Ias Baba History 2022

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ILP-2022
(Integrated Learning Program)
Value Add Notes (VAN)
HISTORY
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IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 5
PERIODISATION OF INDIAN HISTORY (TIMELINE) .............................................................. 10
Modern Histography: ....................................................................................................... 10
Sources to Study Ancient Indian History: .......................................................................... 11
STONE AGE.................................................................................................................................... 12
Paleolithic Age ................................................................................................................. 12
Mesolithic Age: (10,000 – 4000 BC) .................................................................................. 14
Sites: ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Neolithic Age: (7000 – 1000 BC) ....................................................................................... 15
THE HARAPPAN CULTURE: BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATION.............................................................. 17
Discovery:........................................................................................................................ 17
Famous Sites ................................................................................................................... 17
Town Planning and Structures.......................................................................................... 24
Agriculture ...................................................................................................................... 28
Domestication of Animals ................................................................................................ 30
Technology ...................................................................................................................... 30
Crafts............................................................................................................................... 31
Trade ............................................................................................................................... 31
Political Organization ....................................................................................................... 32
Temples ........................................................................................................................... 33
Religious Practices ........................................................................................................... 33
The Harappan Script ........................................................................................................ 36
Weights and Measures .................................................................................................... 37
Harappan Pottery ............................................................................................................ 38
Seals ................................................................................................................................ 38
Images ............................................................................................................................. 38
Terracotta Figurines ......................................................................................................... 40
Reasons of Decline........................................................................................................... 41
Post Urban phase of Harappan Culture (1900-1200 BC) .................................................... 41
VEDIC PERIOD ............................................................................................................................... 42
Early Vedic (1500 – 1000 BC) ............................................................................................ 42
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Rig Veda .......................................................................................................................... 43

Aryans ............................................................................................................................. 44
Aryans in India ................................................................................................................. 44
Occupation/Economy of Rig Vedic Society ....................................................................... 46
Political Organization ....................................................................................................... 47
Religion and Faith ............................................................................................................ 51
Social Conditions ............................................................................................................. 53
Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 BC).............................................................................................. 56
Archaeological Sources: ................................................................................................... 56
Literary Sources ............................................................................................................... 57
Living Pattern .................................................................................................................. 59
Political organization ....................................................................................................... 62
Social organization........................................................................................................... 63
Ashramas............................................................................................................................... 66
Gods, Rituals and Philosophy ........................................................................................... 67
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 69
Do you know?.................................................................................................................. 69
JAINISM AND BUDDHISM ............................................................................................................ 73
Causes of Origin ............................................................................................................... 73
Vardhamana Mahavira and Jainism ................................................................................. 75
Jainism ............................................................................................................................ 75
Doctrines of Jainism ......................................................................................................... 78
Philosophy....................................................................................................................... 79
Spread of Jainism ............................................................................................................. 81
Contribution of Jainism .................................................................................................... 82
Gautama Buddha and Buddhism ...................................................................................... 84
Tripitakas .............................................................................................................................. 85
Stories of Buddha’s Earlier Life: ........................................................................................ 85
Doctrines of Buddhism..................................................................................................... 87
Decline of Buddhism ........................................................................................................ 94
Buddism and Jainism- Comparative Study ........................................................................ 95
Buddha’s Gestures ........................................................................................................... 99
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MAURYAN EMPIRE ..................................................................................................................... 106

Possible Dimensions from which a question can be asked on Mauryan Dynasty ............. 108
Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrochotus/Androchotus in Greek records) ........................... 111
Bindusara (Amitrachotus) .............................................................................................. 112
Ashoka .......................................................................................................................... 113
Arthashastra .................................................................................................................. 126
Mauryan Administration ................................................................................................ 128
Indica ............................................................................................................................ 131
Economic Regulations .................................................................................................... 131
Social and Cultural Life ................................................................................................... 133
Mauryan Art .................................................................................................................. 133
Causes of Decline of Mauryan Empire ............................................................................ 140
Points to Remember: ..................................................................................................... 141
POST MAURYAN KINGDOMS ..................................................................................................... 143
Indo – Greeks (Bactrians) ............................................................................................... 143
Shakas (Scythians – Central Asia) ................................................................................... 145
Parthians (Phalvas) – Persia ........................................................................................... 146
Kushanas (Yuthi Tribe) – Central Asia ............................................................................. 146
Some great scholars of this period: ................................................................................ 146
Contribution of Kushans: ............................................................................................... 146
Impact of Central Asian Contacts ................................................................................... 148
Origin of Mahayana Buddhism ....................................................................................... 150
Mathura School of Art ................................................................................................... 150
Gandhara School of Art .................................................................................................. 151
Amravati School of Art ................................................................................................... 152
Satavahanas/Andhras .................................................................................................... 155
Social Organization ........................................................................................................ 163
Administration .............................................................................................................. 164
Religion ......................................................................................................................... 164
Architecture .................................................................................................................. 165
Language ....................................................................................................................... 171
CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POST-MAURYA AGE ............................................... 171
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Trade with Eastern Roman Empire ................................................................................. 175

Foreign Trade ................................................................................................................ 176
Money Economy ............................................................................................................ 177
Urban Settlements......................................................................................................... 177
SANGAM AGE ............................................................................................................................. 178
Important Literary Pieces ............................................................................................... 179
Tolkappiyam .................................................................................................................. 180
Shilapaddigram ................................................................................................................... 180
Manimekalai ....................................................................................................................... 180
Political History ............................................................................................................. 181
Sangam Society ............................................................................................................. 184
Economy of the Sangam Age .......................................................................................... 186
GUPTA PERIOD ........................................................................................................................... 187
Background ................................................................................................................... 187
Gupta Administration .................................................................................................... 197
Economy ....................................................................................................................... 200
Social Developments ..................................................................................................... 201
Buddhism and Bhagvatism ............................................................................................. 202
Literature ...................................................................................................................... 203
Art ................................................................................................................................. 208
Architecture .................................................................................................................. 211
Paintings During Gupta Period ....................................................................................... 214
Decline of Gupta Empire ................................................................................................ 214
HARSHA AND HIS TIMES ............................................................................................................ 217
Administration .............................................................................................................. 219
Huen Tsang .................................................................................................................... 219
TEST YOUR CONCEPTS ................................................................................................................ 220
IMPORTANT POIINTS/TERMS FROM ANCIENT INDIA & CULTURE .................................... 221
Six School of Philosophy ............................................................................................................ 229
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INTRODUCTION
Hello Friends,
In this block, we will be discussing the Indian History. As we have already disused in the
introductory module of Geography, Geography and History as disciplines were born in Greece
where writers used to accompany the kings during their voyages and wars.
This art of writing events in a sequential order became histography.
As discussed before, History shapes our habits, culture, values, dressing, cuisine etc. As history
shapes our society, it has been kept in GS Paper 1 with geography and Indian society.
In this Module, we are going to learn about Ancient India. You will find a good number of
questions asked in UPSC Prelims from this section.
Let us look into few previous years’ questions to get an idea:
Q.1) With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:
1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.

2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary, but
existed forever in a latent form.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Q.2) The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most famous and oft-illustrated
paintings at
a) Ajanta
b) Badami
c) Bagh
d) Ellora
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Q.3) With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus
Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus
Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
2. Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only
copper and iron.
3. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley
people having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Q.4) With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:
1. The concept of Bodhisattva is central to Hinayana sect of Buddhism

2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment
3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to
it.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 2 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Q.5) Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with the hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha
Mudra’. It symbolizes
a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his
meditation
b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of
Mara
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c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve
into the Earth, and thus this life is transitory
d) Both the statements (a) and (b) are correct in this context
Q.6) Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas, while the others are called Viharas.
What is the difference between the two?
a) Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya is the dwelling place of the monks
b) (b)Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the dwelling place of the monks
c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, while Vihara is the hall axial to it
d) There is no material difference between the two
Q.7) Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements:
1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did
not dominate the scene,
2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Q.8) Which of the following characterizes/ characterize the people of Indus Civilization?
1. They possessed great palaces and temples.

2. They worshipped both male and female deities.
3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.
Select the correct statement/ statements using the codes given below.
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None of the statements given above is correct
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Q.9) The “dharma” and “rita” depict a central idea of ancient Vedic civilization of India, in this
context, consider the following statements
1. Dharma was a conception of obligations and of the discharge of one’s duties to oneself
and to others.
2. Rita was the fundamental moral law governing the functioning of the universe and all it
contained.
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Q.10) The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of
a) Bhakti
b) image worship and Yajnas
c) worship of nature and Yajnas
d) worship of nature and Bhakti
Q.11) The national motto of India, ‘Satyameva Jayate’ inscribed below the Emblem of India is
taken from
a) Katha Upanishad
b) Chandogya Upanishad
c) Aitareya Upanishad
d) Mundaka Upanishad
Q.12) Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian
Philosophy?
a) Mimamsa and Vedanta

b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika
c) Lokayata and Kapalika
d) Sankhya and Yoga
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Q.13) The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by
a) Universal Law
b) Universal Truth
c) Universal Faith
d) Universal Soul
Q.14) With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following was/were common
to both Buddhism and Jainism?
1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment

2. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas
3. Denial of efficacy of rituals
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Q.15) Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with the hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha
Mudra’. It symbolizes
a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his
meditation
b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of
Mara
c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve
into the Earth, and thus this life is transitory
d) Both the statements (a) and (b) are correct in this context
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PERIODISATION OF INDIAN HISTORY (TIMELINE)
• Stone Ages - 5 lakh - 1000 BC

• Indus Valley Civilization - 2500 - 1750 BC
• Vedic culture: 1500 - 600 BC
• Jainism and Buddhism: 6th – 5th C BC
• Mahajanapadas before Mauryas: 6th – 4th BC
• Mauryan: 4th – 2nd C BC
• Post Mauryan History: 2nd – 3rd C AD
• Gupta Period: 4th – 6th AD
• Harshvardhan: 7th C AD
• Sangam Literature
MODERN HISTOGRAPHY:
Histography is the writing of History or the study of the written Histories.
In the late 18th century, especially after 1773, when East India Company officially got the
governing powers, British began the discovery of the Ancient Indian history to better understand
the local people and their culture. Several types of interpretations of the History were written:
Official History: It portrayed ancient Indian history in bad light. The main reason was to create a
mental impression that British culture and civilization is much superior and it has the natural right
to rule India. According to them, Indian history was dark history, backward, superstitious, idol
worshippers, snake charmers, uncivilized, Indians didn’t know how to rule themselves, were
always ruled by the outsiders, women was always suppressed etc.
Independent European Writers: They wrote Indian history with curiosity and appreciated the
rich and colorful culture.
Indian Scholars: They started writing in the latter half of the 19 th century. Secular Nationalists
glorified the ancient History and praised the Indian culture. They wanted Indians to be proud of
their cultural richness and not to feel inferior. Communal Nationalists over glorified the history,
hiding even the shortcomings.
Marxist Historians: They wrote history as class struggles in different phases-
• Ancient period – Masters vs. Slaves
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• Medieval period – feudal lords vs. peasants

• Modern period – capitalists vs. workers
Subaltern Writers: They did not write history focusing on kings and kingdoms, but their focus
was peasants, workers, artisans, regional kingdoms and smaller areas.
SOURCES TO STUDY ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY:

• Archaeological Sources
• Literary Sources
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
• Ruins of the buildings and cities: It is studied through excavations.
Excavations can be horizontal and vertical.
Horizontal excavation: It shows the proper areal extent of a civilization in a particular
time.
Vertical Excavation: It is helpful in showing different timelines.
Note: Vertical excavation is more prevalent in India because it is less costly. Also since
most of the land is in private hands people don’t allow the digging.
• Potteries: They tell about the local culture and technique.
• Graveyard/ Burial Grounds: It tells about the faith of contemporary civilization.
• Coins/Seals: Extent of empire, trade pattern and trade relations, symbols and language,
prosperity and economy.
• Buildings: It tells about the living standard and culture. It also tells about science and tech
and archaeological expertise of people.
• Tools and weapons: these again tell about the economy and wars. Also the extent of those
wars.
• Fossils
LITERARY SOURCES
Based on Literary sources, history is divided into three phases:
• Pre-history – a period for which no written records are available. e.g. Stone Age.
• Proto-history – a period for which written records are available but they have not yet
deciphered, e.g. Indus valley Civilization.
• History – a period for which not only written records are available but such texts have
been deciphered as well. This age starts from 6th C BC onwards.
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STONE AGE
In the context of Indian sub-continent, Stone Age is divided into following ages:
• Paleolithic Age: 5 lakh – 10,000 BC

• Mesolithic Age: 10000 BC – 4000 BC
• Neolithic Age: 7000 – 1000 BC
• Chalcolithic Age (Copper age): 2500 – 750 BC
(NOTE: the time line of these ages is overlapping because the ages started at different places at
different times.)
PALEOLITHIC AGE
Also known as Old Stone Age
SITES:
• Sohan Valley/ Soan Valley – Punjab (Pakistan)
• Narmada Valley
• Krishna Valley
• Chotanagpur plateau
Bori Valley in Maharashtra has the earliest evidence of human existence in Indian Sub-continent.
TOOLS:
• Hand Axes
• Borers
• Chopper
• Pebbles
• Flakes
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Tools were made of stones. A cutting edge was created by chipping and flaking the stone.
LIFE STYLE:
Food Habits: People were hunters and gatherers. They were omnivorous i.e. both vegetarian and
non-vegetarian.
Clothing: Used to wear leaves and hides of animals.
Housing: Caves – hence preferred hilly areas as they provided security and natural caves;
thatched huts (The information is gained by Bhimbetka cave paintings.)
Do you know?
• Narmada Man or Narmada Human is the earliest Homo species of Indian sub-continent.
This fossil was found on banks of Narmada River in Hathnora Village of Madhya Pradesh
in 1982.
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MESOLITHIC AGE: (10,000 – 4000 BC)
SITES:
• Adamgarh – Madhya Pradesh
• Bagore – Rajasthan
• Bhimbetka – Madhya Pradesh
Pic courtesy: entrancegeek.
TOOLS:
• Blades which were sharp on both edges
• Crescent
• Trapezes
• Arrow
(Note: the size of the tools became smaller (Microliths). They required more skill and precision
to make.)
LIFE STYLE:
• Life style was similar to Paleolithic man except one major change – domestication of
animals started.
• The economy of early period of Mesolithic age was based on hunting, fishing and food
gathering. Slowly domesticating crops and animals made their way into human life.
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• Human Burial- Mesolithic human burials have been found at Bagor in Rajasthan, Langhnaj
in Gujarat, Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh etc.
NEOLITHIC AGE: (7000 – 1000 BC)
SITES:
• Chirand – Bihar (Only bone tools were found)
• Burzahom and Guftral – Kashmir
• Bhimbetka – M.P.
• Belan Valley – UP
• Mehrgarh – Balochistan (First agricultural evidence is found)
• Maski and Brahmagiri – Karnataka (Both Neolithic and chalcolithic tools are found)
TOOLS:
• Antelope horns – Kashmir
• Oval shaped – Southern India
• Polished Stone – Bihar
You can observe the sharpness and the fineness of the tools have changed.
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LIFE STYLE:
• Man became a food producer. First evidence of agriculture is found at Mehrgarh (Wheat
and Barley; 7000 – 6000 BC), Belan Valley (Rice; 6000 BC)
• Clothing: Animal skin, leaves, bark.
• Housing: Thatched houses made of mud were made.
• People started living in bigger groups because of agriculture. Pottery making started with
the help of a wheel.
• Unique burial methods were seen like the one shown on the cover page of the module. It
is a fossil of Dog at Burzahom. Dog burials were seen here.
CHALCOLITHIC AGE (2500 – 700 BC)

Chalcolithic is also known as Eneolithic period which saw the use of the metals among which the
Copper was first.
SITES:
• Ahar Culture ( Ahar, Gilund in Rajasthan)
• Jorwe Culture ( Inamgaon, Daimabad in Maharashtra)
• Malwa Culture ( Navdatoli, Eran, Kayatha in Madhya Pradesh)
TOOLS:
• Largely made of stone and copper
• Hand Axes, sickles, borers made of copper
LIFE STYLE:
• A developed village life started.
• Food: A variety of crops were grown – wheat, barley, rice, pulses, oil seeds, dates, peas
and water melon.
• Domestication of Animals: Cattle and pigs were domesticated.
• Clothing: Cotton was used in later period.
• Pottery: Ochre Colored Pottery and Black and Red Pottery was used. (OCP and BRP)
• Burials: they buried the dead bodies with the personal belongings of the person. This
shows that they must have believed in life after death. In western India, bodies were
buried in North – South Direction and in Southern India; they were buried in East – West
Direction.
• Housing: Mud and Mud brick houses were found.
Do you know?
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• Belan Valley is the place in India where all the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic sites
are found.
• Robert Bruce foot was the father of Indian pre-history.
• Dolmen, Cairn-circles and Menhirs etc. Megalithic Burials.
• Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) is connected with Late Harappans.
• The earliest evidence of settled agriculture in the subcontinent is found at Mehrgarh
• Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Cultures are found in sequence at Belan Valley
• The earliest evidence of Man in India is found at Narmada Valley.
THE HARAPPAN CULTURE: BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATION
DISCOVERY:
• Till 19th century, the Indus Valley Civilization was unknown and it was believed that Vedic
people were the oldest inhabitants of India.
• In 1850, during the construction work of railways, some artifacts were found which were
very old. It was an exciting discovery and an excavation was planned. But later, due to
WW-I the excavation as planned had to be postponed.
• In 1921, Harappa was excavated under the leadership of Sir John Marshal and D. R. Sahni.
Harappa is situated on the bank of River Ravi in Punjab (Pakistan).
• In 1922, Mohenjodaro was excavated in Larkana district of Sindh (Pakistan) under the
supervision of R. D. Bannerjee.
• Since similar town planning and artifacts were found, it was concluded that they belonged
to the same civilization despite being 480 miles apart.
• Since Harappa was excavated first, the civilization was named after it due to historical
precedence.
FAMOUS SITES
MOHENJODARO
Also known as "Mound of the Dead"
• Largest site to be excavated/ on river Indus
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Let’s do some advertising too.. :P :P
Since BABA was always there, and BABA will always be.. we predict that the savior of
Mohenjodaro will be born again as ‘Akbar’ in another Value Add :P
Important findings:
Great Bath: A great Bath i.e. a large bath tub was found in the city. It measures 11.88 meters x
7.01 meters and has a maximum depth of 2.43 meters. It is made up of burnt bricks of standard
size. It is believed that it might have been used for some ritual or holy bath.
Great Granary: A large granary is found, showing surplus food production. It also shows that
there was a proper civic administration, storage facilities, and trade and commerce.
Dancing Girl: A bronze statue of dancing girl was found. Apart from wearing necklace and
bangles, it is naked. It shows that dance was practiced. It also shows the artistic and metallurgical
capability of the civilization.
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Yes Mr Gowarikar.. Absolutely Identical!! :D
To cast that bronze image, lost wax technique was used. It is given in detail in the NCERT.
Largest Number of Seals:
• Seals were made of steatite (hard clay) and were probably used as currency (although
barter system prevailed) or as mark of authority for trade.
• Round, Square or Cylindrical shape
• The Harappan script, gods and animals are also depicted on seals giving detailed
information about their practices, beliefs and life in general.
Script: It is a pictographic script. It was written from right to left in one line and then left to right
in other and so on. This type of script is called ‘Boustrophedon’. It has not been deciphered so
far but around 400 unique symbols have been identified.
Assembly Hall: A large assembly hall was found at the citadel.
Pashupati Seal: A seal depicting a human image, or Proto Shiva (Pashupati) was found. The image
is surrounded by Tiger, Elephant, Rhino and a Buffalo. It has two deer at his feet.
Cotton: Evidence of Cotton fabric was found in fossilized form.
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Large Building: A large building (probably a palace or the Governor’s house) has been excavated
at the citadel. However, it is not clear whether the Harappan people were governed by a king or
a committee of citizens.
HARAPPA
Located on River Ravi
Important Findings:
• 12 granaries, kept in two rows. (6 in each row)

• To the South of the Granaries lay working floors consisting of rows of circular brick
platforms. These were meant for thrashing grains as wheat and Barley was found in the
crevices of the floor. Two roomed barracks were also found which probably
accommodated the laborers.
• Different types of Burial Practices were performed:
Direct Burial i.e. body was directly buried in the ground
Urn Burial i.e. Body was first cremated and then the ashes were buried in the urn
Coffin Burial
• Second largest numbers of seals were found from Harappa after Mohenjodaro.
KALIBANGAN
River Ghaggar (Rajasthan)
Important Findings:
• Pre-Harappan and Harappan culture

• Evidence of ploughed land is found. Wooden ploughs were used; hence the ploughs have
not survived.
• Evidence of Fire Altars
• Citadel is made of mud bricks. In all other sides, the citadel has been made of Burnt bricks.
• Bones of camel
• Rectangular and circular graves
• No drainage and brunt bricks evidence found here
LOTHAL
River Bhogwa (Gujarat)
Important Findings:
• Dockyard (made of burnt bricks) was used for shipping (artificial dock)
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• Persian seals have been found showing the evidence of Trade.

• Evidence of Rice Husk (This is the only place other than Rangapur in IVC where evidence
of rice is found)
• Entry to houses on the main street
• Evidence of double burial i.e. in one grave- MF (most common), MM, and FF. The reason
why this was done is unknown.
• Evidence of fire Altars
CHANHU DARO
River Indus (Sindh)
Important Findings:
• It is believed that it was the industrial town of the IVC.

• Factories of bangles and beads have been found.
• The only city in the Indus Valley civilization which does not have a citadel was Chanhu
Daro, located some 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-Daro.
DHOLAVIRA
Important Findings:
• Kutch District, Gujarat.

