a clear goal on advocacy but working with research institutes helps to make this message
clear thus such collaboration is beneficial in bridging the gap between research and practice and aids in
improving the communication between researchers and practioners.
References
Ponzio, Carlo, Ramesh Gangatharan, and Davide Neri. 2013 “The potential and limitations of farmer
participatory research in organic agriculture: a review.” African Journal of Agricultural Research 8, no.
32: 4285-4292.
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Opinion and Involvement of Fish Farmers in Organic

Aquaculture in Osun State, Nigeria
MABEL O. IPINMOROTI
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Management,
Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria
Keywords: Organic practice, fish farming, nutrition, culture systems.
Abstract
The increasing demand for healthy food as means of reducing the incidence of food related
diseases necessitated the desire for better food production practices. Organic practice aims
at maximizing productivity using natural, biological and ecological processes. Food
production in most developing countries lays in the hands of small holders. This study reveals
the opinion and the level of involvement of fish farmers in organic aquaculture in Osun state.
Fish farmers were identified from three communities in each of the six Local Government
Areas using multistage random and purposive selection techniques. Structured questionnaire
was designed to identify Farmers' knowledge and involvements in organic aquaculture. Data
were analysed using descriptive statistics of mean, frequencies and percentages, and
inferential statistics of analysis of variance using SPSS 17 for Windows. A total sixty-six
farmers were identified across the six selected LGA. Level of organic practice is low among
farmers and a high level of lack of knowledge of organic practice was observed. There is the
need to enlighten and train farmers on the benefits and practices of organic fish farming, if the
desire for good quality food will be met.
Introduction
There has been an increase in global demand for fish to meet the growing population. This led to increase
in pressure on the ecosystem, leading to overfishing and dwindling supply (ICTSD, 2009). Production
from aquaculture seems the plausible option to bridge the gap between production and demand. Indeed
there has been a steady growth in production from aquaculture (FAO, 2012). Production of fish from
aquaculture in the conventional way is associated with the use of substances and processes that are
suspected to have health implications and other negative impacts (Lasner and Hamm 2011).
Advances in health and nutrition have led to higher interest in the production of agricultural
resources through natural otherwise known as organic means. Organic practice aims at maximizing
productivity using natural, biological and ecological processes. Organic production processes are
environment friendly (materials are biodegradable and harmless to the ecosystem), products are of
better quality and are healthier for consumption (Ipinmoroti, 2010). Theoretically, organic farming
means letting the animal being raised grow according to its nature and at stocking densities that closely
mimics its natural habitat (Lembo, 2011). Organic aquaculture protects consumer health by reducing the
overall exposure to toxic chemicals from pesticides that can accumulate in the ground, air, water and food
supply. Organic aquaculture doesn't use toxic pesticides and helps prevent top soil erosion, improves soil
fertility, protects ground water, and conserves energy. In simple words organic aquaculture can be called
197
MABEL O. IPINMOROTI et al.:
an approach for safer fisheries (Bai and Lee, 2011).

Sustainable methods of aquaculture otherwise known as ecological organic aquaculture is a
response to negative impacts of overfishing of natural ecosystems and problems associated with
conventional aquaculture. For organic aquaculture to thrive fish farmers who are the major stake holders
in the supply chain must have basic knowledge and the right opinion about the system and the product.
This study finds out the opinion and to what extent fish farmers in Osun State are involved in the practice
of organic aquaculture.
Methodology
Multistage selection technique was used for the study.

Stage1: Was the random selection of six Local Government Areas in Osun State, Nigeria. They were:
Odo Otin, Ikirun, Osogbo, Ede, Ejigbo and Iwo.
Stage 2: Random selection of three communities from each of the six LGAs.
Stage 3: Purposive selection of practising fish farmers were identified in each of the communities.
Structured questionnaire prepared to assess the knowledge, opinion and involvement of fish
farmers in organic aquaculture were administered to those identified. A total of Sixty-six fish
farmers were identified for the study. Farmers' knowledge were assessed through acceptable and
non-acceptable organic aquaculture practices, benefits to man and environment while their
involvements were assessed based on the frequency at which they practice some acceptable
organic aquaculture activities. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics of mean,
frequencies and percentages, and inferential statistics of analysis of variance using SPSS 15 for
Windows.
Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents on the bases of religion, marital status and educational
level. Sixty – six fish farmers that were identified responded to the structured questionnaire interview
that was administered for the study. Forty-eight (72.7%) of them were male and eighteen (27.3%) were
females. The dominance of men in fisheries and fish farming has been reported by other authors
(Brummet, 2010; Ele et al, 2012 and Olaoye et al,2013 ). It is believed that the male dominance in
fisheries and agriculture activities is linked with the traditional system of land acquisition in most
communities in Africa .The population comprises 40.9% Christians, 57.3% Muslims and 1.5%
Traditionalists. Most of the respondents (63.6%) are married; the populations of single, widowed and
divorced were 12.1% respectively. The result shows average literacy level among the practitioners 30%
had secondary education, 27.3% had tertiary education and 18.2% have secondary education while
24.2% had non and no formal education. The level of education is generally lower than those reported for
their counterparts in Oyo State in similar study by Olaoye (2013).
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Table 1. Demographic information on respondents

Item Options Frequency Percentage
Gender Male 48 72.7
Female 18 27.3
Total 66 100.0
Religion Christianity 27 40.9

Muslim 38 57.6
Traditionalist 1 1.5
Total 66 100.0
Marital status Married 42 63.6

Single 8 12.1
Widowed 8 12.1
Divorced 8 12.1
Total 66 99.9
Level of education No formal 9 13.6

Non formal 7 10.6
Primary 12 18.2
Secondary 20 30.3
Tertiary 18 27.3
Total 66 100.0
Table 2. Awareness of some facts about organic fish farming activities

Organic fish farming Activities Frequency (%) Score
Practice Component Yes No
Use of organic manure Compost 74 25.8 H
Animal manure 96.9 3.1 H
Plant residue 81.4 8.6 H
Natural resources for Limestone 46.00 54.00 L
lime Wood ash 37.88 62.12 L
Feed Ingredient from organic produce 70.77 29.23 H
Already prepared feed 73.85 26.15 H
Pest and Weed control Biological(plant extract, herbivorous, 58.46 41.54 M
insectivorous fish)
Cultural(proper pond construction/preparation, 81.8 18.2 H
stocking density etc)
Mechanical(use of physical tools) 75.75 24.24 H
Conversion period 6 months for drainable facilities 89.39 10.61 H
24 for non drainable facilities 45.46 54.54 L
Culture system Polyculture system 77.27 22.73 H
Culture facilities Use Earthen ponds 14.03 85.96 L
Breeding mates Same species 76 24 H
199
Organic fish farming is practiced by 18.18% of the fish farmers, 7.58% practice both conventional and
organic while 74.24% practice only conventional fish farming. A total of 25.76% adopt organic practice
out of this 7.57% were female 18.19% were male. Organic practice is a new innovation, it is therefore
expected that adoption will naturally be gradual. This also applies to the number of ponds under organic
practices. The minimum, mean and maximum number of ponds own by individuals practicing organic
fish farming is 1, 3 and 10 respectively. The number of ponds for conventional practice range between 1
and 50 with a mean of 7 (Table 2).
Fish farmers were well aware of the use of organic manure, compost (74%), animal manure (96.9%)
and plant residue (81.4%); organic feed (70.77%) and feed ingredients (73.85%); biological pest and
weed control (58.46%), cultural control (81.8%) conversion period of 6 months for drainable ponds
(89.39%), acceptable culture system (77.27%) and breeding mates (76%). However, the farmers score
low in the awareness of acceptable culture facility (14.03%), lime materials (37-46%) and 37-45.46%
for conversion period of 24 months for non-drainable facilities (45.46%) (Table 2).
Table 3. Fish farmers Opinion on Ecological Organic Aquaculture
Frequency (%) Score

Opinion on organic fish farming
Agreed Disagree Don’t know
Encourages natural fish behaviour 63.64 31.82 4.54
Practice increases water pollution 73.8* 12.1 15.1
Causes Ecosystem sustainability 72.73 22.73 4.54
Produces fish of better quality than conventional 18.5* 58.5 23.1
Fish produced are not pollutant/toxic free 43.9* 9.1 47.0
Fish have better taste than those from conventional practice 51.50 22.7 25.8
Practice does not ensure safe food and clean environment for 43.1* 32.3 24.6
practitioners
Practice encourages native species *7.5 74.3 18.2
Practice pollutes ground water 69.7* 22.73 7.6
Practice ensures proper waste disposal 22.7* 69.7 7.6
Product command good price than conventional 39.39 31.32 28.79
*wrong opinions about organic aquaculture.
Fish farmers in the study area have some wrong opinions or are ignorant of organic aquaculture practices
and products (Table 3). Many of the wrong opinions include the belief that products from organic
aquaculture are not toxic free (43.9%); organic practice does not ensure safe environment (43.1%), it
increase water ground pollution(69.7%). More respondents however believe that organic products have
better taste (51.50%) and are better priced (39.39%) than conventionally produced ones. A high level of
ignorance (47.0%) was revealed on whether or not products are toxic. Knowledge is the first stage in
adoption process and it indicates the awareness of an innovation. It is the stage at which individuals
come into contact with information about the innovation and learn about how it works (Roger, 2003).
The prevalence of negative opinions about organic agriculture displayed by these farmers show that they
do not have correct information on organic fish farming and its products, the low level of organic
practice (18.18%) is therefore expected.
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Table 4. Organic aquaculture practices among fish farmers

Practice Always Occasional Never
Use of animal wastes as manure 78.6 21.4
Use of crop/plant wastes as manure 33.34 45.5 21.2
Integrated fish farming (fish/animal and or plant) 54.31 22.9 22.79
Use of Compost manure 42.9 47.6 9.5
Feeding of good quality feed to encourage breeding 71.2 27.7 6.1
Use of plant extract to control pest and diseases 27.3 54.5 18.2
Use of biological/cultural weed and pest control 59.1 34.8 6.1
The use of animal wastes as manure is well accepted by the fish farmers (78.6%). It is not very clear why
compost and the use of plant wastes seems not to be popular among the farmers (33.34%), for compost it
is either because of poor understanding of its importance or the skill to produce it. Fish diseases are rare
under good cultural and management practices hence the low level (27.3%) of usage of herbs in
combating disease is understandable (Akogun et al, 1997).
Conclusion
There seems to be lack of adequate knowledge of the benefits associated with organic aquaculture
practices in the study area. This was evident in the various negative opinion and ignorance paraded by
the fish farmers. The need for better education of fish farmers is apt. This is because fish is reared in
environment that harbours most pollutants produced on the surface of the earth which makes it at high
risk. Protein from animal sources, especial fish, are better utilised in human than those of plants. It is
therefore pertinent to take proactive measures that will lead to better understanding of organic
aquaculture practices that would encourage the adoption of the innovation and production of healthy
fish for human consumption by fish farmers especially in Osun State, Nigeria.
References
Akogun, M. O. (Ipinmoroti), O.A. Adeogun and A. M. Ajana (1997) Identification and Control of
Common Diseases of Cultured Fish in Ponds”. NIOMR Extension Guide 8. ISBN 978 –
2345 – 116.
Bai, S. C and Lee, J. (2011) Global Trends of Organic Aquaculture. In A. Leu, H. Lee, H, Z. Zhou,
P.Villegas and L Zuck (Eds) Proceedings (preconference) of the 17th IFOAM Organic World
Congress, Gyeonggi Paldang, Republic of South Korea, 26 September – 5 October, 2011 /
338.
Brummet, R. E., Youaleu, J. L. N., Tijani, A. M. and Kengmebne A (2010): Women's traditional fishery
and alternative aquatic resource livelihood strategies in the southern Cameroonian Rain
forest. Fisheries Management and Ecology 17 221 – 230.
Ele, I. E., Ibok, O. W., Anitia-Obong, E. A. and E. S. Udoh (2013). Economic Analysis of Fish Farming
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Opportunities and Challenges for Reinforcing Organic

Agriculture Research Capacity in East African Universities:
Experience of Makerere University
FRED KABI1, SYLVIA NALUBWAMA1, SAMUEL KABI1,2, NORMAN KWIKIRIZA1,
STEPHEN ANECHO AND MUHAMMAD KIGGUNDU1
1
Makerere University, School of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
2
Gulu University, Faculty of Agriculture and the Environment P. O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda
Corresponding Author: [email protected], [email protected]
Keywords: Opportunities, East African Universities, social economic, crop production.
Abstract
There is a need for generation of new knowledge and skills to reinforce organic agriculture
capacity to answer a variety of lingering questions about production, product quality,
marketing, social economic implications on livelihoods and sustainable development through
research. Generated knowledge is also needed to inform development and institutionalization
of national policies on organic agriculture. Support to universities in collaboration with the
private sector to popularize and commercialize organic agriculture through curriculum review
and regional harmonization will help to produce a critical mass of competent graduates to
promote organic agriculture. At Makerere University we believe great success in the subsector
will only come from great support.
Introduction
Growth and development of organic agriculture in East Africa continues to be driven by the increasing
demand from nutritionally and environmentally conscious consumers in developed countries. In
Uganda, the organic subsector is mainly driven by the private sector and commercial export companies .
Development of organic export market was earlier accelerated by support from the Swedish
International Development Agency (SIDA) under the Export Promotion of Organic Products from
Africa (EPOPA) in 1994. A study by concluded that farms engaged in certified organic export
production are more profitable than those that are solely engaged in conventional production. However,
much of the progress made in the subsector has been in the area of crop production with little or no
integration with organic livestock production.
Despite the availability of market for organic products in the European Union and beyond, organic
farming still faces a number of challenges. This is attributed to several factors including minimal
demand for organic products locally and regionally, limited government infrastructural support, high
costs of third party certification and low levels of knowledge and poor information dissemination
(UNEP-UNCTAD, 2010). Limited research in organic agriculture in African universities has possibly
contributed to the minimal demand for organic products locally and regionally. Besides, negative
stereotyped attitude towards a career in the subsector is quite evident among many scholars. This has
further exacerbated lack of appropriate technologies and limited capacity to attract research funding to
organic agriculture. It is, therefore, postulated that if organic agriculture is to be mainstreamed into the
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FRED KABI et al.:
African development agenda, involvement of universities is crucial in reinforcing organic agriculture

research capacities. Moreover, agricultural faculties have been slow to adopt and adapt to new realities
of the need for mainstreaming organic agriculture into undergraduate and graduate curricula as a way of
generating a critical mass of actors in the subsector. Other hindrances to organic agriculture in Uganda
include in existence of an explicit organic agriculture policy . The objective of this article is to highlight
the opportunities, challenges, research impact and experience of Makerere University (MAK) in
collaboration with International Center for Research in Organic Food systems (ICROFS), University of
Nairobi (UoN), Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), University of Copenhagen and the three national
organic movements of East Africa (NOGAMU, TOAM and KOAN) to build organic agriculture research
capacity.
Structural approach for Reinforcing Organic Agriculture Research Capacity in East African
Universities
In an attempt for Africa to address its growing food security concerns and broadening employment
opportunities, it is crucial to engage universities to upgrade the quality of trained human resource.
Therefore, agricultural colleges and faculties are important targets to accelerate production of graduates
with relevant knowledge and skills to function as positive catalysts along the knowledge chain of
organic agriculture, food security and safety.
Young researchers scientifically trained in different discipline were therefore identified from
Makerere University (MAK), UoN and SUA. Relevance for organic agriculture was introduced to all
the fresh recruits by the local and Danish supervisors using tailor made and focused training building on
students' own field of expertise.
Overall, 9 Ph.D. and 6 M.Sc. students were initially enrolled at MAK, UoN and SUA under the
DANIDA funded Productivity and Growth in Organic Value Chain (ProGrOV) project. The students
were expected to present several seminars and to produce M.Sc. and Ph.D. theses as well as scientific
publications before graduation. The capacity of the students and their assigned local and international
supervisors was strengthened to enable collaboration with private sector through a series of
programmed rotational workshops in the region. Interdisciplinary research based on both within country
and regional challenges was developed aimed at producing competent graduates. The research focused
on whole supply chain of organic products, farm systems, product quality, marketing, social economic
implications and impact on rural community development. A number of support structures were
developed to facilitate learning and communication between students and their supervisor. All
supervisors and regional students were structured to attend annual workshops. This was aimed at
broadening the perspective of the students and their supervisors on their own research, including values
and principles of organic farming as a way of understanding the wider context in which their research is
embedded. The students were also encouraged to present their findings at international conferences and
all the publications were exposed to international community readership via the literature platform on
organic food and farming found at the organic E-prints: http://organic prints.org.
All Ph.D. students underwent SOAR training course in Denmark aimed at imparting scientific
approaches to research in global organic food chains. Agro-ecology, environmental care and livelihood
research were also introduced. The students were inducted into formulation of research questions on
complex issues which are relevant in the current economic, agricultural and political situation in East
Africa.
Impact of Reinforcing Organic Agriculture Research Capacity at Makerere University

The Agro-ecology and agricultural productivity component attracted two Ph.D. students. One student
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focused on integrating livestock into crop production system so as to encourage value addition and
diversification of sources of income in the organic pineapple production chain. The second Ph.D
researched on developing an integrated pest management package for organic pineapple farmers. The
major challenge faced by candidates was to defend the new concept of organic agriculture research
among professors on the college graduate board who were researchers in conventional agriculture. It
took the students over one year to convince the different panels in order to get officially registered as
graduate candidate. Fortunately, all the candidates stayed the course and the Ph.Ds are in their final year.
Community needs assessment was carried out (Nalubwama et al., 2014)to identify challenges of
integrating livestock into organic pineapple farming. This was aimed at developing strategies to enhance
nutrient recycling for sustainable organic pineapple productivity. It was observed that in addition to
growing pineapples, the farms also kept different livestock(Figure 1).
Figure 1. Proportions (%) of organic pineapple farms owning each livestock species in both
Kayunga and Luwero districts.
A move towards having organic farms orientated towards organic livestock production will possibly
enable farmers benefit from a fully integrated organic system with the benefit of accessing niche markets
for the organic animal and their products. Research that improves farmer's knowledge on how to select
for particular production traits from indigenous livestock based on organic farming principles under
tropical conditions were suggested as strategies that might support integration of livestock into
smallholder organic pineapple production.
The second PhD candidate observed that the occurrence of the pineapple mealybug (Dysmicoccus
spp.) has been increasing at an alarming rate on pineapples farms in Uganda (Kabi et al., 2015). The
cause of the epidemic is unknown. The study therefore set out to establish if the prevailing cropping
systems, production and management practices can provide an insight into the trend. Farmers used
2
different soil fertility management practices depending on farm type (organic or conventional) (÷ =
99.351; df =3; P <0.001) (Table 1). Using a biological monitoring study, it was observed that mealybug
populations were lower in the pineapple-banana intercrop as compared to the sole pineapple crop.
Earthed-up seedbeds created a favourable environment for mealybug multiplication compared to
growing the plant on flat beds. The popular practice of using coffee husks as soil amendments was found
to promote population build up whereas fallowing reduced the infestation levels.
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FRED KABI et al.:
Table 1. Proportion of organic and conventional farmers using different soil management
practices and cropping systems
Management Practices/systems Percentage of farmers Pearson Chi-
Organic Conventional Square Value
farmers farmers (?2)
Seedbed type
Earthed-up 31.0 63.6
0.487ns
Flat seedbed 69.0 36.4
Soil fertility management Practices

Coffee husks 31.0 36.4
Foliar fertilizer 0 28.8
99.361***
Fallowing (<10yeas) +Foliar fertilizers 0 34.8
Fallowing (=10years)+No amendment 69.0 0
Cropping Systems
Pineapple-banana intercrop 59.5 53.0
Pineapple-beans-banana intercrop 7.1 7.6 0.662ns
Pineapple sole crop 33.4 39.4
*, ** and *** represent Chi-square values (÷2) significant at P<0.05; 0.01 and 0.001, respectively
The M.Sc. candidate in this component evaluated the use and availability of feed resources and the
coping strategies used by smallholder certified organic pineapple farms to overcome dry season feed
shortages. Farmers reported high cost of concentrates and scarcity of feeds as their biggest challenges in
dairy cattle production. As a coping strategy to feed shortages, majority (42.9%) of farmer scavenged for
feed resources from both organic certified and nonorganic neighboring farms which is contrary to
organic livestock farming standards. The practice of acquiring feed resources varied with cattle
management systems, willingness and attitudes towards using non conventional feed resources (Figure
2 and Figure 3). It was, therefore, concluded that management of livestock feeding in the study area fell
short of the requirements for organic livestock feeding standards. Research to develop strategies that can
use alternative on-farm feed resources through ensiling organic pineapple wastes during the dry season
was recommended and implemented together with the farmers as a long term strategy to address feed
challenges for organic livestock farmers.
Figure 2. Graph showing the percentage distribution of livestock species under the different cattle
management systems.
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Figure 3. Percentage of use of the different pineapple processing by-products by farmers in feeding
their cattle
The third Ph.D candidate in the Value chain and agribusiness development component analyzed
governance of the global value chain exporting pineapple from Uganda. In this component the second
M.Sc student explored two aspects: i) Consumer characteristics and determinants of their preferences
for organic products in Kampala, Uganda. ii)Determinants of consumer willingness to pay for organic
products in Kampala; Uganda. Although the M.Sc. completed and is working on the publications, he has
not yet defended his thesis due to institutional bottlenecks of locating external examiners with
competences in organic agriculture. The Ph.D candidate in this component is in his final year and has
one manuscripts under review in the African Crop Science Journal. Results showed that 10 export
companies linked farmer produce groups to importers in Europe, Japan and America. The organic
pineapple value stream was reported to be shorter than the conventional stream. A small proportion
(28%) of pineapples produced by farmers was exported through the organic pineapple value stream.
Exporters seldom met the volume orders from importers possibly due to infrastructural limitations.
More volumes could be exported if i) interest rates were lowered to encourage investment by exporters,
ii) a range of organic pineapple products were produced through value addition, iii)there was better
coordination among export companies, iv) there was more vigilance by the Government especially
through enacting legislation that favor the organic sector.
Conclusion
Mainstreaming organic agriculture into the African development agenda will only be possible if
universities in partnership with private sector are involved in creating a critical mass of practitioners
to advance the subsector. This will only be possible if new knowledge and skills are generated
through research to reinforce organic agriculture capacity to answer a variety of lingering questions
on production, farm systems, product quality and marketing of organic products at local and regional
levels. New knowledge through research is also needed to inform development and institutionalization
of national policies on organic agriculture. It is our belief that great success in popularizing and
commercialization of organic agriculture locally and regionally will only come from great support to
universities through curriculum review and development to train competent graduate.
References
Gibbon, P., and Bolwig, S., 2007. The economics of certified organic farming in tropical Africa: A
Preliminary Assessment. DIIS Working Paper No. 2007/3., Danish Institute for International
Studies.
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Hine, R., and Pretty, J., 2006. Organic Agriculture, Sustainability and Food Security in East Africa,
Centre for Environment and Society, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex.
IFOAM. 2005. Development of a regional organic agriculture standard in East Africa 2005-2007.
Kiggundu, M., K., Kabi, F., K.,, Vaarst, M.,, Nalubwama, S., N., and Odhong, C., 2014.Management
and use of dairy cattle feed resources on smallholder certified organic pineapple farms in
Central Uganda. Journal of Agriculture and Environment for International Development -
JAEID 2014, 108 (2): 207 - 225 DOI: 10.12895/jaeid.20142.253.
Kwikiriza, N,. Mugisha,J., Kledal, R., Karatininis, P., K and Namuwooza, C., 2015.Actors in the
global value chain of organic pineapples from Uganda. Africa crop Science journal. Under
review.
Nalubwama, S., Vaarst M, Kabi. F., Kiggundu, M., Bagamba, F., Odhong, C., Mugisha, A., and
Halberg, N., 2014. Challenges and prospects of integrating livestock into smallholder
organic pineapple production in Uganda. Livestock Research for Rural Development.
Volume 26, Article #113. Retrieved , from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd26/6/nalu26113.htm.
Kabi, S.,Karungi, J.,.,, Sigsgaard, L.,S.,, Ssebuliba, J. M., 2015. The pineapple mealybug (Dysmicoccus
spp) occurrence and infestation behaviour as influenced by farm type, cropping systems and
soil management practices. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment(Under Review).
UNEP-UNCTAD, 2010. Organic agriculture. Opportunities for promoting trade, protecting the
environment and reducing poverty, United Nations, New York and Geneva.
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Yield Response to Type of Mulch and Time of Mulch

Application in Organic Production of Tomato
(Solanum lycopersicum L.)
L . SHECHAMBO1, K.P. SIBUGA1, T.J. MSOGOYA1AND SIGSAARD, L .2
1
Department of Crop Science and Production, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania.
Email: [email protected]
2
Zoology Group, Department of Agriculture and Ecology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
Corresponding Author: [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected]
Keywords: RCBD, Mulch, Tomato, Transplanting, Solanum lycopersicum L.
Abstract
Mulching in organic agriculture is important for a variety of roles it performs. Mexican

weeping pine (Pinus patula Schelde. ex Schltdl and Cham) and wild lemon grass
(Cymbopogon spp.) were used as mulch to evaluate the effect of type of mulch, time of
applying mulch and influence of seasons on yield of organically produced tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum L.) in Lushoto district, north-eastern Tanzania. The experiment followed a
Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). The treatments were pine mulch applied 3 days
after transplanting, pine mulch applied 3 weeks after transplanting, grass mulch applied 3
days after transplanting, grass mulch applied 3 weeks after transplanting, weeded and
unweeded (control). Yield data were taken at harvesting. Data analysis was done by using
Genstat Statistical Package. Results showed that the time of mulch application at an interval
of three days and three weeks after transplanting did not have an influence on yield but yields
of tomato were significantly higher in mulched than in unmulched treatments. Tomatoyields
recorded in season 1 (wet and cold) were higher at both sites than yields recorded in season 2
(dry and warm).This study reveals that the type of mulch used and the time of application
affect tomato yield positively.
Introduction
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a highly valued horticultural crop consumed as a source of
Vitamins A and C necessary for supplementing the daily dietary requirements of the human body.
Tomato is used in diverse ways around the world in its raw form and in a cooked form as an ingredient in
many dishes. Tomato is cultivated by using conventional as well as organic methods however, the
ecological, toxicological and environmental shortcomings concerning synthetic pesticide and fertilizer
residues in food and the environment have raised some restrictions on the use of the conventional
agricultural produce (Cohen and Yuval, 2000). The raised doubts and restrictions on conventional
produce is the driving force behind the recent preferences in organic produce worldwide (Willer and
Yussefi, 2006). Organic production not only reduces health risks to both producers and consumers but
also maintains and improves soil qualities (Van Elsen, 2000). Soil-bound organisms also benefit
because of increased bacteria populations due to incorporation of natural fertilizer such as manure,
while experiencing reduced intake of pesticides (Hole et al., 2005). Crop management in organic
production systems requires an integration of all possible cultural and preventive practices. Among the
cultural practices allowed in organic production systems, mulching is highly emphasized for its role of
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L. SHECHAMBO et al.:
Yield Response to Type of Mulch and Time of Mulch Application in Organic Production of
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)
suppressing weeds, conserving soil moisture, providing nutrients upon decomposition, conserving
natural enemies of insect pests by providing them with a suitable habitat, moisture, protection and
alternative prey (Cortesero et al., 2000).
Lushoto district, in the northeastern of Tanzania is one of the areas where organic production of
many vegetables including tomato occurs. Farmers commonly use star grass, banana leaves, bean plants
and pods and other crop residues as mulch. However, several challenges have been associated with the
use of common organic types of mulch such as an increase in labour cost in terms of time and money as
most of these mulches require frequent replenishment, a year-through inaccessibility as most of these
mulch become available only after harvest following the rainy season and inadequate availability even
during the season because most of these mulches are also used to feed domestic animals. Challenges
associated with such commonly used mulches in Lushoto district, has diverged attention towards
alternative organic mulches. Pine litter and wild lemon grass have been considered as the potential
alternative organic mulch that can be used in organic production of tomato in Lushoto district. However,
an investigation is necessary as much is still unknown regarding the use of pine and wild lemon grass as
organic mulch in organic production of tomato in Lushoto district. This paper reports the outcome of
studying the effect of type of mulch and time of applying mulch on yield of organically produced tomato.
Materials and methods