• Its location is on the Tropic of Cancer
• It is located on Khadir Byet Island in the Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary in the Great Rann
of Kutch.
• The citadel of Dholavira is built of stone and is a monumental work and most impressive
among the Harappan citadels discovered so far.
• A unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system
• One of the most important findings of Dholavira has been a signboard with Indus Script.
• It has a similar bath like Mohenjodaro, but smaller in size.
Other important sites of Indus Valley Civilisation are:
• Rakhigarhi, Ropar, Kot diji, Alamgir Pur, Sokhtagindor etc.
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DO YOU KNOW?
• Rakhigarhi in Hissar, Haryana has been recently declared as the largest site of Indus Valley.
• In the Indus Valley Civilization, a bearded man in steatite image has been found
Mohenjodaro
• Dholavira is the only site to be divided into three parts
• In the Indus Valley Civilization, the remains of Horse bones have been found from
Surkotada site. The site at Surkotada is located 160 km north-east of Bhuj, in the district
of Kutch, Gujarat.
• The Indus valley people knew the use of copper, bronze, silver, gold but not iron.
• The Harappa site is located in Montogomery district of Punjab in Pakistan.
The following map will show the important sites area of Indus valley civilization:
Geographical Extent
• The Harappan culture is older than chalcolithic culture i.e. Harappan culture time period
is 2800 B.C. – 1300 B.C. while chalcolithic age’s time period is 2200 B.C. to 700 B.C.
• It arose in north western part of Indian subcontinent.
• It was first discovered in 1921.
• It is called as Harappan civilization because in archaeology there is a convention that when
an ancient culture is described, it is named after the modern name of first site which
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revealed its existence. In this case Harappa (situated in province of west Punjab in
Pakistan) was the first site and so named Harappan civilization.
• The Harappan culture emerged in Sindh and Punjab. This was Pre Harappan culture and
Central zone of civilization which later developed into mature Urban civilization. It spread
into southward and eastward.
• In other words, Harappan civilization covered – Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan,
Rajasthan, Gujarat and fringes of western Uttar Pradesh.
Extension of Civilization
• North – Jammu, South – Narmada estuary, North-East – Meerut, West - Makrana coast
of Baluchistan. (see the above image)
• Area – 12,99,600 kms.
• The Harappa civilization was 20 times greater than Egypt and 12 times larger than
combining area of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Sites
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• About 1500 Harappan sites were discovered out of which around 925 are in India.
• These sites belong to early, mature and late phases of Harappan culture but most of them
are late Harappa, post-urban sites. These lie on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra channel.
• Very few sites can be regarded as cities.
o Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were two most important cities of Harappan
civilization. Mohenjo-Daro means mound of the dead. Both cities were linked by
Indus River.
o 3rd city – Chanhudaro in Sindh.
o 4th – Lothal in Gujarat at the head of the Gulf of Cambay.
o 5th – Kalibangan which means black bangles, in northern Rajasthan.
o 6th – Banawali (Hissar, Haryana)
o The last two cities have seen Pre-Harappan and Harappan culture.
• The Harappan culture in –
o Mature phase is found in coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada
o Later phase is found in Rangpur and Rojdi in Kathiwar peninsula in Gujrat.
• Dholvira in Gujarat shows Harappa fortification + all 3 phases of Harappan culture.
• Rakhigarhi in Haryana also shows all the 3 phases. But Rakhigarhi is bigger than Dholavira.
TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURES
• Town planning was unique features of this civilization.
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• Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro has citadel (a strong castle in or near a city, where people
can shelter from danger, especially during a war). There is a possibility that it can be
occupied by ruling class.
• Below the city there is a lower town consisting of bricks. These may be inhabited by
common people.
• The pattern in which houses were laid was grid or chessboard pattern. In this system the
road or streets cut each other at right angles i.e. 90°. The city was divided into many
blocks. Almost all the Indus settlements have this pattern.
• Mohenjo-Daro has more building structures compared to the Harappa.
• Mohenjo-Daro was able to mobilize labor and collect taxes.
• 2 room barracks found at Harappa were possibly for laborers inhabitation.
GREAT BATH
• Most important place of Mohenjo-Daro.
• It was a tank situated at citadel.
• Example of beautiful brickwork.
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• On both the sides of the great bath there were flights of steps to lead to the surface.
• There are side rooms to change cloths.
• Burnt bricks were used to made floor of the great bath.
• To fill bath with water, a nearby well was used.
• There was an outlet in the corner of the bath so that water can be drained when not
needed.
• It is believed that this bath was mainly for ritual bathing.
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GRANARIES
Mohenjo-Daro granaries
• These were the largest buildings in Mohenjo-Daro.
Harappa Granaries
• Harappa was having 6 granaries.
• The granaries at Harappa had same area as Great granary at Mohenjo-Daro.

• To the south of the Granaries, working floors were there which were used to thrash the
grains.
• How do we know this? – Remains of wheat and barley had been found in cervices of these
floors.
Kalibangan granaries
• In southern part of the city we found some brick platforms which could have been used
for storing grains indicating that granaries were an important part of Harappan cities.
• Probably, peasants paid their taxes in form of cereals which was stored in granaries for
payment of wages and emergency purposes. (In Mesopotamia barley was used for wage
payments)
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BURNT BRICKS USAGE

• Burnt bricks were used remarkably in construction of buildings in Harappa. While Egypt
used dried bricks for same purpose.
• Baked bricks were also used by Mesopotamia.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
• Drainage system was impressive as almost all cities and towns were having drainage
system.
• In every city each small or big house had its own courtyard and bathroom with remarkable
quality.
• Kalibangan – many houses had their own wells.
• Water from houses flowed to the streets which had drains.

• These drains were covered with stones slabs or bricks. (you can see in above image)
• These street drains were also having manholes used for cleaning purposes.
• Remains of street and drains had also been found at Banawali.
• The drainage system of Harappa is very unique.
• Harappan’s attention to health and clean probably had no match by other Bronze Age
civilization.
AGRICULTURE
• It seems that in ancient times Indus region was very fertile.
• Evidences of it are prosperity of the villages and towns and information by Alexander’s
historian’s about prosperity of Sindh.
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• Present day Indus region has hardly 15 centimeters rainfall. While in ancient times
abundant vegetation attracted more rainfall but clearing of forests for agriculture, fuel,
timber, grazing had largely affected rainfall.
• The secret of fertility of Indus region was annual inundation by Indus River. Walls rose for
protection shows that flood takes place annually.
• The Indus carried more alluvial soil than Nile River.
• Nile River in Egypt supported its people. Similarly, Indus helped and fed Sindh people.
• After receding of flood water in month of November the Indus people sowed the seeds
and in month of April i.e. before coming of next flood they harvested wheat and Barley.
AGRICULTURE TOOLS
• No trace of any hoe or ploughshare but ploughed field found in Kalibangan shows that
fields were ploughed.
• Probably they would have wooden ploughshare which degraded with time.
• How these ploughshares were drawn i.e. by men or oxen is unknown.
• Maybe they have used stone sickles to harvest the crops.
IRRIGATION
• Nalas or Gabarbands enclosed by dams were used to store water in Baluchistan and
Afghanistan.
• Channel or canal irrigation – absent or not known to them.
FOOD GRAIN PRODUCTION
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• Harappan villages situated near flood plains produced sufficient food grains for
themselves as well as for other communities like artisans, merchants and others who lived
in the city and don’t produce their foods. (Just like today’s farmers).
• In other words, there was surplus of food grains.
• They produced wheat and barley (2 types), rai, peas, sesamum and mustard.
• In Lothal – rice was produced in 1800 B.C.
• Food grains were stored in granaries.
• Cotton’s earliest producers were Harappans. Greeks called it as Sindon (derived from
Sindh) because cotton was first produced by it.
DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
• Animals which were domesticated - Oxen, buffaloes, goats, ships and pigs.
• Animal favored by Harappans – Humped Bull.

• Pets – Dogs. Cats were also domesticated and signs of the feet of both are found.
• Animals for beasts of burden – Camel and ass.
• Horse evidences –Surkotada (Horse remains in 2000 B.C.)
• But Harappan culture was not horse-centered and there were no bones of horses in early
and mature phases of Harappan culture.
• Harappans knew Elephant and Rhinoceros.
• Similarity of Harappans with Sumerian cities of Mesopotamia – same food grains
production and same animals’ domestication.
• Difference – Harappans in Gujarat produce rice and domesticated elephant which wasn’t
in Mesopotamian cities.
TECHNOLOGY
• Harappan culture belongs to Bronze Age.
• They used the tools made of stone but they were also aware of manufacturing of Bronze
and use of bronze.
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• Bronze is made by mixing tin and copper. But both were not available locally and so the
numbers of bronze tools were less.
• Copper - was obtained from Khetri mines in Rajasthan’s Juhnjhunu district. It could have
been brought from Balochistan as well.
• Tin – it was brought from Afghanistan or Hazaribagh and Bastar.
• The bronze tools discovered from Harappan sites were having less percentage of tin.
• Bronze smiths – they were an important artisan group in Harappan society. They
produced images, utensils, axes, saws, knives and spears
CRAFTS
TEXTILE
• We read above that Harappans were earliest to produce cotton.
• A piece of woven cotton has been found from Mohenjo-Daro.
• Spindle whorls – it was used for spinning.
• Weavers – they weave cloths from wool and cotton.
OTHER CRAFTS
• Brick laying, masons, boat-making, seal making and terracotta manufacturers were
important crafts.
• Goldsmiths – they made jewelry from gold, Silver and precious stones. Gold and silver was
obtained from Afghanistan while precious stones were brought from South India.
• Bead making – Harappans were exporters in bead making.
• Pottery making – for pottery making potter’s wheel was used. Pottery was having its own
characteristic with glossy and shining.
TRADE
• Granaries at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal, numerous seals, uniform scripts,
regulated weights and measures suggest importance of trade in Harappan civilization.
• Inland trade - They traded in stone, metal, shell etc.
• They didn’t possess raw material for the production of commodities.
• Money system – Today we have notes and coins but Harappans were not having any metal
money. Most probably they were having barter system, in which they procure metals in
exchange of food grains.
• Navigation – They practice navigation on coast of Arabian Sea.
• Wheel – They knew about wheel and it was used in carts.
• They used kind of modern ekka but not spoked wheel.
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TRADE WITH AFGHANISTAN, IRAN AND MESOPOTAMIA
• Commercial links with one area of Rajasthan, and also with Afghanistan and Iran.
• Trading colony – Harappans had setup a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which
facilitated trade with central Asia.
• Trade with Mesopotamia–because Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamia.
• The trade between two mostly in lapis lazuli in 2300 B.C. Mesopotamian texts speak of
trading relations with Meluha which was ancient name of Indus region. They also told us
about two intermediate stations – Dilmun and Makan – between the Meluha and
Mesopotamia. Dilmun can probably be present Bahrain in Persian Gulf while Makan is
present Makran coast of Iran and Pakistan.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
• There is no clear idea about the political organisation of the Indus Valley people. Unlike
the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians they have not left behind any inscription describing
their system of administration.
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• Perhaps the Indus valley people were more concerned with commerce and they were
ruled by a class of merchants. But it can be safely stated that there was an organisation
like a municipal corporation to look after the civic amenities of the people.
TEMPLES
• While Egypt and Mesopotamia were having temples there is no evidence of temple like
structure in Harappa's culture.
• In Lothal, there are evidences of practicing of fire cult but evidences of temples are
missing.
Figure fire altars are from Kalibangan and Lotha
• Probably Harappa was ruled by class of merchants, who were more concerned with
commerce than conquests. It must be noted that the Harappans lack in weapons.
RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
• Numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found from Harappa.
• In one of the figurines, a plant is growing out of the embryo of women representing earth
goddess. This goddess was connected with the origin and growth of plants.
• The Harappans worshipped earth goddess as fertility goddess and in similar manner as
Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess Isis.
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• But we are not sure that Harappa's like Egyptians were matriarchal or not.
• In Egypt daughter inherits the throne or property, but in Harappa who inherits this, we
have no knowledge about this.
• It is only in 6th century AD onwards that various mother goddesses such as Durga, Kali,
Chandi, Amba etc. came to be regarded as goddess in Puranas and Tantric literatures.
The Male Deity (Proto Shiva) in the Indus Valley
• In Harappan civilization the male deity was represented on seal

• The male deity was having three (3) horns head. He sits like a yogi on a stool in cross-
legged position.
• Animals like Elephant, Tiger, Rhinoceros and Buffalo surrounded him while two Deer are
under his stool.
Code to remember the animals in seal – DBT (Deer, Buffalo, Tiger) scheme in Russia and
England (Rhino and Elephant)
• The male deity in seal is identified as Pashupati Mahadev which is doubtful. Horned Gods
appear in other ancient civilization also.
Phallus worship
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• Phallus worship existed in Harappan times which later connected with Shiva.
• Evidences of phallus worship - numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs
made of stone.
• According to Rig-Veda Non-Aryan people were also worshippers of phallus.
• Phallus worship had been started by Harappans which later become respectable form of
worship in Hindu society.
Tree Worship
• Other than worshipping phallus, male deity and mother goddess, Harappans also
worshipped trees and animals.
• Pipal - most important tree which was worshipped and even worshipped today.
• Evidences - Deity represented on a seal in the midst of the branches of Pipal.
Animal Worship
• Like other worship evidences, animal worship can also be seen on seals.
• One horned unicorn - Most important animal to be worshipped. Identified with
Rhinoceros.
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• Humped bull - Next important animal which was worshipped.

• Animals in Pashupati seal indicates that they were also worshipped.
• These Gods in form of trees, animals, were not placed in temples while in Ancient Egypt
and Mesopotamia it was common.
• Scholars have not said anything about religious beliefs of Harappan as their script is not
deciphered.
• Amulets – these were found in large numbers, probably because of belief in ghosts and
evil forces which could harm them and they used amulets which protected them from evil
spirit.
• Atharvaveda composed in Vedic period consists of many charms and spells and
recommends amulets for warning of diseases and evils forces.
THE HARAPPAN SCRIPT
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• Harappan like ancient Mesopotamians invented the art of writing.

• The Harappan script is a mystery because it has not been deciphered.
• Many have linked it with other languages like Dravidian or Proto Dravidian or Sanskrit or
Sumerian but it’s an indigenous product and has nothing to do with other languages.
• Because of non-decipherment of script, we can’t conclude anything about its religion,
ideas and beliefs.
• Most of the script is found on seals, using very few words. Seals were used for
authentication purposes. (for example if a packet is sealed, its contents are safe)
• Only one thing which we know about script is – it is pictographic and not alphabetic.
o There were 250 to 400 pictographs
o Each picture represents an idea or object.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

• We know that Harappans have some script and they also trade. The script must have
helped them to record the transactions, day to day activities, property details etc.
• There are number of articles found which were used for weights and measures
o 16 or its multiples – in weighing mostly 16 or its multiples were used. Example –
16, 64, 460, 320 and 640
o This tradition of 16 continued till post-independence era and 46 annas made one
rupee.
• They also knew about measurement.

• Evidences – sticks inscribed with measure marks. One of the sticks was made of bronze.
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HARAPPAN POTTERY
• Used potter’s wheel to made pots

• Numerous pots painted in various designs.
• Designs – trees and circles and also geometry
SEALS
• >2000 seals found
• Majority carried short inscription with pictures of one horned bull, buffalo, tiger,
rhinoceros, goat and elephant
• Square or quadrilateral.
IMAGES
• Made beautiful metal images
• Dancing girl made of bronze is master piece of Harappa.
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o She is naked
o Right arm on hip
o Left arm hanging down
o Wearing number of bangles
o Hair is plaited
o Masterpiece of Harappan art
o Drooping eyes
• Bearded priest
o Figure of the bearded man was interpreted as a priest

o He is draped in a shawl which is coming under right arm and covers the left
shoulder.
o Shawl decorated with trefoil pattern
o Eyes – little elongated and half closed like in mediation
o Nose – well-formed and medium size
o Mouth – average size, close cut moustache, short beard and whiskers
o Hair – parted in middle
▪ Plain woven fillet passed round head.
o Head – armlet in right hand
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TERRACOTTA FIGURINES
Terracotta figurines
• Large numbers from Harappan settlements

• Terracotta figurines of animals – birds, monkeys, sheep, dogs and cattles, humped and
• Humpless bulls
• Male and female figurines
• Terracotta bullock carts (today ‘s bullock cart’s ancestors)
• Quality- less than Mesopotamia
Beads
• Made of – agate, turquoise, carnelian and steatite

• Workshop- chanhudaro
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REASONS OF DECLINE
• Amount of rainfall
o 3000 BC – amount of rainfall in Indus region increased and then decreased
affecting the agriculture and stockbreeding
• Decreasing fertility
o Expansion of desert increased salinity which further decreased the fertility again
affecting the agriculture.
• Sudden subsidence or uplift of the land which caused floods
• Earthquake
o Earthquake caused changes in the course of Indus causing inundation of Mohenjo-
Daro hinterland.
• Decline due to foreign Invasion.
o According to this view Vedic Aryans who destroyed the Harappan culture.
o But it is lacked in evidences.
Reality of Decline of Harappan Civilization
• There were lot of factors which contributed in decline of Harappan civilization

• One of the important factors is – ecological imbalance
• Failure in the evolvement i.e. Harappan were conservative. No new technologies.
POST URBAN PHASE OF HARAPPAN CULTURE (1900 -1200 BC)

• Time period- 1900-1200 BC
• Also known as – sub Indus culture
• Earlier considered post Harappan but now more popularly called as late Harappan culture.
• Traits of post urban Harappan culture were found in Pakistan and central and western
India
o Manda, Jammu
o Sanghol in Punjab
o Daulatpur and mitthal, Haryana
o Almgirpur and Hulas in Saharanpur, UP
• It was primarily chalcolithic in which tools of stone and copper were used
• Tools – Axes, chisels, knives, bangles, curved razors, fish-holks and spear-heads
• Economic subsidence – agriculture, stock raising, hunting and fishing
• Gradual disappearance of measuring objects, human figurines etc.
o Objects to measure length were not found. For e.g. in later period – cubical stone
weights and terracotta cakes were absent in Gujarat.
o All Harappan sites lack human figurines
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o Faience – it went out of fashion

• End of Indus trade with West Asian centers
o Scarcity or absence of Lapis lazuli, chert, carnelian beads and copper and bronze
vessels
• Pottery
o New kinds of pottery occurred in last levels of post urban phase
o In Haryana and Punjab – grey ware and painted grey ware found- these were
associated with Vedic people
• It is said that barbarian horse riding people came from Iran and overran Harappan cities.
But careful examination of evidences revealed that this wasn’t true.
o Successive groups of people may have encountered the people belonging to the
late Harappan phase between 1500 BC and 1200 BC.
VEDIC PERIOD
Vedic period is broadly divided into
• Early Vedic (1500 – 1000 BC)

• Later Vedic (1000 – 600 BC)
EARLY VEDIC (1500 – 1000 BC)
Early Vedic period is the name given to the period of composition of Rig Veda and arrival of early
Aryans.
Rig Veda is the most important source to know about the early Vedic Period and early Aryans. It
is considered the purest form of Hindu Literature.
Manuscript of Rig Veda written on bark of a tree.
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RIG VEDA
The term ‘Veda’ is derived from ‘Vid’ which means ‘to know’.
Features of Rig Veda –
• Oldest book of any kind in India.