Description of study area and materials
The study was done n Lushoto district, Tanga region, Tanzania. The district is located in the West
Usambara mountains lying between 38º 10' and 38º 36'E and 4º 24' and 5º 00'S.The altitude in Lushoto is
between 800-2300 m above sea level. The rainfall received is in bimodal pattern with the short rains
from October to December and the long rains from March to June. Annual rainfall ranges from 600 to
1200 mm while temperature ranges from 16 - 30º C. The soils are generally latosols (Shemdoe, 2011).
The experimental sites were Lushoto (38° 17' 24'' East and 4° 47' 55'' South) with an altitude of about
1500m. a.s.l. located at Lushoto town-forest area and Ubiri (38° 21' 59'' East and 4° 50' 29'' South) with
an altitude of about 1218m. a.s.l. located at Ubiri village along Mombo-Lushoto road.
Tomato variety 'Tanya' was grown for two seasons from April to December, 2013. The first season
(season 1) began in April to August, 2013 while the second season (season 2) began in August to
December, 2013 at Lushoto and Ubiri experimental sites, respectively. The two seasons experienced
two very different weather conditions. Season 1 was wet and cold while the season 2 was dry and hot. In
season 1 seeds were sown in late February 2013, transplanting of seedlings was done in April 2013 while
in the second season seeds were sown in July and seedlings were transplanted to the field in late August,
2013. Organic compost used was ERTHFOODTM (1.5-0.5-0.5) at the quantity of 500g per hole applied
one day before tomato seedlings were transplanted. This was later supplemented with a seven day
soaked solution of cow urine (20 litres), cow dung (50 kg) and water (200 litres) as top dressing organic
manure applied at 0.5 litres per plant. The seeds of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. in dried, ground and
sieved form (0.5 kg), sour milk (0.5 litres), ashes (0.5 kg), banana flower (1 piece) and kerosene (0.25
litres) all mixed in 15 litres of water, were used to prepare a local biopesticide. This mixture was applied
against aphid outbreak in season 1 and against thrips outbreak in season 2. This biopesticide was also
used against fungal and bacterial diseases. Crops were irrigated by tap water (at Lushoto) and by furrow
water (at Ubiri). Organic mulch used was dried pine needles and dried wild lemon grass.
Pine mulch was collected under pine trees located in the pine forest near Lushoto experimental site
while wild lemon grass was collected from the big rocks on top of the mountains at Kizara village near
Ubiri village along the Mombo-Lushoto road. Pine mulch came in dry form and did not require
chopping due to its needle-like shape while wild lemon grass came in fresh form hence required about
210
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three weeks to dry before it was chopped and used. The experiment followed a Randomized Complete
Block Design (RCBD) with six treatments and three replications. The treatments were pine mulch
applied 3 days after transplanting (PI), pine mulch applied after three weeks (PA), wild lemon grass
mulch applied 3 days after transplanting (GI), wild lemon grass mulch applied after three weeks (GA),
2
weeded and unweeded (Controls). The size of each plot was 9m .
Data on yield of organically produced tomato were collected based on the type of mulch applied and
on time of mulch application. All data were subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using GenStat
Discovery Edition 4 package.
Results
Tomato yields in all mulched treatments were statistically similar (on each location and within seasons
revealing that the type of mulch whether pine or wild lemon grass did not have an influence on yield
(Table 1). The difference in yield is only significant when mulched treatments are compared to
unmulched treatments. The time of applying mulch between treatments applied in 3 and 21 days after
transplanting in all cases did not show a significant difference in yield. Yields between mulched and
unmulched treatments in all cases show huge differences implying that mulch is very important than
simply doing weeding. Tomato yields were significantly (p<0.05) influenced by seasons (Table 2).
Yields in season 1 at Lushoto were significantly (P<0.05) higher than yields in season 2. Yields at Ubiri
showed no significant (p>0.05) difference between season 1 and season 2.
Table 1. Influence of types of mulch on tomato yield at Lushoto and Ubiri
Yield (t/ha)
Lushoto Ubiri
Treatments Season 1 Season 2 Season 1 Season 2
(Apr-Aug) (Aug-Dec) (Apr-Aug) (Aug-Dec)
PI 18.20ab 14.98a 17.37a 14.63ab
PA 19.70ab 12.03ab 15.42a 16.10a
GI 22.90ab 12.05ab 16.75a 14.63ab
GA 21.40ab 12.23ab 15.08a 13.88ab
Weeded 14.70b 9.73b 10.15b 10.45b
Control 3.17c 2.10c 2.52c 2.34c
Mean 16.66 10.77 13.10 11.99
LSD 8.63 3.91 4.35 4.79
p-value 0.043 0.026 0.008 0.036
Mean values with the same letter(s) within the column are not significantly different at P=0.05 according
to LSD. Season 1: April-August, 2013. Season 2:August-December, 2013.
Table 2. Influence of seasons on tomato yield at Lushoto and Ubiri

Yield (t/ha)
Seasons Lushoto Ubiri
Season 1 (wet and cold) 17.63a 13.98
Season 2 (dry and hot) 11.42b 13.02
Mean 14.53 13.50
LSD 2.77 1.88
p-value <0.001 0.304
Mean values with the same letter(s) within the column are not significantly different at P=0.05 according
to LSD. Season 1: April-August, 2013. Season 2:August-December, 2013.
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Yield Response to Type of Mulch and Time of Mulch Application in Organic Production of
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)
Discussion
Yield of organically grown tomato was two times higher in pine and grass mulched plots than yield of
tomato in unmulched (control) plots in both season 1 and season 2 at Lushoto and at Ubiri sites. The
results show clearly that using any of the two types of organic mulch was much better than having no
mulch at all. Pine needles are known for the ability to last long and to possess high amounts of N
(Singh, 1982) while grass mulch posses high amounts of P (Sinkeviciene et al., 2009). This might be the
reason behind the similar quantities of yield recorded. Like any other organic mulch, grass mulch show
effectiveness in regulating soil moisture and temperature in the beginning of the experiment before it
decomposes to release nutrients to the soil.
The time of mulch application did not have any influence on yield in all mulched treatments. This
may probably be due to the fact that in the first three weeks after transplanting the emerged weeds were
not aggressive enough to cause yield reduction as the critical period of weed competition in tomato is
around four to five weeks after transplanting (Monks, 1993).
The differences in tomato yield between season 1 and season 2 are clearly observed at Lushoto site.
Season 1 which was characterized by long rains from late March to the end of May followed by cold
temperatures form June to August. Tomato plants at Lushoto were able to withstand the weather,
although some plants were affected by late blight, those which survived the weather ended up with very
high yields harvested in August. The probable cause for this response may be due to slow growth and the
ability to utilize soil water and nutrients both from the soil and from pine and grass mulch. In season 2,
temperatures went high and it was dry. The yields were not very high probably because the soils had dried up
and irrigation water was not enough to enable plants to draw nutrients from the soil as it was in season 1.
Conclusion and recommendations

Employing organic mulch in tomato production is quite useful for its contribution on yield, suppression
of weeds, protecting soil fauna, protecting the soil against solar radiations thereby reducing evaporation
and providing conducive environment for tomato growth. It is therefore recommended that, organic
mulch should be used for tomato production in the two studied areas.
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Perception of Leafy Vegetable Farmers on Neem Extract for

the Control of Insects in Akinyele Local Government Area
of Oyo State, Nigeria
NKIRU T. MELUDU, OLOPADE TOLULOPE, OKANLAWON OLUWATOYIN
AND OLANREWAJU PETER
Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Corresponding author: [email protected], [email protected]
Keywords: Neem extract, perception, leafy vegetables, insects.
Abstract
The environmental injustice inherent in conventional pests management practices are

perpetrated mainly through widespread exposure to chemicals used in agricultural production.
The overall ill effect of this chemical based product to the environment and human health are
some of the challenges which called for search of efficient and effective alternatives that are
capable of replacing chemical pesticides in agricultural production. Thus, this study
investigated the perception of leafy vegetable farmers to use of neem extract for insect control in
Akinyele Local Government Area of Oyo State. Random sampling was used to select 60% of
registered leafy vegetable farmers form Akinyele Local Government Area of Oyo state to give a
total of 93 respondents. Interview schedule was used to obtain information from the respondents.
Descriptive and inferential statistics were used for the data generated from the field. The result
showed that majority (59.9%) of the respondents were within the age range of 30-40 years with
the mean age of 40.5. Majority (92.5%) of the respondents had formal education and majority
(47.6%) of the respondents had mean household size of 5.High proportion (76.3%) of the
respondents had between 5-10 years of farming experience and the mean farm size in the study
area was 2 acres. Majority (58.1%) of the farmers used family labour while majority of the
respondents had their average monthly income ranging from 21,000-30,000 naira. The result
also revealed that the most utilized source of information about organic pesticide was the radio
(77.4%). The respondents' level of knowledge on neem extract was high (84.9%), benefits derived
from utilization of neem extract such as prevention of pest and diseases ranked highest (95.7%)
and the constraint associated with the utilization of neem extract was also high (50.5%). Chi
square test of relationship revealed that there was significant relationship between socio
economic characteristics such as: Age (÷2= 26.668, p= 0.009), level of education (÷2 = 66.351, p
= 0.007), income (÷2 =27.443, r= 0.007), major occupation (÷2= 28.592, r= 0.005), farm size
(÷2=71.001, p= 0.000) and the vegetable farmers' perception of neem extract. The study further
revealed that respondents sources of information on neem extract (p= 0.001), benefits derived
from application of neem extract (p= 0.029), and constraints associated with the utilization of
neem extract (p= 0.000), had significant relationship with respondents' perception of neem
extract. The respondents had favourable perception of neem extract for the control of insects.
Therefore, to sustain farmers' interest in organic farming, the farmers should be motivated
through training on application of neem extract and there should also be documentation of
effectiveness and correct quantity of neem extract to use.
Introduction
Pesticides are substances or mixture of substances used for preventing and controlling pest (FAO,
2002).The term pesticide includes insecticides, herbicides, nematicides, rodenticides, and fungicides
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NKIRU T. MELUDU et al.:
Perception of Leafy Vegetable Farmers on Neem Extract for the Control of Insects in
Akinyele Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria
(Gilden, Huffling, and Sattler, 2010). The council on scientific affairs, American Medical Association
(1997) grouped pesticides based on chemical structure. The active ingredients are either inorganic or
organic. Inorganic pesticides do not contain carbon and are usually derived from mineral ores which is
extracted from the earth. Examples include copper sulphate, ferrous sulphate, copper and sulphur.
Organic pesticides have carbon as the basis of their chemical structure. Inorganic pesticides have active
ingredients that operate faster in preventing and controlling insects which in turn helps in increasing the
yield of crops; Deedat, (1994). This has over time caused a lot of damage by harming beneficial
organisms, affecting biodiversity, increasing insect resistance, depletion of essential nutrients like
Nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil as well as causing severe health problems such as cancer in humans
(FAO, 2007). However natural organic pesticide is safer for humans and non -target organism such as
earthworm and fishes. Hence, there is a need to develop a safer, more environmentally friendly and
efficient alternatives that have the potential to replace synthetic pesticides and are convenient to use
(Tapondjou, 2005). In recent decades, research on the interactions between plants and insects has
revealed the potential use of plant metabolites for the purpose of killing or repelling insects Pavela,
(2004). With respect to this, Neem an example of such plants is the focus of this study.
Neem's unique feature in terms of its insecticidal properties; has over 100 compounds with
pesticidal properties which are used for damaging over 500 types of insects such as ticks, whiteflies,
thrips, leafminers, caterpillars, aphids, scales, beetles, true bugs, mealy bugs and nematodes (Thacker
2002, Copping 2001). Neem acts as a broad spectrum repellent and insect regulator which causes
deformities in the insect offspring; as an insect growth regulator, it prevents insects from molting by
inhibiting production of ecdysone an insect hormone (Weinzierl and Henn, 1991). Neem also
discourages feeding by making plants unpalatable to insects Sarode, Deotale and Thakure, (1995) or
suppresses the insects' appetite (anti fedant effects) and if the insects still attack it limits their ability to
moult and lay eggs. The use of these plants for insecticidal purposes in storage pests control has been
documented (Dike and Msheila, 1997). The active insecticidal compounds in neem include
Azadirachtin, Nimbin, Salannin and Meliatriol (Vietmeyer, 1992) which are concentrated more in the
seed and tree bark. Neem leaf extract have also been reported to be very effective in the control of insects
of leafy vegetables in Nigeria; Aderolu, Omoloye and Ojo (2012); Okunlola and Akinrinola (2013).
Therefore, an assessment of the perception of vegetable farmers on neem extract will help to determine
how effective neem extract is in controlling insects of leafy vegetable crops.
Farmers all over Nigeria especially the resource poor ones have been using botanicals successfully
for protecting their crops against insect pests, nematode, fungal and bacterial diseases either on the field
or in the store (Anjorin, Salako and Ndana, 2004). Several scientists and farmers have reported the use of
crude or formulated bioactive plant pesticide in Nigeria (Anjorin, Salako and Ndana, 2004). Salako
(2002) stated that the use of A. indica on the farm for the control of insects has obvious advantages; it is
relatively cheap and easily available, its complex mixture of active ingredients which function
differently on various parts of the insects life cycle and physiology makes it difficult for pests to develop
resistance to it. Schmutterer, (1990) opined that neem products are suitable for integrated pest
management because of their low toxicity to non- target organisms, easy preparation and compatibility
with other bio-products. Aderolu, Omoloye and Ojo (2012); Okunlola and Akinrinola (2013) reported
that Neem extract is effective in controlling insects of leafy vegetables than other botanical pesticide.
Despite the various importance of neem in controlling insects, its potential has not been fully utilized due
to numerous social reasons that are yet unknown; hence it becomes imperative to carry out a research on
the perception of vegetable farmers to neem extract for the control of insect.
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Objectives of the study
The objectives of this study include:

– identify the socio economic characteristics of the farmers;
– determine the farmers sources of information on neem extract;
– ascertain the farmers' level of knowledge on neem extract;
– determine the farmers perception of neem extract;
– find out the benefits derived from utilization of neem extract and,
– identify the constraints associated with the utilization of neem extract during vegetable production.
Methodology
The study area is Akinyele Local Government area of Oyo State, Nigeria. A list of registered leafy
vegetable farmers was obtained from leafy vegetable farmers association located in the study area.
Multistage sampling technique was adopted in which three villages were purposively selected out of the
twelve wards which are; Ajibode, Ojoo, and Elekuru and this is because of the high population of leafy
vegetable farmers in the villages; simple random sampling was used to select 60% of the estimated
number of vegetable farmers in the local government to give a total number of 93 vegetable farmers. The
use of descriptive and inferential statistics was used to the analysis the data.

The result depicted in table 1 shows that majority (78.5%) of the respondents are married, above average
(52.7%) had secondary education, about half (50.5%) of the respondents earn between 21-30 thousand
naira per month and that majority (58.1%) of the population made use of family labour.
Table 1. Distribution of respondents by socio- economic characteristics
Variables Frequency Percentage Mean value
Marital status
Single 16 17.2
Married 73 78.4
Widowed 4 4.4
Educational attainment
Non- formal education 8 8.6
Primary education 29 31.2
Secondary education 49 52.7
Tertiary education 7 7.5
Income
10000-20000 16 17.2
21000-30000 47 50.5
31000-40000 24 25.8
> 40000 6 6.5
Household Size
>3 13 14.0 5
5-10 71 76.3
11-15 9 9.7
Sources of labour
Family 54 58.1
Hired labour 22 23.7
Family and hired labour 13 13.9
Communal labour 4 4.3
215
Results further show majority (84.9%) of the respondents had a high level of knowledge on application
of neem extract on the farm, majority (68.8%) of the respondents opined that neem extract to a lesser
extent kills all insects present on the vegetable farm after infestation. However, majority (38.7%) of the
respondents considered inadequate knowledge of the correct measurement of neem extract solution to
apply on the farm as a serious constraint which shows that inadequate knowledge and information on
measurement can affect the efficacy of neem extract. However, the perception of the respondents on
neem extract was favourable (52.7%).
Table 2. Distribution of respondents on perception of neem extract

Perception of Neem Score range Frequency Percentage (%) Mean
Unfavourable 6- 36.5 44 47.3 36.6
Favourable = 36.6 49 52.7
Total 93 100
Source: Field survey, 2014
The study further revealed that respondents' sources of information on neem extract (p= 0.001), benefits
derived from application of neem extract (p= 0.029), and constraints associated with the utilization of
neem extract (p= 0.000), had significant relationship with their perception of neem extract.
In conclusion the respondents had favourable perception of neem extract for the control of insects.
The he farmers' perception was influenced by source of information on neem extract application,
benefits derived from the utilization and constraint associated with the utilization of neem extract.
Therefore, to sustain farmers' interest in organic farming, the farmers should be motivated through
training on application of neem extract and there should also be documentation of effectiveness and
correct quantity of neem extract to use.
References
Aderolu, I. A., Omoloye, A. A., Ojo, J. A. (2012).Comparative Evaluation of Modified Neem Leaf,
Wood Ash and Neem Leaf Extracts for Hymenia recurvalis control on Amaranthus spp. in
Ibadan Southwest Nigeria. Journal of Horticultural & Crop Science Research. Vol.2, No 01
pp. 27-35.
Aderolu, I. A., Omoloye, A. A., Okelana, F. A. (2013). Occurrence, Abundance and Control of the
Major Insect Pests Associated with Amaranths in Ibadan, Nigeria. Retrived from
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2161-0983.1000112. Date assessed 13-12-14.
Anjorin S. T., Salako, E. A., and Ndana, R.W. (2004). “In vitro assessment of some plants leaf extracts
for the control of Meloidogyne spp” and Rhizoctonia solani Zuma. Journal of Pure Applied
Science. Vol7 No 1.57p.
Bonner M. R., Hoppin J. A., Sandler D. P, Lubin J. H. and Freeman L. E. (2005). Pesticide Exposure
and Cancer Incidence in Agricultural Health Study. Published by Elsevier Inc.
Deedat, Y. D (1994). Problems associated with the use of pesticides: An overview. Journal of Insect
Science. Vol15, No 12, pp 247-251.
Dike, M. C. and Msheila, G. B. (1997). Laboratory assessment of the efficacy of Eucalyptus leaf and
stem powders in the control of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) on stored cowpea. Samaru
Journal of Agricultural Research Vol 14: pp 11 – 18.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2002), International Code of Conduct on the
Distribution and Use of Pesticides, Date assessed 15/7/2014.
FAO (2007). Designing National Pesticide Legislation. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome.
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Gilden., R. C, Huffling., K. and Sattler, B. (2010). "Pesticides and health risks". J Obstet Gynecol
Neonatal Nurs. Vol 39 . No 1: pp 103–10.
Okunlola, A. I. and Akinrinnola, O. (2013).Effectiveness of botanical formulations in vegetable
production and bio-diversity preservation in Ondo State, Nigeria. Academic Journals
http://www.academicjournals.org Vol. 6 No1, pp. 6-13.
Olonibua, O. O. (2012). Consumers' willingness to pay for organically grown leafy vegetable by
residents of Bodija area in Ibadan North local government area of Oyo State, Nigeria a B.
Agric Thesis in the department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
4pp.
Pavela, R., Pimentel, D., Hepperly, P., Hanson, J., Douds, D. and Seidel R. (2005). Insecticidal
activity of certain medicinal plants. Journal of Bioscience Vol 75: pp 745–749.
Rajiv K. Sinha and Sunil Herat (2012). Organic farming: producing chemical-free, nutritive and
protective food for the society while also protecting the farm soil by earthworms and
vermicompost Agricultural Science Research Journals Vol. 2(5); pp. 217-239.
Salako E.A., (2002) Plant protection for the resource-poor farmers. A keynote address at Nigerian
Society for Plant Protection. 30th Annual conference. UNAAB, Abeokuta Sept.
Sarode, S.V., Deotale, R. O and Thakure, H. S. (1995). Evaluation of neem seed kernel extract for the
management of Helicoverpa armigera on pegion pea. Indian Journal of Entomology.Vol57
No 4: pp 385-388.
Satti, A. A., Mohamed, E. E and Abdin, E. M. (2010) Insecticidal activities of neem (Azadirachta
indica A. Juss) seeds under laboratory and field conditions as affected by different storage
durations.Agriculture and biology journal of north america. pp 2151-7517.
Schmutterer, H. (1990). Properties and potential of natural pesticides form the neem tree, Azadirachta
indica. Ann. Review of Entomol. Vol 35 pp 271-297.
Tapondjou A.L, C. Adler, D.A. Fontem, H. Bouda, C. Reichmuth (2005). “Bioactivities of cymol and
essential oils of Cupressus sempervirens and Eucalyptus saligna against Sitophilus zeamais
Motschulsky and Tribolium confusum du Val”. Journal of Stored Products Research, 41 pp.
91–102.
Thacker, J. R. M. (2002). An Introduction to Arthropod Pest Control. Cambridge University Press
Vietmeyer, N. D. (1992). Neem: A tree for solving global problems. Report of an Adhoc Panel of the
Board of Science and Technology for International Development, Ed. : National Research
Council, Washington D.C. USA, National Press, pp. 141.
Weinzierl, R. and T. Henn. (1991) Alternatives in Insect management: Biological and Biorational
Approaches. North Central Regional Extension, Publication 401.
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The Control of Damping Off Disease of Two Tropical

Vegetables with some Botanicals
OJO, O.A AND OLANIRAN, O.A.
Ogbomoso, Nigeria
Keywords: Rhizotonia solani, damping off disease, extract, Ageratum conyzoides, Tomato,
Eggplant.
Abstract
Frequency of isolation and pathogenicity of fungi associated with damping-off disease

infected tomato and eggplant seedling in Ogbomoso, Nigeria as well as controlling effects of
aqueous extract of some botanicals on the causal organisms of damping-off disease of both
crops and their seedling performance were investigated. The result showed that five fungal
isolates were associated with damping off disease of tomato and eggplant seedlings. These
fungal isolates were Fusarium oxysporum Fusarium solani, Sclerotium roffsii, Rhizoctonia
solani and Macrophomina pheseolina. Rhizoctonia solani was significantly (P < 0.05) the
most frequently isolated and with highest pathogenicity on both seedlings. In addition, all the
extract of botanicals tested gave significantly (P < 0.05) higher inhibition of mycelial growth
and sporulation Also, the results clearly showed that all the seed treated with extract of
botanicals gave significantly (P < 0.05) higher seed germination and on all tested growth
characters of both crops. However, Ageratum conyzoides gave the significantly (P < 0.05)
highest seed germination percentage, better seedling performance and significantly (P <
0.05) lowest damping off disease incidence on both crops seedlings. Therefore, it is clearly
revealed from this study that the extract of A. conyzoides showed some promise in its usage in
the control of damping off disease of tomato and egg plant.
Introduction
Eggplant and tomato are very important vegetables in nearly every household in Nigeria. They are both
cultivated in both southern and northern part of Nigeria during the dry and raining season (Adesegun
et.al, 2012). Both are very good source of vitamin A and C in diets (Okereke and Wokocha, 2007). There
are many factors responsible for the low yield of vegetable and among diseases, Sclerotium rolfsii,
Fusarium oxysporium and Rhizoctonia solani causing damping-off has treated as the major constraints
of vegetable cultivation in our country. The fungi Fusarium oxysporum, Sclerotium rolfsii and
Rhizoctonia solani are soil inhabiting pathogens with wide host range and thereby, very difficult to
control (Suleiman and Emua, 2009; Aslam et al. 2010; Monaim, 2011; Nweke and Ibiam,2012).There
are several methods applicable for controlling damping-off disease. This include use of fungicides soil
solarization, soil amendment and bio-agent. Organic soil amendment is an important option and eco-
friendly approach for controlling damping-off causing soil borne pathogen by developing suppressive
soil (Patil and Katan, 1997; Dey 2005; Islam et. al. 2007). In case of bio-control agents such as
Trichoderma spp., they have effective ability to reduce damping-off disease caused by pathogenic fungi
[Harman and lumsden, 1990; Uddin et. al. 2011; Enyinkwuet al., 2014). The concept of management of
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OJO, O.A. et al.:
diseases employing eco-friendly materials gained momentum as mankind became more environment
conscious. Use of botanicals instead of chemical fungicides is one of the recent approaches for plant
disease control, as fungicides may cause health hazard and environmental pollution.
However, some research works have been found in controlling wide range of seed borne pathogens
by different botanicals (Howlader,2003; Hossin et al.,2005; Chowdharry,2005 Islam et. al.,2006 and
Adesegun et al., 2012) and very few research have been performed to evaluate the efficacy of botanicals
against soil borne pathogens in field level (Monaim et al., 2011). In view of the above circumstances, the
present study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of different botanicals as a seed treating agent against
damping-off pathogens of eggplant and tomato seedlings.
Collection of Crop seeds and plant materials

Local varieties of eggplant and tomato seeds were collected at the farmers shopping center in
Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Also the plant materials were collected from the University Teaching and Research
Farm, Ogbomoso and its environs (Table 1). The collected plant materials were identified at the
Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso,
Nigeria.
Table 1. Scientific name and part of the tropical plant used in extract preparation.
S/N Scientific name Plant part used
1 Ageratum conyzoides Whole
2 Ocimmum gratissimum Leaf
3 Eucalyptus tereticornis Seed
4 Chromolaena odorata Leaf
5 Moringa oleifera Seed
6 Zingiber officinale Rhizomes
7 Citrus aurantifolia Peel
8 Hoslundia opposite Leaf and fruit
9 Piper guinensis Seed
10 Afromamum melegueta Seed
Collection of Tomato and eggplant seedlings: Tomato and eggplant seedlings, showing the damping-
off disease symptoms were collected from the fields of Agriculture Extension Zone, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
The diseased plants were collected in sterile polythene bags and brought to the laboratory of Pure and
Applied Biology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria, for isolation of the
disease-causing fungi.
Isolation: isolation of fungi associated with damping off disease sample of tomato and eggplant
seedling was carried out following the method of Monain et al.,(2011). In this method, Isolation was
done from 100 small root pieces, cut from adjoining areas of diseased and healthy areas of the plants.
Root pieces were washed under tap water for about 5 minutes to remove any dirt or soil particle. The root
pieces were dipped in0.01% HgCl2for about 2 minutes and then passed from two washes of sterile
distilled water for 2-3 minutes each. The treated root pieces were dried completely and then transferred
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to Petri dishes containing sterilized potato-dextrose agar medium (PDA) with five pieces per plate. All
the plates were kept at 25 ± 1OC for 7 days.
The fresh growth of the fungi was subcultured on to PDA. The fungi isolated were identified by
studying their typical mycelial growth produced on the potato dextrose agar medium and conidial
morphology using standard diagnostic keys (Monaina et al., 2011; Adesegun et al., 2012).
Pathogenicity test: The pathogenicity test of most predominant damping-off fungi namely Fusarium
oxysporum, Fusarium solani, Sclerotium roltsii, Rhizoctonia solani, Macrophomin aphaseolina was
conducted by mixing the fresh inoculum of each fungus with 1kg of steam sterilized soil in plastic pots.
Eighty tomato and eggplant seeds were sown per pot containing infested soil. The data were recorded on
number of healthy and infected plant and disease incidence after 15 and 30 days of sowing from pots
containing infested and un-infested soil.
Preparation of Plant Extracts