• It was composed during 1500 – 1000 BC in the Punjab region. As a book it was compiled
much later.
• Since Aryans didn’t know how to write, it was preserved for centuries using an oral
tradition.
• In Rig Veda, there are 10 Mandals (chapters), 1028 Suktas (Hymns) and 10465 Shlokas
(verses)
• The Mandals from 2nd to 8th are older. While 1st and 10th mandals are the latest. The term
‘Shudra’, is mentioned for the first time in the 10th mandal.
• The book is written in Vedic Sanskrit. It is the earliest form of Sanskrit, perhaps without
Grammar.
o It has many things common with Avesta (oldest text in Iranian languages)
o Avesta and Rig-Veda had used common names for several gods and social classes.
• Gods and Goddesses are praised in the book. Modern Hindus believe that it is a revealed
book.
• Aryans: the word ‘Aryan’ literally means pure or noble. The name was given to the
linguistic group and not a race. It is believed that they originally came from Eurasia
(Central Asia) and settled in Punjab region. Hence rives Indus has been mentioned several
times in Rig Veda.
• Indus was the most important river for them. Also, river Saraswati has been praised the
most. It is referred as Naditama (Mother River).
OLD NAMES NEW NAMES
Sindhu Indus
Vitasta Jhelum
Askini Chenab
Paurusni Ravi
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Bipasa Beas
Shatudri Satluj
Saraswati Ghaggar
Kubha Kabul
• They were aware of Himalayas but not of Deserts and Seas. In Rig Veda, the word
‘Samudra’ meant a collection of water.
• Since early Aryans did not come from Far East or South, they were not aware of Narmada.
• Ganga is mentioned only once, since it was not socially important, it was not a holy river
then. Yamuna, since it was close to Punjab has been mentioned thrice.
ARYANS
• It was a racial group.
• Spoke – Indo-European language
• Lived in – Southern Russia to Central Asia
• Aryans were aware of rivers and forests
• Earliest life – pastoral
o Agriculture – 2nd occupation
• Important role of horse in their life
o Horse came in their life in 6th millennium BC in black sea and Ural mountain area
o 60000 horse bones appear in Ural area (in 3000 BC)
• Because of Horse’s swiftness, Aryans were able to inroad in West Asia.
ARYANS IN INDIA
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How do we know about their presence in India?
• What has been written in Rig-Veda about Aryans?

o Aryan term occurs 36 times
o It was considered a cultural community
• Earliest example of Indo-European language is found in an inscription of 2200 BC from
Iraq. Later example occurs in following inscriptions -
• Coming of Aryans has no clear and definite archaeological evidence
• They came to India in 1500 BC
• Maybe they have used socketed axe, bronze dirks and swords – found in North western
India
• Horse and horse sacrifices archaeological evidences – Southern Tajikistan (central Asia)
and swat valley.
• Earliest Aryan lived – eastern Afghanistan, NWFP, Punjab and fronts of UP
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•
• On region in which Aryan first settled in India is called as Saptasaindhwa or land of the 7
Rivers (Indus + its 5 tributaries + Sarswati)
Dasas and Dasyus
• After coming into India, they had differences with indigenous inhabitants called Dasas,
dasyus etc.
OCCUPATION/ECONOMY OF RIG VEDIC SOCIETY

• Early Aryans were pastoral nomads. Domestication of Animals was the most important
activity.
• They knew farming, but it was not very developed. Only one crop is mentioned in Rig
Veda, Yava i.e. Barley.
• Gau (Cow) is mentioned several times showing the importance of Cow and cattle. Cow
was the most important property. The wars were not fought for land but for cattle.
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• Some important terms mentioned in Rig Veda related to cow:

Gavisti: Search/conflict for the cow.
Godhuli: Evening time when cows used to return to their shed – measurement of time.
Dudhitra: Milker of the cow.
Gavyanti: Distance travelled by cow in a day – measurement of distance.
Aghanya: Not to be killed.
• Rig Veda mentions certain occupations like – carpenters, leather workers, chariot makers,
Potters and weavers. There is no clear evidence of trade like it is found during IVC.
• Aryans introduced a new mode of Transport, the chariots run by horses. Because of this
they could best the indigenous people with much ease. And that made them a dominating
force. But we don’t find any archaeological evidence of above-mentioned things.
Spoked wheel - Probably 1st to introduce spoked wheel
Copper Possible supply – Khetri mines (Rajasthan)
Craftsmen
• RV mentions
o Carpenter
o Chariot maker
o Weaver
o Leather worker
o Potter etc.
• Practiced all crafts
• Metal working was also known to them.
Trade
• No evidences of regular trade
Early Aryans were grouped into tribes based on the cattle. Collectively the tribe was called Jana.
And the leader of it was called a ‘Rajana’.
Territory Leader
Jana Rajana
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Vis Vispati
Gram (War between grams was called Gramani

Sangram)
Kul Kulpati
The post of the Rajana was not hereditary and Gramanis played a major role in making him a
Rajan. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.
The Rajana was assisted by ‘Senapati’ (the head of the army) and ‘Purohit’ (The chief advisor of
the king).
The Rajana was also assisted by some Tribal Assemblies –
a) Vidhati – Oldest assembly, both men and women were a part of it.
b) Sabha – An assembly of Brahmans. Probably both men and women
c) Samiti – Assembly of Villagers, both men and women.
The Rajana collected ‘gifts’ known as ‘Bali’ from his people. These were voluntary and were a
precursor of the taxes. There was no separate office for tax collection or administration of justice.
Note- Status of women in early Vedic period was much better than later Vedic period
TRIBAL CHIEF – RAJANA

• Tribal chief – center of administration machinery
• Successful leadership in war
• Called as Rajana
• He was just a chief with not unlimited power
• He had to reckon with tribal organizations
• Election of king by tribal assembly
• King was protector of his tribe
• He protects tribes’ cows
• Fought war for tribe
• Offer pray to god on behalf of tribe.
PUROHITA
• One of important functionary to help chief or king in day to day administration.
• Vashista and vishwamitra are believed to be two most important priests during Rig Vedic
times.
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• Vasishta – Conservative
• Vishwamitra – Liberal
• He composed the Gayatri mantra to widen the Aryan world.
• They inspired kings for action and praise their exploits expecting rewards from king in the
form of women slaves and cows.
SENAPATI
• Senani is the next important functionary
• He used spears, axes, swords etc.
TAXES
• There is no evidence found for the officer who collects taxes.
• Bali – In the early Vedic period the king collected taxes regularly from his subjects.
The taxes were called bali and consisted of 1/6 the agricultural produce or cattle for a
given person.
Note: Bali during Rig Vedic period was voluntary.
• War booty was distributed among kings and its people
JUSTICE
• No officer
• There were cases of theft and burglary and theft of cows. Rig Veda mentions traditional
rules were used to deal with it.
• Spies were employed to keep an eye on unsocial activates.
ARMY
• The king didn’t maintain any regular or standing army.
• In times of war, king mustered military whose military function were performed by
different tribal groups vrata, gana, grama and sardha.
In other words, the tribal polity’s military element was stronger. No civil system or territorial
admin because of nomadic life of people.
BATTLE OF 10 KINGS
A battle of 10 kings has been mentioned in Rig Veda.
• Bharatas and Tristu – ruling clans of Aryans and got support by Vasishtha.
• Bharatvarsha country was named after tribe Bharata – 1st appeared in Rig Veda
• 10 chiefs (5 were head of Aryan tribes and the rest were non-Aryan people) opposed
Bharat ruling clan.
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• The battle was fought on banks of river Parushani, identical with river Ravi
• Winner – Sudas won and supremacy of Bharatas was established.
• Purus – one of the tribes who got defeated.
The battle of ten kings was between Sudas, a Bharata king of the Tritsu family and the
confederacy of ten well-known tribes- Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas,
Shiva and Vishanin. The former five are said to be Aryan tribe while the later 5 are said to be Non-
Aryan tribes.
• The Anus, Druhyus, Yadus and Turvasas were the allies of the Purus against the Bharatas.
These five are the five peoples (Panchjanah) of the Rig-Veda.
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RELIGION AND FAITH

• They believed in One God as evident from Rig Veda – Eva Eka Dvitya (He is one and not
two)
• They believed in a formless God – Na Pratima Asti (He has no image).
• Overall, 33 other Gods and Goddesses are mentioned in Rig Veda.
Name Power
Indra Rain + Destroyer of Forts. Weapon –

Thunder bolt.
Agni God of fire. An intermediary between

man and supreme one God.
Varuna God of water/Cosmos and God of Rita

(moral Order)
Soma God of Plants – An intoxicating drink

named after him.
Prithvi Goddess of Earth
Usha Godess of morning/Dawn
Aditi Mother Goddess
Vishnu Sun God
None of these Gods have been mentioned as supreme to each other. However, Indira has been
mentioned the greatest number of times in Rig Veda followed by Agni and Varuna.
MODE OF WORSHIPPING
• Recitation of prayers and offerings of sacrifices was dominant mode.
• Prayers were important and both collective and individual prayers were made.
• Every tribe or clan had a special God. Even today we have special God for most of tribe or
clans. For e.g. in Rajasthan there is Karni clan. The chief deity of their clan is Karni mata
o Whole clan offers prayers to God in singing manner. Similarly, whole clan also offer
sacrifices to God. Sometimes even animals were also sacrificed. You would have
heard many times bhais bali (buffalo sacrifice)
• Agni and Indra were also invited to take the sacrifices made by whole tribe.
• There is no sign of a temple like structure but a ritual called ‘Yajna’ is mentioned where
sacrifices were made near the fire altars.
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YAJNAS
Some important Yajnas are:
• Raj Suya Yajna: It was held during coronation of a king and to commemorate the
coronation every year.
• Ashwamedha Yajna: It was done to show the strength of the king. A horse was taken to
mark the king’s territory. It was used by ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial
sovereignty: a horse accompanied by the king's warriors would be released to wander for
a period of one year. In the territory traversed by the horse, any rival could dispute the
king's authority by challenging the warriors accompanying it. After one year, if no enemy
had managed to kill or capture the horse, the animal would be guided back to the king's
capital. It would be then sacrificed, and the king would be declared as an undisputed
sovereign.
• Vajpayee Yajna: It was done to gain Strength (Divine Power) for the king. A chariot race
used to take place where the royal chariot was made to win against his kinsmen.
• In Each yajna, hundreds of cattle were sacrificed.
• Sixteen priestly classes are mentioned in Rig Veda. Brahmans, Hotras, Udgatras etc. In
later Vedic period, as the number of Yajnas and sacrifices increased, the other 15 classes
were sidelined and Brahmans dominated as only a Brahman could supervise a Yajna.
• Niyoga – In the absence of a child, a widow was allowed to live with her brother in law.
• Polygamy was practiced. There is evidence of both polygyny (A man having multiple
wives) and polyandry (A women having multiple husbands)
RIG VEDIC GODS

• Early Vedic Aryans were not able to explain the reasons of natural forces and so they
found their faith in the surroundings.
• Because they were not able to understand the rains, sun and moon they personified these
natural forces.
o They gave them human or living being attributes.
INDRA
• Also known as Purandara or breaker of forts.
• They played the role of war lord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons.
• 250 hymns were devoted to him
• Rain of god i.e. he was responsible for causing rainfall
AGNI
• 200 hymns devoted to him
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• God of fire
• Fire use – burning forests, cooking, rituals etc.
• Cult of fire - it occupied a central place in India and Iran.
• He was considered as intermediary between gods and people
• The sacrifices to god were carried by smoke to the sky, thus transmission to gods.
• Rig Veda starts from the name of Agni.
VARUNA
• He was the 3rd most important god.
• He was the god of water.
• He was supposed to uphold the natural order.
• It was considered that whatever happened in world were because of desires of Varuna
god.
SOMA
• God of plants
• An intoxicating drink was made from plants brought from Himalayas and it was named
after Soma god
MARUT
• God of storm
Female Deities
• E.g. of female divinities

o Aditi
o Usha – represented appearance of the dawn
• But these were not prominent in the time of RV
• Because of patriarchal society the male gods were more important than female.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
JANA
• Kingship – it was the basis of the social structure
• Man was identified by his clan.
• Tribe was called as ‘jana’ and people’s primary loyalty was to tribe
• Total no. of members in a jana and people’s primary loyalty was to tribe
• Total no. of members in a tribe about 100
• Term Jana occurs 75 times in RV. While term janapada not used even once
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• Because of non-evolvement of king or territory people’s attachment was to the tribe.
VIS
• This was another name for tribe. It had been mentioned 170 times in RV
• Vis was divided into many grama (smaller tribal units for fighting)
• War or samgrama – clashing of gramas with one another
FAMILY
• Kula – term for family. It was rarely mentioned in RV
• The family system during EVA times was that of joint family. Everyone from mother,
father, sons to grandson, cousin live under one roof.
• Griha – this term was used for family in EVA times.
• In earliest Indo-European language one word was used for nephew, grandson, cousin etc.
indicating differentiation in family relationship leading to nuclear families had not started.
• Father – head of the family.
• Patriarchal society
o Because of patriarchy, birth of son was desired again and again
o People prayed for a brave son who could fight in wars.
• In Rig Veda desire for children and cattle is repeating but no desire express for daughters
POSITION OF WOMAN
• They attended assemblies
• Some rituals were not considered complete without company of wife. (for example, in
Yagya pooja)
• Vishavara and lopamudra were the girls who have composed hymns of Rig Veda.
• A hymn during that period was composed orally and no literary evidences exist.
MARRIAGE INSTITUTION
• Institution of marriage was established.
• Symbols of primitive practices also survived
• Instances of polyandry were also found.
• Marriage was indissoluble and the concept of divorce was absent.
• Child marriage – absent
• Widow Remarriage – allowed
SOCIAL DIVISIONS
• Consciousness about physical appearance had started in 1500 – 1000 BC
• Varna – It was the term used for color.
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• Aryans were fair in color while original inhabitants of country were dark in color.
• Color may have been used for different social orders. Western writers have exaggerated
this racial distinction.
• Factor which contributed most to the creation of social divisions was the conquest of
indigenous inhabitants by the Aryans
• E.g. – Dasas and Dasyus conquered by the Aryans were treated as slaves and Shudras
• According to RV there were two varnas – Arya varna and Dasa varna
• Another factor was more share of king and priests in war booty, which created social
inequalities in the tribe
• Society was divided in 3 groups –
o Brahmana – Priest
o Kshatriya – Warrior – administration and military
o Vaishya – people – production activities
o The 4th division shudra appeared in last phase of EVA. References of it are found
in the Purusukta hymn of 10th mandala of RV.
Slaves
• Slaves were given as gifts to the priests

• Women slaves – they were only for domestic proposes
• Slaves were not used directly in agriculture or other producing activities.
DIVISION BASED ON OCCUPATION

• Division on based of occupation was there but it wasn’t sharp. Anyone could change his
profession.
• One of the members of a family says - “I am a poet, my mother is corn grinder and my
father is a physician. We belong to different varnas by our profession but still love
together”
• Since economy was pastoral and surplus was also not significant, there were less ways to
collect regular tribute from people.
• Gifts of land and cereals were rare.
• Social division based on tax collection or accumulation of landed property – absent.
• Society was tribal and egalitarian.
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LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000 – 600 BC)

• Later Vedic (V) period history is also based on Vedic texts but we are not talking about RV,
we are talking about the other three Vedas which were composed after the Rig Veda age.
• Samhitas - the collection of the Vedic hymns or mantras. Rig-Veda Samhita is the oldest
Samhita.
• Other than RV there were 3 more Vedas – Sama Veda, Yajurveda and Atharava Veda.
Sources to understand Later Vedic Period:
• Archeological
• Literary
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES:
Sites: Atranjikheda
Hastinapur All found in Western UP
Ahichatra
Noh/Nuh – Haryana
Pottery – Painted Grey Ware (PGW) are found at almost all sites in Western UP.
Painted Grey ware
Grains – Barley, Wheat and Rice evidences are found. Rice (vrihi) suddenly gained a lot of
importance.
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Tools: At around 1000 BC, the discovery of a new metal, revolutionalised the complete Vedic
Society and enabled them to lead a settled life. This new metal was IRON. Now, weapons and
agricultural tools were made of IRON which was much stronger than copper.
PAINTED GREY WARE CULTURE (PGW) SITES

The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is an Iron Age culture of the western Gangetic plain and
the Ghaggar – Hakra valley.
• During 1000-500 BC in the Gangetic basin digging and exploration had revealed 700 sites
which were inhabited.
• These 700 sites are called as PGW sites because they were inhabited by people who used
earthen bowls and dishes made of painted Grey pottery.
• They also used Iron weapons. It should be noted that use of iron was started in Later
Vedic age rather than Rig Vedic Period.
LITERARY SOURCES
Since the Vedic Society has expanded, it reached upper Gangetic basin from Indus Valley. All the
later Vedic texts were composed in Upper Gangatic Basin only.
YAJURVEDA:
• This was the second Veda to be composed after the Rig Veda. It consists of rituals of
sacrifices and yajna.
• It is broadly divided into two parts – ‘Sweta’ Yajurveda and ‘Shyam’ Yajurveda.
• Shweta Yajurveda is in Poetic form while Shyama Yajurveda is in prose form.
(Note: Rig Veda was composed completely in poetic form.)
SAMAVEDA:
• Samveda consists of musical hymns which could be sung. Most of the hymns were taken
from Rig Veda itself.
• Samveda can also be considered as the oldest text on music.
ATHARVA VEDA:
• Atharvaveda is folk literature.
• It consists of charms, spells and magic to ward off evil spirits and diseases.
• First time Ayurveda is mentioned in Atharvaveda.
Note: the previous three Vedas were written by Aryans while Atharvaveda is written by non –
Aryans. So, its contents also throw a light on the beliefs and practices of non – Aryans.
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BRAHMANAS:
• Brahmanas are the commentary on Vedas. They explain the complex verses of the Vedas.
They are the first complete literature in prose.
• The most famous Brahmana is the ‘Shatpat’ Brahmana of the Yajurveda.
Aranyakas (jungle book/hermit book) were originally the part of the Brahmans but later
considered as a separate part.
UPANISHADS: The literal meaning of ‘Upanishad’ is to sit down near someone.
Originally there were 108 books. It is historically believed that they came out as a result of the
increasing grip of Brahmans on the society. They discuss about the importance of rituals and
sacrifices. They deal with metaphysics i.e. relation between man and God.
Some famous Upanishads:
Brihadranayaka Upanishad (The oldest), Chandokya, Jabala, Katha, Ken, Isa etc.
Brahmanas are regarded as the basis of the Hindu philosophy along with the Rig-Veda. In
Upanishads, Brahma (the creator) is the most important God.
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Note: ‘Sirr – I – Akbar’ is the collection of translation of 50 Upanishads done by ‘Dara Shikoh’,
the eldest son of Shah Jahan.
All of these later Vedic texts compiled in the upper Gangetic basin in during time period 1000-
500BC. This period is later than RV period and so called as Later Vedic period.
LIVING PATTERN
• With the literary evidences (later Vedic texts) and archaeology evidences (PGW iron-
phase) we can get to know that how people live in first millennium BC in western UP and
adjoining areas of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana.
• According to Later Vedic texts Aryans covered area between Punjab to Ganga - Yamuna
doab.
Spread toward east
• During the ending of LVA period i.e. around 600 BC the Vedic people spread from doab to
further Kosala (Eastern UP) and Videha (north Bihar)
• During the spread towards eastern and western side, LVA came into conflict with local
inhabitants
o In Eastern UP – people who used copper implements and black and red earthen
pots
o In western UP – people who used pots of ochre or red color and copper
implements
o They also encountered thin habitations of some people using black and red ware
o They also came against users of late Harappan culture, which were actually
conglomerate culture
o Whoever was the opponent but they were not in large no. or covered area greater
than LVA
• LVA were more successful in expansion than EVA because they used iron weapons and
horse drawn chariots
IRON AND LATER VEDIC ARYANS

• After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles
could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to settle at the western
Gangetic plains
• Burials with iron implements are found in large numbers.
• Also found in Baluchistan, eastern Punjab, western UP, MP and Rajasthan.
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• Arrow heads and spear head have been discovered in western UP – 800 BC
• Iron weapons were used to defeat adversaries which were faced during expansion.
• Iron axe to clear the forests in upper Gangetic basin.
• Few iron tools were used in agriculture.
Spread of iron in Eastern part
• During the end of LVA period knowledge of iron spreads to eastern UP and Videha
• Earliest iron implements from here belong to 7th C BC. Iron was called as Shyama or
Krishna ayas in LV texts
AGRICULTURE
• It was the chief means of livelihood. But still very few agricultural tools made of iron have
been discovered.
• Ploughing was done with wooden ploughshare which would have worked for light soil of
upper Gangetic plains.
• Ploughing rituals – You must have seen whenever we do a new thing like starting a new
business or new machine, we do some prayers and rituals similarly there were ploughing
rituals which were done before ploughing. Evidence of it are found in Shatapata
Brahmana text.
• But in later times ploughing was restricted to lower Varna. In other words; it was
prohibited for the members of upper Varna.
• They continued to produce Barley.
• Wheat and rice became chief crop in this period.
• In Punjab and UP wheat was staple food
• Lentil was also produced by them
• They became familiar with rice in Ganga – Yamuna doab region.
• It is called Vrihi in Vedic texts.
• It remains discovered from Hastinapur (8th C BC) and Atranjikhera.
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• Rice was used in Vedic rituals but wheat’s use was rare.
CRAFTS
• Rise of diverse arts and crafts like smiths, smelters, weaving, carpenter, pottery and
jewelry workers.
Smiths and smelters
• Worked with iron in about 1000 BC

• Copper was the 1st metal to be used by people
• Founding of copper tools of pre 1000 BC period suggested existence of copper smiths in
LV period
• It is believed that they used copper from Khetri mines of Rajasthan.
• Copper objects had also been discovered in Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites.
• Main purpose of these objects was – war, hunting and as ornaments.
Pottery
• LV people know about 4 types of Pottery – Black and red ware, black slipped ware, PGW
and red ware
• Red ware was most popular and found all over western UP
• PGW was most distinctive pottery. Bowls and dishes made of it were used by upper
classes for eating and rituals.
• Glass hoards and bangles were treated as prestige objects
Jewel workers
• Mentioned in later Vedic texts.

• Possibly they were to serve the needs of richer section of society.
Others
• Weaving – confined to women and not on large scale

• Leather workers and carpenters also existed.
SETTLEMENT
• Later Vedic people had a settled life because of agriculture and various crafts.
• PGW sites were widespread in Kuru- Panchal near (eastern UP and Delhi), Madrea area
(Punjab and Haryana), Matsya area (Rajasthan).
• More than 700 PGW sites have been found but only few like Atranjikhera, Hastinapur and
Noh were excavated
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• There debris thickness is on to three layers showing settlements would have lasted from
1 to 3 centuries
• These settlements were new. In other words, they were not having any predecessors
• Living – mud brick houses were made.
• Structure of houses was poor.
• PGW people who seem to be similar to Later Vedic (LV) people were agricultural and had
settled life.
• Food production – not in surplus because of wooden ploughshare use.
Emergence of Towns
• Towns had started emerging only in the end period of LV

• For e.g. Hastinapur and Kausambhi were the primitive towns. They can be called as proto
– urban sites.
• Sea and sea voyages - references were found in Vedic texts indicating that because of rise
of new arts and crafts some kind of commerce had started.
• In summary – compared to EV period, LV had registered a great advance in material life.
o Pastoral and semi nomadic to agriculture and settled life (agriculture – primary
source of livelihood)
o Permanently settled in upper Gangetic plains
o Peasants produce enough surplus to sustain themselves and for those who are
engaged in other works
ASSEMBLIES
• Rig Vedic assemblies lost their importance (Vidatha completely disappeared)
• Royal power increased at the cost of these assemblies.
• Sabha and samiti were dominated by chiefs and rich nobles.
• Sabha was dominated by nobles and Brahamans and women were not allowed.
TRIBE CONNECTED TO TERRITORY

• Formation of bigger kingdom made chief or king more powerful.
• Territory was named after the dominant tribe, though the tribe was ruled by chief and
prince.
• Other tribes might be inhabited in that territory like minority.
• Territory name was given after the first tribe which settled there.
• Example – Panchala was name of people but then it became the name of a region.
• Rashtra term indicating territory first appeared in this period.
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ELECTION OF KING
• The one who was best in physical and other qualities was elected as raja during early
phase of LV period.
• Bali as tax became compulsory rather than voluntary.
• Number of yajnas increased and sacrifices increased which caused huge drain of wealth
from Vaishya and Shudra communities.
• Chief or king tried to ever last the right to receive presents and enjoy other privileges by
making his office hereditary.
Administration at higher levels
• It seems that during this period taxes and tributes were common.
• It was deposited with an officer called as Sangrihitri.
• At the time of big sacrifices princes made large scale distributions.
• Most of the wealth was accumulated by the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas.
• Priest, commander, chief queen and few other higher functionaries assisted king in
discharging his duties.
Administration at lower levels
• Village assemblies carried out lower level administration.

• These assemblies were headed by chiefs of dominant clans.
• Local cases were also tried by them.
ARMY
• Even in this period the king doesn’t have standing army.
• Tribal units were mustered when a war was declared i.e. only when required.
• According to one ritual king have to eat with his people (vis) from same plate.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
SOCIETY
• Later Vedic society was divided into 4 varnas – Brahmins, Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and Shudras.
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• Later Vedic texts draw a demarcation line between upper three varnas and shudras.
• But there are many rituals of king’s coronation on which shudras participated.
• Certain sections of artisans such as chariot-maker or Rathakara was given a high status
and also entitled to sacred thread ceremony.
• Varnas became hereditary and rigid during LV period. People were forced to take the
same occupation of their ancestors.
BRAHMINS
• Priests, scholars and teachers
• Growing cult of sacrifices increased their importance in society.
• Initially Brahmins were one of the 16 classes of priests but later they overshadowed them
and emerged as most important class.
• This development in Brahmins was not found in Aryan society outside India.
• It is believed that non-non-Aryan elements had a role in formation of Brahmins Varna.
• work –
o Conducting rituals and sacrifices.
o Officiating festivals associated with the agricultural operations
o Praying success of their patron in war.
KSHATRIYAS
• Rulers, warriors and administrators
• He tried to assert his power over all the three other varnas.
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• According to Aitareya Brahmana (a text of later Vedic age), Brahmin was described as
seeker of livelihood and acceptor of gifts but removable at will of king.
• While Shudra was described as tribute payer, meant for beaten and to be oppressed at
will.
• Sometimes the upper two Varnas fought for supremacy but when it comes to deal with
lower varnas they quickly made up their differences. From the end of the later Vedic
period it was emphasized that the Brahmins and Kshatriyas should cooperate with each
other to rule over rest society.
VAISHYAS
• They were the common people.
• They were assigned the producing functions like agriculture, trade, cattle breeding etc.
• Some worked as artisans also.
• During the end of the later Vedic period the Vaishyas started trade activities.
• Vaishyas were just to pay tributes (like we taxpayers) and Brahmins and Kshatriyas were
to collect tributes (tribute collectors).
• The mass tribe men were reduced to tribute payers.
• Several rituals were there which made the people submissive to king.
• The upper three Varnas were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread
according to the Vedic mantras while the 4th one, shudra, was deprived of it and Gayatri
mantra’s recitation.
SHUDRAS
• Laborers and service providers
• Shudras were reserved for worst position
• They were meant for serving the three higher varnas and were barred from the Vedic
studies.
• Their masters could beat them at will.
• They appear as domestic slaves, craftsmen and hired labors in post Vedic times.
• They were called cruel, greedy and thieving in habits and some of them were treated as
untouchables.
• The higher the varna the more privileges and purer a person was. The lower the varna,
the more severe punishment.
FAMILY
• Power of father increased. He could now disinherit his son.
• Princely families – rule of primogeniture strengthened.
• Male ancestors were started to be worshipped.
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POSITION OF WOMEN
• They were given a lower position.
• Ordinarily women were considered as inferior and subordinate to men.
• Some women theologians took part in philosophical discussions and some queens
participated in coronation rituals.
INSTITUTION OF GOTRA
• It appeared in later Vedic times.
• Gotra means cow-pen or the place where cattles belonging to whole clan are kept but in
course of time its signified descent from a common ancestor.
• Gotra exogamy practice started and marriage between same gotra or lineage was not
allowed.
ASHRAMAS
• Four stages of life or Ashramas were not strengthened during the Vedic times.
• In later Vedic times, 4 ashramas were there – Brahmachari (student), grihastha
(householder), vanaprastha (hermit) and sannyasin (asetic).
• Later Vedic contains only 3 of them. Ascetic life was also known to them.
• In the later Vedic times only the stage of householder was commonly practiced by all the
varnas.
Ashram or stage Age (years) Rituals of transition
Brahmacharya Till 24 Upanayanaat entry. Samavartanaat exit.

(student life)
Grihastha 24-48 Hindu wedding at entry.

(household life)
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Vanaprastha 48-72
(retired life)
Sannyasa 72+
(renounced life) (or anytime)
GODS, RITUALS AND PHILOSOPHY

• Two important Gods of Rig Vedic period – Indra and Agni lost its importance.
• Now Prajapati occupied supreme position.
• Prajapati – creator of world.
• Rudra – God of animals
• Vishnu – preserver and protector of people
• Also, in this period some objects were started to be worshipped as symbols of divinity;
symbols of idolatry.
• As the society divided into varna system, some sections came with their own deities.
• For example – Pushan, God who was supposed to protect cattle, came to be regarded as
god of the Shudras.
SACRIFICES
• Same reasons what was in early Vedic period.
• Mode of worship changed.
• Prayers were continued to recite but without sacrifices they were of no meaning
(sacrifices became important).
• In public sacrifices people and king was involved.
• Sacrifices involved killing of animals leading to loss of cattle wealth.
• Ghoghana – guest or the person who was fed on cattle.
• Sacrifices were accompanied by formulae which need to be correctly pronounced.
• Yajmana was the term used for sacrifice.
• It was believed that success of performer of yajna depended on magical power of the
words uttered correctly in sacrifices.
• Some rituals were similar to Indo-European people but most was developed by Indian
priests.
BRAHMANS AND RITUALS
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• Brahmins had a very big role in inventing, modifying and expanding the formulas and
sacrifices.
• The reason for such elaborated rituals and sacrifices is not clear but selfish motives can’t
be ignored. Near about 2,40,000 cows were given as dakshina or gift to priest in Rajasuya
sacrifice.
• Brahmins claimed monopoly of priestly knowledge and expertise.
• Gifts, gold, cloth and horses were also given to priests.
• According to shatapata Brahman, north, east, south, west, all should be given to Brahman.
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY
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• During the end of the later Vedic period, there was strong reaction against priestly
domination, cults and rituals.
• It was most in Panchala and Videh where in 600 B.C., the Upanishads (philosophical text)
were compiled.
• These philosophical texts had criticized the rituals and emphasized on the value of right
belief and knowledge.
• They also emphasized that the knowledge of the self or atma must be realized and
relation between atma and Brahma should be properly understood.
• Brahma – emerged as powerful God.
• Their teachings also promoted the cause of the stability and integration.
• Emphasis on the changelessness, indestructibility and immortality of the atma or soul had
served the cause of stability. This stability was very necessary for rising state power.
• Stress on relation of atma with brahma served the cause of loyalty to superior authority.
SUMMARY
Emerging of territorial kingdoms
• In later Vedic period, territorial kingdoms started emerging.

• Now the kingdoms fought war for not only possession of cattles but also for territory.
Change
• The early Vedic society of predominantly pastoralists changed to agriculturalists in later

Vedic age.
• Tribe chiefs grew at the expense of tributes by peasants and other sections of society.
• Shudras – still a small serving order.
• Tribal society → Varna divided society
• Kshatriyas, even after the support of the Brahmans, were not able to establish a state
system.
• A state cannot exist without regular taxation system and a professional army (like today
India is a state having its own regular taxation system and with a professional army)
• This wasn’t the case in later Vedic age as the existing mode of agriculture didn’t produce
much surplus to pay taxes.
DO YOU KNOW?
• The Arctic Home in the Vedas (Geeta Rahasya) is a book on the origin of Aryans by
Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak The book was written at the end of 1898, but was first
published in March 1903 in Pune. It propounded the theory that the North Pole was the
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original home of Aryans during pre-glacial period which they had to leave due to the ice
deluge around 8000 B.C. and had to migrate to the Northern parts of Europe and Asia in
search of lands for new settlements. In support to his theory, Tilak has presented certain
Vedic hymns, East Iranian passages, Vedic chronology and Vedic calendars with
interpretations of the contents in detail.
• Somaand Haoma: (It is the 9th Mandal of Rigveda which contains 114 hymns). The
fermented juice of the plant called Soma appears to have been the only intoxicating drink
used in Vedic times. So much were the ancient Aryans addicted to this drink, that Soma
was soon worshipped as a deity both in India and in Iran (under the name Haoma in the
latter country), and we find one entire Mandala, or Book, of the Rig-Veda, dedicated to
this deity.
• Patanjali Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism. Yoga
Sutras of Patanjali is a key text of the Yoga school of Hinduism. Patanjali was the founder
of Yoga philosophy.
• Anuloma vivah: A marriage between a higher caste man and a lower caste woman. A
Pratiloma Vivah is a marriage between a lower caste man and a higher caste woman.
• Adhvaryu: In the operational aspects of Vedic fire rites, the Adhvaryu was a central figure
because he was the one who measured the sacrificial ground, built all that was needed
and prepared materials to be used like, articles of oblation, utensils, woods and water. He
also kindled the fire for expected offerings. Thus, success of a Yajna was dependent on
correct duties of the Adhvaryu priest.
• Hotri was the priest chanting the hymns of Rig Veda; adhvaryu chanting the hymns of
Yajur Veda; Udgatri chanting the Sama Veda hymns. Brahman priest was the most and
supervisor of the entire ceremony and the one chanting the hymns of Atharva Veda.
• Purusha sukta is the Xth mandal of the Rig Veda that explains the origin of four varnas
viz. Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
• Earliest evidence of Banking in India is found from the period of Vedic Civilization. During
those days, loan deeds called rnapatra (ऋणपत्र) or rnalekhya (ऋणलेख्य) were prevalent.
Interest rates as well as usury (सूदखोरी) was prevalent in Vedic India. The Vedic word
Kusidin refers to an usurer (सूदखोर).
• Six Vedangas (limbs of Vedas) evolved for the proper understanding of the Vedas. These
are Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarna (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda
(metrics) and Jyotisha (astronomy).
• The Satapatha Brahamana states that the wife is half her husband and completes him.
• Jabala Upanishad: In Jabala Upanishad, there is a clear reference of four Ashrams i.e.
Brahmachari, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasi.
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• Gayatri Mantra comes from the third Mandala of the Rigveda.

• According to the later Vedic traditions, the gods were from different castes. For example,
Agni is Brahmin; Indra and Varuna are Kshatriya; Rudra and Maruts are Vaishya while
Pushan is a Sudra god.
• Pushan (पष
ू न) is a solar deity and one of the Adityas; responsible for journeys, marriage
and a carrier of souls to other world. He also protected the travellers in their journeys.
• Prajapati was the important diety occupied the supreme position. Prajapatis were elected
democratically. First such elected Prajapati was Lord Vishnu, followed by Lord Bràhma
and Lord Shankar. There were total 26 Prajapatis mentioned in Vedas.
• In the Early Vedic age, ‘Raja’ was known as Gopati.
• Currency: A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in Sathapatha-
Brahmana. Nishka was the popular currency. Suvarna and Krishnala were two other
classes of coins of circulation. Barter system continued in spite of the presence of metallic
coins. Money-lending was a lucrative trade and the interest on loan was moderately
charged. The usurer is mentioned as Kusidin.
• Satya Mev Jayate is mentioned in Mundaka Upanishad.
• Division on India into Five parts is mentioned in Aitareya Brahmana.
• Samsara (transmigration of soul)- mentioned in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
• Doctrine of Trimurti- Maitrayani Upanishad.
• First three ‘ashramas’ (Brahmacharin, Grihastha, Vanaprastha)- Chandogya Upanishad
• Origin of kingship – Aitareya Brahmana
Important Officials in Later Vedic Period
Purohita Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa
Senani Supreme Commander of army
Vrajapati Officer-in-Charge of pasture land
Jivagribha Police Officer
Spasas/Dutas Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers
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Gramani Head of the village
Kulapati Head of the family
Madhyamasi Mediator on disputes
Bhagadugha Revenue collector
Sangrahitri Treasurer
Mahishi Chief Queen
Suta Charioteer and court minstrel
Govikartana Keeper of games and forests
Palagala Messenger
Kshatri Chamberlain
Akshavapa Accountant
Sthapati Chief Justice
Takshan Carpenter
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JAINISM AND BUDDHISM
• During the second half of the 6th century B.C. number of sects arose in Gangetic plains.
• It is said that about 62 religions existed in that period. (In some accounts more than 150
distinct faiths are mentioned)
• Most of these were based on regional customs and rituals.
• Jainism, Buddhism and Ajivika were the most important among them and emerged as
most potent religious reform movements.
(Note: Ajivika Sect did not have any followers after 14th C AD.)
CAUSES OF ORIGIN
Domination of priestly class
• We have read about Varna system in the previous parts. Brahmans claimed highest status
in society. They demanded several privileges, including those of receiving gifts and
exemption from taxation and punishment.
• All the other three Varnas never liked the Brahman’s domination. But it was Kshatriyas
who reacted strongly against the ritualistic domination of the Brahmans.
• Mahavira, founder of the Jainism and Gautam Buddha, founder of the Buddhism
belonged to the Kshatriya clan and both disputed the authority of the Brahmanas.
Loss of cattle wealth
• This was the most important reason for the rise of new religions.
• In the 6th century B.C. the use of the iron axes enabled people to clear forest and a new
agriculture economy started which was based on the use of ploughshare.
• But use of iron ploughshare required use of bullocks and cattle. Without animal
husbandry, agriculture could not flourish.
• As most of the cattle and bullocks were sacrificed in rituals, peasants were not able to
produce surplus.
• There was resentment in agricultural class against rituals and priestly class. Buddhism and
Jainism were according to their aspirations and also they condemned the rituals and
sacrifices.
Vaishya class’ want of improvement in their status
• In eastern part of India number of cities started emerging.

• For example - Kaushambi, Kusinagar, Banaras, Vaishali, Chirand and Rajgir. (see map)
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• Traders and artisans started emerging from these cities and also started using coins
during 5th century B.C. They were the earliest coins and are called as punch marked coins.
• Because of the trading the importance of Vaishya increased.
• They now wanted to improve their positions and started looking for a new religion which
could do this.
• The merchants gave handsome gifts to Gautama Buddha and his disciples. Reasons for
this was –
o In initial stages Jainism and Buddhism not attached any importance to the existing
Varna system.
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o Both preached gospel of non - violence which would put end to wars and as a
result will increase the trade and commerce.
o Brahmanical texts like Dharmasutras decried the lending money on interests.
Return to primitive life
• The old people didn’t like the accumulation of coins (made of gold, silver etc.), new
dwellings and dresses, new system of transport, war and violence.
• The new forms of property created social inequalities and caused misery and suffering to
the masses.
• So, the common people wanted to go back to their simple life. And this opportunity was
provided to them by Jainism and Buddhism.
• The philosophy of Jainism and Buddhism allowed only that much which was sufficient for
living.
• In other words, there was reaction against changes in material life in north eastern India
in 6th century B.C. similar to reaction by man when machines were invented. (It is the
nature of human to oppose the change. It’s never easy to adapt to change)
VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA AND JAINISM
JAINISM
• Jainism believed in 24 Tirthankara or great teachers or leaders of their religion

• 1st Tirthankara – Risabhdeva or Rishabhnatha (born in Ayodhya)
o He laid foundations of orderly human society
• Historical records of only last two Tirthankaras are found – Parsavnath (23rd) and
Vardhaman Mahavir (24th)
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PARSAVNATH JI:
• Parsavnath was the 23rd Tirthankar. He was born at Kashi (Banaras).
• Historically he was separated from Vardhaman by 250 years.
• His followers were called Nirgranthis (Free from all bonds).
VARDHAMAN MAHAVIRA:
• Vardhaman is believed to the real founder of the modern Jainism. His followers are called
Jains. He was later known as ‘MAHAVIRA’.
BIOGRAPHY OF VARDHAMAN:
Vardhaman himself was born to Nirgranthi parents (Followers of Parsavnath). The information
about his life is received from Jain texts – Purvas, Angas and Upangas, written in 4th – 6th C AD
in Prakrit language. Prakrit was the language of the masses while Sanskrit was the language of
the elite class.
Other source is the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela (Odisha) in 1 st C BC. It is one of the
oldest cave temples found in India. It is presented in Kavya style, and in the language Brahmi,
which is very much like Pali. The Hathigumpha Inscription is like the history of Kharavela as a king,
a conqueror, a patron of culture and a champion of Jainism.
Relation Name
Father Siddharth
Mother Trishala
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Clan Janantrika
Caste Kshatriya
Wife Yashoda
Daughter Priyadarshika
Son In law Jamali (First disciple of Vardhman)
• Born – 540 B.C.

• Place – Kundagram (now Basokund) near Vaisali in Bihar.
• Father – Siddhartha (head of famous Kshatriya clan Jnatrika and ruler of his own area)
• Mother – Trishala (sister of lichchhavi chief Chetaka, whose daughter was wedded to
Bimbisara)
• Contemporary of Gautama Buddha.
• Initially he lived life of household but at the age of 30 he abandoned house in search of
the truth and became an ascetic.
• For the next 12 years he meditated and practiced the austerities of life.
• At the age of 42 years, he attained the Supreme knowledge (Kaivalya) under a Sal tree in
498 BC at a place called Trimbhigram on the bank of River Rijupalika (Jharkhand). Through
kaivalya he conquered misery and happiness.
• Because of this conquest he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or jina i.e. the
conqueror of senses, and his followers are known as Jainas.
• He propagated this religion for 30 years and during this period he visited to Koshala,
Magadha, Mithila, Champa etc.
• He preached for the first time in the five hills of Nalanda – Vipulchak.
• At the age of 72 (468 BC) he attained Nirvana (died) at Pavapuri (Nalanda).
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DOCTRINES OF JAINISM
• 5 doctrines –
o Non – Violence: Not to kill or harm any living creature. At that period, trees were
considered non-living so cutting of trees was allowed. However, it was advised not
to do agriculture as ploughing of land might kill the small organisms and insects.
Hence, peasants were not attracted towards this new faith and it was more
famous amongst traders and businessmen.
o Not to Steal: Do not try to take what is not yours rightfully.
o Not to Accumulate: Leads to a problem of haves and have nots. It discouraged
hoarding or keeping more than what is required.
o Not to tell a lie: Not to give wrong information to others.
o Celibacy: Celibacy in Jainism is slightly different than that of Hinduism. In Hinduism
celibacy means not to marry or not to have a relationship with the other sex.
o In Jainism, apart from the above two, some more conditions are there like:
▪ Not to see the opposite sex.
▪ Not to talk to the opposite sex.
▪ Not to touch the opposite sex.
▪ Not to feel about the opposite sex.
• Only 5th doctrine was added by Mahavira, the other 4 were taken over by him from
previous teachers.
• Non-injury to living beings is most important to Jainism. But sometimes it resulted in
absurd results like Jain kings ordered execution of persons guilty of killing animals.
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• Parshvanath had asked is followers to cover upper and lower part of body while Mahavira
had asked them to discard cloth completely as he wanted to have a more austere life for
his followers.
• On the basis of this clothing the Jainism was divided into two sects –
o Shvetambaras – those who wear white cloths. (shveta meaning white and ambar
meaning cloth)
o Digambaras – those who remained naked.
PHILOSOPHY
The Creator: There is no creator. It does not believe in a supreme God. Tirthankars are the highest
authority.
The Universe: The universe is eternal. It has no beginning and no end and it is moving in a cyclic
fashion. It moves in phases of Highs and Lows:
• High phase: Avsarpani – during this phase people have a long life (200 – 300 years) and
they are very tall (40-50 ft).
• Low phase Utsarpani – During this phase people have shorter life span (15 – 20 years) and
short height (2 -3 feet)
Universe is composed of living and non – living elements.
The Soul: Soul exists in living and non – living elements.
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Where ever there is soul, there is suffering (Dukha). There are three types of elements – rocks
and metals (One soul), Trees (two souls) and Animals/humans (three souls). It is prohibited to kill
the elements which have three souls.
After life: They believe in after life and rebirth. One is trapped in the cycle of life. Till one doesn’t
get free from Dukka, one cannot get Nirvana (freedom from the cycle of Death).
How to get NIRVANA?
• According to Jainism, Soul is surrounded by Karma (Action).