The plant extracts were prepared using the method of Ashrafuzzaman and Hossain, (1992).The
collected leaves were weighed in an electric balance and then washed in the water. After washing, the big
leaves were cut into small pieces. In order to obtain the extract for each plant, weighed plant parts were
blended in an electric blender and distilled water was added. The pulverized mass was squeezed through
3 folds of fine cotton cloth. In order to obtain 1:2 (w/v) ratio 200 ml of distilled water was added to 100 g
plant parts. The particulars of the botanicals used for the experiment are listed in previous Table 2. Seeds
were treated by soaking them separately in different extracts. Different plant extracts were poured in
different sterilized conical flask and then four hundred seeds per treatment were soaked in the solution
for 30 minutes according to the method of Monain et al., (2011). Furthermore, the excess extract was
drained off and treated seeds were kept in blotting paper to remove excess moisture from seed surface
and was air dried before sowing. The seeds were sown in the pot at the rate of 100 seeds/pot. The
following parameters were taken: seed germination, percent damping-off, seedling height, shoot length,
root length, fresh shoot weight, fresh root weight, dry root weight, dry shoot weight and average
biomass. Percent germination was observed at 8, 16 and 2 4Days After Sowing (DAS) while 6, 12 and 16
DAS for eggplant. Damping-off disease incidence was recorded at12, 24 and 36 DSA for tomato and 11,
22 and 33 DAS for eggplant. Seedling growth characters such as shoot length, root length, fresh shoot
weight, fresh root weight, dry shoot weight, dry root weight and biomass were also recorded at 30 DAS
for tomato and 36 DAS for egg-plant. The tomato and eggplant seedling height was taken at 12, 24 and
36 DAS respectively.
Data analysis
Data in percentage were arcsine transformed before statistical analysis. Data were analyzed using
analysis of variance (ANOVA) while mean separation was carried out using Duncan Multiple Range
Test (DMRT) at 5% level of probability.
Results
The results on the pathogenicity test of fungal isolates from damping-off infected tomato and egg plant is
presented in Table 2. The result showed that five pathogenic fungi were associated with damping off
disease of tomato and eggplant seedling in Ogbomoso Agricultural Extension Zone, Nigeria. These
were Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani, Sclerotium rolfsii, Rhizoctonia solani and Macrophomina
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OJO, O.A. et al.:
phaseolina. The results also showed that R. solani was significantly (P < 0.05) frequent in both tomato
and egg-plant seedling (Table 2).However,Rhizoctoniasolani gave significantly (P < 0.05) highest
pathogenicity of 95% and 97% respectively in both tomato and garden egg seedling (Table 3) while
others were in the order of F. oxysporum F. solani, Sclerotium rolfsii and M. phaseolina (Table 1).
Table 2. Pathogenicity Test of Fungal Isolates from Damping off Tomato and Egg plant
Pathogenicity (%)
Fungal Isolates
Tomato Egg plant
b
Fusarium oxysporium 78 65b
b b
Fusarium solani 75 63
Sclerotium rolfsii 75b 60b
Rhizoctonia solani 95a 97a
Macrophomina phaseolina 74b 61b
Data are average of five replicates from four separate experiments. Values in the same column followed by a
similar alphabets are not significantly different using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level of
probability.
Table 3. Frequency of Pathogenic fungi on Tomato and Eggplant Damping-off diseased seedling
Frequently of isolation (%)
Fungal Isolates Tomato Egg plant
Fusarium oxysporum 70.05 71.11
Fusarium solani 68.00b 70.28b
b b
Sclerotium rolfsii 67.08 69.95
a a
Rhizoctonia solani 95.7 97.09
b b
Macrophomina phaseolina 68.11 71.00
Data are average of five replicates from four separate experiments. Values in the same column followed by a
similar alphabets are not significantly different using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level of
probability.
Table 4. Antifungal effect of plant extracts on mycelial and spore germination inhibition of fungi
associated with damping-off disease of eggplant seedling
Mycelial growth inhibition Spore germination inhibition
Treatments (%) (%)
ST1 95.31a 84.94a
ST2 80.00d 69.78
ST3 85.11 c 76.01
ST4 62.39 50.98
b
ST5 89.93 78.95
ST6 92.60a 83.01
ST7 69.20f 58.11
ST8 75.11 e 66.34
ST9 68.96f 59.01
g
ST10 50.31 45.29
ST11 95.99a 85.00a
h h
ST12 0 0
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ST1 = Ageratum conyzoides leaf extract

ST2 = Ocimmum gratissimum leaf extract
ST3 = Eucalyptus tereticornis leaf extract
ST4 = Chromolaena odorata leaf extract
ST5 = Moringa oleifera leaf extract
ST6 = Zingiber officinale rhizome extract
ST7 = Citrus aurantifolia peel extract
ST8 = Heslundia opposite leaf and fruit extract
ST9 = Piper guinensis seed extract
ST10 = Afromamum melegueta seed extract
ST11 = control-Benomyl at recommended rate
ST12 = Control-Rhizoctonia solani alone.
Data in percentages were arcsined transformed before statistical analysis. Data are average of five replicates
from four separate experiments. Values in the same column followed by similar alphabets are not significantly
different using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level of probability.
Table 5. Effect of different botanicals on seed germination and damping off disease incidence
on tomato
Percentage germination (%) at Damping Incidence Different Day After
Sowing(DAS)Different Day After Sowing(DAS)
Treatment 8DAS 16DAS 24DAS 12DAS 24DAS 36DAS
T1 68.73 89.07 96.82 0.00 02.11 03.06
T2 52.15 74.10 81.09 07.98 08.11 10.29
T3 59.10 76.55 84.98 06.11 07.49 08.35
T4 46.93 67.06 74.11 11.20 12.25 14.06
T5 55.19 78.01 85.07 05.00 06.35 07.99
T6 60.11 80.00 88.09 03.72 05.90 06.86
T7 46.19 67.12 75.04 10.01 11.98 13.85
T8 52.00 71.90 78.00 08.13 09.08 11.74
T9 47.50 68.01 75.95 09.91 11.53 13.01
T10 42.61 64.00 71.00 11.95 13.08 15.28
T11 70.04 90.67 97.91 0.00 01.00 02.00
T12 35.07 47.11 54.34 20.51 31.89 45.66

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OJO, O.A. et al.:
Table 6. Effect of seed treatment with plant extracts on seed germination and damping-off disease
incidence of Eggplant
Germination (%) of seed at Damping off Disease incidence (%) at
Different Days After sowing (DAS) Different Days After sow ing (DAS)
Treatment 6DAS 12DAS 18DAS 11DAS 22DAS 33DAS
T1 70.11 82.84 97.64 0.00 01.33 02.95
T2 50.00 58.66 66.35 05.04 07.90 10.56
T3 54.91 65.04 74.99 03.61 06.43 09.00
T4 33.48 39.00 45.10 08.55 13.00 14.56
T5 60.25 70.38 81.57 02.15 05.38 07.00
T6 65.03 77.00 90.32 01.03 03.06 04.06
T7 37.01 43.49 50.38 07.50 11.01 12.53
T8 42.05 50.33 59.73 06.71 09.91 11.78
T9 36.98 43.01 50.07 07.92 11.30 12.90
T10 27.55 34.00 40.03 09.75 14.71 16.00
T11 71.50 84.01 98.08 0.00 01.01 02.63
T12 20.11 26.00 34.59 35.83 47.00 50.00

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Table 7. Effect of seed treatment with plant extracts on seedling height of tomato and eggplant
Mean height (cm) of seedling at Different Days After Storage (DAS)
Treatment Tomato Eggplant

12DAS 24DAS 36DAS 12DAS 24DAS 36DAS
T1 26.30 35.81 47.03 10.84 17.78 25.91
T2 13.00 22.99 31.90 04.00 08.06 12.04
T3 16.79 27.01 38.16 05.11 10.64 14.80
T4 07.00 18.03 26.19 02.00 03.71 06.20
T5 20.00 31.08 40.30 06.01 12.00 16.80
T6 23.11 34.00 43.90 08.79 15.01 21.00
T7 08.72 19.24 29.03 02.47 05.00 08.01
T8 10.05 21.11 30.00 03.02 06.14 09.73
T9 08.70 19.20 30.11 02.42 04.86 07.21
T10 5.08 13.99 24.02 01.35 02.89 04.53
T11 26.74 36.02 47.53 11.07 18.50 26.29
T12 03.07 09.11 18.95 02.55 07.89 17.03

ST12 = Control-Rhizoctoniasolani alone.
Data in the same column followed by the same similar Alphabets are not significantly using Duncan Multiple
Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level of probability.
225
OJO, O.A. et al.:
Table 8. Effect of seed treatment with plant extracts on growth of tomato

Shoot Root Fresh Fresh Dry Dry Biomass
Treatments length length shoot root shoot root (g)
(cm) (cm) weight weight weight weight
(g) (g) (g) (g)
T1 40.08 13.05 11.63 0.477 05.37 0.215 6.35
T2 32.79 08.00 07.80 0.298 03.78 0.116 4.91
T3 34.00 09.91 08.96 0.317 04.03 0.130 5.30
T4 26.04 07.00 04.21 0.208 02.21 0.049 3.95
T5 35.89 10.99 09.90 0.379 04.53 0.168 5.61
T6 38.79 11.00 10.78 0.400 04.99 0.189 5.96
T7 29.07 08.88 05.40 0.219 02.89 0.075 4.21
T8 32.00 09.00 06.72 0.258 03.21 0.099 4.46
T9 29.03 08.70 05.31 0.217 02.76 0.070 4.17
T10 23.02 5.29 03.60 0.199 01.93 0.028 3.73
T11 13.41 13.41 11.88 0.499 05.91 0.218 6.40
T12 04.00 04.00 04.57 01.89 01.60 0.015 3.50

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Table 9. Effect of seed treatment with plant extracts on growth parameters of eggplant seedlings
Shoot Root Fresh Fresh Dry Dry Biomass
Treatments length length shoot root shoot root (g)
(cm) (cm) weight weight weight (g) weight
(g) (g) (g)
T1 26.06 08.62 04.99 0.398 01.78 0.113 2.003
T2 14.79 04.36 03.17 0.301 01.00 0.065 1.301
T3 16.20 05.30 03.65 0.320 01.10 0.079 1.500
T4 09.70 02.75 02.00 0.231 0.502 0.050 0.900
T5 18.30 06.46 04.06 0.349 01.39 0.090 1.705
T6 23.45 07.50 04.50 0.370 01.61 0.101 1.899
T7 10.71 03.12 02.30 0.260 0.608 0.040 1.100
T8 12.60 03.80 02.74 0.284 0.800 0.065 1.204
T9 10.64 03.09 02.24 0.258 0.600 0.039 1.090
T10 09.56 02.00 01.70 0.203 0.400 0.037 0.800
T11 26.14 08.99 05.08 0.410 01.85 0.119 2.009
T12 05.03 01.50 01.19 0.115 0.156 0.013 0.400
ST12 = Control-Rhizoctoniasolani alone.
The results on the antifungal effect of plant extracts on mycelial and sporulation inhibition of R. solani
associated with damping off disease of tomato and garden egg seedling is presented in Table 4. The
results showed that all the plant extract tested in this study against Rhizoctonia solani gave significantly
(P < 0.05) higher mycelial and sporulation inhibition compared to that of the control (Table 4). But the
extract of Ageratum conyzoides and Zingiber officinale gave significantly (P < 0.05) highest mycelial
and sporulation inhibition (Table 4). This was followed by the extract of Moringa oleifera and
Eucalyptus tereticornis respectively (Table 4). It was also observed that extracts of A. conyzoides and Z.
officinale gave significantly (P < 0.05) highest mycelial and sporulation inhibition of R. solani which
was not significantly different from that of the commonly used synthetic fungicide-benomyl (Table 4).
Results of seed treatment with plant extracts on seed germination, damping-off disease incidence of
tomato and garden egg-plant are presented in Tables 5 - 7 respectively. It was observed that all the tomato
and egg plant seeds treated with plant extracts gave significantly (P < 0.05) higher germination
compared to the untreated seeds (Table 5 - 7).
The results further revealed that extract of A. conyzoides gave significantly (P < 0.05) highest seed
germination of both crops among all the plant extracts tested in this study (Table 5 - 7). There was no
227
OJO, O.A. et al.:
significant (P < 0.05) difference between the performance of the commonly used synthetic fungicide-
benomyl and A. conyzoides in terms of seedling germination and plant height (Table 5 - 7).
This was followed by the extract of Z. officinale (Table 5 and 6). Furthermore it was observed that
the damping off disease incidence of tomato and egg-plant seedling in all the seeds treated with plant
extracts gave significantly (P < 0.05) lower damping off disease incidence (Table 5 - 7). The extract of A.
conyzoides performs significantly(P < 0.05) better like benomyl, commonly use synthetic fungicides in
the control of damping off disease of vegetable seedlings. It is important to note that the seed
germination and damping off incidence of both crops increased significantly with increase in the days
after sowing in all treatments including the control (Table 5 - 7).
The results on the effect of seed treatments with plant extracts on growth components of tomato and
egg-plant seedlings is presented in Table 8 and 9 respectively, there it was observed that all the seeds
treated with extract of different plants gave significantly (P < 0.05) higher growth parameters which
includes short root length, fresh and dry weight of shoot as well as bio mass compared to that of the
control inoculated with R. solani without any plant extract treatments (Table 8 and 9).
The extract of A. conyzoides gave significantly (P < 0.05) highest growth parameters for both plants
compared to all other plants. Than that of the benomyl (Table 8 and 9). The significantly (P < 0.05) least
growth parameters for both crops was recorded in the seed inoculated with R. solani, the causal agent of
damping off disease of tomato and egg-plant seedling (Table 8 and 9).
Discussion
The results from this study conclusively revealed that five fungal isolates were identified to be
associated with damping-off in Ogbomoso, Oyo state, Nigeria. This result could be corroborated by that
of Islam et al., (2007) and Monaim et al., (2011) in which P. aphanidermatum, R. solani, M. phaseolina,
A. solaniand S. rolfsii were identified as the causal agents of damping-off disease of cucumber and
lupine seedling. Similar fungi have been isolated from tomato seedlings by Gunasekaran et al., (1994).
Morsy, et, at., (2009) recorded damping off as major disease on tomato and pepper caused by S.
sclerotiorum, R.solani, S.rolfsii and Pythium spp. MacNish et al., (1995) detected AG-10 isolate of R.
solanion potato dextrose agar medium. Hossain et, al.,(2005) and Uddin et, al.,(2011) isolated
Alternaria tenuis, A. solani and R. solani from tomato fruit and seed rots Dey (2005) found R. solanias
more pathogenic on potato than tobacco. Islam et al.,(2006) conducted pathogenicity of R. solani and
observed typical symptoms of the fungus on root and lower stem of mung bean. Aslam et al.,(2010)
inoculated lentil plants with R. solani and noted typical symptoms within 7 days and obtained 100%
infection on lentil grown in soil infested with the fungus. In addition, the findings in this present study in
which all the tested plant extracts gave significantly (P = 0.05) higher seed germination and lower
percent of damping-off disease incidence of tomato and egg-plant seedling were well supported by
previous reports (Islam et al., 2006; Suleiman and Emua 2009; Aslam et al., 2010; Monaim et al., 2011;
Malhhan et.al., 2012; Enyinkwu et.al. 2014). The extract of Aconyzoides gave significantly (P =0.05)
highest seed germination, lowest percent damping off disease incidence and better growth characters of
both tomato and eggplant seedling. The performance of A. conyzoides was as excellent as that of the
commonly, used synthetic fungicide-benomyl in the control of damping-off disease incidence of
vegetables. This result indicates that this plant extract could serve as alternative to the usage of synthetic
fungicide, which has been adjudged to be of high mamalian to toxicity, less biodegradable, expensive
and could cause high level of environmental pollution (Aslam et al., 2010 and Monaim et al., 2011).
Morsy et al., (2009) have evaluated some plant extract against F. oxysprum and S. rolfsii, the causal
agents of damping-off disease of cucumber and found that more than 60% growth inhibition when
228
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fungus containing potato dextrose agar (PDA) plate. Similar result was obtained by Suleiman and Emua
(2009) who evaluated some plant extracts against P. aphanidermatum (damping-off causal pathogen)
and found that 55% growth inhibition when fungus was grown on PDA containing neem leaf extract
While ginger rhizome extract reduced 70% infection of P. aphanidermatum on cowpea in an in vivo
experiment. This results were found to be in consonance with the previous findings of Howlader (2003)
who observed that seed treatment with Allamanda leaf extract effectively increased seed germination of
crops and significantly decreased important nursery diseases.
Conclusively, pre-emergence and post-emergence damping-off is the most common and prevalent
disease of vegetable seedlings which affects seed germination and seedling performance in the tropics.
The findings of this study indicate that plant extracts have promising effects against damping off disease
causal pathogens. The use of plant extract in the control of plant diseases could reduce over dependence
on synthetic fungicides by providing effective alternative that is environment friendly, cheaper,
available and with low mammaliam toxicity as were as affordable by the poor resource formers in
developing nations. Among the different tested plant extracts, A. conyzoides showed promising effect in
controlling damping off disease and increasing germination as well as growth characters of some
vegetable seedlings.
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Effect of Difference Sources of Organic Manure and Mineral

Nitrogen, Sole and in Combination, on the Growth,
Vegetative and Seed Yield of Fluted Pumpkin
(Telfairia occcidentalis)
1OKORO-ROBINSON M. O.,1OGUNJINMI, S.O., 2FAWOLE, T.O., 2OMILABU,S.K AND 3ARIBISALA, L.A.
1
Crop Production Technology Department, Oyo State College of Agriculture and Technology, Igboora. Oyo State.
2
Agricultural Technology Department, Oyo State College of Agriculture and Technology, Igboora. Oyo State.
3
Soil Science Technology Department, Oyo State College of Agriculture and Technology, Igboora. Oyo State.
Corresponding Author : [email protected]
Keywords: Tanin, fertile, Organic fertilizer, fibre, vine, texture
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of different sources of organic manure and mineral nitrogen
(N), as sole and in combination, for optimum growth and seed yield of Telfairia occidentalisin
Igboora, Southwestern Nigeria. Field experiments were conducted in the cropping seasons of
-1
2012. The treatments involved mineral N (45 kg. N ha ), 3 sources of organic manure (poultry
-1 -1
manure PM, pig manure and cow dung) (5 t. ha ) and their combinations (50% N - 50% t ha
organic manure). The treatments were assigned into a randomized complete block design
with three replications. The parameters assessed for vegetative and seeds yield were number
of leaves, vine length, number of vines, shoot yield and number, lengthof pods, mean weight of
pod, number of seed per pod per hectare respectively. Treatments showed significant
(p<0.05) influence on all the traits considered.The combined effectsof mineral N and organic
manure significantly influenced the growth, vegetative and seeds yield of T. occidentalis, with
the maximum values recorded at 50-50% PM and mineral N (Urea) for the former. However,
this observation in performance is in par with 100% PM which recorded optimum seed yield.
It was concluded within the limit of this work thatgrowth and yield of T. occidentalis in the
guinea savannah zone of Nigeria could be significantly improved by application of 5 t. ha-1 of
organic manure.
Introduction
Telfairia occidentalis Hook F. (fluted pumpkin) is a member of Cucurbitaceous family. It occurs in the
forest zone of West and central Africa, most frequently in Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon (Kayode and
Kayode 2011). It is a popular leafy and seed vegetable that is available all over Nigeria. The vegetable
is widely grown since time immemorial majorly in Eastern part, Anambra, Imo, Abia and Ebonyi
states of Nigeria. The crop is now grown prominently in Southern western Nigeria (Schippers,
2002).The young leaves and shoots of the plant are the important ingredients for edikoinkon, the
Nigerian soup. Its seed is 5.5cm and darkred, rich in protein and fat, could be eaten cooked or ground
into powder in favour of another soup (Egusi soup). This fruit is big with an average weight of 13kg
depending on soil nutrients and prevailing environmental conditions. As a pot herb the leaves are rich
source of protein, carbohydrate, iron, saponin, tannis and plytic acid, therefore a good food and
231
OKORO-ROBINSON M. O.,OGUNJINMI, S.O., FAWOLE, T.O., OMILABU,S.K AND ARIBISALA, L.A.
Effect of Difference Sources of Organic Manure and Mineral Nitrogen, Sole and in Combination, on the Growth,
Vegetative and Seed Yield of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occcidentalis)
medicinal source. (Akanbi et al 2007).Consumption of fluted pumpkin produce taste, palatability,

increases appetite and produces fair amount of fibre. The quality of fluted pumpkin in terms of nutrient
availability increases mostly when cultivate in good fertile soil rich in nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium (Awodun 2007). In Nigeria, however, especially in the south-eastern part, there is
widespread problem of soil degradation due to continuous cultivation on the soils which is as a result
of pressure from the increasing population of the area where the available land remains static. Fertile
arable land is declining in Nigeria, thereby necessitating the use of manure to supplement the soil
nutrients especially Nitrogen (N) which is required for succulent green leaves of fluted pumpkin
plants. It is very important to know of the best type of organic manure and the rate of application to use
for the crop. However Notticlge et al (2005) asserted that the use of inorganic fertilizer has not been
able to sustain high productivity due to increase in soil acidity, nutrient leaching and degradation of
soil organic matter and physical condition. Organic fertilizer therefore offer great prospect. Soil
productivity and fertility can be maintained by the use of fertilizers. The problem with the use of
inorganic fertilizer on Nigeria soils is that, the fertilizer are not obtained at the right time in addition to
huge cost of procurement. Improper chemical fertilizer application has ruined tropical soils through
abuse (IFDC 2005).Production of Telfairia are predominantly done by poor resource based farmers
(Spore, 2005) The study therefore aimed at investigating the effect of different organic manure source
on growth and yield of fluted pumpkin (Telfairia Occidentalis).
The field experiment was conducted during rainy season of 2013 at the Expérimental Field of Oyo
State College of Agriculture and Technology, Igboora Oyo State Nigeria. Site location has latitude 300
East and longitude 70 40N. The town has a rain forest belt with average rainfall of about 1,45mm and
0 0
mean temperature range of 27 C to 30 C.The soil of the experimental site is sandy loam in texture and
contained pH 6.2 and organic carbon 0.19%. The soil N (g/kg), P (mg/kg) and K (cMol/kg) were 0.36,
7.93 and 0.23, respectively.
The region has a hot humid tropical climate and receives 1,080 mm rainfall annually. Matured
pods of fluted pumpkin were split and seeds extracted. The seeds were sown in a plastic container and
seedlings was raised and transplanted 28 days after sowing (DAS). Land preparation involved a single
ploughing and harrowing. The experimental area was11 m x 13 m (143 m2) and was subdivided into
three blocks of 3 m x 11 m with a working path of 2.0 m. Each block was further sub-divided into 18
plots of 1.0 m x 3.0 m with a working path of 1.0 m between each plot. Four–week old-greenhouse
grown fluted pumpkin seedlings were transplanted in with aninter - and intra – row spacing of 1m
each. This is equivalent to 3 and 10,000 plant /plot and hectare, respectively. The experiment was a
randomized complete block design. Treatments were randomized and replicated three times. The
organic manure treatments were applied 2 week before transplanting while the urea treatment was
applied 2 weeks after transplanting (WAT). Stalking was done 4 WAT using bamboo at 1m height.
Data collection was at every fortnight starting from WAT till 12WAP. Parameters assessed were
length of primary vines, number of secondary vines, number of leaves per plant and shoot dry matter.
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Table 1. Details of nutrient treatments

Treatment symbol Fertilizer nutrient source / quantity
T1 (Control) O kg N /ha
T2100%(60kg) N/ha Urea
T3 5ton/ha Pig Dung
T4 5ton/ha Cow Dung
T5 5ton/ha Poultry Manure
T6 50%KgN+50% Poultry Manure
T7 50%kgN+50%Cow Dung
T8 50%KgN+50% Pig Dung
Table 2. Chemical composition of poultry manure, swine manure and cow dung
Properties Poultry manure Swine Manure Cow Dung
N (%) 6.24 0.22 1.14
P (%) 0.25 1.21 0.92
K (%) 0.82 1.31 1.16
Organic carbon (OC) (g kg-1) 7.65 5.92 5.09
Ca (cmol kg-1) 0.07 0.71 13.5
Mg (cmol kg-1) 25.49 1.2 0.35
Zn (mg kg-1) 33.32 1.8 0.001
Cu (mg kg-1 ) 31.38 2.4 0.001
Fe (mg kg-1 ) 0.44 0.52 0.23
Na (cmol kg-1 ) 0.52 1.46 0.09
Mn (mg kg-1) 0.45 ND 0.23
ND: Not detected
Table 3. Effect of different fertilizer treatments on the growth parameters of Telfairia occidentalis
Fertilizer Primary vine Number Number Stem girth Shoot dry
Components Length (cm) of vines of leaves (cm) weight (g /plant)
T1 157.8f 4.9e 23.33e 3.27e 24.5e
T2 203.0b 10.3a 48.32a 5.77ab 92.9b
T3 183.7ab 8.2c 34.67c 5.34c 83.7c
T4 174.53c 7.1d 29.78d 5.20c 74.8d
T5 194.1b 8.9b 38.8b 5.80b 87.5bc
T6 226.3a 9.8ab 48.60a 6.80a 98.8a
T7 168.5d 9.2b 32.9cd 5.10b 79.5dc
T8 178.6c 8.6bc 29.6d 4.80d 69.5d
233
Table 4. Effect of different fertilizer treatments on the pod and seed attributes of Telfairia
occidentalis
Fertilizer Number of Pod Mean pod Number of
Components pods /plant length (cm) weight (kg) seeds /pod
T1 0.5e 22.8f 25.2e 29.1e
T2 4.8a 79.9ab 79.0b 88.1a
T3 3.2c 65.4c 78.3b 82.1abc
T4 3.1c 62.7dc 56.7d 79.1bc
T5 4.5a 82.1a 92.1a 84.7ab
T6 4.0ab 70.4b 65.9c 79.1bc
T7 3.7b 68.5bc 62.1cd 56.4f
T8 3.0d 58.5e 64.6c 61.7d
Application of fertilizer and different sources of manure with organo-mineral had significant influence
on seed yield of fluted pumpkin. Highest number of pods (4.8) was recorded for plot treated with 100%
N (Urea) which was statistically at par with 4.5 mean number of pods recorded at plots treated with PM
but significantly different from lowest (0.5) mean recorded from control plots. Pod length values
recorded the highest mean value (82.1) at the plots treated with PM which is significantly (p<0.05) the
same with 79.9 recorded for plots treated with 100% N (Urea)and significantly higher(p<0.05) than any
other treatments with control plots recorded the least mean value (22.8). As in other parameter, mean pod
weight values recorded for plots treated with PM (92.1) showed significantly difference from the lowest
mean value (25.2) recorded from the control plots. However, 100% N (Urea) plots treatment gave the
highest (88.1) mean number of seed which was statistically par with 82.1mean number of seed recorded
for PM which is statistically similar to 79.1mean number of seed recorded for 50-50% PM and N (Urea)
but showed significant difference (p<0.05) from the lowest (29.1) mean value recorded from the control
plots.
Discussion
Results of the study revealed better performance of fertilized plants compared to non fertilized ones is in
line with observation of Fasina etal. (2002) It was reported that for optimum vegetative growth and seed
yield of Telfairia occidentalis, adequate fertilizer usage is required for its enhancement of soil fertility. In
this study, it was observed that combined organic and inorganic (organo-mineral) fertilizer gave
optimum results in all the parameters considered under vegetative yield. This may be attributed to the
fact that the combination enhanced adequate uptake of available nutrients. The inorganic fraction of the
combination releases its nutrients early enough for plant use while the organic portion could stimulate
microbial activities and prevent loss of nutrients. This was in line with the observation of Akanbi (2007)
and Maharishan et al.,(2004). However, excellent performance recorded at plots treated with PM and
pig manure could be substituted with that obtained at plots treated with 100% N (Urea) and 50-50% PM
and N (Urea)because they are next in performance. Inability of poultry manure and pig dung to perform
better in this study could be associated with age of the birds and pigs and mode of preparation of the
manures. This also confirms the report of Ewulo (2006) who stated that the performance of pig manure
depends on the age of the pig.
Developments of pods and seeds attributes were enhanced with fertilizer application. In all cases
where fertilizers were applied, these parameters were better. Significant differences exist among the
pods and seed yield as influence by manure source and combined application. This study showed that
234
rd
application of PM gave optimum results and this was in support of the Hussein (1997) reports who stated
that poultry manure is superior to other sources of organic manure. Having PM performing better than
100% N (Urea) in term of fruits yield could be attributed to ability of organic manure to stimulate
microbial activities and prevent loss of nutrients while inorganic canter pants were easily leased away.
This was in line with the observation of Maharishan et al. (2004).
Conclusion
The highest growth and vegetative yield attributes were obtained at 50-50% PM and mineral N (Urea)
which is as effective as 100% PM application that recorded optimum seed yield.
It was therefore concluded that poultry manure improves the performance of fluted pumpkin
manure improved the performance of Telfairia occidentalis. This is in support of scientific world
propagating for organic agricultural for healthy life.
References
Akanbi, W.B Adebayo, T.A. Togun, O.A. Adeyeye, A.S. and Olaniran O.A. (2007). The use of compost
as foliarspray nutrient source and botanical insecticide in Telfaria occidentalis. Word J. Agric.
Sci., 3: 642 – 652.
Awodun, M.A. (2007). Effect of poultry manure on the growth, yield and nutrient content of fluted
pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hook F.) Asian Journal of Agricultural Research 1(2) 67-73.
Ewulo, B. S. (2006). Effect of poultry and cattle manure on sandy clay loam soil. Journal of Animal and
Veterinary Science4: 839-841.
Fashina, A.S., K.A. Olatunji and K.O. Alasiri, 2002. Oyenuga, V.A., 1968. Nigeria's food and feeding
Effect of different plant populations and poultry manure on the yield of Ugu (Telfairia
occidentalis)in Lagos State, Nigeria. In: Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Horticultural
Society ofNigeria (HORTSON), 14th – 17th May 2002; NIHORT,Ibadan, Nigeria.
Hussein, T.O (1997). Effect of poultry manure on the growth of tomato. Proceedings of 15th Annual
Conference of HORTSON April 8 -11, NIHORT. Ibadan Nigeria pp 43 45.
Maharishnan, K., A. Sambasira and K. Bhanu, 2004. Effects of organic sources of plant nutrients in
conjuction with chemical fertilizer on growth, yield and quality of rice. Research on Crops, 5:
159-161.
Sehippers, R.R (2002). African Indigenous Vegetable an overview of the cultivated species 2002.
Revised edition on CD-ROM National Resource International Ltd. Aylesfood United
Kingdom, 214p.
Spore, 2005. Information for Agricultural Development in ACP Countries. No. 116, April, 2005 Tel,
O.A., 1984. Soil and analysis, University of Guelph, Outario, Canada, pp. 277.
235
rd
Responses of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato to Organic and

Inorganic Fertilizers Planted in Root Knot Nematode
Infested Soil
OLABIYI, T.I.1, ADE-OMOWAYE, B.I.O.2, AKINWANDE, B.A.2, ADEOLA, R.G.3, ODEWALE, O.O.1, AND ADELEKE, M.A.1
1
Department of Crop and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences,
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
2
Department of Food Science and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Technology,
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
3
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
Keywords: Orange fleshed sweet potato, nematode, organic and inorganic fertizers.
Abstract
Root knot nematode is an economic disease of orange fleshed sweet potato and many other
crops worldwide. Field experiment was carried out at Teaching and Research Farm, Ladoke
Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria to examine the effect of organic and
inorganic fertilizers on orange fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) planted on root knot nematode
infested soil. This research work is aimed at assessing the effect of the application of Tithonia
compost, Maize cob, NPK, Urea and the mixture of Tithonia compost and NPK as control
measures of root knot nematode disease of OFSP. There were six treatments including control.
OFSP that were inoculated but not treated served as the control. Each treatment was
replicated four times, fitted into randomized complete block design. Results showed that there
were significant differences between the growth and yield of OFSP that were treated with
organic and inorganic fertilizers and those that were inoculated but not treated. The growth
and yield of OFSP treated with organic and inorganic fertilizers were significantly (P<0.05)
better than untreated OFSP. The OFSP that were treated with organic andinorganic
fertilizers have higher vine length, yield and tuber girth, and significantly (P<0.05) reduced
tuber damage, and final soil root knot nematode population. OFSP respond to organic
fertilizers more than inorganic fertilizers.
Introduction
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatasLam), belongs to the family Convolvulaceae, originated in Central and
South America. Sweet potato is grown in tropical, subtropical and warmer temperate areas of the world.
In Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Angola, sweet potato is an important food crop.
Uganda is the largest African producer and the third largest producer in the world, growing
approximately 2.2 million metric tons annually. Nearly 90% of the total African output comes from
eastern and southern Africa. It is an important tropical food crop with versatile utility. The tubers are
used as a subsidiary food after boiling, baking and frying. Tubers are also form of an industrial raw
material for the production of starch, alcohol and pectin. Besides energy provider, it is a good source of
minerals and vitamins.
237
OLABIYI T.I. et al.:
Responses of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato to Organic and Inorganic
Fertilizers Planted in Root Knot Nematode Infested Soil
Orange flesh sweet potatoes are rich in ß-carotene (precursor for vitamin A) (Sreekanth, 2008).
Vitamin A deficiency is the major nutritional problem in the poverty prone developing countries. Orange
flesh sweet potato consumption helps to alleviate vitamin A deficiency, which causes night blindness
(Anderson et al., 2007). The high yielding orange flesh varieties are fertilizer responsive. Research
evidences indicate that the application of inorganic fertilizers increases root yield, but hampers the
quality of sweet potato(Nedunchezhiyan et al., 2003). Better sweet potato root quality was observed at
optimum amount of nitrogen supply especially through organic sources (Nedunchezhiyan et al., 2003).
Organic manuring of sweet potato improves soil health.
Incorporation of organic manures influences soil enzymatic activity either because of the
composition of the added materials themselves or because they increase microbial activity of the soil
(Goyal et al., 1993). Soil enzymatic activity is responsible for forming stable organic molecules that
contribute to the permanence of the soil ecosystem and for nitrogen (urease) and phosphorus
(phosphatase) cycles (Pascual et al., 2002). Â-glucosidase is considered as sensitive biological indicator
of carbon content (Badiane et al., 2001). Soil microbial population which is partly responsible for soil
enzyme activities could be improved through inoculation of microbes into the rhizosphere. However,
their abundance depends on the source of organic and inorganic nutrients (Pramanik et al., 2007).
Orange fleshed sweet potato varieties are gaining great attention as a means of reducing common Sweet
potato. It ranks as the world's seventh most important crop with an estimated annual production of 300
million metric tons grown on 19 million hectares of land (Amamgbo and Nwachukwu, 2008; Kwach et
al., 2010; Laurie et al., 2013; Muthoni et al., 2011).
Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are the world's most damaging plant parasitic nematode
genus. They are widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics and are common in temperate regions
where summers are warm. Severe infestations cause total crop loss, while yield losses of 5-20% occur in
some crops despite routine use of synthetic nematicides. There are more than 40 species of root-knot
nematodes but worldwide: 95% of the damage is caused by just four species, M. arenarta, M. hapla, M.
incognita and M. jauanica. These species attack more than 2,000 plant species, including most crop
plants.
The use of fertilizer augments soil nutrients and also reduces the population of root knot nematodes.
However, information is scanty on the comparative study of the impact of both organic and synthetic
fertilizers and their impact on soil nematode population.
The objective of this research was to assess the growth and yield responses of orange fleshed sweet
potato planted in root knot nematode and treated with sole and combined application of organic and
inorganic fertilizers.
Location of Experiment Site

The experiment was carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm Ladoke Akintola University of
Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria which, is on longitude 4 10E and latitude 80 10N. The research was
carried out during 2014 cropping season.
Soil sample collection

Soil samples were collected within 0-15cm depth at planting and harvesting stages in order to determine
soil inhabiting nematodes.
238
rd
Nematode population
Soil samples(250ml) taken on the field were taken to the Laboratory, Crop and Environmental
Protection, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria to assess the nematode
population in the soil. The soil samples taken at planting (initial) and at final harvest were placed in a
sieved lined with serviette paper, placed on a plastic tray, water was then added in between the tray and
sieve. The set up was allowed to stand still for 24hours and then the sieve with soil content was lifted out
of the tray while the water was decanted and assessed for nematode under the microscope.
Treatments and experimental design

There were 6 treatment and each treatment was replicated four times in a randomized complete block
design. The treatments were: Tithonia compost, Tithonia + NPK, Urea, NPK and Maize cob. The plots
which were inoculated with root knot nematode but not treated served as control. Each treatment was
applied at the rate of 250 g per OFSP vine.
Bed Preparation
Experimental site was ploughed twice and harrowed once, after which ridges were constructed with1.0
m alley ways in between treatment plots and blocks.
Planting material
Mother's delight OFSP variety vines were planted and cultural practices (weeding) was done as at when
due.
Data collection
Data were collected on vine length, number of leaf/plant, total weight of tubers, initial and final root knot
nematode population
Statistical analysis
Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the significant means were separated using
Duncan's multiple range test at 5% probability level.
Results
The effects of organic and inorganic fertilizers on the vine length and number of leaf of the orange
fleshed sweet potato planted on nematode infested soil were shown in Table 1. The vine length of OFSP
were enhanced in the experimental plots that were treated with Tithonia compost, urea, NPK maize cob
and combination of Tithonia compost and NPK. However, plots where Tithonia compost was applied
have longer vine length (343.25 cm), this was followed by combination of Tithonia compost and NPK
(331.75 cm), followed by NPK (314 cm) maize cob (311.75 cm) and followed by Urea (284.25 cm).
OFSP that were treated with organic and inorganic fertilizers have significant (P<0.05) longer vine
length and higher number of leaf per plant than untreated OFSP (control).
239
Table 1. Effect of some fertilizers on the growth of orange fleshed sweet potatoes planted
on nematode infested soil
Treatment Vine length(cm) Number of leaves
Tithonia compost 343.25a 295a
Tithonia+ NPK 331.75a 399a
Urea 284.25a 328a
NPK 314.00a 360a
Maize cob 311.25a 371a
Control 195.00b 129b
Means followed by different letters in the same column are statistically different (P<0.05)
Table 2. Effect of some fertilizers on the yield of orange fleshed sweet potatoes planted on nematode
infested soil
Treatment Total weight of tubers(kg)
Tithonia compost 1.6a
Tithonia + NPK 1.6a
Urea 1.3a
NPK 1.1ab
Maize cob 1.1ab
Control 0.7b
Table 3. Effect of some fertilizers on the nematode population of orange fleshed sweet potatoes
planted on nematode infested soil
Treatment Mean Initial nematode Mean Final nematode Degree of tuber
population population damage (gall index)
Tithonia compost 216.00a 122.0a 1.0a
Tithonia + Npk 217.25a 155.7c 1.1a
Urea 219.00a 137.5b 1.1a
NPK 215.75a 127.5a 1.0a
Maize cob 215.00a 140.2c 1.3a
Control 218.51a 1456.4d 2.5b
The effects of organic and inorganic fertilizers on the orange fleshed sweet potato tuber weight planted
on nematode infested soil were presented on Table 2. OFSP that were treated with Tithonia compost
(1.6g), combination of Tithonia and NPK (1.6g), Urea (1.6g) have significant (P<0.05) more tuber
weight than other treatments.
Effects of organic and inorganic fertilizers on the nematode population and degree of tuber damage
of orange fleshed sweet potato planted on nematode infested soil were presented on Table 3. There was
no significant difference between the nematode populations at OFSP planting stage (initial nematode
population). At final harvest, the population of nematodes in the soil varied significantly (P<0.05).
However, OFSP that were treated with both organic and inorganic fertilizers have significantly (P<0.05)
lower nematode populations than untreated OFSP. The degree of tuber damage as a result of nematode
attack were significantly (P<0.05) reduced in the experimental plots treated with organic and inorganic
fertilizers. OFSP that were not treated with organic and inorganic fertilizers have much tuber damage.
240
rd
Plate1: Nematode infections on Orange fleshed sweet potato tubers
Discussion
The OFSP that were treated with organic and inorganic fertilizers have higher vine length, yield and
tuber girth, and significantly (P<0.05) reduced tuber damage, and final soil root knot nematode
population. OFSP respond to organic fertilizers more than inorganic fertilizers. The results corroborate
earlier findings of Akpaninyang et al. (2009) and also Ndukwe et al. (2009) who reported that plants
grown with fertilizer have better growth and yield than untreated crops. Costa et al. (1991) observed that
inorganic fertilizer increased the soil water holding capacity thereby enhancing sustained release of
nutrients with resultant higher growth and yield. Earlier research work of Atayase et al (2013) revealed
241
that application of urea and NPK to orange flesh sweet potato resulted to higher weight of tuber
compared to untreated control.
Conclusion
Based on the result of this research, it was evident that orange fleshed sweet potato that were treated with
organic and inorganic fertilizers have higher yield and better growth than the control experiments which
were not treated with fertilizer, and also organic and inorganic fertilizers significantly reduced nematode
population and tuber damage. OFSP respond to organic fertilizers more than inorganic fertilizers.
Application of organic fertilizers is therefore recommended for optimum OFSP production.
Acknowledgement
This research was funded by the Multi-Institutional West African Agricultural Productivity (WAAP-
NIGERIA) under the project titled: Promotion and adoption of orange fleshed sweet potato as crop and food in
Oyo and Kwara States: Ogbomoso and Offa. Reference Number WAAPP/NG/01/S.10/CARGS/2013. Many
thanks to the World Bank andAgricultural Research Council of Nigeria,Abuja.
References
Akpaninyang, F.E, Okpara, D.A, Njoku, J.C, and Ogbologwung, E. (2013) Effect of fertilizer
combination on the growthof two orange fleshed sweet potato(Ipomea batata) Varieties in a
humid environment of south eastern Nigeria.
Atayese, M. O., Lawal, O. I., Afuape, S., Olowookere, F. A., Sakariyawo, O. S., Olaiya, A. O., Fetuga,
G. O. and Idowu, T. H. (2013). Evaluation of growth and yield response of sweetpotato to
different rates of poultry manure in Abeokuta, south western Nigeria. African Journal of Root
and Tuber Crops 10: 15-20.
Austin, D. F. (1988). "The taxonomy, evolution and genetic diversity of sweet potatoes and related wild
species". In P. Gregory. Exploration, Maintenance, and Utilization of Sweet Potato Genetic
Resources. First Sweet Potato Planning Conference, 1987. Lima, Peru: International Potato
Center. pp. 27–60.
Kim, Jinwung. (2012). A History of Korea: From 'Land of the Morning Calm' to States in Conflict, p. 255
Ndukwe, O.O., Muoneke, C.O., Baiyeri, K. P. and Tenkouano, A. (2009). The effects of organic and
inorganic fertilizers on the growth, yield and black sigatoka disease reaction of some plantain
genotypes, in south eastern Nigeria. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, Food, Environment and
Extension. 8:151-161.
Spence, J.D. (1993). Chinese Roundabout: Essays in History and Culture(illustrated, reprint, revised
ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. p. 167. ISBN 0393309940.
Steingold, A.C. (2008). "The Uber Tuber". Hana Hou!, Vol. 11, No. 4 (p. 2).
Stephen, K. O'Hair (1990). "Tropical Root and Tuber Crops". In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.),
Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR. pp. 424–8. Retrieved26 September
2014Sweet Potato, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
Takekoshi, Yosaburô. (1930). Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan, p. 352.
Van Tilburg, J.A. (1994). Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture. Washington D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press.
Zhang, D.P.; Ghislain, M.; Huaman, Z.; Cervantes, J.C.; Carey, E.E. (1999). AFLP Assessment of
Sweetpotato Genetic Diversity in Four Tropical American Regions(PDF). : International Potato
Center (CIP) Program report 1997-1998. Lima, Peru: International Potato Center (CIP).
242
Integrated Management of Two Foliar Diseases of Sesame

(Sesamum Indicum L.) in Maize/Sesame Intercrop
JIMOH MUIDEEN1, OLOLADE ENIKUOMEHIN2, VICTOR OLOWE3, AND CLEMENT AFOLABI2
1
College of Agricultural Sciences, Osun State University, Ejigbo Campus, Ejigbo, Nigeria,
[email protected]
2
Department of Plant Protection, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (FUNAAB),
www.funaab.edu.ng, [email protected], [email protected]
3
Institute of Food Security, Environmental Resources and Agricultural Research (IFSERAR),
FUNAAB, Nigeria, www.funaab.edu.ng, [email protected]
Keywords: Alternaria leaf blight, Cercospora leaf spot, disease lesion, seed yield.
Abstract
The quest for alternative method in managing diseases in crop production as against the use
of prohibitive synthetic chemicals which are harmful to human health has been receiving
serious attention by scientists in the last two decades. Two field trials were conducted during
the early and late cropping seasons of 2010 to evaluate the effect of nine treatments (Tithonia
diversifolia and Chromolaena odorata sprayed at 7.0, 7.5 and 8.0%, sesame sprayed with
distilled water, sesame intercropped with maize and sole sesame) on the control of
Cercospora leaf spot (CLS) and Alternaria leaf blight (ALB) diseases and agronomic
performance of sesame in the transition zone. The experiment was laid out in a randomized
complete block design and replicated three times. The treatments imposed significantly
(P<0.05; F-test) affected all the measured parameters. Number of lesions of CLS and lesion
size of ALB were significantly (P<0.05) reduced when 8.0% of T. diversifolia extract was
sprayed on intercropped sesame relative to the sole sesame and sesame sprayed with distilled
water. Similarly, application of 7.5 and 8.0% of T. diversifolia extract resulted in
comparatively high values for number and weight of capsules per plant, seed weight per plant
and grain yield of intercropped sesame. Intercropped sesame (unsprayed) was on par with the
sprayed intercropped sesame for most of the parameters measured. Application of T.
diversifolia at 7.5 and 8.0% is recommended for managing CLS and ALB diseases in
intercropped sesame in the humid tropics.
Introduction
Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is a very versatile oilseed crop that supplies seeds for confectionery
purposes, edible oil, paste (tahini), cake and flour. Although, it ranks sixth in the world among vegetable
oils (Olowe et al., 2009), it is often referred to as minor oilseed crop because it is usually cultivated by
small holder framers in the developing countries despite its market worth of a billion dollars (UDAID,
2010). The adverse effects of foliar diseases on sesame constitute a major constraint among others to its
production worldwide. Prominent among the foliar disease are Cercospora leaf spot (CLS) caused by
Cercospora sesami Zim and Alternaria leaf blight (ALB) caused by Alternaria sesamicola Kaw.
Extensive research work has been done using synthetic fungicides on sesame (Uwala, 1998; Shokalu et
al., 2002; Culbreath et al., 2002). Similarly, efforts have been made using natural plant products to
243
JIMOH MUIDEEN, OLOLADE ENIKUOMEHIN, VICTOR OLOWE, AND CLEMENT AFOLABI
control phytopathogenous fungi on crops in the last decades (Enikuonemhin and Peter, 2002; Gata-
Gonclaves et al., 2003; Ogwulumba et al., 2008; Ambang et al., 2010). More recently, intercropping
sesame with maize resulted in reduction of incidence and severity of CLS and ALB diseases of sesame
(Enikuomehin et al., 2011). However, intercropping alone did not provide total control of the foliar
diseases on sesame. Therefore, this study was carried out to evaluate the efficacy of the application of
two plant extracts (Tithonia diversifolia and Chromolaena odorata) at different rates on the control of
CLS and ALB on sesame intercropped with maize, and also establish their effect on the agronomic
performance of sesame.
Materials and methods
The two field experiments were conducted during the early (June- Sept.) and late (August – Nov.)
cropping seasons of 2010 at the Teaching and Research Farm of Osun State University, College of
o o
Agriculture, Ejigbo, Nigeria (7 15' N; 3 25' E) at 370 m above sea level. The experiment was laid out in
a randomized complete block design and replicated three times. The test variety was E-8, an early
maturing sesame variety. The nine treatments imposed were: Tithonia diversifolia (7.0, 7.5 and 8.0%),
Chromolaena odorata (7.0, 7.5 and 8.0%), Maize/sesame, distilled water and sole sesame. The plant
extracts were prepared from fresh leaves of T diversifolia and C odorata as described by Enikuomehin
(2005). The crude plant extracts were sprayed at two week interval on sesame plants growing on
designated plots from three weeks after sowing (3WAS). The control plot (sole sesame) was left
unsprayed. The recommended agronomic practices for sesame were observed (ploughing, harrowing,
thinning, manual weeding at 3 and 6 WAS). Sesame seeds were sown on June 12 and August 17, 2010 for
the early and late experiments, respectively at a spacing of 60 cm X 10 cm in a single alternate row 1:1
arrangement with maize. The maize variety used was TZSR-Y, a streak resistant variety.
Five sesame plants were randomly selected and tagged per plot for grain yield attribute analysis
(number and weight of capsules per plant, weight of seeds per plant and grain yield) after harvest.
Disease symptom observation was done weekly, while quantitative assessment (number of leaves and
plants infected) was carried out at 12 WAS using two permanent quadrants (50 cm X 100 cm) per plot as
described by Enikuomehin et al., 2002. All data collected were subjected to analysis of variance and
means separated using the least significant difference method (LSD) at 5% probability level.
Results
Application of the treatments significantly (P<0.05; F-test) affected all the parameters presented in
Table 1. The control treatment recorded significantly (P<0.05) higher number of CLS lesions and lesion
size of ALB than the sesame plants that received the remaining eight treatments. No significant
difference in the number of CLS lesions was recorded when the two extracts were sprayed during the
early and late cropping seasons. However, T. diversifolia spray at three concentrations in both seasons
and C. odorata during the early season at 8.0% resulted in significantly (P<0.05) lower lesion size of
ALB on intercropped sesame relative to the sesame plants sprayed with distilled water and the control.
Application of T. diversifolia at 8.0% on intercropped sesame resulted in significantly (P<0.05) higher
number and weight of capsules per plant and seed weight per plant than the sole sesame, intercropped
sesame and sesame plants sprayed with distilled water in both seasons. Sesame plants sprayed with T.
diversifolia at 7.5% also recorded comparable results for these with sesame plants that were sprayed
with T diversifolia at 8.0%. Similarly, sesame plants sprayed with T. diversifolia (especially at 8.0%)
produced grain yield that was significantly (P<0.05) higher than the grain yield of sole sesame and
244
sesame sprayed with distilled water. Average grain yield of intercropped sesame sprayed with T.
diversifolia was higher than the grain yield of those sprayed with C. odorata.
Table 1. Effect of foliar spray with Tithonia diversifolia and Chromolaena odorata leaf extracts on
number of lesions Cercospora leaf spot (CLS) and lesion size of Alternaria leaf blight (ALB)
diseases, and some agronomic traits of sesame during early and late cropping seasons of 2010.
Parameter Season Leaf extract concentration (%) Distilled Sesame Sole LSD
Tithonia diversifolia Chromolaena odorata water /maize sesame (5%)
Intercop 7.0 7.5 8.0 7.0 7.5 8.0
No. of lesions of CLS Early 19.0 12.9 9.2 26.1 25.5 23.1 30.9 16.5 41.7 11.70
Late 17.0 12.6 10.6 23.3 23.0 24.0 29.0 20.0 40.6 9.38
Lesion size of ALB Early 7.9 6.2 5.4 53.7 41.4 9.9 40.6 14.3 139.5 30.43
Late 12.8 7.8 4.5 13.7 27.2 15.1 84.1 12.7 169.8 38.73
Capsules/plant Early 31.0 49.0 55.3 29.7 25.6 32.0 21.6 31.0 36.3 17.63
Late 32.6 53.3 63.6 29.3 28.6 33.6 21.3 34.3 42.3 14.92
Capsule wt/plant (g) Early 9.30 14.7 16.6 7.12 6.16 9.0 6.5 9.4 10.9 4.82
Late 9.80 16.0 19.1 8.9 8.6 10.1 6.4 10.3 12.7 4.46
Seed wt/plant (g) Early 5.45 10.57 11.57 4.9 3.9 5.8 4.4 5.1 3.3 2.57
Late 4.59 7.61 10.25 4.4 4.5 5.0 4.9 6.2 3.0 2.18
Grain yield (kg/ha) Early 418.7 471.7 494.0 330.0 330.7 374.7 255.7 380.3 295.0 141.84
Late 326.3 450.3 564.0 263.3 319.7 476.0 281.3 388.0 374.3 177.57
Discussion
Use of plant extracts in the control of disease incidence and severity in sesame is a worthwhile attempt to
grow healthy plants of sesame in the humid tropics where the use of synthetic agro-chemicals is
prohibitive and dangerous to human health. On average, the integrated approach of spraying sesame
plants intercropped with maize using extracts of T. diversifolia and C. odorata was quite effective in
controlling CLS and ALB diseases on sesame. T. diversifolia sprayed at 7.5 and 8.0% was very effective
in controlling the two diseases on intercropped sesame. These concentrations are similar to earlier plant
extract rates recommended for cucumber (10%) and sesame (7.5%) by Tohamy et al. (2002) and
Enikuomehin (2005). Intercropping treatment resulted in comparable values for all the parameters
evaluated in this study. This trend corroborated earlier findings that intercropping is capable of reducing
the proportion of susceptible host tissues and thereby impact on the production, amount and efficiency
of the disease inoculums by limiting the spread and development of the disease within the cropping
system (Ramert and Lennarston, 2002). Maize, being a taller plant and dominant crop in the system
apparently created a physical barrier that limited the spread of the pathogen from one sesame plant to the
other. Application of T. diversifolia extract integrated with inercropping resulted in comparable grain
-1 -1 -1
yield (326.3 – 564 t.ha ) of sesame to the world (0.47 t.ha ) and African (0.46 t.ha ) averages reported by
FAO, 2004 and earlier findings on the test variety (E-8) when cultivated under limited moisture
conditions (Olowe and Adeniregun, 2009). Therefore, application of plant extract of T. diversifolia at
7.5 or 8.0% concentration coupled with intercropping is hereby recommended for sesame production in
the humid tropics.
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JIMOH MUIDEEN, OLOLADE ENIKUOMEHIN, VICTOR OLOWE, AND CLEMENT AFOLABI
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246
Effectiveness of Agroecological Intensification Techniques

in Enhancing Soil Nutrient Status, Moisture Content, and
Crop Productivity in Semi-Arid Lands of Kenya
ONWONGA R.N1, LELEI J. J.2AND NAMOI N.L1.
1
Department of Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.
2
Department of Crops, Horticulture and Soils, Egerton University, Egerton, Kenya.
Corresponding Author: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Keywords: Agroecological Intensification; cropping systems; grain legumes; Organic Fertilizers;

soil nutrients; Traditional crops.
Abstract
The current study investigated effectiveness of selected agroecological intensification techniques