• Karma has four aspects – Inherent and outside as well as Good or bad.
• In order to get Nirvana, one has to free himself from all Karma, whether good or bad,
inherent or outside. This state of no Karma is called the state of Shunya.
• There are certain Dos and Don’ts to achieve this:
• Dos – Live an Ascetic life, to give up clothes.
• Don’ts – One should have no attachments.
JAINISM ON VARNA SYSTEM

• Jainism recognized god’s existence but placed them lower than Jina.
• Did not condemn Varna system.
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• According to Mahavira a person born in higher or lower Varna depends on sins or virtues
by him in his previous births.
• According to him lower castes can liberate themselves through pure and meritorious life.
• Main aim of Jainism – freedom from worldly bonds. This can be achieved by three jewels
or triratna of Jainism and no rituals are required.
• 3 jewels or triratnas of Jainism
o Right knowledge
o Right faith
o Right action or conduct (5 doctrines are part of it)
• It prohibited war and even agriculture because of killings of living beings. And so, Jainism
confined to traders only.
SPREAD OF JAINISM
SPREAD IN SOUTHERN PART

• To spread teachings of Jainism, Mahavira organized an order in which both men and
women were admitted.
• Mahavira was not having a large number of followers (just 14000).
• Spread – in south India and west India where Brahmanical religion was weak.
• According to a tradition, the spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta
Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.).
• During his last years of life emperor became a Jaina and led Jainas ascetic life in Karnataka.
• 200 years after the death of Mahavira, there was a famine in Magadha. It lasted for about
12 years and in order to protect them, many Jaina visited to south under the leadership
of the Bhadrabahu.
• After the end of the famine Jainas came back to Magadha and there emerged differences
between those who visited to south and those who stayed in Magadha.
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• To sort out differences and to compile the teachings of Jainism a council was convened at
Patliputra but it was boycotted by southern Jainas.
• From then onwards the southern Jainas were called as Digambar and those at Magdhans
were called as Shvetambars.
• The tradition belonged to drought is considered as doubtful but it was sure that the Jainas
were divided into 2 sects.
• The epigraphic evidence for the spread of the Jainism in Karnataka was not before 3rd
century A.D.
• After the 5th century, numerous Jaina monastic establishments called ‘Basadis’ spread in
Karnataka. Kings granted land in expectation of support.
• In the 2nd and 1st century B.C. it also spread to southern district of Tamil Nadu.
SPREAD IN OTHER PARTS

• In 4th century B.C. – kalinga in Orissa
o Kalinga king Kharavela gave patronage to it in 1st century B.C.
• In later centuries Jainism penetrated into Malwa, Gujrat and Rajasthan (in these places
they reside even today engaging in trade)
• It didn’t receive as much patronage as Buddhism and could not spread very fast in early
times.
• It still holds its place where it spread while Buddhism completely disappeared from Indian
subcontinent.
CONTRIBUTION OF JAINISM
IN PRAKRIT LANGUAGE
• Tried to mitigate the evils of Varna order and ritualistic Vedic religion.
• Discarded Sanskrit which was patronized by Brahmans.
• Adopted Prakrit language of common people to preach Jainism doctrines.
• Religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi.
• Texts were compiled at valabhi, Gujarat in 6th century B.C.
• Adoption of Prakrit helped in development of language and its literature.
• Many regional languages had also developed from Prakrit. Shauraseni is one of them.
Maratha emerged from shauraseni.
IN OTHER LANGUAGES
• Jainas earliest important works were composed in Apabhramsha. They also composed its
grammar.
• Jaina literature consists of Epics, Puranas, Novels and Dramma.
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• Large portion of Jaina writing is still in manuscript form and not published and still exists
in Gujarat and Rajasthan’s shrines.
• During medieval time they wrote in Sanskrit.
• They also contributed to growth of Kannada.
WORSHIPPING
• Initially no image worshipping but later started worshipping Mahavira and 23
Tirthankaras.
• Beautiful images were sculpted for this purpose in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka and
Madhya Pradesh.
• Jaina art in ancient times was not as beautiful as Buddhism was. But they contributed
significantly to art and architecture during medieval times.
Do You Know?
• Parshvanath was the twenty third (23) Jain Tirthankara. He was a Kshatriya and son of
Ashvasena, King of Banaras (Varanasi).
• Muni Hiravijayji Suri was the supreme pontiff of Tapa Gachcha order of Jain Svetambara
tradition. He is famous for propounding the Jain philosophy to Emperor Akbar and turning
him towards vegetarianism. Akbar was so impressed with Hiravijaya Suri that he
bestowed on him the title of Jagatguru. Akbar almost denounced meat eating and almost
turned to vegetarianism due to inspiration from him.
• Rishabhdev Lord Rishabhdev was the first Tirthankara of Jainism. He was born at
Ayodhya in the Ikshwaku Kula or clan. In Hinduism he is known to be an avatara or
incarnation of Vishnu. The name of Rishabh’s parents has been mentioned in the
Bhagvata Purana.
• At the age of 42, Mahavira attained Kaivalaya under a Sal tree on the bank of river
Rijupalika near Jrimbhikgrama in Modern Bihar. At the age of 72 in 468 BC, Tirthankar
Mahavira passed away at Pavapuri, Bihar.
• The Jain Tirthankaras, Lord Aristanemi (22nd Tirthankar) and Lord Rishabh Nath (1st
Tirthankar) has been mentioned in Rigveda.
• Vardhamana Mahavir belonged an aristocratic family and Kshatriya clan called Naya or
Jnatri. He was born in Kudagrama, near modern Patna and his father was King of this area.
His mother, Trishala was sister of Chetak (Cetakka) an eminent Lichchvi prince of Vaisali.
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• The first Jain council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third
century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to (sections or limbs) to replace
the lost Purvas (former texts).
• The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi under the chairmainship of Devaradhi
Kshamasramana in 512 AD and resulted in finl compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.
• Jainism is divided into two major sects viz. the Digambara (sky clad) sect and the
Shvetambara (white clad) sect. Under the leadership of Sthalabahu, Shvetambara sect
formed. Under the leadership of Bhadrabahu, the Digambara sect was formed.
• The Jainism was spread in South India under the leadership of Bhadrabahu.
• Emperor Samprati was the grandson of Emperor Ashoka, who reigned from 224–274 BCE.
and accepted Jainism.
• Tirthankara Parswanath was the 23rd Tirthankar who preached four teachings of Jainism:
not to kill, not to lie, not to steal and not to own property. His idol is recognized by the
symbol of serpent.
• Anekantavada is a core theory and philosophy of Jainism. Anekāntavāda refers to the Jain
doctrine about metaphysical truths that emerged in ancient India. It states that the
ultimate truth and reality is complex, has multiple aspects.
• Samsāra, as per Jain faith is worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and
reincarnations in various realms of existence. The mundane existence is full of suffering
and misery and hence is worth renunciation. Moksa is the only liberation from Samsāra.
GAUTAMA BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM

• Also known as Siddhartha.
• Contemporary of Mahavira.
• Born – 563 B.C.
• Place – Lumbini in Nepal (near kapilvastu)
• Kshatriya family – Shakya clan
• Father – Suddhodana (probably elected ruler of Kapilvastu)
• Mother – Mahamaya (princess from Koshalan dynasty). She was birth mother while
Gautami was the one who brought him up.
• Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gautami was the first woman to be ordained as a
bhikkhuni.
• Buddha from childhood showed a meditative bent mind.
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SOURCES TO LEARN ABOUT BUDDHISM

Literary sources to know about Buddha and Buddhism are –
Tripitakas
(literally – three baskets): These are the three major texts on Buddhism.
• Vinaya pitaka – rules of monasteries

• Sutta pitaka – Teachings of Buddha
• Abhidhamma Pitaka – Metaphysics and philosophy of Buddhism.
Jataka Tales
They are the part of Sutta Pitaka but contain all the stories of Buddha’s previous life (more than
550 births in all).
Ashokan Dhamma
Mahavastu and Divyadane (texts written in Sri Lanka)
Buddha Charitra
This is an autobiography of Buddha, written in 1-2 C AD, by Ashvaghosa in Sanskrit.
The problem with all these literary sources is that, they have not been written in Buddha’s time,
so they do not give the exact picture.
STORIES OF BUDDHA’S EARLIER LIFE:
Four sites of Buddha:
• Old man
• Sick man
• Dead body
• A monk
These sites made him realize that there are sorrows in the world. And he wanted to find the
solution for these.
• At 29, he left his house with a charioteer ‘Channa’ and a horse ‘Kanthaka’. The act of
leaving the house is called ‘Mahabhinishkramana’.
• He met four Brahmans and meditated with them.
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• Later, at the age of 35, he sat under a ‘Peepal’ tree on the bank of river Niranjana at
Bodhgaya.
• ‘Mara’, a demon, tried to disturb Buddha and brought Hurricane, flood, Earthquake, bad
news and finally, he brought his three beautiful daughters. But all of that failed to move
Buddha.
• After a time span of 49 days, Siddhartha got enlightenment and became – ‘Buddha’ i.e.
the enlightened. This is called the state of Nirvana in Buddhism (Note: it is different from
the Nirvana of Jainism)
• After enlightenment, he meditated again for 49 days.
• He then went to Sarnath and gave his first sermon to Channa and the four Brahmans.
They became his first disciples. Ananda and Upali were two of his closest disciples.
• The first sermon at Sarnath is called ‘Dharma Chakra Parivartan’ i.e. setting the wheel in
motion.
• He preached in most parts of the modern day UP and Bihar. For next 40 years
continuously, he kept on wandering, preaching and meditating and rests only in rainy
season.
• He followed several rules in his schedule – Never stayed for more than one night in a
village and three nights in a city. He preached in all seasons except monsoon. He stayed
for maximum nights at Shravasti.
• In 483 BC, at the age of 80, he attained ‘Mahaparinirvan’ i.e. died at Kushinagar Dist. Of
Eastern UP.
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DOCTRINES OF BUDDHISM
Note: Buddha is older than Mahavira, but Jainism is older than Buddhism.
Bimbisar and Ajatashatru were contemporaries of both Mahavira and Buddha.
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TEACHINGS AND PRINCIPLES

According to Buddhism, there are four noble truths (Arya Satya)
1. Existence of Sorrow – Dukkha
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2. Cause of Sorrow – Desire or Maya

3. There is a way to get rid of Sorrow – Hope
4. Follow the eight-fold path to get Nirvana and Mahaparinirvana.
ASHTANGIKA MARG
• Right Thought/Views
• Right Resolve
• Right Speech
• Right Concentration
• Right Livelihood
• Right Exercise
• Right Recollection
• Right Memory
Note: The eight-fold path can be remembered through the code – ‘VRS CLERM’
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FAMOUS BUDDHIST COUNCILS

1st Council
• Period: 483 BC- just after the death of Buddha.

• Place – Rajgriha
• Presided by Mahakasappa
2nd Council
• Period: 383 BC
• Place: Vaishali
• Presided by Shatakhambri
3rd Council
• Period: 250-262 BC
• Place: Patliputra
• Presided by Moghiputta Tissa
4th Council
• Period: 1st Century AD

• Place: Kunzalwar
• Presided by Vasumitra and Ashwaghosha
• At the fourth council the Buddhism got divided into two sects: Hinayana and Mahayana
Hinayana (lower vehicle) is followed in Southern parts (Srilanka, Combodia, Thailand etc). They
are stricter and objected to making of idols of Buddha.
Mahayana (higher vehicle) is followed in northern parts (china, India, Tibet etc.). They started
making idols and were liberal in approach.
INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM
Buddhism became popular very quickly in India. Some of the reasons for its popularity are:
• Asked for non-accumulation of wealth creating lesser social inequalities

• Asked for non-violence → peace and stability (saved cattle wealth and avoided wars)
• It had a simple philosophy and it was free from rituals.
• It followed a balanced approach i.e. neither too harsh like Jainism and nor too mild like
Ajivikas.
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• Tried to mitigate the evils resulting from the new material life in the 6th century B.C. by
taking full account of the new changes in the material life.
• It was open for all Varnas and did not have caste differentiation.
• It was also open for all classes and gender – rich or poor, male or female.
• Royal Patronage: It received a lot of Royal patronage. Kings built many Stupas and
monasteries, sent ambassadorial monks and also there was a tendency of people to align
with the rulers.
• Traders gave a lot of donations to promote Buddhism.
• It used the language of masses, Pali, so that everyone could connect and understand the
teaching, unlike Sanskrit, which was the language of the elites.
• Objective was to secure the salvation of the individual or nirvana.
• Created and developed a new awareness in the field of intellect and culture (thinking with
logic and rational)
IMPORTANCE OF BUDDHISM IN INDIA

• Development of residential universities like Nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar and Valabhi
in Gujarat.
• Development and rich literature in Pali language.
• Probably developed first human statue worshipping in India. It was of Buddha. (panels at
– Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi and Bharhut (M.P.))
• New kind of art by Greek and Indian sculptors on the North West frontier of India –
Gandhara Art.
• Cave architecture (monk’s residence) – Barabar hills in Gaya and at Nasik
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BUDDHIST ART
Features Mathura Gandhara Amravati
Time period 2nd C. BC 1st C. BC 1st C. BC
North western part

Valley of Krishna
Flourished in Mathura region of Indian
and Godavari
subcontinent
Amravati,
Prominent Taxila, Bimaran, Nagarjunikonda,
Mathura and Jamalpur village
places Jalabad and Hada Goli, Ghantasala
and Vengi.
Buddhist images Mathura’s artists 1st to make Adopted from Adopted from
adopted from the images of Buddha Mathura Mathura
Initially – local rulers but later Shakas and Vakatakas and

Patronization by
by Shakas and Kushanas Kushanas Ikshavakus
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Greeko-Roman and
Initially indigenous but after so also known as
No one;
the Shakas and Kushanas Greeko Roman,
Influenced by Indigenous from
patronization, influence of Indo-Roman and
beginning to end.
Greeko-Roman Greeko Buddhist
school of art.
Type of Stone
White spotted Red sandstone Blue-Grey Stone White marble
used
Religious or
Both Only religious Both
Secular images
Physical beauty Physical beauty

Facial expression
• Muscular • Expression
Emphasis or • Clean shave and head
body through
focus on • Abhaymudra and
• Transparent postures
Dharmachakraparivartana
cloth • Erotic images
Mudra
• Curly hairs
Destroyed by Huna Got transformed

Continued till early Medieval
Continuation invasions in 5th into Pallava and
age
century AD Chola architecture
BUDDHIST SANGHA
Buddhist Sangha was the Buddhist religious order in which Buddhist monks had to live in a certain
manner.
Rules for entering the Sangha:
• Age should be at least 15 years.

• No criminal charges should be pending. If a person was convicted and has served the term
than he is allowed.
• Person should not be under debt.
• Must not be suffering from a communicable disease.
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Code of Conduct:
• Meal was served only once a day.

• Not to sleep on comfortable bed.
• Not to wear any ornaments
• Not to drink
• Not to indulge in any corrupt practices
• Not to have any relationship with the opposite sex
• Dress code: simple unstitched clothes
• Had to ask for bhiksha (begging) from nearby villages. It was believed that asking for
bhiksha killed the ego.
Significance of the code of Conduct:
• To establish a disciplined order

• It helped in resolving the conflicts of the contemporary society like differences between
rich and poor, and powerful and weak.
• It is believed, that possibly Buddha wanted to replicate the same in the society.
However, later, the money started pouring in, in the Sangh and monks got inclined towards the
materialistic pleasures. From this point the pure Buddhism started decaying.
DECLINE OF BUDDHISM
Buddhism declined greatly by the 12th century in India.
Several reasons can be attributed to the decline of Buddhism in India like:
• It lost its own identity: gradually the religion became more ritualistic and also started
practicing the rituals of Brahmanical and Vedic religion.
• Monks took Sanskrit language.
• From the first century AD, they practiced idol worship on a large scale and received
numerous offerings from devotees.
• Buddhist monasteries - dominated by ease-loving people and became centers of corrupt
practices
• Invasion of monasteries by Turkish because of monasteries’ richness.
• Sangh lost way: There were cracks in the Sangh, there was no more discipline.
• Revival and Reform of Brahmanism: Brahmanical religion was revived during Gupta Period
and the new Religion adopted many practices of Buddhism like vegetarianism etc.
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• Lack of Patronage: Palas were the last rulers which provided patronage to Buddhist
monasteries. Once the Brahmanical religion was revived, Buddhism lost its grip. Also
many kings suppressed them with force. In 7th Century, a Shaivite King ‘Shashank’
chopped the Bodhgaya Pipal tree.
BUDDISM AND JAINISM- COMPARATIVE STUDY
Similarities and differences between Buddhism and Jainism
On God
• Buddhism: The original Buddhist doctrine does not entail any godly figures, though the
later Buddhist sects introduced some Godly figures. Later Buddhists believe in the Godlike
figures or the Bodhisattvas, who take interest in the welfare of the world and work for its
liberation. In essence, Buddhism neither accepted nor denied the existence of GOD.
• Jainism: Jainism denies the existence of God, though they acknowledge the presence of
the Jinas or Kevalins, who are higher than human beings in status but subject to change
and evolution. However, unlike the Bodhisattvas, the Kevalins are rather indifferent to
the prayers and problems and remain unaffected.
On Nirvana
• Buddhism: In Buddhism, nirvana is freedom from the cycle of rebirth, when a being turns
into a state of non-being, or Sunya, loses its identity and becomes nothing.
• Jainism: In Jainism, nirvana is a state of moksha, where a being loses its identity and is
free from the cycle of birth and death.
On Liberation
• Buddhism: The path of liberation in Buddhism goes through good conduct and good
deeds, as mentioned in Eightfold path, Four Noble Truths, Five Perceptions and other
moral conducts.
• Jainism: Similarly, the path of liberation in Jainism is to follow right perception, right
knowledge, and right conduct. One has to overcome the worldly desires and feelings to
attain liberation or to become a perfect soul.
On Yogic Practices
• Buddhism: Buddhism emphasizes on the practice of mediation and other forms of Yoga
to concentrate on inner self.
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• Jainism: In Jainism as well, meditation and other yogic practices are essential for self-
purification and liberation.
On Non-Violence
• Buddhism: Buddhism is a peaceful religion with non-violence at the heart of its thoughts
and behavior.
• Jainism: Non-violence followed in action, thought, and speech is the highest morale in
Jainism.
On Karma
• Buddhism: Buddhism believes in the universality of Karma, which is a result of one's

action.
• Jainism: Jainism also believes in the universality of karma and its effect on human beings.
But, unlike Buddhism, karma, according to Jainism, is not a mere effect of one's actions,
but a real substance that flows into each individual body or jiva. This karmic substance
remains with a being until good conduct and self-purification eliminates them.
On Soul
• Buddhism: According to Buddhism, soul is an individuality that does exist in plants and
animals, but not in non-living or inanimate things.
• Jainism: According to Jainism, soul is present in every animate and inanimate object of
the universe including its elements - earth, water, wind, fire and air.
On The Status and Evolution of Individual Beings
• Buddhism: After Nirvana, there is no soul, but the individuality of an individual that passes
into nothingness, which is beyond any description and speculation.
• Jainism: After Nirvana, the soul continues to remain as an individual soul, but in the
highest state of purity and enlightenment.
Survival and Disappearance: Over a period of time, while Buddhism disappeared from the Indian
soil, Jainism survived in India, with its teachings intact, mostly untouched by the overwhelming
philosophy and practices of Hinduism, at the same time imparting to the later some of its noblest
ideas.
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Besides, a major difference lies in the dominions of both the religions. Though both, Buddhism
and Jainism, originated and developed individually in the same geographical area of India, but
difference lies in their spread. While Buddhism crossed the frontiers of its motherland and went
to other parts of the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, far eastern countries, and parts of North
America and Europe as well, whereas Jainism, on the other hand, remained confined to India, the
land of its origin.
THINK!
• Why Buddhism vanished from India and Jainism survived the test of time to retain its
presence India?
Do You Know?
Doctrine of Anatta
• Anatta, Sanskrit anatman, in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no

permanent, underlying substance that can be called the soul. Instead, the individual is
compounded of five factors that are constantly changing.
• The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman (“the
self”).
• The absence of a self, anicca (the impermanence of all being), and dukkha (“suffering”)
are the three characteristics of all existence (ti-lakkhana).
• Recognition of these three doctrines—anatta, anicca, and dukkha—constitutes “right
understanding.”
• Existence of God as creator, survivor and destroyer of universe is not accepted in Jainism.
• Existence of an eternal, essential and absolute soul, self or atman is not accepted in
Buddhism but Jainism believes in it.
• The doctrine that “Karma as implication of past actions that affects our present and future
life” is common in Buddhism and Hinduism, but in Jainism it is different and not really
related to actions but Karma is a subtle matter.
• Buddhism, as well as, Jainism had no faith in Vedic religion and in divinity of Vedas. They
reject the belief that Vedas are the sources of ultimate and whole truth.
• Buddhism focuses on moral progress independent of GOD. The existence of GOD is

neither accepted nor denied in Buddhism.
• Symbols of FIVE great events of Buddha’s Life
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o Buddha’s Birth: Lotus & Bull
o The Great Departure (Mahabhinishkramana): Horse
o Enlightenment (Nirvana): Bodhi Tree
o First Sermon (Dhammachakraparivartan): Wheel
o Death (Parinirvana): Stupa
• Bodhisattva: Bodhisattva means one who has essence of enlightenment. Anyone who has
a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all is a Bodhisattva. It’s a very
popular subject in Buddhist art. A bodhisattva is bound to enlightenment and refers to all
who are destined to become Buddhas in this life or another life. There are celestial
bodhisattvas which are manifestations of Gautam Buddha.
• Buddha Charita: Buddha Charita is an epic style Sanskrit work by Ashavaghosa and was
compiled in second century BC. Dharmaraksa who is known to have translated many
works of Buddhism in Chinese, translated this work in Chinese in 420AD. It mainly deals
with Buddha’s Life. Asvaghosa also wrote a Sanskrit Drama “Sariputra Prakaran” which
deals about Sariputta or Sariputra the disciple of Buddha.
• The Thanboddhay Pagoda in Myanmar has 582,357 Buddha statues.
• The 3 tallest statues in the world are of Buddha
o Spring Temple Buddha (Vairocana)- China
o Laykyun Setkyar-Myanmar
o Ushiku Daibutsu-Japan
• Buddhism sees humans as part of nature, not as separate from it
• Kanishka, was a patron of Mahayana Buddhism
• Srilanka- Buddhism propagated for the first-time outside India
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BUDDHA’S GESTURES
Both Hand Gesture
"Gesture of Meditation"
(dhyana) It is also called Samadhi or Yoga Mudra. Both hands are

placed on the lap, right hand on left with fingers fully stretched and
the palms facing upwards. This is the characteristic gesture of
Buddha Shakyamuni, Dhyani Buddha Amitaba and the Medicine
Buddhas.
"Gesture of Meditation with bowl"