on soil moisture, nutrient (N, P, and organic C) status, and crop yields in semi-arid Katangi division
of Yatta sub-County, Kenya. The study was conducted for two seasons; long and short rains of
2010. The experimental set up was a split plot fitted into a randomized complete block design.
The main plots were three cropping systems (CS); monocropping (cassava and sorghum),
intercropping [sorghum/dolichos (Lablab purpureus), sorghum/pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.)
Millspaugh), cassava/dolichos, cassava/pigeon pea) and rotation (dolichos - sorghum, pigeon
pea - sorghum, dolichos - cassava and pigeon pea-cassava). The split plots comprised organic
fertilizers (OF); farm yard manure (FYM) and compost. Measured N, P and organic C levels, in
the long rains, were significantly higher in crop rotation, followed by intercropping and
monocropping systems with application of FYM. The crop yields were significantly higher in the
short rains across all CS and OF with crop rotation and monocropping performing better than
intercropping system. Crop diversification in both space and time with application of organic
fertilizers could thus boost soil nutrient status, soil moisture and, cassava and Sorghum yields in
the semi-arid Yatta Sub-county.
Introduction
Crop productivity in semi-arid lands (ASALs), of Kenya is on the decline owing to; inadequate soil
moisture, insufficient and erratic rains and poor soil quality due to inappropriate management (Biamah,
2005; Itabari et al., 2004; Mwanga, 2004).This scenario behooves researchers to develop sustainable
technologies to improve soil and crop productivity and subsequently ensure food and nutritional
security in the ASALs. The technologies, to be effective, must be within farmers' resource constraints,
resource levels and acceptable risk (Snapp et al., 2003). One such technology is agroecological
intensification (AEI) of land use which is defined as improvement of agricultural performance through
integration of ecological principles into farm and system management (CCRP, 2014). Use of organic
fertilizers alongside reintroduction of abandoned/neglected traditional crops such as cassava and
sorghum, and legumes; pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan L.) and dolichos (Lablab purpureus) with
application of organic fertilizers borrows from and fits into the principles of AEI.
247
ONWONGA R.N, LELEI J. J. AND NAMOI N.L
Effectiveness of Agroecological Intensification Techniques in Enhancing Soil Nutrient Status,
Moisture Content, and Crop Productivity in Semi-Arid Lands of Kenya
Against this backdrop, the current study assessed the effectiveness of AEI techniques as a pathway to
enhancing soil fertility, moisture content, and crop productivity in semi-arid Lands of Kenya.
Site Description: The study was conducted in Katangi division of Yatta sub-County, Kenya. Yatta sub-
County has a semi-arid climate with mean annual temperature varying from 17ºC to 24ºC and
experiences bimodal rainfall with long rains (LRS) occurring from end of March to April/May (400
mm) and short rains (SRS) from end of October to December (500mm) (Jaetzold et al., 2007). The soils
are predominantly Ferralsols (Kibunja et al.,2010). Majority of the farmers in the area are small-scale
mixed farmers with low income investment for agricultural production (Jaetzold et al., 2007).
Experimental Design and treatments: The experimental set up was a split plot fitted into a randomized
complete block design, with three replicates. The main plots (10 ◊ 10m) were three cropping systems;
monocropping (cassava and sorghum), intercropping (sorghum/dolichos, sorghum/pigeon pea,
cassava/dolichos, cassava/pigeon pea) and crop rotation; (dolichos - sorghum, pigeonpea - sorghum,
dolichos – cassava, pigeonpea-cassava). The split plots (5 ◊ 10m) were organic fertilizers types; farm yard
manure (FYM) and compost.
Agronomic practices: Land preparation was done using an oxen-plough. FYM and compost were
applied (5 t/ha) in planting holes, dug using hand hoes, and thoroughly mixed with soil. One cassava
cutting was planted per hill at a depth of between 10 and 15 cm. Three seeds of; Sorghum, dolichos and
pigeon peawere planted per hill and later thinned to two plants per hill. Spacing used for sole crops was
1m ◊ 1m for cassava, 0.75m ◊ 0.25m for sorghum, 0.75 ◊ 0.3m for dolichos and 0.75m ◊ 0.50m for
pigeon pea. All crops planted as intercrops (legumes) were sown in rows between cassavas and sorghum
at same inter-plant spacing as in pure stands. When in rotation, legumes (dolichos or pigeon pea) were
planted in LRS (season 1) and later followed by either sorghum or cassava in the SRS (season 2).
Sampling of soils and organic fertilizers: Soil samples (0-15 cm) for nutrient and moisturedetermination
were collected at crop maturity from five randomly selected points of each plot and composited. Soil
samples for, moisture determination were oven dried for 24 hours at 105°C. The air dried soil samples were
ground to pass through a 2mm sieve and analyzed for total N, P and K, pH and organic C using laboratory
standard procedures as compiled and described by Okalebo et al. (2002).
Measurement of grain and tuber yields: Grain yields of sorghum were determined at physiological
maturity of crops from a net plot area of 3 by 2m, from center of each sub plot. Tuber harvesting was done
(eleven months after planting) from a net plot area of 3 by 3m.
Statistical Analysis: Data collected was subjected to analysis of variance, using Genstat statistical
software (Payne et al., 2006). LSD test was used to identify significant differences among treatment
means (P<0.05).
Soil N and P as affected by cropping systems and organic fertilizers: Soil N content followed the order,
crop rotation, intercropping and monocropping across organic fertilizer types and seasons (Fig. 1).
248
Figure 1: Effects of cropping systems and organic fertilizers on total N for season I (LRS) and
Season II (SRS)
Soil N and P levels were higher in sorghum than cassava plots and higher with integration of dolichos
than pigeon peas. The soil N and P levels, in the SRS, were particularly high in cropping system
involving dolichos compared to pigeon peas (Figs.1 and 2).
Significantly higher levels of total N were obtained with application of FYM than compost in all
cropping systems and seasons (Fig. 1). A distinct observation on P levels was made with FYM
application in the dolichos-sorghum crop rotation in LRS and sorghum/dolichos intercrop in the SRS
(Fig. 3). Significantly higher amounts of soil N and P were realized in LRS than in SRS (Fig. 1 and 2). In
the SRS, elevated levels of soil available P were recorded in crop rotation system with application of
compost whereas in LRS, the differences were not apparent.
Pronounced soil N levels in rotation than monocropping system may be attributed partly to
symbiotic N fixation by dolichos and pigeon pea legumes. Non-leguminous cover crops, typically
grasses or small grains, do not fix N2 (Baldwin and Creamer, 2014) and this may partly explain low soil N
levels in monocropping system. Higher soil N content in rotation system may also be explained in terms
of the N cycling by legume roots (Pasternak, 2013).
249
Figure 2: Effects of cropping systems and organic fertilizers on phosphorus for season I (LRS)
and Season II (SRS)
The elevated soil available P levels in crop rotation system may be as a result of legumes' efficiency in
solubilizing P from bound sources. Root induced chemical processes increase P acquisition in
impoverished soils (Hinsinger, 2001; Lelei and Onwonga, 2014). Significantly higher levels of total N
and P with dolichos integration may be explained in terms of a higher dolichos biomass produced,
compared to pigeon pea and hence more nutrient release upon residue decomposition(Mmbaga and
Friesen, 2003; Adjei-Nsiah 2012).
Lower N and P levels in intercropping than rotation system, and cassava plots is attributable to
competition among component crops for N and P, and nutrient export through removal of aboveground
biomass and harvested tubers, respectively. Pypers et al. (2011) reported that, cassava exports high
amounts of nutrients, particularly N and K.
Significantly higher amounts of total N and P in soil in the SRS could be as a result of organic matter
build up over time through crop residue incorporation from the prior season (LRS) and organic fertilizer
application. When manure and compost are used to fertilize crops, soil organic matter will increase over
time and subsequent rates of application can generally be reduced because of increased nutrient cycling
(Rosen and Bierman, 2014).
Soil organic carbon as influenced by cropping systems and organic fertilizer type: The organic C
content was high with application of FYM during the SRS across all cropping systems. In the LRS,
however, soil organic C content was higher with application of compost in the intercropping and crop
rotation system (Fig. 3).
250
Figure 3: Effects of cropping systems and organic fertilizers on organic C for season I (LRS) and
Season II (SRS)
The higher levels of organic C in SRS for both organic fertilizer types may have been due to direct
addition of organic matter by FYM and compost, and residue incorporation following harvest of LRS
crops. Higher levels of soil organic carbon in FYM treatment in the LRS may be due to its higher organic
matter (OM) content whereas lower organic C in FYM treatment in the SRS may have resulted from its
faster mineralization rate (Bwenya and Terokun, 2001).Conversely, the higher organic C in compost
than FYM during the SRS may be due to its slower decomposition. It has been reported that use of
composted manure contributes more to the organic matter content of the soil (Rosen and Bierman,
2014).
Soil moisture as affected by organic fertilizer types and cropping systems: For all cropping systems
and organic fertilizers, soil moisture content was higher in cropping systems that involved dolichos,and
higher in intercropping than rotation and monocropping (Figure 4).
Higher soil moisture content in intercropping than monocropping and rotation systems may be
attributed to reduced evaporation due to better ground cover. Mmbaga and Friessen (2003) reported
higher moisture retention in maize/legume intercrops compared to maize alone and bare land. The
higher soil moisture contents in cropping systems containing dolichos can be attributed to reduced
evaporation due its greater canopy cover. Dolichos cover crop forms an excellent ground cover and
persists through the dry season (Steiner, 2002).
251
Figure 4. Effects of cropping systems and organic fertilizers on soil moisture for season I (LRS)
and Season II (SRS)
The pronounced soil moisture content in LRS was due partly to water retention by organic matter
resulting from application of organic fertilizers and incorporated residues from prior season. Plant
residues, left on ground or cover crops contribute to soil organic matter (Sanginga 2003). Steiner
(2002) reported that dolichos, through litter fall, improve soil structures, soil bulk density and soil
moisture retention.
Sorghum and Cassava yields

Cropping systems involving dolichos, in both seasons registered higher sorghum yields compared
with those involving pigeon pea (Fig. 5) across all organic fertilizers. The elevated sorghum yields
were pronounced under crop rotation system than in intercropping system with application of FYM.
The cassava tuber yields, measured in season two (SRS), were significantly higher in cassava-
dolichos and cassava-pigeon peas rotation for both FYM and compost treatments (Fig. 5).
Increased yields with organic fertilizer application could partially be attributed to supply of
nutrients, such as N and P upon mineralization, and improved moisture retention due to build up of soil
organic matter. Inadequate soil moisture is most limiting constraint to land productivity in semi-arid
lands of Kenya (Itabari et al., 2004). The higher yields obtained in rotation system was partly as a
result of increased soil N content due to nitrogen fixation by dolichos and pigeon pea legumes.
Vanlauwe and Giller (2006) reported that N is a key factor in the response of cereals following
legumes compared with cereals following non-legumes in continuous monocultures.
252
Figure 5: Effect of cropping systems and organic fertilizers on Sorghum (A) and Cassava (B) yields
for season I (Sorghum) and II (sorghum and Cassava)
Dolichos has been reported to significantly improve soil nitrogen status and yield of cereals (Cheruiyot
et al., 2003). The lower yields in intercropping system could have resulted from interspecific
competition for nutrients, which occurs when two crops are grown together (Vandermeer 1992).
Similarly, adverse effects of intercropping have been attributed to competition for root development,
light, nutrients, and water during the co-growth phase (Herrmann et al., 2014).
Conclusion
The findings of the study confirm the hypothesis that selected agroecological intensification techniques
could improve crop productivity in ASALs of Kenya. Pigeon pea, dolichos and sorghum grew to
maturity and performed relatively well albeit and the low and unreliable rainfall experienced in the study
area. Cassava performed well with integration of legumes and addition of organic fertilizers. Whereas
cassava and sorghum performed better in rotation and monocrop systems. Intercropping system may
still be beneficial and preferable to the farmers since two crops could be harvested from same unit area.
Pigeon peas and dolichos could thus provide compatible and profitable options for intercropping with
sorghum and cassava because of their higher grain yield contribution to overall yield. Soil moisture
retention was higher when sorghum and cassava were intercropped and FYM applied. If sorghum is to
be grown, then dolichos would be applicable as an intercrop while with cassava, pigeon pea would be the
ideal legume. Crop diversification in both space and time with application of organic fertilizers would
therefore boost soil nutrient status, soil moisture and crop productivity in the semi arid Yatta district and
consequently enhanced food availability.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the McKnight Foundation for funding the research. The participating
farmers of Katangi division of Yatta district are appreciated for providing land for the field experiments.
253
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255
Chlorophyll and Proteincontents of Fluted Pumpkin

(Telfariaoccidentalis) Planted on Heavy Metal Contaminated Soil
in Response to Different Organic Amendments
ADEJUMO, S.A.
Department of Crop Protection and Environmental Biology,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Keywords: Pollution, Human health, food chain, organics, contamination, vegetables.
Abstract
Contamination of agricultural lands by heavy metals poses serious threat on human health
through food chain. The use of organic amendments to immobilize metal in contaminated
medium and prevent crop contamination is preferred because of its cost-effectiveness and
environment-friendliness. In this research, effects of different organic amendments (Mexican
sunflower extract, Compost, Compost tea and poultry manure tea) were tested on the growth,
chlorophyll contents lead uptake, protein and yield of Telfaria occidentalis (Fluted pumpkin)
grown on lead polluted soil. These were applied at different rates and period (two week before
and after planting of ugwu seeds). Results showed that T. occidentalis grown on organic
amended soils performed better in all the parameters considered compared to control
(contaminated soils only). Amendment with organic materials increased the vine length,
number of leaves, fresh and dry weight. Application of the treatments two weeks before planting
was better than after planting. In terms of chlorophyll contents those treated with organic
materials had more chlorophyll than control. Organic treated soil also reduced Pb
concentration in the crop compared to untreated contaminated control. Organic amendment
therefore, enhanced crop growth on contaminated soil and reduced metal accumulation.
Introduction
The issue of land contamination by heavy metal which stemmed from increase in urbanization and
industrialization is now posing a great challenge to agricultural production most especially in the
developing countries. This has led to several hectares of land mostly in urban and peri-urban centres
being contaminated by heavy metals thereby reducing the amount of cultivable land for crop
production. Soil contamination apart from reducing the agricultural productivity also poses significant
threat on human health through food chain (Eriyamremu et al. 2005). Toxic levels of lead (Pb) in
cultivated crops have been widely reported (Sharma et al., 2007). Heavy metals are said to enter into
animals and human beings through ingestion of contaminated plants/crops (CDC, 1991).
Vegetables are important part of human diet all over the world. It constitutes a potential source of
nutrients and food components which have significant health effects. Telfaria occidentalis (Fluted
pumpkin)popularly known as Ugwu, is one of the popular vegetables widely consumed in the
Eastern/Western parts of Nigeria for its medicinal and nutritive values. It has high concentration of iron
257
ADEJUMO, S.A.:
Chlorophyll and Protein contents of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfariaoccidentalis) Planted on Heavy
Metal Contaminated Soil in Response to Different Organic Amendments
(Fe) which makes it a source of food supplements for people suffering from blood shortages. It is mostly
cultivated by women in urban centres along with other vegetables. With the recent advocate on the
promotion of urban and peri-urban agriculture coupled with the exhaustion and unavailability of
cultivable arable lands in urban and peri-urban areas, contaminated lands are being converted to
agricultural uses thereby posing a lot of risks to human health. Conventional methods to clean up metal
contaminated soils are capital intensive, not applicable to large areas and some are not sustainable.
The available options are development of sustainable strategies to remediate these lands or
immobilize the contaminants thereby preventing their uptake. In this study, different forms and types of
organic amendments (dry compost, compost tea, green manure tea and poultry manure tea) applied at
different rates on the growth, Pb uptake, chlorophyll content, Protein and yield of Telfariaoccidentalis
were assessed. Assessment of the effects of organic amendments on the growth and biochemical
properties of crops grown on contaminated soil will help in determining the efficiency of different forms
of organic amendments on metal uptake by crop and provide understanding of their effects on crop yield.
The major aim was to increase soil nutrient contents and pH with these materials so as to increase yield
and decrease Pb uptake by Ugwu grown on contaminated soil.
Description of the experimental site and soil sampling procedure

The study was carried out using the soil collected from a lead-acid battery waste contaminated site at
Kumapayi village in Egbeda Local Government Area, Oyo State, Nigeria. The site contains high amount
of heavy metals(Pb: 138,000mg/kg, Cu: 482mg/kg, Zn: 1510mg/kg, Cr: 12.3mg/kg and Cd:
41.3mg/kg) (Adejumoet al., 2011) and covers about 24,985 m2. Soil sampling was carried out at 0-15cm
depth and specific quantity of soil was taken at five different locations for physico-chemical analysis and
pot experiment. The soil was homogenized, air-dried and sieved.
Preparation of different organic products used for the experiment

Organic amendments used include; Mexican sunflower extract, Dried compost, Compost and poultry
manure tea. Leachate production from fresh Tithoniadiversifolia was carried out by cutting the middle
aged plants, weighed to know the fresh weight and then packed inside a 250 litres capacity plastic pot
using partially aerated composting technique. The pot was perforated at the bottom and placed on a
50litres capacity bucket to collect the leachates. Dried compost was made from Mexican sunflower and
Poultry manure in ratio 3:1 using PACT techmique (Adedirane t al.2001) and Poultry manure tea was
prepared using partially aerated extraction method as described by Pant et al., (2012) with small
modifications.
Experimental procedure
The five treatments (Mexican sunflower leachate; SL, Poultry manure tea; PM Compost tea; COT,
Compost; COM and Control) were replicated 4 times using three application rates (0, 20t/ha, 30t/ha and
40t/ha). The treatments also included application period (one week before (BP) and after planting (AP)
of Ugwu seeds). For the compost tea and sunflower leachates, the quantity applied was calculated based
on the amount of leachates produced from the known quantity of dry compost and fresh
Tithoniadiversifolia respectively. For compost application rate of 20t/ha, 30t/ha and 40t/ha, the quantity
of tea or leachates applied was 15.15 (R1), 22.73 (R2), and 30.30mls (R3) per 5kgsoil for the soil
receiving 20t/ha (R1), 30t/ha (R2) and 40t/ha (R3) respectively.
258
Data collection
Data were collected on yield parameters, Chlorophyll content using the method explained by Akparobi,
(2009). Dry matter yield was determined at harvesting. The ash content was determined by ashing
specific quantity of leaf sample in a muffle furnace at 500oC for 12hours. Nitrogen was determined using
macrokjeldahl method and protein content was calculated by multiplying the values obtained for
Nitrogen by 6.25 factor (Akanbiet al., 2007). Lead (Pb) content of the edible part (Leaf) was determined
by Adejumo et al. (2011) and analysed for Pb content using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
(AAS).
Data analysis: Data collected were analysed using analysis of variance and the means were separated
using DMRT at 5% probability level.
Results
Dry matter yield of Ugwuon contaminated soil amended with organic materials
Both fresh and dry weight of ugwu planted on contaminated soil responded positively to organic
amendments. The fresh weight was enhanced mostly by the application of compost before planting at
every rate. It was increased by 143% in plant treated with the highest rate of compost compared to
control. This was followed by those of COLR1BP and SLR1AP. he lowest value was however recorded
in those treated with poultry manure tea after planting (PMR2AP). Similarly, the shoot dry matter yield
also followed the same trend. The root fresh weight was enhanced with compost tea treatment which
gave the highest value followed by sunflower leachate, both applied after planting (Fig 1).
Figure 1: Dry matter yield of Ugwuon contaminated soil amended with organic materials
NB: Mexican sunflower leachate; SL, Poultry manure tea = PM, Compost tea = COL, Compost; COM and
CONTL = Control on Pb soil, CONTN = Control on Normal soil) R1= 20t/ha, R2 = 30t/ha and R3 = 40t/ha;
BP = Before Planting, AP= After Planting.
Heavy metal (Pb) uptake, Ash content, nitrogen and protein content of Ugwu (Fluted pumpkin) leaf
from contaminated soil amended with organic amendments
The Pb concentration in the harvested ugwu leaf from Pb contaminated soil (825mg/g) was more than
that of uncontaminated soil (5.34mg/g). Though, higher than the EU permissible level in edible plant
part, application of organic amendments generally reduced the level of contamination by reducing the
259
ADEJUMO, S.A.:
concentrations of Pb in the harvested leaf compared to control. Lower rate of compost tea applied at two
weeks after planting reduced Pb concentration in the leaf more than other treatments (16.01mg/g).
Except in COLRIBP treatment, the ash contents of the Ugwu leaves from all the organic amendment
treatments increased more than that of control from contaminated and uncontaminated soils. Addition of
organic amendments in any form at any rate and different timing enhanced nutrient accumulation by
ugwu leaf. The lowest was however recorded in the control from contaminated soil. The same trend was
observed in terms of nitrogen and protein contents of ugwu leaf in response to different organic
amendments since protein content is a factor of nitrogen content. However, those leaves from lead
contaminated soil had more of nitrogen and protein than those from normal soil irrespective of the
treatments except in COLR1BP and COLR3AP(Table 1).
Table 1. Pb uptake, Ash content, Nitrogen and Protein content of Ugwu on contaminated soil
Treatments Pb (mg/kg) Ash content Nitrogen (%) Protein content
(g/g/DW) (mg/g FW)
CONTL 825.00a 0.03i 4.67e 31.38e
CONTN 5.34v 0.18g 4.01m 26.95k
COM R1BP 417.00e 0.49ab 5.13b 34.47b
COM R1AP 373.00g 0.47b 5.30a 35.62a
COMR2BP 362.50i 0.37cd 4.86c 32.66c
COMR2 AP 61.30s 0.46b 4.65e 31.25e
COMR3BP 362.50i 0.37cd 4.86c 32.66c
COMR3 AP 61.30s 0.46b 4.65e 31.25e
PMR2BP 362.50i 0.37cd 4.86c 32.66c
PM R2 AP 61.30s 0.46b 4.65e 31.25e
PM R1 BP 641.00c 0.33e 4.85c 32.60c
PM R1 AP 205.50p 0.34cd 4.75d 31.92d
PM R3 BP 217.00o 0.23f 4.31j 28.96h
PM R3 AP 227.00m 0.33e 4.25k 28.56i
COLR1BP 32.20t 0.11h 3.41p 22.92m
COLRIAP 16.01u 0.30e 4.88c 32.80c
COL R2 BP 123.00r 0.20f 4.50g 30.24f
COL R2 AP 177.00q 0.30e 4.53fg 30.44f
COL R3 BP 318.50k 0.52a 4.21l 28.29i
COL R3 AP 330.50j 0.53a 3.48o 23.39l
SLR2 BP 233.50l 0.24f 4.55f 30.58f
SLR2 AP 432.50d 0.36cd 4.88c 32.79c
SL R1 BP 364.50h 0.21fg 4.39i 29.50g
SL R1 AP 223.00n 0.49ab 4.39i 29.50g
SL R3 BP 767.00b 0.38c 4.10m 27.56j
SLR3 AP 379.00.f 0.50a 4.40h 29.57g
Means followed by the same alphabet are not significantly different from each other at P<0.05 using DMRT.
NB: Mexican sunflower leachate; SL, Poultry manure tea = PM, Compost tea = COL, Compost; COM and CONTL =
Control on Pb soil, CONTN = Control on Normal soil) R1= 20t/ha, R2 = 30t/ha and R3 = 40t/ha; BP = Before planting,
AP= After planting.
260
Chlorophyll contents
Lead contamination reduced the chlorophyll content by 50% in the ugwu plant grown on un-amended
contaminated soil compared to those grown on normal soil. The result of the effect of organic
amendments on the chlorophyll content of Ugwu planted on lead polluted soil showed that organic
amendment enhanced chlorophyll formation in Ugwu planted on contaminated soil compared with
control. The responses however varied based on the form and rate of organic materials. Addition of
higher rate of dry compost both before and after planting (i.e COMR3BP and COMR3AP), poultry
manure tea after planting, sunflower leachate before and after planting (SLR3BPand SLR3AP)
increased the chlorophyll content by 50-55% compared to control plant on Pb contaminated soil (Fig 2).
Figure 2: Chlorophyll contents of Fluted pumpkin grown on organic amended contaminated soil
Discussion
Organic amendments as previously reported (Chaney et al., 2000; Adediran et al., 2001; Adejumo
2010; Fleming et al., 2011) was able to increase crop growth on this contaminated soil and reduced the
metal uptake by the crop. The use of dry compost performed better than the tea or the leachate because it
has the ability to be retained more in the soil than its liquid counterparts which are proned to leaching.
Increase in the growth and yield of treated ugwu confirmed the previous reports on the ameliorative
effect of organic amendments on heavy metal stressed plant (Fleming et al., 2011). Availability of
nutrient as well as the ability of organic amendment to increase pH and soil redox potential is said to help
in reducing metal solubility and uptake by plant. As observed in this study, the Pb concentration in the
organic treated plants (though higher than that of the uncontaminated soil), were lower than
control(Salatiet al., 2010). The Chlorophyll concentrations of the leaves were significantly higher in
Ugwu grown in organic amended contaminated soil. This confirmed the report that organic amendment
increased the formation of organo-Fe complexes (Chen and Stevenson, 1986) which in turn enhances
chlorophyll formation as Fe is very important in chlorophyll formation. Organic amendment has been
reported to be a major source of iron-humate complex which has been reported to be more effective in
increasing crop Fe-nutrition and has been used to correct Fe-deficiency in crop. With increase in
chlorophyll content the photosynthetic ability of crop is also increased and this was revealed in the yield
of Ugwu grown on amended soil as compared to control. Since ash content of the plant is a function of
the nutrient composition of such plant, the control plant which probably had the lowest nutrient contents
also contained the lowest quantity of ash. According to Hussain et al. (2012), stress factor such as heavy
261
ADEJUMO, S.A.:
metal contamination in plant enhances the production of stress protective proteins in plants as was
observed in this study, where protein and nitrogen contents contrary to what was expected, were higher
in all the plant from contaminated soil more than that of control plant from normal soil.
Conclusion
Organic amendments increased the yield of ugwu on contaminated soil. Encouraging and promoting the
use of organic amendment will help in preventing contamination of this vegetable with heavy metals.
References
Adediran J.A., Taiwo L.B., Sobulo R. A. 2001. Effect of organic wastes and method of composting on
compost maturity, nutrient composition of compost and yields of two vegetable crops.
Journal of sustainable Agriculture, 22 4: 95-109.
Adejumo S.A., Togun A.O., Adediran J.A. and Ogundiran M.B, 2011. Field assessment of progressive
remediation of soil contaminated with lead-acid battery waste in response to compost
application. Pedologist, 54(3): 182-193.
Akanbi, W.B. Adebooye C.O., Togun A.O., Ogunrinde J.O. and S.A. Adeyeye 2007 Growth, Herbage
and Seed Yield and Quality of Telfairiaoccidentalis as Influenced by Cassava Peel Compost
and Mineral Fertilizer World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 3 (4): 508-516, 2007 ISSN
1817-3047.
Centre for Disease Control. 1991. Preventing lead poisoning in young children. U.S. Department of
Health and Human service Atlantic GA. Public Health service centres for disease control.
Chemistry, 140: 315-322.
Chen, Y., and Stevenson, F. J., 1986, Soil organic matter interactions with trace elements.
in: Y. Chen, and Y. Avnimelech, eds., The Role of Organic Matter in Modern Agriculture,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 73–116.
Eriyamremu, G.E., S.O. Asagba, A. Akpoborie & S.I. Ojeaburu. 2005. Evaluation of lead and cadmium
levels in some commonly consumed vegetables in the Niger-Delta oil area of Nigeria.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 75: 278-283.
European Uion. 2006. Commission regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting
maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. Official Journal of European Union
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Fleming Margaret, Tai Yiping, Zhuang Ping, McBride Murray B. 2013. Extrctability and bioavailability
of Pb and As in historically Contaminated orchard soil: Effects of compost amendments
Environmental Pollution 177 :90-97.
Pant, A., Radovich, T.J.K., Hue, N.V., Talcott, S.T., Krenek, K.A., 2009. Vermicompost extracts
in?uence growth, mineral nutrients, phytonutrients and antioxidant activity in Pak choi
(Brassica rapa cv. Bonsai Chinensis group) grown under vermicompost and chemical
fertilizer. J. Sci. Food Agric. 89, 2383–2392.
Salati S., G. Quadri, F. Tambone, F. Adani 2010. Fresh organic matter of municipal solid waste
enhances phytoextraction of heavy metals from contaminated soil. Environmental
Pollution 158 (2010) 1899–1906.
Sharma, R. K., M. Agrawal & F. M. Marshall. 2007. Heavy metals contamination of soil and vegetables
in suburban areas of Varanasi, India. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 66: 258-266.
262
Nitrogen Contents of Composts Enriched with Organic