The Gesture of Meditation is also shown with a begging bowl, but
not with any other kind of bowl.
"Gesture of Teaching"
(dharmacakrapravartana) In this gesture both hands are held

against the chest, the left facing inward, covering the right facing
outward. The index finger and the thumb of each hand making a
circle. It is characteristic of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana. It is also a
gesture of hands exhibited by Lord Buddha while preaching the first
sermon in Sarnath.
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"The Embracing Gesture"
(vajrahûmkara) also called "The Om Sound Gesture". The wrists are

crossed at the breast. The hands hold the Vajra (=thunderbolt,
male) and Ghanta (= bell, female). The right hand crosses over the
left at the wrist, palms facing inwards towards the chest and usually
over the heart, symbolizing the union of method and wisdom. This
is the gesture of Adi Buddha Vajradara, Samvara and
Trailokyavijaya.
"Gesture of Knowledge Fist"
(vajramudra) The right hand makes a fist, thumb enclosed, index

finger extended upward, palm out; the left hand forms a fist, palm
inward and encloses the extended index finger. You will find this
gesture very often mirror-inverted.
"Gesture of Perfection"
(uttarabodhi) This gesture is also called "best-perfection" mudra. In

this position all fingers are intertwined. The index fingers extend
straight up and are together. Frequently, Shakyamuni Buddha as
liberator of the Nagas presents this mudra.
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"Gesture of Nectar Sprinkling"
(kshepana) Also called "Sprinkling of Ambrosia" mudra. The two

hands join, palm to palm, and the index fingers extend together and
usually point downwards toward a vase or container. The other
fingers and the thumbs are interwined.
"Gesture of Praying"
(namaskara or anjali) Also called the simple namaste (prayer)

position (means "I bow to you.") In this gesture, the hands are kept
close to the chest in devotional attitude with the palms and fingers
joined. This is the special gesture of Avalokiteshvara with more
than two arms.
"Gesture of Holding the Jewel"
(manidhara) The hands are arched and hold a wishing jewel, which
can not be seen because of its transparency. This is a mudra of
Avalokiteshvara, and is often confused with the similar gesture of
greeting.
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"Warding Off Evil Gesture"
(Bhûtadâmara) Also called "Trailokyavijaya" or awe-inspiring

mudra. It shows the hands crossed at the wrist, the right hand over
the left hand, palms turned outwards. Usually the two middle
fingers are slightly bent and the hands may both hold additional
symbols like Vajras and Ghanta. This gesture is frequently seen in
the representations of Vajrapani and Bhutadamaravajrapani
Left Hand Gestures
"Gesture of leisure"
(avakasha) The sitting person is holding the left hand on his/her
lap, palm upwards.
"Flower-holding Gesture"
(kataka) A fist-like mudra in which the fingers bend together until
the thumb and the index finger meet, forming an open tube. This
position is frequently used in icons in which fresh flowers or other
venerated objects are inserted.
Right Hand Gestures
"Gesture of Protection"
(abhaya) This gesture is also called "Gesture of Fearlessness" or

"blessing" or "fearless mudra". Generally, this position is shown
with the palms(s) facing outward and the fingers extended
upwards. The arm is elevated and slightly bent. You can find
abhayamudrâ sometimes also as a left-hand gesture. This mudra is
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characteristic of Buddha Shakyamuni and Dhyani Buddha

Amogasiddhi.
"Gesture of Argument"
(vitarka) Also called "The Gesture of Debate" or "discussion"

mudra. In this gesture the tips of thumb and index finger touched
forming a circle. All the other fingers are extended upwards. This is
the mystic gesture of Taras and Bodhisattvas, often used when
explaining the Buddha’s teachings.
"Gesture of Witness"
(bhumisparsha) This gesture is also called "touching the earth"

mudra or "calling the earth to witness" mudra. The right arm hangs
down over the right knee. The hand with the palm turned inward
and all the fingers extended downward with the finger touching the
lotus throne. The left hand lies on the lap with palm upward. This
gesture symbolizes Shakyamunis victory over Mara. The Dhyani
Buddha Akshobhya shows the same Mudra.
"Gesture of Charity"
(varada) This gesture is also called "Gift bestowing Gesture of

Compassion" or "conferring boon" or "grace" mudra. The arm is
extended all way down with palm facing outwards. You can find
varadamudrâ sometimes also as a left-hand gesture. This is the
mudra of Dhyani Buddha Ratnasamhava, Bodhisattva
Avalokiteshvara and (sometimes) standing Buddha Shakyamuni.
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"Gesture of ascetic"
(shramanamudrâ) This gesture is also called renunciation mudra.

The hand points downward away from the body as a symbol for
renunciation of secular pleasures.
"Gesture of Understanding"
(cincihna) In this mudra, the thumb and index finger grasp a fine
object as a a grain of truth. This is a symbol for spiritual
understanding.
"Gesture of Threatning"
(tarjana) This gesture is also called "warning" mudra. Only the index
finger is raised either horizontally or vertically, while the other
fingers are locked up in the fist. You can find abhayamudrâ
sometimes also as a left-hand gesture. This mudra is characteristic
of most of the wrathful deities.
"Gesture of Banishing"
(karana) also called the "The Gesture Warding off Evil", this mudra
indicates with the hand stretched out, either horizontally or
vertically, palm turned forward. The thumb presses down the
middle two fingers (like the horns of a Yak against an enemy), while
the index and little fingers extend straight upwards. You can find
abhayamudrâ sometimes also as a left-hand gesture. Ekajata and
Yama, as well as Vajrapani and Bhutadamaravajrapani are
frequently shown in this mudra.
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"Gesture Beyond Misery”
(Buddhashramana) Also called the ascetic’s Gesture of

Renunciation.. In this mudra the right hand is lifted in line with the
shoulder, the wrist bends backwards and the fingers and the palm
face upwards. The fingers point outward, away from the body. The
is the gesture of Vasudhara and Usnishijaya.
"The Performance of Homage Gesture"
(tarpana) The arms are bent at the elbow with hands raised even
with shoulders. The fingers are slightly bent with the fingertips
extending toward the shoulders. The palms of the hands face
downwards. A mudra frequently used by Namasangiti.
"The Lion Gesture"
(harina) In this mudra the thumb along with the second and third
fingers touch the tips, forming a ring. The little and the index fingers
extend upwards. Frequently, symbols or emblems are held in this
manner. Also denotes rabbit or hare, or elephant.
"Gesture of Knowledge"
(Jnana) The tips of the index finger and the thumb join, forming a
circle, the other fingers are extended straight. This mudra is held
against the chest, palm towards the chest. In this way, it differs
from the vitarka mudra in which the palm faces away from the
body.
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"Gesture of Discord"
(kartari) This mudra is held with the hands at shoulder level. The
thumb and the ring finger (third finger) touch the tips forming a
circle. The index and middle finger extend straight resembling
rabbits ears or the horns of a deer. Frequently, symbols appear
between these two fingers.
MAURYAN EMPIRE
Before the Mauryan period, the Janapadas got condensed into larger kingdoms called
Mahajanapadas. There were 16 major Mahajanapadas and out of them 5 were very strong and
important.
• Magadha
• Avanti
• Kashi
• Koshala
• Vajji
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Since the details of Mahajanapadas and Alaxander invasion is covered nicely in the old NCERT,
we will directly go to Mauryan Age, important from examination point of view.
POSSIBLE DIMENSIONS FROM WHICH A QUESTION CAN BE ASKED ON MAURYAN

DYNASTY
• Contributions of Chandragupta and Ashoka
• Source of information
• Literary evidences – Arthashastra, Indica by Megasthanes
• Archaeology evidences - Mauryan Art and Ashokan edicts
• Decline of Mauryan empire
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Mauryan Kings (324 BCE – 180 BCE)
1. Chandragupta (322–297 BCE)
2. Bindusara (297–272/268 BCE)
3. Ashoka (272/268–232 BCE)
4. Dasharatha (232–224 BCE)
5. Samprati (224–215 BCE)
6. Shalishuka (215–202 BCE)
7. Devavarman (202–195 BCE)
8. Shatadhanvan (195–187 BCE)
9. Brihadratha (187–180 BCE)
10. Pushyamitra (180–149 BCE)

(Shunga Empire)
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CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (SANDROCHOTUS/ANDROCHOTUS IN GREEK RECORDS)
• He defeated Nanda ruler (Dhanananda) and founded Mauryan Empire.

• He was trained by Chanakya or Vishnugupta, a Brahmin Guru at Taxila.
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• He defeated Seleucus Necator, the successor of Alexander, and conquered Kabul,

Kandhahar, Herat and Baluchistan.
• Later, they became friend and exchanged gifts. In one record it is mentioned that
Chandragupta gifted 500 elephants to Seleucus Necator.
• Megasthanes was the Greek ambassador of Selucus Nicator, to the court of Chandraguta
Maurya.
• For the first time in Indian history, he laid down the foundation of a centralized
Administration.
• According to a Jain text, he came to Shravanbelagola, in Karnataka, with the Jain monk
Bhadrabahu and performed Santhara (Sallekhana). (Covered in Jainism.)
BINDUSARA (AMITRACHOTUS)
• He invaded Southern and Western India, as per Tamil Sources (Sangam literature)
• He requested a Syrian King, Antiochus I, through an ambassador to send three things:
Philosopher, Sweet Wine and Figs. Sweet wine and figs were sent, however, a philosopher
wasn’t sent.
• Bindusara was the follower of Ajivika Sect. It was the third important sect apart from
Buddhism and Jainism.
AJIVIKA SECT
• Founded by Maskariputra
• Maskariputra was a friend of Vardhaman Mahavira, and two had many debates.
• It was a materialistic sect and did not believe in life after death.
• Till 12th Century, it was more popular than Jainism, but then it suddenly declined.
Note: If we observe the trend, we find that the religions of the three successive Mauryan
Kings, belonging to same family, were different. Chandragupta – Jain, Bindusara – Ajivika
and Ashoka – Buddhism. This shows how tolerant and accepting the society was.
Imagine, in today’s society, is this possible that a son is allowed to take a different religion
from his father?
You can quote this in Essay or Mains wherever the context is required.
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ASHOKA
Undoubtedly one of the Greatest kings of India. We have fairly good information about the
Ashokan rule because of the written material left from his times.
Important Events:
• Ashoka was not the eldest son of Bindusara. After Bindusara’s death, a bloody struggle
for the throne started.
• A Buddhist legend says that Ashoka killed 99 of his brothers to usurp the throne.
• He was initially a believer of Shiva, and later got converted to Buddhism.
• In the 8th year of his coronation, 261 BC, Kalinga War was fought. This is mentioned in
major Rock Edict No 13th. According to that, one lakh (Shatr sahtra) people were killed
and many more injured. After seeing such devastation, he had a change of heart and he
gave up ‘Bherighosha’ – policy of waging wars and adopted ‘Dhamma Ghosha’ – policy
of conquering the hearts of the people or policy of cultural conquest.
• After his conversion to Buddhism, in the 10th year of coronation, he visited Bodh Gaya.
• In the 13th year of his coronation, he appointed a new officer – Dhammamahamatras –
to implement the codes of Dhamma.
• In the 20th year of his coronation he visited Lumbini and exempted it from Bali (a form of
tribute) and reduced the rate of Bhaga (the royals’ share of the produce) to 1/8th of the
previous rate.
(NOTE: During Ashoka’s period, the image of a king was seen as that of a warlord. So, following
a path of peace Ashoka actually revolutionized the role of the King.)
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ASHOKAN DHAMMA:
• Dhamma is a Pali word which is written as Dharma in Sanskrit. In correct sense, Ashokan
Dhamma, is not exactly a religion, but a ‘Moral code of conduct’.
• Through this, Ashoka wanted to establish a peaceful and coherent society in which every
sect should respect and honour the other sect.
• He emphasized compassion towards animals and proper behavior towards relatives.
• Broad objective of Dhamma was to preserve the social order.
• Non – Violence against man as well as animals.
• Protection of trees
• Obeying the parents
• Respecting Brahmanas and Buddhist monks
• Showing mercy to slaves and servants.
• Living with the neighbours and slaves.
Methods to spread Dhamma
• To implement this code, he appointed a new officer called ‘Dhammamahamatras’.

• Ashokan rock edicts
• Dhamma yatra took by Ashoka
Impact of Dhamma
• Peace and stability

• Moral upliftment
Note: It can be understood that Ashokan Dhamma was not exactly the extension of the Buddhism
as new officers were appointed for preaching rather than using the Buddhist monks.
ASHOKAN EDICTS OR INSCRIPTIONS:

Edicts can be understood as ancient notice boards ☺ which were put so that public can read and
understand the government orders. Following types of edict are found:
1. Rock Edicts
2. Cave Edicts
3. Pillar edicts
Ashokan inscription were first deciphered by – James Princep
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Rock edicts are of 2 types – Major Rock Edict and Minor Rock Edict
Major Rock Edicts (MRE):
• 14 Major Rock Edicts are found at ten places.

• In major rock edicts – big paragraph or bigger information
• Three languages were used – Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic
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(Aramaic is old Hebrew. Mother tongue of Jesus Christ)
Place Language Script
Shahbazgadhi (Pakistan) Prakrit Kharoshti
Mansehra (Pakistan) Prakrit Kharoshti
Kandahar (Afghanistan)
Kalsi (Dehradun) Pali Brahmi
Sopara (Maharashtra) Prakrit Brahmi
Yeragudi (Andhra Pradesh)
Girnar (Gujarat)
Dhauli (Odisha)
Jaugada (Odisha)
Sannati (Karnataka)
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• Major Rock edicts contain the directives to his Subjects. Ashoka had promised to follow
this himself.
Important rock edicts and messages – (can also see in image)
• MRE 1 – Nonviolence – not to kill animals.

• MRE 7 and MRE 12 – Talks about religious tolerance
• MRE 13 – Talks about Kalinga war. (Ashoka’s opponent in this war is not known.)
• MRE 14 – Importance of Dhamma
Minor rock Edicts:
• These rock edicts have only single piece of information or one paragraph.
• Minor rock edicts have been found from more than 15 places in India.
• They are written in Prakrit in Brahmi script.
The distinction between major and minor rock edict is made by the modern historians on the
basis of content. The major rock edicts are more detailed as compared to minor ones.
• The name ‘Ashok’ was discovered for the first time on a minor rock edict.
• In 1915, Maski in Karnataka, the name Ashoka was mentioned along with his title –
Ashoka Devanampiya Piyadassi. (Devanampiya – dear to Gods; Piyadassi – Good looking).
• Otherwise in all other edicts only the title – ‘Devanampiya Piyadassi’ is mentioned.
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Pillar Rock Edicts:
• Pillar rock edicts found from more than 10 places contains 7 edicts that talk of Dhamma.
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LIST OF PILLARS
No. Name and description Image
Sarnath Pillar Inscription - near Varanasi,

Uttar Pradesh, four lions
1.
Sanchi - near Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, four

lions
2.
3. Rampurva, Champaran, Bihar, bull
Vaishali, Bihar, single lion, with no

inscription
4.
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Sankissa, Uttar Pradesh, elephant capital

only
5.
Lauriya-Nandangarth, Champaran, Bihar,

6. single lion
Delhi-Meerut, Delhi ridge, moved from

Meerut to Delhi by Firuz Shah Tughluq in
7. 1356
Allahabad pillar, Uttar Pradesh (originally

located at Kausambi and probable moved
8. to Allahabad by Jahangir)
Maker, Chhapra, Bihar, Column with no

inscription No images available
9.
Kandahar, Afghanistan (fragments of Pillar

10. Edicts VII) No images available
11. Ranigat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan No images available
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Delhi-Topra, Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi

12. (moved from Topra to Delhi by Firuz Shah No images available
Tughluq)
13. Lauriya-Araraj, Champaran, Bihar No images available
14. Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh No images available
SARNATH PILLAR INSCRIPTION

• The Lion Capital discovered more than 100 years ago at Sarnath, near Varanasi, is
generally referred to as Sarnath Lion Capital.
• Built by Ashoka.
• Built in commemoration of the 1st sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana by the
Buddha at Sarnath.
5 component parts:
1. The shaft (which is broken in many parts now),

2. A lotus bell base,
3. A drum on the bell base with four animals proceeding clockwise,
4. The figures of four majestic lions, and
5. The crowning element, Dharamchakra, a large wheel, was also a part of this pillar.
• However, this wheel is lying in a broken condition and is displayed in the site museum at
Sarnath.
• The capital without the crowning wheel and the lotus base has been adopted as the
National Emblem of Independent India.
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• The capital has:
4 lions: Lion is a symbol of power (Kshatriyahood

of Buddha) and 4 heads in every direction showing
that buddhas message is spreading in every
direction.
Horse: depicting leaving of the house of Buddha –

Mahabhinishkraman.
Bull: Sunsign of Buddha – Taurus
Elephant: Conceiving Buddha.
Wheel: Dharma chakra Parivartan.
Every Pillar capital has an engraved pillar, an abacus

which can be bell shaped or lotus shaped and an animal
motif on the top called the capital.
CAVE ROCK EDICTS
• They are found at six places in Afghanistan.

• They are bilingual edicts, written in Greek and Armaic.
• Ashokan inscriptions are called Dhammalipi which covers religion, morality, social and
administrative matters.
• They can be compared to Dharmashastras or law books written in Sanskrit under
Brahmanical influence.
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ARTHASHASTRA
DISCOVERY
• Discovered in 1893 – 94 by H C Shastri. A curator in the museum of Mysore. A person
came to his office, kept the manuscript on his table and left.
• Later, when he saw that it is actually an ancient manuscript, he tried to find the man who
brought that manuscript but he was never found. So, we don’t have a clue of where
exactly it was kept all these years.
• In the book it is mentioned that it was written by Kautilya. Historians have drawn
inference from the type of state authority mentioned in the book matched with that of
the Mauryan rule, it is believed that ‘Kautilya’ might be ‘Chanakya’.
• Kautilya is also called as Vishnugupta.
• Also since there is no mention of Mauryas, Chandragupta and Bindusara, with whom
Chanakya was associated, it is still doubtful whether Kautilaya and Chanakya are the same
person.
• Further the later part of book is written in a form that was prevalent during the Gupta
period.
• The book is about state craft and general administration.
• It is written in Sanskrit
• The theory of Saptang is mentioned in the book. Saptang literally means seven limbs or
wings of a state. They are – King, ministers, treasures, Army, Forts, Friends and territory.
• Condition of a king and his duties.
• Officials at center and provincial to local level.
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• Espionage system
• Taxation
Conditions required for becoming a King:
• Must belong to a noble family.
• Must have the knowledge of Artha (Economics) and Shastra (war).
Duties of a King:
• Must be the protector of Dharma i.e. moral code of conduct.
• He must discharge his duties at all times. i.e. 24 * 7.
Ministers:
• For choosing Minister Arthashastra suggests that he
• Must have talent
• Must be loyal
But the king must have spies to check the activities of his ministers.
Kautilya gave a list of top officials at the center. After the king the most important officials
were called the Tirthas (18), followed by Adhyakshas (28).
SOME IMPORTANT TIRTHAS:
Post Work
Mantrim and Purohita Prime Minister and Chief Priest
Samaharta Chief collector of revenue
Samvidhata Chief of treasury
Yuvaraj Crown Prince
Senapati Chief of the army
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SOME IMPORTANT ADHYAKSHAS:
Post Work
Sita Adhyaksha Incharge of crown’s agricultural land
Lavana Adhaksha Incharge of salt
Mudra Adhyaksha Incharge of Passport
Maudra Adhyaksha Incharge of Currency
Rupdarshak Incharge of mint
Pautra Incharge of weights and measures
Nauvna Incharge of boats
MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION
• The Brahmanical law-books stressed that the king should be guided by Dharmasastras
laws.
• Kautilya called the king as dharmapravartaka or promulgator of the social order.
• Policy of military conquest was followed and Anga, Vaisali, Kasi, Kosala, Avanti, Kalinga,
etc., were annexed one by one.
• Power of sword was required to rule on such a large scale and Magadha was the one
having such power.
• A vast bureaucracy was there which no other period of ancient history had. This
bureaucracy-maintained control over all the spheres of life.
• Spies were maintained by state to check the activities of officials and also about foreign
enemies.
• Tirthas - Important functionaries
• Most officers were paid in cash (in panas (Pana being a Silver coin equal to 3/4th of a tola
(10 or 12 grams)))
• Highest functionaries –
o Mantrin (Minister)
o Purohita (Priest)
o Senapati (Commander- in -Chief)
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o Yuvraja (Crown-prince)
• Highest functionaries were paid about 48000 panas while lower functionaries get 60
panas and lowest get even 10 or 20 only.
The Mauryan Empire was divided into provinces.
• Uttarapatha – Taxila (capital)
• Dakshinapatha – Suvarnagiri
• Pashchimapath – Ujjaini
• Prachyapatha – Tosali
• Madhyapatha – Patliputra
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Officer Department
Mahabaladhikrita Head of the army
Bhattaswapti Head of cavalry
Mahapihipati Head of elephant army
Ranbhandarika Chancellor of military exchequer
Dandpasika Head of police
Mahadandnayak Head of Judiciary
Kanchuki Head of queen’s Haram
Mahasandhivigrahika Minister of war and peace
TIkina Head of roadways
Dhruvadhikarna Head of Revenue department
Panyadhyaksha Head of Commerce/fixed prices
Sulkadhyaksha Head of Tolls/customs
Akaradhyaksha Head of Mines
Lohadhyaksha Head of iron
Sitadaksha Head of crown lands
Akash Patala adhyaksha Accounts
Lakshanadhyaksha Mint
Sutradhyaksha Textile
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Sansthadyaksha Market
Pautvadhyaksha Weights and measures
INDICA
• It was originally written by Megasthenes in Greek but the original book has been lost.
• The book is available through the references of other contemporary Greeco-Roman

writers.
• Arian, Pliny, Justin, Diodorus, Plutarch and Strabo ( APJ Abdul Kalam, DPS (Delhi Public
School ☺))
• The author informs about the city of Patliputra and wrote in praise that it was more
beautiful than any city of the west. The geographical description given by Megasthanes
matches the archeological findings of the city.
• He wrote that Indian society was divided into seven classes – Philosophers, peasants,
herdsmen, artisans, soldiers, inspectors and councilors.
Indian historians have rejected his classification as:
• Indian society was not divided on the basis of the class but on the basis of Varnas which
were four.
• There was no class of philosophers in India.
• The position of soldiers was very high in India, unlike what Megasthenes have written.
• He wrote in detail about Patliputra’s administration which is not available in other

Indian sources.
• He wrote that Patliputra was administered by six councils and each council had five
members. Each council was responsible for different duties.
• He also mentions about similar administration in armed forces. There were councils for
Navy, Commissariat, Infantry, Cavalry, Elephants and Chariots.
ECONOMIC REGULATIONS
• According to Arthasastra of Kautilya - state appointed 27 superintendents (adhyakshas)
to regulate the economic activities of the state.
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• These adhyakshas controlled and regulated agriculture, trade and commerce, weights
and measures, crafts such as weaving and spinning, mining, and so on.
AGRICULTURE
• The state maintained farms, on which numerous slaves and hired labourers were
employed. It is said that 150,000 (this may be exaggeration) war-captives brought by
Asoka from Kalinga were engaged in agriculture.
• The state also provided irrigation facilities and regulated water supply for the benefit of
agriculturists. Megasthenes informs us that the officer measured the land as in Egypt and
inspected the channels through which water was distributed into smaller channels.
CONNECTIVITY
• Patliputra was at a strategic position which enables its royal agents to sail up and down
in four directions.
• Royal road – Patliputra to Nepal (through Vaishali and Champaran)
• Rroad at the foothills of the Himalayas – passing though Vaishali, Champaran to
‘Kapilavastu, Kalsi (in Dehradun district), Hazara, and eventually to Peshawar.
• Road connecting north-western India with Patna – literary evidences by Megasthenes’
texts.
• Roads connecting Patna with Sasaram and from Sasaram they connect to central India
through Mirzapur.
• Patliputra through eastern Madhya Pradesh was connected with Kalinga which was
connected with Andhra and Karnataka.
• For such long distances horse may have helped them.
TRANSPORTATION
• Mauryan pillars were made of Single Stone Block and so they were heavy also.
• To establish them at different places was challenge because of transporting.
• But they were established at different parts of India showing great transportation
equivalent to Mughals and perhaps East India Company.
TAXATION SYSTEM
• According to Kautliya there were number of taxes imposed on peasants, artisans, traders
etc.
• So it created need of efficient assessment, collection and storage.
• Mauryans considered assessment more important than depositing.
• Samharta – he was the highest officer in charge of assessment of taxes.
• Sannidhata – He was the chief custodian of the state treasury and store-house.
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• Tax was 1/4th to 1/6th of production.
CURRENCY
• Punch marked silver coins.
• Coins contained images of peacock, hill, crescent.
• Discovered in large numbers.
• Helped in collection of taxes and payment of officers in cash.
• It may have also helped in exchange.
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE
POSITION OF SLAVES
• Slaves were employed in agriculture.
• Megasthenes had never seen a slave but truth is slaves were there in that period and
megasthenes failed to note that.
• What slaves did in Rome and Greece was done by the Shudras in India.
• The sudras were regarded as the collective property of the 3 higher Varnas.
• They were compelled to serve them as slaves, artisans, agricultural labourers, and
domestic servants.
MAURYAN ART
Mauryan Art can be broadly divided into two themes:
• Royal Art – Patronized by the throne
• Folk Art – taken by common people
ROYAL ART
Royal Art covers 3 aspects –
• Stupas and Chaityas
• Royal palace and city of Patliputra
• Ashokan pillars
STUPA:
• Stupas are dome shaped pre – Buddhist structures which were made to keep a relic of a
monk.
• Later they were associated only with Buddhist holy sites.