Nitrogen Sources
FAWOLE, F.O.1, AYODELE, O.J.1AND ADEOYE, G.O.2
1
Department of Crop, Soil and Environmental Sciences, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
2
Department of Agronomy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan
Keywords: Composts, agricultural wastes, enrichment, incubation, nitrogen content.
Abstract
Information is scanty on the potentials of agricultural wastes to enrich composts whose low
nitrogen (N) content limits their use in organic farming. This study involved enriching
composts - cow dung + sawdust (CDSD) and poultry droppings + sawdust (PDSD) with N at
10, 20, 30 and 50 kg/ha from bone, blood, hoof and horn meals; and neem leaf and tithonialeaf
meals and their incubation in soil for 16 weeks. Total N contents monitored at four-week
intervals of incubation showed enrichment in 74.0 and 83.0% of CDSD and PDSD compared
to the respective controls and 50 kg N/ha gave the highest values. At 4 weeks, CDSD enriched
with blood meal (CDSDBM) and bone meal (CDSDBN); and PDSD enriched with bone meal
(PDSDBN) and tithonia leaf meal (PDSDTM) contained the highest N and would suitable for
the cultivation of short-season leaf vegetables. CDSD enriched with neem leaf meal
(CDSDNM) and PDSD enriched with blood meal (PDSDBM) which contained the highest
total N at 16 weeks of incubation would be recommended for the cultivation of long-season
vegetables.
Introduction
Soil fertility decline in Africa is very rapid, especially when continuously cultivated (Zingore et al.,
2003) on account of low amounts of organic matter and available nutrients, yet it is on this fragile
resources base that expectations for increased crop production are built. There is a growing concern over
large-scale soil degradation from anthropogenic sources even as the farmers lack access to chemical
fertilizers and so have difficulty in providing supplementary plant nutrients. The coping strategy of
intensified land use accentuates nutrient 'mining' of soils such that the desired increases in crop
productivity are unlikely unless adequate and balanced supply of nutrients is ensured.
Several studies have indicated the positive effects of organic wastes on soil productivity (Anikwe,
2000) compared to stagnant or declining crop yields from the continued use of chemical fertilizers due to
increased soil acidity and nutrient imbalance. This necessitates the promotion of organic farming
practices that encourage natural processes for nutrient supply (minerals, manures, symbiosis
etc).Compost is manure produced from the controlled biological decomposition of organic materials
which are sanitized through the generation of heat. Despite the age-long use and beneficial effects on
plant growth, composts contain low amounts of nitrogen (N) which makes provision of additional N
input inevitable. The search continues for materials which would improve the N content and so enhance
the efficiency and quality of composts at low cost.
263
AYODELE, O.J. et al.:
Nitrogen Sources
The potentials of agricultural wastes, as organic N sources, for raising the N levels of composts
should be exploited. Wastes from the cattle industry (bones, hoofs, blood and horns)and the leaves of
common plants such as neem (Azadirachtaindica L.) and Mexican sunflower (Tithoniadiversifolia
(Hemsl) A. Gray) are organic N sources. The cattle abattoir wastes and leaves would be dried, ground
into powder (meals) and used to supplement the N content of composts. Therefore, the objectives of this
study were to: produce composts from conventional organic materials- cow dung, poultry droppings and
saw dust; enrich the composts with blood, bone, hoof and horn meals, and neem leaf and tithonia leaf
meals; and assess the N content of the enriched composts during periods of incubation.
Fresh poultry droppings from layers' battery cages, cow dung and cattle abattoir wastes (blood, horns,
hoofs and bones) and sawdust were collected and analyzed for pH in water (at 1:2 ratio), total carbon,
total N,P, Ca, Mg, K and Na.Cow dung and sawdust (CDSD), poultry droppings and sawdust (PDSD)
were mixed at1:1 ratio (v/v) in heaps1.5m wide and 1m high, watered and turned fortnightly until
composting was completed at 22 weeks. Blood, bone, hoof, horn, neem and tithonia leaf meals were
mixed with the composts as follows:
CDSD Cow dung + Sawdust PDSD Poultry dropping + Sawdust

CDSDBM + blood meal PDSDBM + blood meal
CDSDBN + bone meal PDSDBN + bone meal
CDSDHN + horn meal PDSDHN + horn meal
CDSDHF + hoof meal PDSDHF + hoof meal
CDSDNM + neem leaf meal PDSDNM + neem leaf meal
CDSDTM + tithonia leaf meal PDSDTM + tithonia leaf meal
The meals were added to supply 10, 20, 30 and 50 kg N/ha to give 50 treatments. The composts were
applied at 30 MT/ha and thoroughly mixed with 2 kg of topsoil weighed into 2.5 litre bowls, moistened
and covered with black polythene sheets. Each treatment had four replicates to accommodate the
monitoring of soil total N in the samples at 4, 8, 12 and 16 weeks of incubation.
Table 1 shows that PD, CD and SD were alkaline; total N, K and Ca contents were highest in PD while
CD contained the highest total P. BN, HN and TM were alkaline while BM, HF and NM were slightly
acidic (pH=6.2-6.5). NM contained the highest N; HN and BN had the highest total P while HF and BM
contained the highest Ca. The composts were alkaline and did not differ from those of the composting
materials because the microbial breakdown of organic compounds in plant matter and animal wastes
hardly reduced the Ca, Mg and K responsible for basic or alkaline reactions. CDSD contained higher
total N, Ca, Mg, K and Na values whereas PDSD contained more total P. The N contents of the composts
were similar to average contained in well-decomposed farmyard manure but lower than sheep, goat,
cattle and poultry manures (Sreeniva, 2005) probably due to the dilution by sawdust (Adegbite and
Olayinka, 2010). The N concentration in organic materials determines the net balance between
mineralization and immobilization and materials with <24 g N/kg,such as sawdust used for composting,
immobilization will exceed mineralization and the decomposing organic material will tie up N.
264
The N contents of composts enriched with organic N sources at various levels and incubated for 4, 8,
12 and 16 weeks are shown in Fig. 1 and 2. The patterns in N content were: (i) consistent increase from 4
to 16 weeks incubation in five (5) treatments (CDSDNM at 10, 20, 50 kg N/ha; PDSDHF at 10 kg N/ha
and PDSDBM at 20 kg N/ha) (ii) increase from 4 weeks to the same value at 12 and 16 weeks in one (1)
treatment (CDSDNM at 30 kg N/ha) (iii) decrease by average 20% from week 4 to week 8 followed by
steady increase at 12 and 16 weeks of incubation in the remaining treatments. CDSDBM, CDSDBN and
CDSDHF at 50 kg N/ha gave the highest N contents at week 4 while CDSDNM at 50kg N/ha contained
the highest N at 8, 12 and 16 weeks incubation. PDSDBN, PDSDTM at 50 kg N/ha contained highest N
at 4 and 8 weeks of incubation while PDSDBM at 50 kg N/ha gave highest values of N at 12 and 16
weeks of incubation.
The patterns in N contents over the periods of incubation would probably indicate the best time to
use the composts. Enriched CDSD and PDSD had 46% of the treatments with the highest N contents at 4
weeks of incubation and a decrease till week 16; 26% showed increase at week 8 followed by a decrease
till week 16 while equal proportion (16%) showed increase till week 12 followed by decrease at week 16
and increase from week 4 till highest N content at week 16. The enriched composts with highest N
contents at 4 and 8 weeks of incubation would be suitable for the production of short-season crops such
as leaf vegetables while those with highest values at 12 and 16 weeks of incubation will support the
growth needed for optimum yield of long-duration leaf and fruit vegetables.
Table 1. Some chemical properties of the compost materials, composts and the organic wastes used
for N enrichment
Blood Bone Hoof Horn Tithonia Neem Cow Poultry Saw CDSD PDSD
Parameters meal meal meal meal meal meal dung droppings dust Compost Compost
pH 6.2 10.5 6.2 8.2 8.2 6.5 8.0 8.4 8.4 8.4 8.2
Total N (g/kg) 78.8 2.0 58.1 44.2 82.0 98.7 53.9 79.2 1.5 64.0 42.2
Total C (g/kg) 325.6 7.8 405.4 182.6 339.1 407.8 222.9 327.2 334.3 258.0 158.0
Total P (g/kg) 3.2 241.4 8.9 256.3 26.8 11.7 268.2 86.4 2.2 10.0 23.0
Ca(g/kg) 12.2 10.9 12.1 10.0 9.7 9.2 9.5 13.1 10.4 13.0 11.5
Mg (g/kg) 6.1 5.8 6.6 6.0 6.2 5.9 6.0 6.7 6.4 6.8 6.2
K (g/kg) 4.4 4.1 5.0 4.1 5.1 4.1 4.4 5.2 4.8 6.1 5.4
Na (g/kg) 1.1 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.5 1.3 0.4
CDSD= Cow dung + Sawdust
PDSD= Poultry droppings + Sawdust
Figure 1: Amounts of N in CDSD enriched with organic amendments at different rates and
incubation periods
265
Nitrogen Sources
Legend
C1 CDSD control
C2 CDSDBM at 10 kg N/ha C3 CDSDBN at 10 kg N/ha C4 CDSDHN at 10 kg N/ha
C5 CDSDHF at 10 kg N/ha C6 CDSDNM at 10 kg N/ha C7 CDSDTM at 10 kg N/ha
Figure 2: Quantities of N released monthly during incubation for PMSD-based treatments at

different N rates
Legend
C26 PDSD
C27 PDSDBM at 10 kg N/ha C28 PDSDBN at 10 kg N/ha C29 PDSD HM at 10 kg N/ha
C30 PDSDHF at 10 kg N/ha C31 PDSDNM at 10 kg N/ha C32 PDSDTM at 10 kg N/ha
C33 PDSDBM at 20 kg N/haC34 PDSDBN at 20 kg N/ha C35 PDSDHM at 20 kg N/ha
C39 PDSDBM at 30 kg N/ha C40 PDSDBN at 30 kg N/ha C41 PDSDHM at 30 kg N/ha
C45 PDSDBM at 50 kg N/ha C46 PDSDBN at 50 kg N/ha C47 PDSDHM at 50 kg N/ha
Enriched CDSDNM continued to increase in N content which probably meant reduction in the
fixation of available N and can be linked to the higher N content of the neem meal, lower C: N ratio of the
CDSD than PMSD and so N would be released earlier and faster (Olayinka and Adebayo, 1984).
Besides, neem products (seeds, seed oil and extracts) are used to retard nitrification of N fertilizers in
soils and so resulted in substantial increase in N use efficiency in crops (Sharma and Prasad, 1996).
PDSDBN and PDSDTM at 50 kg N/ha with highest N contents at 4 and 8 weeks incubation would be
suitable for short-season vegetables while PDSDBM at 50 kg N/ha which had highest N at 12 and 16
weeks of incubation would be recommended for long-season tropical leaf and fruit vegetables.
266
The application of organic materials to enrich composts at 50 kg N/ha gave the highest N contents over
the incubation period. However, the level of N should be increased in order to produce value-added
composts that can be applied at substantially lower rates of few kg/ha compared to conventional
manures and composts added at 10-30 MT/ha. The choice of 16 weeks incubation is based on the longest
period most arable crops stay on the field and the high N contents will support the growth of the crops.
References
Adegbite, E.A. and Olayinka, A. 2010. Effect of organic amendments and nitrogen on microbial
activity, nitrogen and phosphorus mineralization in an Alfisol. Nigerian Journal of Soil
Science 20: 87-91.
Ahmad, R., Khalid, A., Arshad, M., Zahir, Z.A. and Mahmood, T. 2009. Effect of compost enriched
with N and L-tryptophan on soil and maize. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 28: 299-
305.
Anikwe, M.A.N. 2000. Amelioration of a heavy clay loam with rice husk dust and its effect on soil
physical properties and maize yield. Bioresource Technology 16: 102-103.
Manjunatha, C.K. and Ravi, M.V. 2013. Evaluation of quality and nutrient status of enriched compost.
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science 6: 19-23
Olayinka, A. and Adebayo, A. 1984. Effect of incubation temperatures and different sources of N and P
on decomposition of sawdust in soil. Agricultural Wastes 11: 293-306.
Sharma, S.N. and Prasad, R. 1996. Use of nitrification inhibitors (neem and DCD) to increase N
efficiency in maize-wheat cropping system. Fertilizer Research 44: 169-175.
Sreeniva, P.T. 2005. Waste not, want not. African Farming. Issue No 47, May/June 2005: 9.
Zahir, Z.A., Afzal, A., Ajmal, M., Naveed, M., Asghar, H.N. and Arshad, M. 2007. Nitrogen enrichment of
composted organic wastes for improving growth, yield and nitrogen uptake of wheat. Soil
and Environment 26: 15-21.
Zingore, S.P., Mafongoya, P. Myamagafota and Giller, K.F. 2003. Nitrogen mineralization and maize
yield following application of tree pruning to a sandy soil in Zimbabwe. Agroforestry Systems
57: 199-211.
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Nitrogen Sources
Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships in Organic Value Chain

Development: A Case of Ntungamo Innovation Platform
in Western Uganda
KALIBWANI, R., KAMUGISHA, R., TWEBAZE, J., SABIITI, M., KUGONZA, I., TENYWA, M., AND NYAMWARO, S.O.
Bishop Stuart University, Department of Agriculture and Agribusiness, P.O. Box 9, Mbarara, Uganda.
Keywords: Multi Stakeholder Partnerships, Organic Agriculture, Governance, Gross Margins,

Innovation Platform.
Abstract
This study aims to demonstrate how multi-stakeholder partnerships in organic value chain
development can foster social and economic development, using the case of Ntungamo Organic
Pineapple Innovation Platform in Western Uganda. Specifically the study aims to identify the
major stakeholders, processes and support services in the organic pineapple value chain,
identify the opportunities that the value chain offers for upgrading farmers' knowledge and
skills, identify the governance mechanisms that sustain the value chain operations, and
compare gross margins between organic and conventional pineapple farmers in Ntungamo.
The study utilises the approach of value chain analysis with three qualitative tools; value chain
mapping, analysis of governance and institutional features, and identification of opportunities
for demand-driven up grading of farmers' knowledge. Multi-stakeholder partnerships have
provided technical support services and market access. They are also found to result into
capacity building for organic farming, opportunities for product and process upgrading, and
higher gross margins for organic farmers than their conventional counterparts.
Introduction
Organic agriculture has expanded rapidly in recent years and widely gained acceptance and popularity
due mostly to environmental and health related concerns (Escobar and Hues, 2007). It can contribute to
meaningful socio-economic and ecologically sustainable development, especially in the developing
countries. This is due on one hand to the application of organic principles, which means efficient and
cost effective management of local resources and on the other, to the excellent opportunities for
producers in these countries to improve their income and living conditions (Klicher, 2007). However
organic farming is a know-how-intensive farming method that requires competitive organic farmers to
experiment with new techniques, and manage land, labour, capital and innovations quite differently
from conventional farmers (Klicher, 2007). Organic farmers therefore need the support of service
providers with various skills and resources to acquire the required knowledge for the development of
organic value chains. Multi-stakeholder partnerships (MSPs) are believed to have enormous potential
as development interventions in general (Brown 2007), and value chain development in particular.
They are increasingly being recognized as important mechanisms to help address market failures, where
neither the market nor government is able on its own to meet crucial social and environmental
challenges. This study aims to demonstrate how MSPs in organic value chain development can foster
269
KALIBWANI, R., et al.:
Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships in Organic Value Chain Development:
A Case of Ntungamo Innovation Platform in Western Uganda
social and economic development, using the case of Ntungamo Organic Pineapple Innovation Platform
(NOPIP), in Western Uganda. Specifically the study aims to identify the major stakeholders, processes
and support services in the organic pineapple value chain, identify the opportunities that the value chain
offers for upgrading farmers' knowledge and skills, identify the governance mechanisms that sustain
value chain operations, and compares gross margins between organic and conventional pineapple
farmers in Ntungamo.
NOPIP was established in 2009 by the sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Program (SSA CP) that was
funded by the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA). The Innovation Platform (IP) was
established to focus on the development of the organic pineapple value chain. NOPIP has since been
comprised of development partners and farmers from seven sub-counties; Itojo, Rugarama, Kayonza,
Ngoma, Nyabihoko, Ruhama, and Nyakyera that comprise the IP. It was then found necessary to identify
partners that would support the farmers on various aspects of the value chain such as organic farming
methods, access to appropriate planting material, post harvest handling processing among others.
The study utilises the approach of value chain analysis with three qualitative tools; value chain mapping
of the stakeholders, processes, and support services, analysis of governance and institutional features,
and identification of opportunities for demand-driven up grading of farmers' knowledge. Gross margins
of the organic and conventional pineapple producers are computed from survey data that was collected
after the Feb-July, 2014 season. A sample of 97 farmers was drawn purposively from two sub counties;
Itojo one IP sub county, and Rubare a non-IP sub county for comparison. From Itojo, a total of 78 farmers
were randomly selected, of which 28 were found to be certified organic farmers, and 50 were organic but
still conventional farmers. A total of 19 farmers were randomly sampled from Rubare.
Value chain mapping of stakeholders, processes and support services

The key processes in the organic pineapple value chain include the supply of planting material (suckers),
production, collection of pineapples at the solar dryer sites, solar drying, wholesale and retail marketing,
and consumption. The suckers are shared by the farmers within the IP. The farmer groups within the IP
are responsible for collecting their group pineapples and delivering them at a solar dryer for drying. The
fresh pineapples that are not solar dried are either consumed at home or individually sold by the farmers
in the local markets. The dried pineapple slices are packed and are expected to be sold to supermarkets in
Kampala and exported. The potential exporters so far identified are Fruits of the Nile (FON) and Jakana
Foods Ltd (JFL). In addition, there are support services that are provided along the value chain. These
include research, training, extension and product promotion. Figure 1 shows a map of the key value
chain actors / stakeholders, processes and support services in the OP value chain in NOPIP. The careful
selection of the service providers has enabled the IP to access a range of technical services such as
extension, soil and water conservation trainings, community banking, improved planting material
among others. The presence of NDLG has also enabled the mobilization of farmers to join IP activities
and ensured and political support.
Governance and institutional features of the value chain

The important coordination structures for this value chain include the groups in which the individual
farmers are initially registered and the IP at the district level that registers member groups. The groups
270
enable the coordination of the farmers and facilitate access to support services of extension, and training.
This horizontal coordination also enables the identified market actors to interact with the farmers as a
recognized entity, bulking of their produce, access to technical support, and enables them to overcome
barriers to entry in global markets. The coordination is sustained by committees at the group and IP
levels, as well as by regular meetings. Organic certification is offered by NOGAMU, a membership
organization of farmer groups, associations, and buyers of organic products, which ensures access to a
niche market of organic products in the region.
Research Training Training

MBAZARDI, KAZARDI, MUK, NOGAMU, Africare
Support MUK AHI/ICRAF, JFL
Services
Supply Solar
Processes Production Collection Wholesale/ Consumption
of suckers drying retail
Extension
Supermarkets
NDLG
Consumers in the
local market
Individual IP farmer groups IP farmer IP farmer Exporters

groups groups
Actors farmers
Consumers in the
export markets
Traders in local
markets
Figure 1: Mapping of the stakeholders, processes and support services in the OP value chain
The contracts, a form of vertical coordination, made between the private actors such as the exporters
and the IP commit both parties to certain obligations that further sustain interaction of the value chain
actors. Most of the rules that govern the functioning of the value chain are set by the exporting
company, JFL. These include adherence to JFL standards, organic and fair for life requirements,
agreed upon quantities of products and delivery schedules among others. NOGAMU has instituted an
Internal Control System (ICS) to monitor the maintenance of its standards. The NOGAMU ICS
consists of farmers that have been trained to monitor the requirements among fellow farmers' gardens.
The major incentive for the farmers to abide by the specified rules and regulations are two premiums to
be offered by JFL to the farmers upon delivery. The first is a 10% premium above the farm gate price,
and the second is a premium by the fair trade regulations.
Opportunities for upgrading farmers' knowledge and skills

The OP value chain provides opportunities for this upgrading. Ordinarily the farmers in Ntungamo
district grow pineapples without using fertilizers and pesticides. The smooth cayenne pineapple is
well-favored by the warm climate. These factors make it easy for the farmers to shift from the
conventional farming methods to organic farming since they would not need to purchase and apply
chemicals in order to achieve the required product standards. From conventional farming methods the
farmers have to adopt organic farming practices. There is both product and process upgrading, which
271
contribute to improving product quality and chain efficiency. The value chain enables the farmers to
achieve the standards required of the organic fresh and dried pineapple. This is done through the
support services of the partners. It also enables functional upgrading of farmers' knowledge from
simply production to processing. Dried pineapple in particular is produced by solar drying, where
women IP members have been found to especially participate.
Comparison of Gross Margins

The total production costs per acre of crop land include the cost of manure, mulch and pesticides for
the conventional farmers. Total production costs on average are highest with the certified organic
farmers (Table 1).
Table 1. Gross Margins across farmer category

Variable Location
Rubare (n=19) Itojo 1 (n=28) Itojo 2 (n=50)
non-IP, Certified IP
conventional Organic conventional
Mean Total household land 6.5 3.5 14.1
Mean Land under pineapples (n=94) 1.73 1.8 4.7
Proportion under pineapple (%)(n=94) 52.20 59.90 69.30
Total production cost per acre (shs)
(n=83) 189,570.00 500,872.00 116,093.00
Labour (man days)
Crop labour input (n=97) 80.63 975.2 91.7
Pineapple labour input (n=89) 56.4 66.1 50.2
Revenue (shs)
Pineapple revenue per acre (shs)
(n=72) 17073.00 368468.00 258553.00
Pineapple proportion of total
inc.(%)(n=72) 2.57 25.42 34.01
Gross margins per pineapple acre
(n=87) 63,239.00 894,077.00 513,465.00
Source: Survey data, 2014
The mean crop labor input in inevitably highest with the organic farmer category, nearly ten times more
than the other two categories, reflecting the intensity of labor input in organic farming. However mean
pineapple revenue per acre and gross margins per pineapple acre are also highest with the certified
organic farmers. It is important to note that pineapples were valued at farm gate price and not
considering the double premium that will be offered by the exporter under the terms of the contract.
Pineapple revenue for the certified organic farmers under the terms of the contract is therefore likely to
increase further. This opportunity is three-fold; through the sale of fresh organic pineapple to an export
market and dried pineapple to local supermarkets, regional and export markets, and the sale of other
organic products produced with the same resources on the certified organic farms, to the same markets.
272
Conclusion
Although organic farmers have the potential to produce more, better quality products and achieve higher
incomes than conventional farmers, they need the support of stakeholders who provide various services
as may be required to develop the organic value chain. MSPs provide technical support services,
research for improved planting material, organic certification, and market linkages. The OP value chain
presents opportunities for farmers to upgrade farming practices, product quality through drying the
pineapple, and skills to package the products. The value chain further presents the opportunity to
increase their gross margins above those of conventional farmers. This study recommends that efforts to
support and promote such MSPs in organic value chain development will promote and sustain both the
socio-economic and environmental benefits of organic farming in Uganda.
Acknowledgement
The financial support by the FARA and NOGAMU to the partners for research and support services is
gratefully acknowledged by the authors.
References
Brown, D. (2007). Multi stakeholder partnerships at Synergos: Experience and Learning in the first
decade: A background paper for the Synergos 20th Anniversary reflection.
Escobar, O. and Hues, N.V. (2007). Current developments in Organic farming. Recent Research
Development in Soil Science, 2 (2007), Kerala, India.
Kilcher, L. (2007). How organic agriculture contributes to sustainable development. JART, Supplement
89 (2007) 31-49. University of Kazzel at Witzenhausen.
273
rd
Organic Governance Regimes: The Best Bet for Nigeria's

Organic Sector
ADEBIYI JELILI ADEGBOYEGA
Department of Community Sustainability, Michigan State University, USA.
Keywords: Organic governance regime, third-party system, PGS, food production, smallholders.
Abstract
The paper explored the organic governance regime, which is the best bet for advancing the
development of organic agriculture in Nigeria. The paper argued in favor of the
participatory guarantee system (PGS). The core argument was that, compared to the
internal control system (ICS) and the third-party system, the PGS is entirely focused on
domestic organic markets. The paper also noted that Nigeria has largely underexploited
domestic organic market potentials. It was therefore argued that the PGS offers a window for
transforming untapped domestic organic market opportunities to foster the development of
OA in the country. The paper also argued that by starting with the PGS, Nigeria's
smallholders can master organic food production technical requirements, following which
they can transition to the ICS and third-party system. Finally, the paper also appropriated
the costs associated with the ICS and third-party system to make a case for the PGS as the
best bet for Nigeria's infant organic sector.
Introduction
Organic agriculture (OA) is at its infancy in Nigeria. Yet, it is experiencing noticeable and promising growth.
For example, from 3, 042 ha in 2006, the land in OA in Nigeria increased to 9, 521 ha in 2012 (FAOSTAT,
2014). Nigeria's farmers generally consider OA to be compatible with their farming practices. Nigeria also has
untapped domestic market opportunities for organic products. These are indicative of the opportunities for the
growth of OA in Nigeria. For this to happen, the constraints to the growth of OA in Nigeria, including, a lack of
organic governance regimes (OGRs) must be addressed (Hagensen and Atungwu, 2010).
Worldwide, OGRs are part of organic food production systems. They can be created by governments/non-
governmental stakeholders, including farmers. OGRs specify the rules governing and regulating organic food
systems, including labelling, and marketing. OGRs may (1) enable or constrain the adoption of OA, (2)
foster/restrict market access, especially, to international and domestic premium prices for organic products, (3)
create conditions, which may favor or impede the entry and domination of the organic food systems by
agribusinesses (Schmid, 2007; González and Nigh, 2005). Therefore, OGRs can shape the direction of growth
and development of a country's OA by creating an exclusive institutional environment. Given this, this paper
explores the OGRs, which offer the best bet for the development of OA in Nigeria, taking cognizance that
smallholders dominate the country's agriculture.
Organic Governance Regimes: History and Rationale

OGRs are the rules/regulations that define how organic products should be produced, processed, conserved,
packaged, certified, labelled and marketed. Government drawn OGRs are called regulations. The ones by
275
ADEBIYI JELILI ADEGBOYEGA:
Organic Sector
farmers' associations, private-stakeholders, or semi-autonomous bodies, are called organic standards.