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There were four types of Stupas found in ancient India:
• Stupa which contain bodily remains of Buddha.
• Stupa which contains personal remains of Buddha like his cloth, vessel etc.
• Stupa of a monk.
• Stupas built by monks to commemorate any important event in the life of Buddha.
The greatest existing Stupa was built by Ashoka at Sanchi.
PARTS OF A STUPA:
• The Hemispherical dome is called the Anda.
• Above it the caged balcony like structure is called Harmika. It is the abode of God, under
which the remains of Buddha are kept.
• The umbrella like structure enclosed in Harmika is called Chatri. It has three parts –
showing Sandha, Dhamma and Buddha.
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• An enclosed path around Anda is called Pradakshina Path. People walk anticlockwise
around it chanting the verses.
• The outer circular wall is called a Medhi.
Stone carvings in Torana Dwar
• There are four gates. One is present in each direction. These gates are called ‘Toran’.
These gates are carved showing Buddha’s life stories.
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CHAITYAS:
• Chaityas are the prayer halls of the Buddhists.
• They are generally semicircular in shape with pillars at both the sides and a stupa at the
center.
• The most famous Chaitya is at Karve hills in Nasik.
• Mauryans, especially Ashoka, gave a lot of grants for the construction of Chaityas for the
Buddhist monks.
PATLIPUTRA CITY
• The city was fortified with regular gates, the remains of which have been found.
• Most of the construction in the city was of wood.
• The remains of Chandragupta’s palace have been found from ‘Kumhrar’, a place in central
Patna. It had a hall of 80 pillars. One of these is still standing in the garden.
• Megasthenese and Fa-Hien, both have mentioned about a wooden throne of

Chandragupta. Fa – Hien even wrote that this throne was made in Heaven.
MAURYAN PALACE
• Mauryans introduced stone masonry on a wide scale (in Pillars, Palace etc.)
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• According to the Megasthenes – the Maurya palace at Pataliputra was as splendid as that
in the capital of Iran.
• Fragments of stone pillars and stumps, indicating the existence of an 80-plllared hall, have
been discovered at Kumrhar, on the outskirts of modern Patna.
• These remains reminded us the high technical skill attained by the Maurya artisans in
polishing the stone pillars, which are as shining as Northern Black Polished ware.
AHOKAN PILLARS:
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• These pillars were made of sandstone, brought from Chunar (Eastern UP)
• The pillars are monolithic i.e. made of a single stone except the capital.
• The pillars were installed at different Buddhist holy place. Also they were not a part of
any structure but an independent standing structure in themselves.
• Generally, these pillars were 50 – 60 feet tall and weighed 50 – 55 tonnes.
• These pillars are round in shape with a taper from bottom to top.
• These pillars are shining because polishing art was well developed in Magadhan Empire.
• The ‘capital’ i.e. top of the pillar, was made with different animals like bull, lion, elephant
etc. depicting different aspects of Buddha’s life.
• The pillar art of the Mauryan period was an independently and indigenously developed
art and not an extension of the Iranian art as told by early British Historians.
• The remains of these pillars reminded us the high technical skill attained by the Maurya
artisans in polishing the stone pillars, which are as shining as Northern Black Polished
ware.
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• It would have been a very difficult task to carry the huge blocks of stone from the quarries
and to polish and embellish them when they were placed erect. All this seems to be a
great feat of engineering.
FOLK ARTS
• Sculptural art was developed during the Mauryan period but only few remains have
survived.
• The best specimen which have survived is a Terracotta figurine of a female, popularly
known as Yakshini, a goddess popular in all the three religions i.e. Hinduism, Buddhism
and Jainism.
• The Yakshini is kept in Patna Museum and its one hand is broken.
•
• It is believed that it was an image of an ideal women carrying ‘Chanwar’ in one hand. A
‘Chanwar’ is a long soft brush shaped fan.
• Potteries of Mauryan times have also been found from different places mostly of
‘Northern Black Painted Ware’ type (NBPW).
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• The Mauryans knew the art of making wells lined with bricks, which made it possible for
them to live away from the river and more habitable areas developed in the interior.
CAUSES OF DECLINE OF MAURYAN EMPIRE
Several reasons are given to explain the decline of the empire. Some of the important once are:
BRAHMANICAL REACTION
• It emerged because of the policies adopted by Ashoka.
• Prohibition on killing of animals and birds by Ashoka and anti-ritualistic attitude of
Buddhism affected the income of the Brahmanas.
• Shungas, Knavas, Satavahanas who rose on the remnants of Mauryan Empire were
brahmanas.
FINANCIAL CRISIS
• Large army and Bureaucracy required to be paid regularly which created financial crisis.
• This was further aggravated by large grants by Ashoka to Buddhist monks and
monasteries.
OPPRESSIVE RULE
• During the reign of Bindusara, the citizens of Taxila complained against the misrule of
wicked bureaucrats (dushtamatyas).
• The complaint was raised again during the reign of Ashoka. Ashoka was very concerned
about this and asked his officers to not disturb someone without reason.
• But this didn’t reduce the oppression and resentment against state continues to
accumulate.
NEGLECT OF THE NORTH-WEST FRONTIER AND THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA
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• Ashoka was mostly busy with missionary activities, propagating dhamma and dhamma
yatras and so wasn’t able to pay attention to the north western frontier.
• Over centralization of a vast empire.
• Spread of material knowledge outside Magadhan Kingdom, which reduced their

dependence on Magadh and as such could survive on their own.
• Lack of strong successors after Ashoka.
• The attacks of Shunga Dynasty over the Mauryan territory. Pushyamitra Shunga killed the
last Mauryan ruler and founded a new Shunga Dynasty.
POINTS TO REMEMBER:
• Bimbisara was the contemporary of both Buddha and Mahavira.
• “All Indians are Free and not even one of them is a slave”- Megasthenes.
• There is only one edict, in which Ashoka refers himself as King of Magadha (Laja Magadhe
– Minor Rock Edict of Mashi.
• King of Magadha, at the time of Mahaparinirvana of Gautam Buddha- Ajatshatru
• Ashvaghosha, who has written the marvelous work “Buddhacharita” was a court poet of
Kanishka
• Senguttuvan (also knoown as Red Chera) was the greatest Chera king who is remembered
for building a temple of ‘Kannagi’ the Goddess of Chastity and founded the famous Pattini
cult.
• The epic Tamil poem, Jivaka Cintamani (also known as Civaka Cintamani) is a Jain religious
epic authored by Jain saint Tiruttakrdeva. This epic is considered one of the classic epics
of Sangam Literature. The poem means “fabulous gem”and is also known as Manannul
(Book of Marriages).
• The history of ancient Tamil kingdoms i.e. Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas came to be known
from Sangam Literature.
• Seethalai Saathanaar was the author of the book ‘Manimekalai’. The book is a poem in 30
cantos. Its story is a sequel of an epic ‘Silappatikaram’ that tells the story of the conversion
to Buddhism of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.
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• The author of an epic Silappadikarma is Ilango Adigal. The epic deals with the love story
of Kovalan (Son of a wealthy merchant in Puhar) and Madhavi (a beautiful courtesan
dancer) of Kaveripattinam. It is also called Illiyad of Tamil Poetry.
• The story of Manimekalai is a sequel of an epic ‘Silappatikaram’ that tells the story of the
conversion to Buddhism of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi. Seethalai Saathanaar
was the author of the book ‘Manimekalai’ (is considered as the ‘Odyssus of Tamil poetry’).
• The book, ‘Bharatam’ was written by Perudevanar. The author had also composed the
invocatory versus for the Sangam classics Ahnanuru, Puranamuru, Kuruntogai, Narrinai
and Aingurunuru.
• The Pattini cult i.e. the worship of Kannagi as an ideal wife, was started by Senguttuvan,
the ruler of Chera.
• Tolkāppiyam is a work on the grammar of the Tamil language. It deals with orthography,
phonology, morphology, semantics, prosody and the subject matter of literature. It
belongs to second tamil Sangam.
• Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitram is based on some events of the reign of Pusyamitra Sunga,

a dynasty which followed the Mauryas.
• Barabar cave (Gaya, Bihar) Inscription- Donation of the caves to Ajivikas
• Bhabru Edicts- Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism and his reverence for his religion
• Ashoka has created 3 new posts
o Pradeshika — District Magistrate.
o Rajjuka — Reveneue officer, who also looks after the judicial things.
o Yukta — Correspondence clerk
• The Allahabad pillar (brought from Kausambi) contains the inscription of Samudragupta
and Jahangir.
EPIGRAPHY is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs as writing; it is the science of identifying

graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural
contexts, and drawing conclusions about the writing and the writers.
o Specifically excluded from epigraphy are the historical significance of an epigraph

as a document and the artistic value of a literary composition.
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POST MAURYAN KINGDOMS
After The decline of Mauryan Empire, many new foreign rulers arrived and had a deep impact
on the Indian society and culture. Most important of them were –
• Indo – Greeks (Bactrian kings – Greeks – 2nd C BC)

• Shakas – Scythians – Central Asia – 1st C BC
• Parthians – Pahalvas – Persia – 1st C AD
• Kushans – Yutchi tribe – Central Asia – 1st C AD
INDO – GREEKS (BACTRIANS)

• They came 2nd C BC and got settled in Northwestern India (Afghanistan) and made Taxila
their Capital.
• The first known king was Demetrius – 2nd C BC.
• Their greatest king was Menander, known as Milind in Indian literature.
• In his period, a great Buddhist scholar Nagasena, also called Nagarjuna, wrote a book
‘Milindpanho’ in Pali.
• Milindpanho literally means questions of Milind. It is a book on Buddhist philosophy,
where Milind is asking questions to a Buddhist monk about life.
CONTRIBUTION OF BACTRIANS:
Coins: They were the first to use gold coins in India. They were also the first to use date and
images on coins.
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Astronomy: They helped in the development of astronomy and astrology. They made a week of
7 days (Greek influence).
Art: They developed Gandhara School of sculptural art also known as Hellenistic Art.
• Hellenistic = Greek + Persian + Indian

• Themes – Buddha and his life were themes of this art.
• These statues were found in Kabul – Banmiyan (this was destroyed by Taliban few years
ago), Kandahar, Bagram, Heart and Taxila.
• They were mostly made of mud, schist, sandstone and plaster.
• The statues were mostly made in standing position.
• They depicted Buddha in Greco – Roman style. (In 2013, a question was asked in GS 1 that
what were the Greco – Roman influences in the Gandhara School of Art?)
• Hairstyle – Curly (Greek)

• Ears – Long elongated (Roman)
• Eyes – Sharp (Greek)
• Faces – Flat and expressionless (Greek)
• Muscles – muscular (Roman and Greek Gods like apolo and Zeus)
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This art was developed most during the Shakas and Kushans, during which the tallest Buddhist
statue was built in Bamiyan. After it was destroyed, the tallest is at China.
SHAKAS (SCYTHIANS – CENTRAL ASIA)

• Shakas came to India from Central Asia in 1st C AD and settled in Punjab to Gujarat region.
The wall of China was built in the south to protect china from Shaka attack in 3 rd C.
• There were many dynasties in Shakas which ruled. Shakas were a group of people and not
a single dynasty like Mauryas and Mughals.
• They had two major headquarters in India – Ujjain and Mathura.
• They introduced the concept of ‘Kshatrapi’ system – military governorship appointed by
the king.
• They had a system of two rulers at a time, Father – son, two brothers etc.
• Rudhradaman was the greatest king of Shakas in 2nd C AD.
Junagarh inscription gives information about him.
• The inscription is in Chaste Sanskrit.

• It informs about a dam repaired by Rudradaman on Sudarshan lake in Kathiawar Region.
• This dam was originally built under the rule of Chandragupta Maurya in 4th C BC.
• Rudradaman performed an Ashwamegha yajna.
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PARTHIANS (PHALVAS) – PERSIA

• They came from Persia and settle in the western part of India.
• Takht – e – Bahi inscription tells about them.
• Most famous king is Gondopherous.
• It is believed that the first Christian missionary, Saint Thomas, came to his court around
52 AD. According to a Christian tradition, Saint Thomas was sent by the Christ himself.
KUSHANAS (YUTHI TRIBE) – CENTRAL ASIA

• They came from Central Asia and occupied area from Afghanistan, Kashmir to Prayag
(Allahabad).
• Amongst the foreigners they had the largest empire.
• They had two headquarters – Peshawar and Mathura.
• Kanishka was the most powerful king of Kushans. And ruled in 1st – 2nd C.
IMPORTANT EVENTS:
• During his period the 4th Buddhist council was held at Kashmir.
• The Buddhists were divided into Hinayana and Mahayana.
• He preserved some holy relics of Buddha including his tooth.
• He built several stupas.
• He was a follower of Mahayana.
SOME GREAT SCHOLARS OF THIS PERIOD:
Charak: ‘Charak Samhita’
• It is the first scientific book on medicine in India. It describes in detail the symptoms,
causes, and cure of the diseases.
• Many surgical process and instruments are also mentioned in the book.
• The book is known as the encyclopedia of medicine in India.
Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha (Buddhist Scholars)
• Asvaghosa wrote Buddha Charita. The first biography of Buddha. It was written in
Sanskrit.
CONTRIBUTION OF KUSHANS:
• They accepted Indian religion and language. As they themselves were tribesmen they did
not have an organized religion before.
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• They also followed Vaishnavism as it was more liberal than Shaivism. For the first time
there is a mention of ‘Vasudev Krishna’ in Mathura.
• Horse riding was introduced by them. Use of stirrup, saddle and reins was introduced.
Chariots became outdated.
• A new fashion and costumes were introduced. Hat, leather boots, pants and overcoat.
Statue of Kanishka showing new attire
• They patronized Mathura and Amravati school of art.

• They introduced the tradition of worshipping ancestors called ‘Dev Kul’ tradition.
• They issued numerous gold coins. They metal was found to be the purest amongst all gold
coins even that of Gupta period.
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IMPACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS
Structures
• Advanced in building activities.

• Use of burnt bricks for flooring and of tiles for both flooring and roofing.
• Construction of brick—wells
Pottery
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• Red ware is typical pottery with plain and polished.

• Know red pottery techniques
• The distinctive pots are sprinklers and spouted channels.
Better cavalry
• The Sakas and Kushans added new ingredients to Indian culture and enriched it
immensely.
• They Settled in India and assimilated with its culture.
• Because they don’t have their own script, language and religion they adopted these from
India.
• Became integrated part of Indian society.
• Introduced cavalry and use of riding horse on large scale
• Use of reins and saddles in the Buddhist sculptures.
• Possible used stirrup
• Introduced turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coat (see the effect - the Afghans and
Panjabis wear turbans, and the sherwani (successor of the long coat) even today)
Trade and agriculture
• Created trade contacts between Indian and Central Asia

• Result – India received gold from Altai mountains
• Profit in roman trade as received gold coins
• Income from silk route (controlled it)
• Promoted agriculture
• Large scale irrigation in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Western Asia.
Polity
• Development of a feudatory organization.

• Adopted the pompous title of king of kings to indicate their supremacy over numerous
small princes.
• Strengthened the divine origin of kingship
• Called themselves as sons of gods. (while Asoka called dear to gods)
• Introduced satrap system of government (empire divided into satrapies under a satrp)
• Introduced hereditary dual rule (two kings ruling in the same kingdom at one and the
same time) (like son and father jointly ruled)
• Introduced practice of Military governorship.
New elements in Indian society

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• They become Indianized completely

• Absorbed in society as warrior class
Religious developments
• Most of the rulers were converted to some religions.

• Example – Indo – Greeks worshipped Vishnu
• Menander became a Buddhist
• Kushan ruler worshipped Shiva and Buddha and also Vishnu.
• Some rulers worshipped as incarnation of god
ORIGIN OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

• In post Mauryan times Indian religion underwent major change because of 2 things –
o Due to a big leap in trade and artisan
o Large influx of people from Central Asia.
• Buddhism affected greatly. Monks and nuns could not afford to lose the cash donations
from growing traders.
• Buddhists welcomed non-vegetarians meaning laxity in the code of conduct of Buddhism.
• Slowly they moved towards money and then women and in this way degeneration
started. This form was called as Mahyana Buddhism.
• Image worship of Budhha started.
MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART

• An indigenously developed sculptural art.
• Related to all the three contemporary religions – Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism.
• The evidences came from Mathura and Kankalitila.
• The sculptures were mostly made of mud and red sandstone (spotted red sandstone)
• Buddha is depicted with hair locks and better facial expressions.
• Jain tirthankars – 23rd (Parsavnath) and 24th (Mahavira) are found regularly.
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• Vaishnavite deities were represented more than the Shaivite – Vishnu, surya and Kuber
are found regularly.
• Mathura school includes Wema Kadphises and Kaniska, Parkham Yaksa, Maholi
Bodhisattva and seated Kubera.
• The life of common people, costumes, flora and fauna have been depicted in a better way
in Mathura school of Art.
• The Sarvatobhadrika image of 4 Jinas, the images of Vaishnava and Shaiva, The Standing
Buddhas of the Sravasthi Sarnath and Kausambhi are some of the finest examples of
Mathura School.
GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART

• It was distinctive Gandhara style of Buddhist art, which developed from a merger of
Greek, Syrian, Persian, and Indian artistic influences. (Greco-Roman influence)
• Grey sandstone (Blue-grey Mica schist) is used in Gandhara School of Art.
• The Gandharan style flourished and achieved its peak during the Kushana period, from
the 1st to the 5th centuries.
• It declined and was destroyed after the invasion of the White Huns in the 5th century.
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Figure Greco-Buddhist statue of standing Buddha, Gandhara (1st–2nd century),
AMRAVATI SCHOOL OF ART

• Main centers: Amravati, Goli, Ghantishila and Guntur are the important centers from
which the remains have been found.
• Buddha and Bodhisatva were the most important themes.
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Figure - The above sculptor depicts a heroic story in a narrative form. An elephant goes berserk
and people are running for safety, then Buddha enters and elephant kneels before Buddha.
• Some of the statues were independently build but some as a part of the building like
stupas, pillars, walls etc.
• The depiction of common life is much better than Gandhara and Mathura art.
• This was patronized by Satavahanas and Ishkavakus after them.
• They used sandstone and marble.
Features Mathura Gandhara Amravati
Time period 2nd C. BC 1st C. BC 1st C. BC
North western part of Valley of Krishna

Flourished in Mathura region
Indian subcontinent and Godavari
Amravati,
Prominent Taxila, Bimaran, Nagarjunikonda,
Mathura and Jamalpur village
places Jalabad and Hada Goli, Ghantasala
and Vengi.
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Buddhist
Mathura’s artists 1st to make Adopted from Adopted from
images adopted
the images of Buddha Mathura Mathura
from
Patronization Initially – local rulers but later Vakatakas and

Shakas and Kushanas
by by Shakas and Kushanas Ikshavakus
Greeko-Roman and
Initially indigenous but after so also known as
No one;
the Shakas and Kushanas Greeko Roman, Indo-
Influenced by Indigenous from
patronization, influence of Roman and Greeko
beginning to end.
Greeko-Roman Buddhist school of
art.
Type of Stone
White spotted Red sandstone Blue-Grey Stone White marble
used
Religious or
Both Only religious Both
Secular images
Physical beauty Physical beauty

Facial expression
• Muscular • Expression
Emphasis or • Clean shave and head
body through
focus on • Abhaymudra and
• Transparent postures
Dharmachakraparivartana
cloth • Erotic images
Mudra
• Curly hairs
Got transformed
Destroyed by Huna
Continued till early Medieval into Pallava and
Continuation invasions in 5th
age Chola
century AD
architecture
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SATAVAHANAS/ANDHRAS
• They ruled in the modern-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh from
1st C BC to 3rd C AD.
• They claimed that they were Brahmins.
• Gautamiputra Satkarni was their greatest ruler in 2nd C AD. This society was probably
matriarchal as their names were prefixed by the names of their mother. Gautamiputra
means son of Gautami.
• Capital – Pratisthan/ Paithan
• Official language was Prakrit and they followed Vedic Religion.
• They were the first in India who gave land grants to priest class – both Brahmins and
Buddhist.
• They patronized Amravati school of Arts.
• Two seaports were developed during their reign – Sopara (Maharashtra) and Baruch
(Gujarat).
THE AGE OF THE SATAVAHANAS
Capital Pratishthana, Amaravati
Languages Prakrit
Religion Brahmanism, Buddhism
Government Monarchy
Emperor
• 230–207 BCE Simuka
• 190s CE Madhariputra Svami Sakasena
Historical era Antiquity
• Established 271 BCE or 30 BCE
• Disestablished 220 CE
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Preceded by Succeeded by
Maurya • Vakataka
Empire dynasty
• Ikshvaku
dynasty
• Chutu
dynasty
• Western
Satraps
POLITICAL HISTORY
• After the Mauryan Empire decline, among the important successors, Satavahana was one
of them.
• They were identical with the Andhras who are mentioned in the Puranas.
• In Puranas we found only about Andhra rule and not of the Satavahana rule.
• And also the name Andhra does not occur in Satavahana inscriptions.
PRE - SATAVAHANA SETTLEMENTS

• Red ware, Black and red ware and rusted coated painted ware were found from Deccan.
• Most of these were associated with the iron using megalith builders who were stimulated
to new activity by contacts with material culture from north.
• Use of iron ploughshare, paddy transplantation and coming of urbanism, writing etc.
created the conditions for the state formation under the Satavahanas.
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Satavahana Kings (271 BCE – 220 CE)
Simuka (1st century BCE)
Kanha (1st century BCE/CE)
Satakarni (1st-2nd century CE)
Sivasvati (1st century CE)
Gautamiputra Satakarni (1st-2nd century CE)
Vasishthiputra Pulumavi (2nd century CE)
Vashishtiputra Satakarni (2nd century CE)
Shivaskanda Satakarni (2nd century CE)
Yajna Sri Satakarni (2nd century CE)
Vijaya (2nd century CE)
According to Puranas Satavahanas ruled for 300 years.
• This period is called as rule of Satavahana dynasty.