Adherence to organic standards/regulations is confirmed through certification, a process, which usually, is
executed by an independent third-party (Schmid, 2007; Dankers and Liu, 2003).
The origin of OGR is associated with the introduction of a private label called Demeter in 1928 in Berlin,
Germany, by a co-operative inspired by and associated with Rudolf Steiner's biodynamic movement. Steiner is
one of the pioneers of OA (Schmid, 2007; Rundgren, 2003). The Demeter was issued to farmers whose
products were grown on biodynamically managed fields, whose seeds were obtained from fields, which did not
use synthetic fertilizers for three years, and whose produce were produced according to basic food quality
standards (Schmid, 2007).
The Demeter's norms and other biodynamic agriculture principles shaped the evolution of OA, a term
which was first used in 1940 by Sir Northbourne, an Oxford agricultural scientist (Morgera et al., 2012).
Comparable farming norms to Demeter's were established in the 1940s by two different organic-biological
cooperatives in Switzerland (Schmid, 2007). The private norms specified 'codes' for organically grown foods.
Then, the objective was “more to communicate what they (farmers, emphasis, mine) had learned than to codify
what constitutes organic farming” (Dankers and Liu, 2003, p. 15). Rundgren (2003) also notes, “there was no
pressure to define organic production systems strictly, because consumer interest was limited to the 'alternative'
sector and links between producer and consumer often were close (p. 12). That explains why at the initial phase,
voluntary 'OGRs' were farmer-driven, characterized 'loose codes,' and informal inspection of farmers' fields.
Certification was based on farmers' peer-review (Rundgren, 2003).
In 1967, the Soil Association, UK, released her own organic standards to protect organic farmers and
consumers from fraudulent organic claims. In the 1970s, similar farmers/consumers-driven private standards
were also formulated in Australia, France and the United States Forthwith, inspection system became integral
to OGR and certification systems to guarantee trust, and protect organic operators and customers' interest
(Rundgren, 2003; Schmid, 2007).
As OA began to expand and command consumer attraction worldwide, private standards continue to
proliferate and fragmentize. This created confusion within the organic community as products not certified
according to a particular private standards may not be considered organic, even, within the same country. This
necessitated the need for reference standards and a common definition of OA. Consequently, the IFOAM Basic
Standards was developed in 1987 and later, the World Trade Organization's Codex Alimentarius for organic
vegetable. Through the mid-1980s, inspection and compliance with organic standards was mainly done by
farmers through a peer review process (Nelson et al., 2010). Yet, OA continued to be defined differently by
private standards, nationally and internationally. Also, with the sector's growth beyond local communities,
Global North consumers demanded for independent certifiers. Thus, some farmers-driven private standards'
organizations transformed to specialized independent certifiers (Courville, 2006; González and Nigh, 2005).
The definitional crisis and explosion in organic trade also drew government's interest, especially in Europe,
United States and Asia, who, from 1985, passed legislations regulating the sector and which established
national definitions of OA. This was also an attempt to harmonize the sector by specifying a national definition
of organic food production systems. Most of the national regulations drew on IFOAM Basic Standards. Also, to
prevent conflict of interest, national regulations outlawed inspectors from advising farmers. The sector's
growth, and advent of national regulation elicited commercial companies' interest in third-party organic
certification (Rundgren, 2002). From 1990s, they started dominating and influencing organic
standards/regulation setting. Thus, OGRs became a tool for facilitating market entry for organic products. Over
time, OGRs became more prescriptive as lesser attention is paid to OA underlying principles. Also, inspection
and certification became a procedure exclusively carried out by third-party, who are commercial actors and not
farmers (González and Nigh, 2005). These changes were meant to accommodate global food market realities.
They also reflect the influence of agribusinesses on the sector (Schmid, 2007). As later argued, the changes had
obvious socio-economic implications for smallholders, whose interest, OA is supposed to protect.
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rd
Organic Certification and Inspection Systems

There are three forms of organic certification and inspection systems: first-party, second-party and third-party
certification. In the first-party system, certification and inspection are done by farmers, often organized as
producers' groups. It is modelled after the earliest forms of 'OGRs' in practice between 1928-1970s (González
and Nigh, 2005). It is often promoted by pro-organic Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and development
agencies to help smallholders' access domestic organic markets, without necessarily attracting premium prices.
Here, certification is informally done through peer-review by organic farmers, and may include other
stakeholders, like consumers, and agronomists. It operates on a face-to-face social relationship, trust, and the
exchange of knowledge between farmers and consumers (Nelson et al., 2010; Castro, 2014).
The first-party system is widely practiced through a documented quality assurance procedure called
Participatory Guarantee System (PGS), which is in use in many developing countries, including Uganda,
Tanzania, and Mexico. The PGS is locally focused as organic products so certified can only be traded locally. It
is flexible as it requires less paperwork. It was developed to help foster an inclusive organic sector, which allows
for smallholders' participation. Certification in the PGS can be based on either national regulation or private
organic standards. To be successfully implemented, it requires local capacity building, technical support,
transparency, shared vision and knowledge sharing. Also, the PGS requires educating farmers and consumers
about OA underlying principles. The PGS offers a good stepping stone to the second and third-party system.
Some of its downsides are that, it is not a basis for organic exports and may not attract premium prices (Katto-
Andrighetto, 2013; IFOAM, 2013).
In the second-party system, a party other than farmers, audits and certifies that organic products complied
with certain standards. The second-party may be a CSO or trading agents (commercial companies/private
stakeholders) and are also responsible for setting or adopting standards/regulations to be used for certification
(Setboonsarng, 2008). This certification system is often implemented through a documented quality assurance
system called Internal Control System (ICS). The ICS is a group certification system as it requires organizing
producers of the same organic product into a production group. This may be facilitated by pro-organic CSOs or
trading agents, who also, will work with the producer groups to develop and sign an undertaken to adhere to an
ICS, which informs their product certification. The ICS requires the production group to do internal audits of
their members' production activities, and to develop and maintain up-to-date documentation of their farm
operations to help guarantee compliance to set out organic standards/regulations. Random auditing of some
farmers in the group, including their documentations will be conducted by an external auditor. Afterward,
certification will be issued by a third-party, who may be a local or an international certifier. One certification
fees will be paid, either by the farmers group or the second-party who holds the certification right. The
advantages of this system are that: reduction in certification costs as one fees is paid by all the farmers in the
group; ICS certified products can be marketed locally and international at premium prices. Its major limitations
are that: farmers may not be to sell their products independently as they do not hold certification rights; farmers'
often rely on trading agents to access markets for their products internationally; the entire group may be denied
certification due to omission by one member (Preißel & Reckling 2010; Källander, 2008; Barrett et al., 2010).
Finally, the third-party system is conducted by a third-party, who is neither a farmer nor a trading agent. It is
the only certification system that is recognized worldwide and upon which the term organically certified is
conventionally associated with. A third-party certifier may be domestically or international located. However,
majority of the third-party certifiers are located in developed countries. They often use standards adapted to
their agroecological conditions and the interests of developed world consumers. Consequently, the costs and
terms of certification are often too high for developing countries' smallholder farmers, thereby, constraining
them from partaking in organic food markets. Also, the third-party system emphasizes compliance to allowable
and prohibited inputs at the expense of OA socio-ecological principles. To prevent conflict of interest, it
prohibits inspectors from guiding farmers on what they need to do right to be certified (Nelson et al, 2010;
González and Nigh, 2005).
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Organic Sector
Organic Certification and Nigeria's Infant Organic Sector

This section explores the types of OGRs, which offer the best bet for Nigeria's infant organic sector. Presently,
published studies suggest that the few organic farmers in Nigeria rely on international third-party certifiers and
standards. Also, the adopters, and potential adopters of OA in Nigeria are farmers with about 0.1-10 ha.
Majority of them have elementary and high school education and are living below poverty level (Oluwasusi,
2014; Faturoti et al., 2012). Given their poverty level, third-party certification may discourage majority of
Nigerian smallholders from adopting and taking advantage of OA to improve their productivity, market access
and livelihood conditions. Third-party certification costs are very expensive and beyond the reach of African
smallholders, including Nigeria's (Rosinger, 2013; AdeOluwa, 2010). Also, third-party certified organic
products are always sold to highly competitive markets in developed countries, where producers can earn
premium prices, which may be good enough to cover their certification costs and make their farm operations
profitable. With the mean farm size of the potential OA adopters in Nigeria, they may not able to meet and
sustain the required production volume for export markets. This may not be the case if they sell through an
association. Furthermore, the logistics and paper work associated with third-party certification present
considerable barrier to the adoption of OA, especially in developing countries such as Nigeria with no locally-
situated international certifier (Bolwig, 2012; AdeOluwa, 2010). Taken together, these factors suggest that
promoting third-party certification system in Nigeria may potentially prevent the country's smallholders from
adopting OA. This may hinder the inclusive development of the sector. The foregoing makes the ICS and PGS
the potential best bet OGR options for Nigeria.
Previously, it was highlighted that the ICS and PGS are often promoted by pro-organic CSOs, and that they
involve organizing farmers into production groups. In Nigeria, OA is currently promoted by CSOs, which
mostly consists of agricultural scientists, and some farmers as members. These CSOs include the Organic
Agriculture Project in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria and the Nigerian Organic Agricultural Network (NOAN).
Furthermore, most of the pro-organic CSOs are pioneered and hosted by some universities in the country.
The CSOs partner farmers and other stakeholders to foster the adoption and development of OA (Aiyelaagbe
2009, cited in Aiyelaagbe et al., 2011; Aiyelaagbe et al., 2009). This possibly positions the CSOs in a good stead
to leverage their relationship with farmers to help organize the latter into production groups around certain
organic products. Besides, the expertise of the CSOs can be explored to provide the technical and extensionist
support necessary for Nigeria's smallholders to develop an ICS or PGS for their potential OA operations.
Moreover, it is reported that the Nigerian farmers with the likelihood of adopting OA are members of farmers'
cooperative society (Oluwasusi, 2014). This seems to present organizational social capital opportunity, which
can be harnessed to organize smallholders with favorable disposition to OA into production groups.
Also, there are promising but untapped domestic market opportunities for organic foods in Nigeria, even
without a third-party certification, especially in southwest Nigeria (Phillip and Dipeolu, 2010). Also, there is
favorable disposition and some level of awareness about OA among Nigeria's smallholders (Solomon and
Okolo, 2008; Adesope et al., 2008; Adebisi-Adelani et al., 2010; Adebayo and Oladele, 2014). With this, it
seems reasonable that these category of farmers be organized around the PGS certification system as it is
exclusively focused on domestic organic markets. Over time, the PGS may equip participating smallholders
with the capacity to produce for the highly competitive export markets through the ICS or third-party
certification system. Another reason the PGS may be the best bet for Nigerian organics is that its focus on
domestic markets may help insulate Nigerian smallholders against a possible deep in organic export markets.
However, Nigeria's smallholders, who are supported by agribusinesses/international agencies may be
organized around the ICS or third-party system.
Given the analysis above, the PGS seems to be the best bet for the development of OA in Nigeria. It offers an
opportunity to explore untapped domestic market opportunities for organic foods in Nigeria. Also, with the
PGS, Nigerian smallholders have the opportunity to master OA production requirements, following which they
can progress to the ICS and third-party system, which allow them to produce for export markets. The costs of
the ICS and third-systems, and the competitiveness of producing for export markets also underscored why the
PGS is considered the best bet for Nigeria's infant organic sector.
278
rd
Conclusion
This paper found that the PGS offers the best bet for the development of OA in Nigeria. The underlying
argument is that, compared to the ICS and third-party system, the PGS is exclusively focused on certifying for
domestic organic markets. Also, noting the untapped domestic organic market potentials, it was argued that the
PGS offers a window for translating domestic market opportunities for the development of OA in Nigeria. It
was also reasoned that with the PGS, Nigerian smallholders have the opportunity to master organic food
production technical requirements over time, following which they can progress to the ICS and third-party
systems, which allow them to produce for highly competitive export markets. The costs of the ICS and third-
systems, and the competitiveness of producing for export markets also underscored why the PGS was
considered the best bet for Nigeria's infant organic sector.
References
Adebayo, S. and Oladele, I. O. (2014). Organic agricultural practices among small holder farmers in
South Western Nigeria. In V. Pilipavicius (Ed.). Organic agriculture towards sustainability:
51-66. DOI: 10.5772/57598. Retrieved, February 10, 2015:
http://www.intechopen.com/books/organic-agriculture-towards-sustainability/organic-
agricultural-practices-among-small-holder-farmers-in-south-western-nigeria.
AdeOluwa, O. (2011). Organic agriculture fair trade in West Africa. In C. L. Edwards, and N. S.
Scialabba, (Eds). Food systems resilience in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome: 323-345.
Adebisi-Adelani, O., Olajide-Taiwo, F.B., Adeoye, I. B., Olajide-Taiwo, L.O. (2011). Analysis of
production constraints facing Fadama vegetable farmers in Oyo State, Nigeria. World
Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 7 (2): 189-192.
Adesope, O. M., Matthews-Njoku E. C., Oguzor, N. S., Ugwuja, V. C. (2008). Effect of socio-
economic characteristics of farmers on their adoption of organic farming practices. Crop
Production Technologies, 212-220.
Aiyelaagbe, I.O.O., Harris, P.J.C., Trenchard, E. Atungwu, J. J. (2009). Organic agriculture in higher
education in West Africa. Ecology and Farming, 45: 31-33.
Aiyelaagbe I. O. O., Harris, P.J.C Trenchard, E. (2011) The Work, Learn, Earn Programme (WELP)
for Developing Entrepreneurship in Organic Agriculture Among Graduates In Nigeria.
Invited paper delivered at the British Council-The Association of Commonwealth
Universities Conference on 'Making the best use of Africa's graduates the role of international
partnerships', Accra Ghana, 16-18 January 2011.
Barrett, H. R., Browne, A. W., Harris, P. J. C., and Cadoret, K. (2001). Smallholder farmers and organic
certification: Accessing the EU market from the developing world. Biological Agriculture
and Horticulture, 19(2), 183-199.
Bolwig, S. (2012). Poverty and gender effects of smallholder organic contract farming in Uganda.
IFPRI Uganda Strategy Support Program. Working Paper 8.
CourvIlle, S. (2006). Organic standards and certification. In P. Kristiansen, A. Taji, and J. Reganold.
(Eds). Organic Agriculture: A Global Perspective. Cornell University Press: Ithaca, New
York: 329-350.
Castro, F. (2014). Overview of Participatory Guarantee Systems (2012). H., Willer, and J. Lernoud.
(Eds). The world of organic agriculture. Statistics and emerging trends 2014. IFOAM (Bonn)
and FiBL (Frick): 146-148.
Dankers, C. and P. Liu (2003). Environmental and social standards, certification and labelling for cash
crops. Rome, Italy: FAO.
Faturoti, B. O., Madukwe, M. C., Ogunedojutimi, O., and Anyanwu, L. (2012). Socioeconomic impact
of SARO agro-allied organic cocoa programme on beneficiary cocoa farmers in Nigeria.
Journal of Agricultural Extension Rural Development, 4(16), 435-445.
FAOSTAT. (2014). Agricultural area certified organic. Retrieved February, 19, 2015, from
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http://faostat3.fao.org/download/R/RL/E.
González, A. A., and Nigh, R. (2005). Smallholder participation and certification of organic farm
products in Mexico. Journal of Rural Studies, 21(4), 449-460.
Hagensen, J. Atungwu, J. (2010). A glance of the enthusiastic development of the organic sector in
Nigeria. ICROFS News: 9-11.
IFOAM. (2013). PGS and organic quality. Retrieved February 19, 2015. http://www.ifoam.org/en/pgs-
and-organic-quality.
Källander, I. (2008). Participatory guarantee systems–PGS. Swedish Society for Nature Conservation.
Katto-Andrighetto, Joelle (2013): Participatory guarantee systems in East Africa. Case studies from
Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Retrieved February, 19, 2015, from
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Morgera, E., Caro, C. B., and Durán, G. M. (2012). Organic Agriculture and the Law (FAO Legislative
Studies). Rome: FAO.
Nelson, E., Tovar, L. G., Rindermann, R. S., and Cruz, M. Á. G. (2010). Participatory organic
certification in Mexico: an alternative approach to maintaining the integrity of the organic
label. Agriculture and Human Values, 27(2), 227-237.
Oluwasusi, J. O. (2014). Vegetable farmers' attitude towards organic agriculture practices in selected
states of South West Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development: 6(7),
223-230.
Phillip, B., and Dipeolu, A. O. (2010). Willingness to pay for organic vegetables in abeokuta, south west
Nigeria. African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition Development, 10(11): 4364-4371.
Preißel, S., and Reckling, M. (2010). Smallholder group certification in Uganda-Analysis of internal control
systems in two organic export companies. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the
Tropics and Subtropics (JARTS), 111 (1), 13-22.
Rosinger, C. (2013). Organic agriculture and certification in Eastern Africa: A theoretical analysis with special
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agriculture-and-certification-in-Eastern-Africa.pdf.
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(2003). The organic guarantee system: the need and strategy for harmonization and equivalence.
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Organic Standards, 14: 13-15.
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Farming-An International History. CABI International: Oxford: 152-174.
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280
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Effects of Climate Change on Irrigated Rice Production in

Badagry Local Government Area of Lagos State, Nigeria
EZEKIEL, AYINDE ALANI
Department of Agricultural Economics, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria
Keywords: Effects, Climate Change, Irrigation, Rice, Production, Nigeria.
Abstract
The study focused on the effects of climate on irrigated rice production in Badagry Local
Government Area of Lagos State. It also examines the constraints the farmers faces in adapting
to climate unpredictability. Purposive sampling was used to select a total of 120 farmers and
were interviewed using a well structured questionnaire, descriptive statistical tools were used to
describe the socio-economic characteristics and Regression model was used to determine the
effect of climate change on irrigated rice. The empirical results of the regression analysis model
revealed that vocational and adult education were significant at (P<0.05), farm size (P<0.05),
income (P<0.1), level of awareness (P<0.01), primary education (P<0.01), level of adaptation
(P<0.1), favourable education (P<0.01), sunlight intensity (P<0.1) all had significant impact
on the effect of climate change on irrigated rice with intercept of -49225.13, results however
suggest that with increasing access to extension services, credit facilities, improved electricity
supply, access to adequate water supply, farmers can adopt various adaptation measures that
can lead to improvement in practicing irrigated rice production.
Introduction
Rice is the seed of the monocot plant also known as mono-cotyledon (one seed) Oryza sativa (Asian
rice) or Oryza glaberrima (African rice) and it is also a member of the grass family (Gramineae). Rice is
a cereal grain, which is the most important staple food (a food that is eaten regularly and in such
quantities as to constitute the dominant part of the diet and supplies a major proportion of energy and
nutrient needs) for a large part of the population in Nigeria. It is the grain with the second highest
production after Maize (Wikipedia, 2013). Rice is relatively easy to produce and is grown for both sale
and consumption. In some areas, there is a tradition of growing but for others its cultivation is relatively
recent. According to (Onwueme and Sinha, 1991). The traditional method of cultivating rice is flooding
the field, while or after, setting the young seedlings. This simple method requires sound planning and
servicing of the water damming and channelling, but reduces the growth of less robust weed and pest
plants that have no submerged growth state, and deters vermin while flooding is not mandatory for the
cultivation of rice. (Odjigo, 2010) said that, the production of irrigated rice in Nigeria is mostly in the
rural areas, which is dominated by aged people and children. Young and able-bodied men that are
capable of farming have migrated into the urban areas searching for greener pastures, thus leaving older
men, who are not strong enough to work on the farm, making the farm work slow and less productive.
The Nigerian government, both past and present recognized the importance of rice farming in Nigeria.
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EZEKIEL, AYINDE ALANI et al.:
Effects of Climate Change on Irrigated Rice Production in Badagry Local Government Area
of Lagos State, Nigeria
Statement of Problem
Rice production in Nigeria is faced with a lot of problem. The problem confronting rice cultivation and
production in some part of Nigeria may be due to drought, flooding, salt stress, and extreme
temperatures, insufficient rainfall, all of which are expected to worsen with climate change. Changes in
rainfall patterns and increase in temperature will bring about unfavourable growing conditions into the
cropping system there by modifying growing season which could subsequently reduce the crop
productivity. Local rice has not kept up with the domestic consumption demand of the Nigerian's
populace and consequently rice is still imported (Singh and jain, 1997). Therefore the following
questions are fundamental to this study:
– What are the socio- economic characteristics of the respondent in the study area?
– How does climate change affect the production of rice farming in the study area?
– What is the effect of irrigation on rice production?
– What are the factors that determine rice productivity?
Objectives of Study are to:

– identify the socio- economic characteristics of rice farmers in the study area.
– examine the effect of climate change on the production of rice farming in the study area.
– evaluate the importance of irrigation on rice production in the study area.
– Analyze the factors that determine rice productivity among farmers in the study area.
The Study Area: This study was carried out in Badagry local government area, a coastal town in Lagos
state, Nigeria. Badagry is traditionally known as 'Gbagi'. It is situated between metropolitan Lagos and
th
the border with Benin at Seme. It was founded in the early 15 century on a lagoon off the gulf of guinea;
o ` `` o ` ``
The study area is located between a latitude of 6.4167/6 25 38 N and a longitude of 2.8833/2 54 23 E. It
has a land size of 170sq meters (441km2). Has an altitude of 118feet/35metres. As of the preliminary
2006 results, the municipality had a population of 241, 093. While using the 3.2% growth rate, the 2012
estimated population for the local government is 287, 382.
Source of Data: Both primary and secondary data were collected through which data was analyzed.
Analysis of Data: The data collected were analyzed through the use of descriptive analysis, and
regression model.
Regression Analysis of the Determinant of the Effect of Climate Change on Irrigated Rice
The result of regression analysis shows the extent of the relationship between the independent variable
(Farm size, income, level of awareness, level of adaptation, sunlight intensity, favourable climatic
condition, disease prone environment, other education, and primary occupation) and the dependent variableY.
The model used for the analysis is given below:
Y = f (x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6, x7, x8, x9)
Y = â0 +â1 X1 + â 2X2 + â 3X3 + â 4X4 + â 5X5 + â 6X6 + â 7X7 + â 8X8 + â 9X9 + e
Where Y = output of Rice
X1 = Level of education, X2 = Farm size, X3 = income, X4 = level of awareness, X5 = primary,
occupation, X6 = level of adaptation, X7 = favourable climatic conditions, X8 = disease prone
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environment, X9 = sunlight intensity. This was achieved using regression model as specified in the
methodology. The result indicates that the F-value of 31.47 with P < 0.01. The R2 is 0.8760 and the
2
adjusted R is 0.8482 which depicts that 84.82% of the dependent variable is been explained by the
regressor, while the remaining 15.18% is due to factors outside those represented in the expression.
Generally speaking the model has a good fit to the data. In the analysis, nine (9) of the nineteen (19)
variable estimated were statistically significant at varying degree ranging between P < 0.01 and P < 0.1.
The intercept is -49225.13 and this represent the autonomous coefficient for the irrigated rice farmers in
the study area.
Socio-economic Characteristics of Respondents
Age of the Respondents: Table 1 shows that, 50.8% were between the ages of 31-40 years, 29.2% of the
respondents were less than 30 years of age, 14.2% were between 41-50 years of age and 5.8% falls
between the ranges of 51-60 years. This implies that majority of the sampled respondents' fell between
the ages of 31-40 years. The mean age is 36 years, which implies that majority of the respondent are still
in their active and productive age.
Sex of the Respondents: Table 2 revealed that majority of the respondents (70%) were male, while the
remaining 30% were female. This implies that male were the majority involved in farming and the
cultivation of irrigated rice and this might be due to the enormous physical activities involved in irrigated
rice farming operations.
Marital Status of the Respondents: Table 3 revealed that, 71.7% of the irrigated rice farmers were
married, and 28.3% were single. This implies that majority of the respondents involved with irrigated
rice production were married and their respective spouse can assist in the farming operation thereby
reducing cost of hiring labour.
Level of Education of the Respondents: Table 4 revealed that, 50.8% of the farmers had tertiary
education, 45.9% had secondary education, and 3.3% of the farmers had primary education. This
implies that majority of the respondents were educated, but with different qualifications. The average
years is spent in school is 16 years.
Household Size of the Respondents: Table 5 shows that, 84.2% of the sample surveyed had household
size that ranges between 1-5 and 15.8% had household that ranges between 6-10. This shows that
majority of the respondents enjoy the luxury of family labour.
Income of the Respondents: Table 6 reveals that, 90% of the respondents earn less than or
approximately 20 thousand naira. 5% of the respondents earn between 21-40 thousand naira, also 2.5 %
earn between 61-80 thousand naira while 1.7% earn 81thousand and 0.8% of the respondents earn
greater or equal to 41-60 thousand naira. This implies majority of the respondents are low class earners.
The average income of the respondents is N19, 358.33.
Farm Size of the Respondents: Table 7 shows that, 65% have between 1-5 acres of land, 21.7% have
land size of 10.1 – 15.1 acres, 7.5% have between 5.1 – 10.0 while the lowest percentage of 5.8 have no
land at all meaning they work on other peoples farm. This might be as a result of various land policies and
may affect rice production. The average farm size is 6acres.
283
Years of the Farming Experience of the Respondent: Table 8 shows that, 95.8% of the respondent
had 11-20 years experience in the practice, 3.3% had less or equal to 10 years' experience, while 0.8% of
them had an experience of 21 years and above in the practice. This implies that majority of them had been
in the system for long with only 3.3% of the having an experience that ranges from 0-10 years. The
average year of experience is 9 years.
Distribution of Respondents According to their Socio-Economic Characteristics
Table 1 Table 7
Age Frequency Percentage Farm Size (Acres) Frequency Percentage
<30 35 29.2 0 7 5.8
31-40 61 50.8 1.0 – 5.0 78 65.0
41-50 17 14.2 5.1 – 10.0 9 7.5
51-60 7 5.8 10.1 – 15.0 26 21.7
Total 120 100 Total 120 100
Table 2
Sex Frequency Percentage
Male 84 70 Table 8
Female 36 30
Farm Experience Frequency Percentage
Total 120 100
= 10 4 3.3
Table 3 11-20 115 95.8
= 21 1 0.8
Marital Status Frequency Percentage Total 120 100
Single 34 28.3
Married 86 71.7
Total 120 100
Table 9
Table 4 Years of Irrigation Frequency Percentage
Education Frequency Percentage None 1 0.8
Primary 4 3.3 1 19 15.8
Secondary 55 45.9 2 83 69.2
Tertiary 61 50.8 3 12 10
Total 120 100 5 5 4.2
Total 120 100
Table 5
Family Size Frequency Percentage
1– 5 101 84.42 Table 10
6 – 10 19 15.8 Source of Irrigation Frequency Percentage
Total 120 100 Well 3 2.5
Borehole 107 89.2
Table 6 Stream 1 0.8
Income Frequency Percentage River 9 7.5
= 20 000 108 90.0 Total 120 100
21 000 – 40
000 6 5.0
41 000 – 60 Table 11
000 1 0.8
Adequacy of Irrigation Frequency Percentage
61 000 – 80
000 3 2.5 No 10 8.3
= 81 000 2 1.7 Yes 110 91.7
Total 120 100 Total 120 100
Source: Field Survey, 2013.
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Conclusions and Recommendations
The general objective of this study is to analyze the effect of climate change on irrigated rice production
in Badagry Local Government Area of Lagos State.
Based on the findings of the study in the study area, the following recommendations were made:
– There is need for the government to look into the electricity sectors because irrigation farming
requires electricity/power supply to operate the system. The existing Dams should be monitored
and put in use and also new dams should be created by both the federal and state government.
– Agricultural economist should work with other stakeholders such as Agronomist, Rural
Sociologist, and Agricultural Extension Agencies to embark on massive campaign at helping
the farmers to respond and cope effectively with global warming as most of the farmers foreseen
the effect of climate change on irrigated rice production as due to environmental conditions.
References
Odjugo PAO (2010) General Overview of climate change impacts in Nigeria. Journal of Human
Ecology, 29(1): 47-55.
Sinha, S. K., M. S. Swaminathan. 1991. “Deforestation, climate change and sustainable nutrition
security: a case study of India.”Climatic Change 19: 201-209.
Singh, B. N., S. Fagade, M. N. Ukwungwu, C. Williams, S. S. Jagtap, O. Oladimeji, A. Efisue, &
Okhidievbie, 1997. Rice growing environments and biophysical constraints in different
agroecological zones of Nigeria. Met. J.2 (1), pp. 35-44.
Wikipedia (2013) http://: en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/rice section 14.
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Tunisia's Organic Agriculture Success Story:

Lessons for African Organics
ADEBIYI, JELILI ADEGBOYEGA
Department of Community Sustainability, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
Keywords: Success Story, institutionization, Tunisian OA Success story, stakeholders.
Abstract
This paper drew on some of the factors that stimulated the growth and development of
Tunisia's organic sector as one of the best in Africa and worldwide, to offer recommendations
for African organics. A major finding is that institution matter, as the formation of sector-wide
coordinating institutions, with distinct and interconnected functions is central to Tunisia's
organic agriculture success story. Also, the Tunisian experience demonstrates a need for
wide-ranging involvement of public and private organic stakeholders in the
institutionalization, agenda framing and their implementation for the development of an
organic sector. Finally, the Tunisian OA success story exemplifies a need for financial
dis/incentives for stimulating the growth of an organic sector.
Introduction
Africa is considered to have a high organic agriculture (OA) potentials that can be leveraged to mitigate
some of its developmental challenges, including low food productivity, food insecurity, and rural
poverty. One such potential is that the traditional farming systems in Africa are considered 'organic-by-
default' because they involve little to no use of synthetic farm inputs (Parrott et al., 2006; UNEP-
UNCTAD, 2008). This may make transition to certified organic operation in Africa to be possibly faster,
and potentially more productive. However, owing to some constraints, including dearth of organic
support policies and institutions, and high costs of certification, African organics have remained largely
underdeveloped (AdeOluwa, 2008; UNEP-UNCTAD, 2008).
Notwithstanding the underdeveloped state of African organics, Tunisia has been able to develop its
organic sector such that it ranks as one of the most rated in the world. In terms of certified organic land
area, with 196,918 ha, Tunisia ranks second in Africa, and 27th in the world. Also, Tunisia has the most
organized and advanced OA institutions in Africa (Heinze, 2012; Paull, 2011). Given Tunisia's OA
success story and that a high level of similarity exists in African agricultural clime, both in terms of
challenges and farming systems, it seems reasonable for African organics to learn from the Tunisian
experience. It is against this backdrop that this paper seeks to draw lessons from the Tunisia's OA
experience, which other African countries can leverage to advance the development of their organic
sectors. The discussion is limited to the institutionalization and organization of Tunisia's organic sector
and the policy instruments used to foster its development.
Tunisian Organic Sector: Brief History and Sector Performance

OA started in Tunisia in the mid-1980s, when 5-6 farmers in Tozeur and Keili began to grow dates
organically (Belkhiria and Ben Khedher, 2008; Carey, 2008). The government closely monitored the
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ADEBIYI, JELILI ADEGBOYEGA:
operations of the pioneer producers (Sameh Amara, cited in Lamboley, 2012). Convinced that OA can
be harnessed to enhance farmers' revenue and livelihood conditions, in 1997, the Tunisian government
started steering the development of the organic sector (Belkhiria and Ben Khedher, 2008). Since then
and due to a number of state interventions, the number of organic farmers and the hectarage in OA in
Tunisia have respectively grown by 251 and 594 manifolds (Figs. 1 & 2). Also, Tunisia's earnings from
OA produce exports has been on the rise, undergoing about 575% increment between 2004-2012 (Fig.
3). Tunisia's export organic crops and products include olive oil, dates, almond, vegetables, dried fruits,
aromatic and medicinal crops (Oxford Business Group, 2010; Turki and Bonezzi, 2011). Two of the
major measures that contributed to the Tunisian OA success story are later explained.
Figure 1: Total Number of Certified Organic Farmers
Figure 2: Total Certified Organic Area (Ha)
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Figure 3: Organic Export Value
Institutionalization and Sector Organization
The Tunisian government worked with non-governmental stakeholders to create specialized public OA
institutions, which are tasked with well-defined sector-wide duties. This includes, the Directorate
General of Organic Agriculture (DGAB), the main administrative body and authority within the
Ministry of Agriculture that directs and steers the development of the organic sector. The DGAB facilitates
the creation and implementation of national OA development plans and strategies and supervises the
activities of organic inspection and certification bodies operating in the country. It also facilitates organic
market development by (1) offering one-stop service, which provides market information and direction on
organic produce exports, (2) connecting traders with producers; and, (3) organizing promotional
campaigns, locally and internationally (Kilcher & Belkhiria, 2011; DGAB, 2011).
The Tunisian government also established the National Commission for Organic Agriculture
(CNAB). The CNAB is housed by the DGAB, which also supervises its activities. The CNAB is
structured as a multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder public OA institution, comprising members from
many government and non-governmental establishments. Among others, these include the
representatives of the ministries of commerce, environment and public health, organic farmers,
consumer defense organization, certification bodies and agriculture research institutions (Journal
Officiel De La République Tunisienne, 2012). The CNAB is the national consultative and advisorial
body on all matters regarding OA development. It also reviews documents related to OA, and proposes
plans on how the organic sector can be better supported and administered. Also, together with the
DGAB, the CNAB coordinates and audits the activities of organic certifiers and inspectors in the
country. Here, the CNAB specifically advises the government to issue, refuse, withdraw, or re-affirm the
authorization for OA certifiers and inspectors to operate in the country. Also, the CNAB hosts, keeps and
updates a record system of Tunisia's certified organic products, their production volume and markets.
This duty is jointly carried out with the DGAB, which helps the CNAB to manage the database. The
database comprises the identity of certified organic operators in the country, details of their operations,
their compliance and infringements of the rules guiding certified organic operations. This helps with the
maintenance of the integrity and competitiveness of Tunisia's organic products (Carey, 2008; Kilcher &
Belkhiria, 2011; Morgera et al., 2012).
289
The Tunisian government also established the Technical Centre of Organic Agriculture (The CTAB).
The CTAB sits on the board of the DGAB and on the organic audit and certification committee set up by
the DGAB. The main duty of the CTAB is to offer technical support services and organize human
capacity development trainings for organic operators in the country. It does this through means
including, field visits, demonstrations, and by organizing refresher trainings for organic farmers,
extensionist and researchers. The CTAB also conducts applied research on OA and adapts domestic and
international OA research results to local and regional farm conditions in the country. The CTAB also
fosters organic technology transfer and information exchange, through field trips, seminars and by
organizing local, regional and national workshops (CTAB, 2012; Mami, 2013).
The government also created the Regional Center of Research in Horticulture and Organic
Agriculture (CRRHAB). The CRRHAB conducts and disseminates research in all aspects of organic
horticultural production systems, the outcomes of which are simplified and adapted to local conditions
by the CTAB to ensure full-scale application by organic operators (MAHRF, 2013a, 2013b). Moreover,
the CRRHAB works with the CTAB and other stakeholders to foster organic technology transfer. This is
done, for example, by publishing the outcomes of its research activities, by conducting trainings and
organizing specialized technical education for students, farmers, researchers and extension officers
(Daami-Remadi, 2010). Finally, some of OA specialized enjoy budgetary autonomy, and all of them are
well-funded and adequately staffed with competent staff. This largely accounts for their ability to
effectively carry out their duties (Commission Européenne Direction Générale de la Santé et des
Consommateurs, 2012).
Investment Supportive Environment and Financial Instruments

The Tunisian government created a supportive environment that favored the adoption of OA and
stimulated investment in the organic sector through the use of subsidy package and tax breaks, such as
OA conversion subsidy. The conversion subsidy covers certification and inspection cost by 70% for
both individual and group organic producers. This is to help mitigate the financial barriers hindering
organic farmers from certifying their operations. Individual farmers can benefit from the conversion
subsidy for the first 5-year of adoption of OA, with a total subsidy amount not exceeding $3,013.87 per
annum. Group producers and associations can access not more than $6,027.73 per year as conversion
subsidy for the first 7-year of conversion (Ben Khedher, 2012; CTAB, 2012; Morgan, 2010). The
government also introduced subsidy packages and tax break aimed at increasing farmers' productivity,
reducing production costs and enhancing organic produce exports. Accordingly, organic equipment is
subsidized by 30% and the analysis cost of organic products for exports by 50%. Also, organic farming
equipment and supplies are exempted from valued-added tax and custom duties (CTAB, 2012;
Lamboley, 2012).
To stir investment in the sector, measures which enticed local and foreign investors were introduced.
This includes supporting organic farming projects with a matching grant of about 30%, a full income tax
exemption through the first ten-year of operation and by another 10% exemption thereafter (CTAB,
2012; Diefendorf et al., 2012). Also, full tax relief is provided on income and benefits reinvested as part
of the starting capital in OA companies. A special subsidy covering 1% of the investment amount is also
dedicated to support organic project study fees. The contract expenses incurred when securing organic
farmland is also repaid by the government. The government also encouraged and incentivized local-
foreign investment partnership with foreign investors allowed to have up to 60% ownership. Also, the
government relaxed the conditions for hiring foreign experts and workers whose services are secured in
the organic sector. Concerning this, four foreign project experts can be employed by entirely-export
companies without government's prior approval (Ben Khedher, 2004; CTAB, 2012). Finally, the
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government introduced annual presidential prize for the best organic producer in the country (Kilcher
and Belkhiria, 2011; Morgan, 2010).
As a result of the above policies and other related measures, between 2005 and 2010 the investment
in the organic sector averaged £5.3 million per annum (Oxford Business Group, 2010). In 2012, this
underwent a 43.21% increment as the investment in the organic sector reached £7.59 million, a figure
which represents more than 52% of the total investment in the agriculture sector for that year (Mami,
2013). The policies also facilitating an increase in the volume of organic exports and the number of
organic projects in the country (Diefendorf et al., 2012; Morgan, 2010; Tlili, 2012). Generally, the
effects of the policies transcend the organic sector as they contributed to over 250% increment in
investment in the agriculture sector between 2005 and 2009 (Diefendorf et al., 2012).
Policy Lessons and Recommendation for African Organics
The Tunisia OA development experience seems to suggest that institutions matter. As shown above, for
Tunisia's organic sector to take form and manifest its potentials, it took the establishment of sector-wide
coordinating institutions, with well-defined specific and interrelated functions. This seems to suggest a
need for the creation of national umbrella OA coordinating body as the first step towards the
development of African organics. This is particularly instructive for African countries without a
coordinating organic body, be it stated-facilitated or private-stakeholders' prompted.
Second, the Tunisia success story illustrates that, to be successful, organic coordinating bodies need
to devise means, which will help foster a broad participation of public and private organic stakeholders
that are linked to the organic sector. As Tunisia's CNAB exemplifies, doing this may require establishing
a multi-stakeholder/multi-sectoral deliberative body with well-defined functions to work with the
central coordinating body. Third, the Tunisian experience also draws attention to the need to fortify
organic coordinating institutions with the human and financial capacity required to undertake various
organic cross-sectoral activities. Finally, the Tunisian OA success story indicates that financial
dis/incentives are necessary for stimulating the growth of an organic sector. This is one area where
African governments can partner with private organic stakeholders to formulate wide-ranging financial
policy instrument to support the development of African organics.
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biologico nel Bacino del Mediterraneo. Politiche, Normative e Mercati per Un'agricoltura di Qualità
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Area (pp. 71-94). Bari, Italy : CIHEAM-IAMBP.
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Carey, C. (2008). Governmental Use of Voluntary Standards Case Study 9: Tunisia's Organic Standard UK:
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d'un Audit Effectué en Tunisie du 21 Novembre Au 02 Décembre 2011 Afin D'évaluer les Systèmes de
Contrôle en Place Régissant la Productiondes Produits De la Pêche et des Mollusques Bivalves
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Diefendorf, S., Barbaria, L., Roberts, N., and Fox, F., and Bovarnick, A. (2012). International Guidebook of
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ADEEYO, A.O AND LIASU M.O.
Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
Keywords: AgNPs, Exopolysaccharide, Mutants, L. edodes.
Abstract
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been reported to be useful in various fields and have
received considerable attention in order to develop efficient methodology for its synthesis.
Currently, nanoparticles are mainly produced classically by physical and chemical methods
involving techniques like heating and irradiation. These methods are costly, toxic and
hazardous, hence the need for alternative, eco-friendly approach. Biological methods of
nanoparticle synthesis have shown very promising solutions to those posed by classical
approaches. This paper explains the generation of an improved mutant strain of L.
edodesfrom its Wild type using Ultraviolet irradiation and the application of Wild and
Mutant strains in the production of exopolysaccharide (EPS) with excellent application in
green synthesis of AgNPs. AgNP was characterized by visual observation of colour pattern
in the reaction vessel, and UV-Visible spectroscopy. The synthesized nanoparticles were
confirmed through the appearance of yellowish (Wild) and purple (Mutant) colours which
are characteristic colours of nanoparticles. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first
report of using exopolysaccharide from L. edodes in the synthesis of silver nanoparticles.
This research reveals the application of L. edodes in synthesis of nanoparticles and adds to
the pool of organic materials available for green synthesis of nanoparticles. Hence L. edodes
can be explored for development of AgNPs with novel applications in industrial sector.
Introduction
Nanoparticles are being viewed as fundamental building blocks of nanotechnology and the
development of biological process for synthesis of nanoparticles is evolving into an important branch
of nanotechnology (Amkamwar et al., 2005; Cataleya, 2006). Biologically synthesized nanoparticles
have been implicated in many applications including production of spectrally selective coatings for
solar energy absorption, intercalation materials for electrical batteries, optical receptors, catalysts in
chemical reactions, biological labeling, bio sensors, drug delivery, antibacterial and antiviral
materials, detection of genetic disorders, gene therapy and DNA sequencing (Chandran et al., 2006).
It has been emphasized that methods of nanoparticle synthesis through biological systems may
include the use of bacteria, fungi, yeasts and diatoms which make the nanoparticle product of such
systems more biocompatible. Fungi are preferred mediators of nanoparticle synthesis because they
are easy to handle, require simple nutrient, possess high wall-binding capacity as well as intracellular
metal uptake capabilities (Verma, 2009). Different fungi and fungal extracts have been used for
synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Bhattacharya and Gupta, 2005; Gericke and Pinches, 2006;
Mohanpuria et al., 2008; Das and Marsili, 2010).
293
ADEEYO, A.O AND LIASU M.O.:
This paper explains the generation of an improved mutant strain of L. edodes using Ultraviolet
irradiation in the production of exopolysaccharide (EPS). The EPS produced from wild and mutant
strains were subsequently used in the production of AgNPs. AgNP was characterized by visual
observation of colour pattern, UV-Visible spectroscopy, and Scanning electron microscopy. The
synthesized nanoparticles were confirmed through the appearance of yellowish (Wild) and purple
(Mutant) colours which are characteristic colours of nanoparticles.
Collection of L. edodes strain:

L. edodes strain was obtained from Mushroom Research Centre, Himachal Pradesh Solan, India.
Induction of Physical Mutation:

Induction of physical mutation through ultraviolet light was carried out using the method of Adebayo
et al., (2012). An actively growing culture of 14 day old Wild L.edodes on Potato Dextrose Agar
(PDA) plate was exposed to UV light (254nm) for 10 minutes to obtain UV10 mutant strain.
Production of EPS:
A 14 day old Wild and UV10 mutant strain were subsequently used to inoculate 50 ml of fermentation
medium in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask consisting in g/L of glucose (10.0), yeast extract (1.0), peptone
o
(2.0), KH2PO4 (0.5) and MgSO4 (0.5). Other fermentation conditions include temperature (27 ± 2 C),
agitation (100 rpm) and incubation time of 7 days. This is a modified method of George et al. (2010).
EPS Extraction and Quantification:

Extraction of EPS was done by mixing cell free supernatant from respective fermentation medium
with 2 volume of cold absolute ethanol (v/v) and refrigerated at 4 0C overnight for EPS precipitation.
Precipitate was collected as crude EPS fraction after centrifugation (4000 rpm, 15 min.) as specified
by Majolagbe et al. (2013) and re-dissolved in 20 ml of sterile distilled water. The concentration of
EPS per ml was determined by measuring the absorbance at 490 nm of digested EPS using phenol-
sulphuric acid method of Dubois et al. (1956) and calibrating to total sugar contents using glucose as
standard (Fig. 1).
Figure 1: AgNPs Colour patterns of and silver

nitrate solution (A), Wild (B) and
Uv10 mutant (C) after 24 hours
294
rd
Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)

A 1 ml volume of EPS extract of Wild and UV10 strains was dispensed into 5 ml 1mM AgNO3 in a 10 ml
capacity test tube. A third test tube contains 6 ml of 1 mM AgNO3 which serve as control. The 3 tubes
were vigorously shaken for 10 minutes and reaction was afterward allow to continue under room
temperature, intermittent shaking and under bright light condition (Thirumurugan et al., 2011). The
bioreduction of silver nitrate into AgNPs was monitored periodically by visual inspection and in a UV-
visible spectrophotometer (Genesys 10 UV, Thermoelectron Coperation, UK).
EPS yield of Wild and Mutant of L. edodes:

Comparing the EPS productivity of Wild and UV10 mutant, UV10 obtained at 10 minutes of exposure
to Ultraviolet irradiation gave the highest exopolysaccharide productivity of 2783.97mg/ml while the
Wild strain has a productivity of 1044.35mg/ml. The 10 minutes UV improved strain has an enhanced
capacity 266 % over the Wild strain which shows that UV mutagenesis is an effective strategy for EPS
optimization. Result of EPS production by UV mutant strain is as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. EPS production by strains of L. edodes

Strains Sugar (mg/L sample) Percentage increase in
production over wild (%)
Wild 1044.35 -
UV10 2783.97 266.66
Figure 2a: UV-Vis sprectrum of EPS extract of Wild and Silver nitrate with peak at 394 nm
295
Figure 2b: UV-Vis sprectrum of EPS extract of UV 10 and Silver nitrate with peak at 421 nm
Colour Change
Aqueous silver nitrate ions were reduced during exposure to the EPS extract of wild and mutant strain
of L. edodes. The colour of the reaction mixture changes from colourless to yellowish-brown for
extract of wild strain and purple in the case of UV10. Observed colour pattern became stable after 24
hours as indicated earlier in Fig 1. Yellowish-brown and purple colour developments have been
reported in association with nanoparticle production and due to excitation of Surface Plasmon
vibration in metal nanoparticle (Vanmathi and Sivakumar, 2012). Typical AgNP colouration
previously reported from bacteria exopolysccharide, and mushroom culture extract as well as mycelia
include yellowish brown (Lactobacillus rhamnosus) (Paulraj and Seung 2013), yellow (Pleurotus
ostreatus, Agaricus bisporus and Ganoderma lucidum), reddish brown (Calocybe indica) (Mirunalini
et al. 2012), light-grey (Schizophyllum comune) (Yeanet al., 2012), and dark brown (Stachybotrys
chartarum) (Abdel 2013). The variation in colour is attributed to the variation in composition of
biomolecules involved in nanoparticle synthesis and due to the excitation of surface Plasmon
vibrations in metal nanoparticles (Mulvaney 1996). Time for development of AgNPs as reported by
previous authors include 10 hrs (Paulraj and Seung 2013), 24 hrs (Abdel 2013), and 48 hrs
(Mirunalini et al. 2012). It was an observation in this research that EPS of L. edodes rapidly react with
AgNO3 solution to form AgNPs in 24 hrs.
UV Visible Studies
UV-Visible absorption spectroscopy has proven to be a versatile technique in analysis of AgNP
(Vanmathi and Sivakumar, 2012)and may provide information about morphology, size and
stabilization of AgNPs. Figure 2a-b show the UV visible spectra of biosynthesized AgNPs of Wild and
UV10 strains respectively after 24 hours in the range of 190-1100. The result indicates a broad Surface
Plasmon Resonance (SPR) peaks obtained at 421 and 394 nm. Several authors have reported peaks of
296
rd
absorption spectra of AgNPs in the range of 391-440 (Lateef et al., 2014). Peaks at this range are
characteristics of spherical, triangular or hexagonal shaped nanoparticles as reported by Brennan et
al., 2006; Zaki et al., 2011; Vanmathi and Sivakumar, 2012; Chan and Mat-Don, 2012 and Philip,
2009. This result indicates that the extracts of the Wild and UV10 strains produces nanoparticles of
similar or diverse morphology under the conditions investigated.
Conclusion
In this work, result obtained confirms that an alternative technique for synthesis of silver nanoparticle
using and organic approach is feasible. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of this
technique for modulation of product of nanoparticles in biosynthesis. This procedure can be employed
in the production of various types of nanoparticles and will constitute a useful tool in the amplification
of organically driven bioprocesses in organic agriculture.
References
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Pleurotuspulmonarius LAU 09 by mutation. Journal of Microbiology. 2: 11-17.
Amkamwar B., Damle C., Ahmad A. and Sastry M (2005). Biosynthesis of gold and silver
nanoparticles using Emblica officinalis fruit extract, their phase transfer and
transmetallation in an organic solution. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol 5: 1666-1671.
Bhattacharya D. and Gupta R.K. (2008).Nanotechnology and potential of microorganisms. Critical
reviews in biotechnology. 25: 199-204.
Brennan M.E., Armstrong G.J., Kelly J. and Whelan A.M. (2006). Patent publication: Sensors for
detecting an analyte using silver nanoparticles. Patent application publication. 1:1-39.
Cataleya C. (2006). In vitro toxicity assessment of silver nanoparticles in rat alveolar macrophages.
Master thesis, Wright state University, USA.
Chan Y. and Mat-Don M. (2012).Instantaneous biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by selected
macrofungi. Australian journal of basic and applied sciences. 6: 222-226.
Chandran S.P., Chaudhary M., Pasricha r., Ahmad A. and Sastry M. (2006).Synthesis of gold
nanotriangles and silver nanoparticles using Aloe vera plant extract.Biotechnology
progress. 22: 577-583.
Daizy P. (2009). Biosynthesis of Au, Ag and Au-Ag nanoparticles using edible mushroom extract.
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Gericke M. and Pinches A. (2006). Hydrometallurgy. 83: 132-140.
Majolagbe O.N., Oloke J.K., Adebayo E.A., Adewoyin A.G., Ayandele A. and Bamigboye C.
(2013). Study on the antimicrobial activity of exopolysaccharides of Lentinussubnudus
using swiss albino rats as animal model. American Eurasian journal of scientific research
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Mohanpuria P., Rana N.K. and Yadav S.K. (2008). J. Nanopart. Res. 10: 507.
Sahar-Zaki., El-kady M.F., Abd-el-haleem D. (2011). Materials research bulletin. 46: 1571-1576.
Sujoy K. D. and Enrico M. (2010). A green chemical approach for the synthesis of gold
nanoparticles: characterization and mechanistic aspect. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 9:
199-204.
Thirumurugan A., Neethu A.T., Hema P.K. and Prakash P (2011).Biological synthesis of silver
nanoparticles by Lantana camara leaf extract. International journal of nanomaterials and
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297
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POSTERS
ENGENDERING ECOLOGICAL ORGANIC AGRICULTURE (EOA) PRACTICES IN

SCHOOL CURRICULUM WILL FACILITATE ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT
AND REDUCE RISKS OF FOOD AND HUMAN HEALTH
Meludu Nkiru T.; Nnanna Chuks; Okonlawan Oluwatoyin and Olarinwaju Peter
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan
ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND ENVIROMENTAL BENEFITS OF INCULCATING A

RURAL LIFESTYLE INTO A CITY (CIVILIZED) SETTING – TRANSFORMATION OF
THE AFRICAN RURAL WOMEN - A PERSONAL STORY AND EXPERIENCE
Odukoya Oluyinka Iyabode
Dasyooh Limited (Farms), Ogun State, Nigeria
NATURAL PROTECTION FOR STORED ONION SEED

Navrongo-Bolgatanga Catholic Diocesan Development Office (NABOCADO),
Post Office Box 351, Bolgatanga, Ghana
ECONOMICS OF MAIN ORGANIC PERENNIAL FOOD CROPS PRODUCTION AND

MARKETING IN RIVER NILE STATE OF SUDAN,
299

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“Achieving Social and Economic Development

Through Ecological and Organic

o evolving concept of ecological organic agriculture as an organic alternative

Prof. Dr. GEROLD RAHMANN (Germany)

Title Initials Last name Organization Country

Prof. Dr. G. Rahmann Thuenen Institute Germany

Prof. V.I.O. Olowe Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta Nigeria

Dr. T.I. Olabiyi Department of Crop and Enviromental Nigeria

Dr. O.O. Fayinminnu Department of Crop Protection and Nigeria

Prof. M.O. Liasu, Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Nigeria

Dr. A.O. Akinwumi Department of Animal Nutrition and Nigeria

Mr. J. Ojo Department of Crop Production, Kwara State Nigeria

Dr. A.A. Olowoake Department of Crop Production, Kwara State Nigeria

Dr. M.O. Ipinmoroti Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Nigeria

Foreword .............................................................. . ............................................. iii

Nursery Establishment of Moringa oleifera as Affected by Pre-Sowing Seed Treatments

Growth Response of Garcinia kola Seedlings to Organic and Organomineral Fertilizers

Optimum Returns in Irrigated Groundnut as Influenced by Poultry Manure Rates at

Effects of Phosphocompost on Acidity Indices in an Acidic Soil in Ilesha,

Agronomic Performance and Seed Quality of Advanced Breeding Lines of Soybeans

Evaluation of Animal Manures on the Yield of Solanum macrocarpon L. and Chemical

Response of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hookf) to Different Levels of Poultry

Effect of Accelerated Compost on Soil Physical and Chemical Properties of an Alfisol

Evaluation of Velvet - Fallow and Compost Amendments on Corchorus

The Role of Composted Poultry Manure in Reducing Bioavailability of Heavy Metals

Potentials of Two Brewery Waste-Based Composts on Soil Fertility for

Gender Involvement in Ecological Organic Crop Farming in Ogun State, Nigeria

Promotion of Ecological Organic Agriculture (EOA) Principles and Practices through

Assessment of Awareness and knowledge of Ecological Organic Agriculture in Southwest Nigeria

The Potential of Ecological Farming in Delivering Social and Economic Development

Ecological Organic Agriculture Value Chain: Building Capacities on Identified

TlJANI, S.A AND OWOLABI, G ............................................................................. 141

Organic Livestock Production Sustainable Increase of Meat Production on Natural Grasslands

Analysis of Rural Household Use of Organic Farming-Practices-Amongst Livestock Farmers

Influence Withdrawal period of Tetracin® on Physico-Chemical Properties

Assessment of Bio-Nematicides on the Growth and Yield of Cowpea Planted on Nematode

Strengthening Collaboration Between Researchers and Practitioners within the

Opportunities and Challenges for Reinforcing Organic Agriculture Research Capacity in

Yield Response to Type of Mulch and Time of Mulch Application in Organic

Integrated Management of Two Foliar Disease of Sesame (Sesamum inducum L)

Effectiveness of Agroecological Intensification Techniques in Enhancing Soil Nutrient

Chlorophyll and Protein Contents of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfaria occidentallis) Planted on

Nitrogen Contents of Composts Enriched with Organic Nitrogen Sources

Multi – Stakeholder Partnerships in Organic Value Chain Development: A case of Ntungamo

Tunisia’s Organic Agriculture Success Story: Lessons for African Organics

Organic Production of Silver Nanoparticles

- ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF INCULCATING A

- NATURAL PROTECTION FOR STORED ONION SEED

- ECONOMICS OF MAIN ORGANIC PERENNIAL FOOD CROPS PRODUCTION

Nursery Establishment of Moringa Oleifera as Affected by

Keywords: Pre-sowing Treatment, Moringa, Germination Percentage, Growth, Biomass

Materials and Methods

Germination Percentage and Biomass Production

Table 1. Physico-chemical Properties of the Experimental Soil

Table 2. Effect of Seed Treatments on Moringa Biomass Production

Figure 1: Germination percentage as affected by seed treatments

Anon (2011). COLMORINGA SAS. Proyecto inicial en Prado-Tolima. Colombia.

Growth Response of Garcinia kola Seedlings to Organic and

Keywords: Garcinia kola, organic manure, organomineral fertilizer, growth parameters

Growth responses of Garcinia kola seedlings to organic manure and organomineral