• Earliest inscriptions of the Satavahanas – 1st century B.C. – it tells us about victory of
Satavahanas over Kanvas and establishment of Satavahanas in Central India.
• Early Satavahana kings appeared in Maharashtra (coins and inscriptions found)
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Figure - Satakarni issue, Maharashtra – Vidarbha type
• Power setup at - upper Godavari valley (presently produces rich and diverse crops in
Maharashtra)
• From Godavari valley to they gradually extended their power over Karnataka and Andhra.
• Greatest competitors - Sakas (upper Deccan and western India).
GAUTMIPUTRA SATAKARNI (A.D. 106-130)

• Once Sakas had dispossessed Satavahanas from their home but later it was restored by
Gautamiputra Satakarni.
• He called himself the only Brahmana
• He defeated the Sakas and has destroyed the Kshatriya lineage to which his adversary
Nahapana belonged.
• More than 8,000 silver coins of Nahapana, found near Nasik, bear marks of being restruck
by the Satavahana king.
• Malwa and Kathiawar were under the control of the Sakas. Satakarni defeated them
possessed the control over the two.
• Empire under him – Malwa in the north to Karnataka in the south.
• Possibly he also enjoyed general authority over Andhra.
VASISHTHIPUTRA PULUMAYI (AD 130 - 154)

• The successors of Gautamiputra ruled till AD 220.
• Vasishthiputra was the immediate successor of Gautamiputra.
• Coins and inscriptions of Vasishthiputra Pulumayi are found in Andhra.
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• This shows that by the middle of the 2nd century this area had become a part of the
Satavahana kingdom.
• Set up capital at – Paithan or Pratisthan (on the banks of Godavari, Aurangabad district)
• The fight between Sakas and Satavahanas again started for the possession of the Konkan
coast and Malwa.
• Rudradaman I (AD. 130-150), the Saka ruler had defeated the Satavahanas 2 times, but
did not destroy them because of account of matrimonial relations.
• The 2nd last ruler of Satavhanas i.e. Yajna Sri Satakarni (AD. 165-194) recovered north
Konkan and Malwa from the Saka rulers.
• His coins showed his love for overseas trade and navigation.
• His coins have been found from – Andhra, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
•
Figure - Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring
and trading capabilities of the Satavahanas during the 1st–2nd century CE
MATERIAL CULTURE
• It was a fusion of local elements and northern ingredients.
Iron
• The megalith builders of the Deccan were fairly acquainted with the use of iron and
agriculture.
• Socketed hoes, sickles, spades, ploughshares, axes, adzes, razors, etc., belong to the
Satavahana layers.
• Tanged and socketed arrowheads as well as daggers have also been discovered from
Deccan.
• A blacksmith’s shop has been discovered at the site of Karimanagar. The Satavahanas may
have exploited the iron ores of Karimnagar and Warangal.
Gold
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• Evidence of ancient gold workings has been found in the Kolar fields in the early
Christian centuries.
• Bullion - Satavahanas may have used gold as bullion. They had not issued gold coins
as the Kushans did.
• But they issued coins made of lead (mostly), potin, copper and bronze money.
• It seems that both – lkshvakus and Satavahanas - had exploited the mineral resources
of the Deccan.
AGRICULTURE
• Deccan people knew paddy transplantation.
• Great rice bowl – in the 1st two centuries, the area between the Krishna and the
Godavari formed a great rice bowl.
• They also produced cotton.

• According to foreign accounts – Andhra is considered to be famous for its cotton
products.
• So, it seems that Deccan developed a very advanced rural economy.
CONTACTS WITH NORTH

• Because of contacts with the north the people of the Deccan learnt the use of coins, burnt
bricks, ring wells, etc.
• Regular use of fire-baked bricks and use of flat, perforated roof tiles were found at
Peddabankur (200 B.C – A D. 200) (in Karimnagar district).
• 22 brick wells belonging to the 2nd century AD have also been discovered from this site.
• What else we found –
o Dense habitations
o Covered drains underground to lead waste water into soakage pits.
o Towns in Maharashtra (1st century BC)
o About 2nd and 3rd C BC towns – only from inscriptions and excavations
o Increasing trade – indicated by numerous Roman and Satavahana coins found in
the Godavari-Krishna area.
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SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
BRAHMANAS AND RULERS

• Probably Satavahanas were a local tribe who were converted to Brahmanism.
• The orthodox Brahmanas of the north looked upon the Andhras as a mixed caste. This
shows that the Andhras were a tribal people who were brought within the fold of Hindu
society as a mixed caste
• Gautamiputra Satakarni have established the 4 - fold Varna system which had fallen into
disorder. He had put an end to the intermixture between the people of different social
orders.
• Allowing Sakas in Brahmanical society of Satavahanas as Kshatriyas helped Sakas to marry
with Satavahanas.
• It was a Brahmanical society where Buddhism also exists.
• The Satavahanas were also the first rulers to make land grants to the Brahmanas,
although we have more instances of grants being made to Buddhist monks.
MERCHANTS
• Merchants and artisans came to front because of increase in trade and commerce.
• They took pride in naming themselves after the town they belonged to (like IITians,
Stephenians etc. :P )
• Story behind surname Gandhi - Among the artisans the gandhikas or the perfumers are
repeatedly mentioned as donors to Buddhist cause. At a later stage the term gandhika
became general as to denote all kinds of shopkeepers. The modern title Gandhi is derived
from this ancient term.
FAMILY STRUCTURE OF SATAVAHANAS

• Aryan society – Patriarchal society
• Satavahanas – Patriarchal society with Matrilineal social structure i.e. mother enjoyed a
greater importance. It was customary for their king to be named after his mother. For
example - Gautamiputra and Vasisthiputra indicate that in their society mother enjoyed
a great deal of importance.
• Queens made important religious gifts in their own rights, and some of them acted as
regents.
• Even after so many favors to Women, why we are calling it as patriarchal society? Because
the succession to the throne passed to the male member.
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ADMINISTRATION
• King – upholder of Dharma.
• He was assigned few divine attributes like Rama, Bhima, Arjun etc.
• The effects of Mauryan rule were felt in administration as well as in other parts of the life.
• Retained some of the administrative units found in Ashokan times like –
• District was called ahara
• Officials were known as Amatyas and Mahamatras, as they were known in Mauryan
times.
• Senapati was appointed as provincial governor.
• Administration in the rural areas - by Gaulmika – who was the head of a military regiment
consisting of nine chariots, nine elephants, 25 horses and 45 foot-soldiers.
• Kataka and Skandhavaras - These were military camps and settlements which served as
administrative centres.
GRANTS
• The Satavahanas started the practice of granting tax-free villages to Brahmanas and
Buddhist monks.
• These grants acted as small independent islands within the Satavahana kingdom as they
were declared free from molestation by royal policemen and soldiers.
• Buddhist monks - Possibly they preached peace and rules of good conduct among the
people they lived with, and taught them to respect political authority and social order .
• Brahmanas – They helped in enforcing the rules of the Varna system which made society
stable.
FEUDATORIES
• 3 grades of feudatories –
• King - highest grade – right to strike coins
• 2nd grade – Gramabhoja
• 3rd grade – Senapati
• It seemed that these feudatories and landed beneficiaries enjoyed some authority in their
respective localities.
RELIGION
• Satavahanas were Brahmans and so they (kings and queens) performed Vedic sacrifices
such as the ashvamedha, vajapeya, (covered in Vedic chapter) etc.
• Worshipped – Vaishnava Gods such as Krishna, Vasudeva, and others.
• Paid liberal sacrificial fees to the Brahmans.
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• Promoted Buddhism – by granting land to Buddhist monks.

• Mahayana Buddhism existed.
• Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati – Important seats of Buddhist culture under Satavahanas
and Ikshavakus (Satavahanas successor).
• Nasik and Junar (both in Maharastra) – Buddhism flourished here.
ARCHITECTURE
Chaityas and Viharas
• Satavahanas period, in Maharastra, many Chaityas were cut form solid rocks.
• This process was started in about 200 B.C.
• Chaityas - a Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a Stupa at one end. In modern texts on
Indian architecture, the term chaityagriha is often used to denote an assembly or prayer
hall that houses a Stupa.
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Figure Karle caves, Maharashtra
Figure Worship at Karle caves
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• The most famous Chaitya is – Karle in the western Deccan. Its dimensions are 40*15*15
(length*width*height).
• It is most impressive specimen of massive rock cut architecture.
• Vihara - Sanskrit and Pali term for a Buddhist monastery. It originally meant "a secluded
place in which to walk", and referred to "dwellings" or "refuges" used by wandering
monks during the rainy season.
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• The Viharas or monasteries were excavated near the chaityas for the residence of monks
in the rainy season.
• At Nasik we have 3 Viharas. They belong to 1st and 2nd century AD as revealed by the
inscriptions which they carry of Nahapana and Gautamiputra.
Stupas
• Rock-cut architecture also found at Andhra in the Krishna—Godavari region, but it is really
famous for independent Buddhist structures, mostly for Stupas.
• Most famous of these Stupas are Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda.
• Stupa - a large round structure erected over some relics of the Buddha (already covered
in detail in royal art section of Mauryan empire)
• The Amaravati stupa began in about 200 B C but was completely reconstructed in the
second half of the second century AD.
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Figure ruins of Amravati stupa
Figure Model of original stupa as imagined by archaeologists
• Its dome measured 53 meters across the base, and it seems to be 33 meters in height.
• The Amaravati Stupa is full of sculptures which depict the various scenes from the life of
the Buddha. (see image below)
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Figure - Sculptures at the Archaeological Museum, Amaravati
• Nagarjunakonda prospered most under the Ikshvakus, the successors of the Satavahanas.
• It contains not only Buddhist monuments but also the earliest Brahmanical brick temples
Figure - Buddhist Site 3rd century AD, Nagarjunakonda
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LANGUAGE
• Official language of the Satavahanas - Prakrit.
• All inscriptions were composed in Prakrit language and written in the Brahmi script (same
was the case in Ashokan times)
• Some Satavahana kings may have composed Prakrit books.
• Gathasaptasati – A Prakrit text attributed to a Satavahana king called Hala.
• It consisted of 700 verses, all written in Prakrit, but it seems to have been finally
retouched much later, possibly after the sixth century A D.
CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POST -MAURYA AGE
CRAFTS
• The age of the Sakas, Kushans, Satavahanas (200 B.C.—A D. 200) and the first Tamil states
was the most flourishing period in the history of crafts and commerce in ancient India.
• Arts and crafts witnessed a remarkable growth.
LITERARY EVIDENCES
• In the earlier texts we do not come across so many kinds of artisans as are mentioned in
the writings of this period.
• This period texts mentioned about growth in crafts –
o The Digha Nikayb (belongs to pre-Maurya times) - it mentions about two dozen
occupations.
o Maharastu - it catalogues 36 kinds of workers living in the town of Rajgir.
o The Milinda Panho or the Questions of Milinda enumerates as many as '75
occupations, 60 of which are connected with various kinds of crafts.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS
• Most of texts talks about craftsmen in town only while excavations had showed that they
also lived in villages as well.
• For example - In a village settlement in Karimnagar in Telangana carpenters, blacksmiths,
goldsmiths, potters, etc., lived in Separate quarters and agricultural and other labourer
lived at one end.
• Inscriptions of the period mentioned - Weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, Workers in metal and
ivory, jewelers, sculptors, fishermen, smiths and perfumers as constructors of caves and
donors of pillars, tablets, cisterns, etc., to the Buddhist monks. All these suggest that their
crafts were in a flourishing condition.
ADVANCEMENT IN TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE
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• Various crafts associated with different metals like gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, brass,
iron and precious stones or jewels, brass, zinc, antimony and red arsenic.
• This was possible only because of great advance and specialization in mining and
metallurgy. Technological knowledge about the work of iron, had made great progress.
• Large number of Iron artifacts have been discovered from Satavahana sites like
Karimnagar and Nalgonda (try to recall what iron implements were they)
• Exports to Abyssinian ports - Indian iron and steel including cutlery.
TEXTILES
• Cloth-making, silk-weaving and the making of arms and luxury articles also made
progress.
• Shataka cloth – it was a special type of cloth.

o Mathura was a great manufacturing center of it.
• Dyeing – a thriving craft in some south Indian towns.
o Brick-built dyeing vat has been excavated from – Uraiyur (a suburb of Tiruchirapalli
town, Tamil Nadu) and Arikamedu.
o They belong to 1st and 3rd centuries A D. during which handloom textile industry
was booming in these towns. (Just like in present Surat).
• Oil manufacturing – It increased because of the use of the oil wheel.
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HANDICRAFTS
• Handicrafts meant for manufacturing luxury articles – Ivory work, glass manufacture and
bead cutting.
• Indian ivories founded in Afghanistan and Rome.
Glass Works
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Figure - ancient glass beads
• In India the knowledge of glass blowing comes in beginning of Christian era.

• Roman glass objects appear in Taxila and in Afghanistan.
• Large numbers of beads of semi-precious stones appear in post-Maurya layers.
• Beads and bangles made of shell belong to same layers.
COIN MINTING
• It was an important craft, and this period was noted for numerous types of coins made of
gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead and potin.
• Like today we have fake currencies, the craftsmen of that period also made fake Roman
coins.
• A coin-mould from the Satavahana level shows that through it half a dozen coins can be
made at a time.
TERACOTTA
• Beautiful Terracotta figurines were found in many numbers.

• They have been found in almost all Kushan and Satavahana sites.
o Yelleshwaram (in Nalgonda district) – here we find the largest number of
terracottas and the moulds in which they were manufactured.
o Also found at Kondapur (near Hyderabad)
• Terracottas were meant mostly for the use of upper classes in towns.
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• Such terracotta almost went out of fashion after the decline.
GUILDS
• Guilds were and are associations of artisans or merchants who control the practice of
their craft in a particular town. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities
of tradesmen.
• Artisans were organized into guilds.
• According to the different texts of the period, near about 2 dozen guild was there.
TRADE WITH EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE

• It was the most important economic development of the period.
• Initially it was carried by land, but the movement of the Sakas, Parthians and Kushans
from the 1st century BC disrupted trade by land route.
• Parthians of Iran imported iron and steel from India.
• But they presented great obstacles to India’s trade with the lands further west of Iran.
• From 1st century AD Sea route was used to trade.
• Monsoon discovered around Early Christian era helped in sailing and reduced the travel
time from eastern coast to western coast of India.
• Eastern coast ports – Broach (most important port among all) and Sopara
• Western coast ports – Arikamedu and Tamralipti
• Whether it is Satavahanas, kushana or Saka everyone had to bring their commodities to
Broach (see location in map near Gujarat) for trade.
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• The Sakas and the Kushans used two routes from the north-western frontier to the
western sea coast.
• Both these routes converged at Taxila and were connected with the Silk Road passing
through Central Asia.
• 1st route – It ran from the north to the south connecting Taxila with the lower Indus basin
from where it passed on to Breach.
• 2nd route – called as uttarapatha was in more frequent use. From Taxila it passed through
the modern Punjab up to the western coast of the Yamuna. Following the course of the
Yamuna it went southward to Mathura. From Mathura it passed on to Ujjain in Malwa
and again from Ujjain to Broach on the western coast.
FOREIGN TRADE
• The volume of trade between two was large but it was not carried on in articles of daily
or common use. It was mainly in Luxury goods (called as aristocratic necessities)
• The Romans first started the trade with the southern-most portion of the country.
Exports
• Roman’s imported – Spices, muslin, pearls, jewels, and precious stones from central and
south India. Iron goods (especially cutlery) formed an important item of export to the
Roman Empire.
• Some articles were brought from china and then sold to Rome.
Silk was directly supplied by china to Rome through Afghanistan but establishment of Parthian in
Iran disturbed this and so silk was sent to eastern ports of India to send it to its destination.
Profit from trade
• In return Rome exported –

1. wine – amphorae
2. Various other types of pottery – it was discovered at Tamluk in West Bengal,
Arikamedu near Pondicherry and sometimes at Guwahati.
3. Lead – in shape of coiled strips to make coins.
4. Gold and silver coins
• The kingdoms of both the Satavahanas as well as the Kushans profited from trade with
the Roman Empire but Satavahanas benefitted more.
• There was considerable no. of gold coins discovered from India. This made many authors
like Plinny to become critic of India, which is accused of draining the gold from Rome.
• Westerners were very much fond of Indian pepper, it is called Yavanapriya in Sanskrit.
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• Roman nobles paid high prices for cutlery and other imports which was changing the
balance of trade.
• Obviously, India was a big gainer from this trade and sometimes Rome had to ban trade
with India in pepper and steel goods.
MONEY ECONOMY
GOLD COINS
• Rulers which issued gold coins –
1. Indo-Greek rulers in north
2. Kushans - issued in considerable numbers.
• It is not necessary that all Kushan gold coins were minted out of Roman gold.
• They might have mined it from Sindh mines or obtained from central Asia or from gold
mines of Dhalbhum in south Bihar.
OTHER COINS
• Andhra issued large no. of Potin or lead coins.
• Copper coins – largest by Kushana in north and North West India.
• Naga dynasty (ruled central India) and Yaudheyas (Rajasthan), mitras (Kaushambi,
Mathura, Avanti and Ahichhatra) – used copper and bronze coins in large quantities.
• This period had seen growth both in economy and craftsmanship.
URBAN SETTLEMENTS
• Because of growing crafts and commerce and the increasing use of money promoted the
prosperity of numerous towns.
• Important towns which emerged during this period in north India – Vaisali, Pataliputra,
Varanasi, Kausambi, Sravasti, Hastinapur, Mathura, lndraprastha.
• They all are mentioned in literary texts, and some of them are also described by the
Chinese pilgrims.
SHAKA AND KUSHANA TOWNS

• Most of the towns flourished in the Kushan period in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.
• Prosperous states in Kushan times were Chirand, Sonpur and Buxar (all 3 in Bihar), and
Mason in Ghazrpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
• Thriving states in Kushan times were in Uttar Pradesh, Sohgaura, Bhita, Kausambi and
Shringaverapur near Allahabad, Atranjikhera.
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• There were lot of construction (in Sonkh (Mathura), Iullundar, Ludhiana and Roper (last 3
in Punjab)) during Kushan period while the Gupta period made poor structures using used
Kushan bricks.
• In other word urbanization was at peak in Kushan period and Shaka kingdom.
• Ujjain was most important town because –
o It was being the nodal point of two routes, one from Kausambi and the other from
Mathura.
o Of export of agate and carnelian stones.
SATAVAHANA TOWNS
Figure - Remains of the stadium at Nagarjunakonda
• Prosperous towns - Tagar (Tor), Paithan, Dhanyakataka, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda,

Broach, Sopara, Arikamedu, Kaveripattanam
• Towns started declining in 3rd C AD or later.
Reasons for prosperity of towns
• Trade with Roman Empire.

• Some towns situated at trade routes or at meeting point of 2 trade routes.
• Power with Kingdoms.
Towns started declining with the ban on trade with India imposed by the Roman empire from the
third century AD. Archaeological excavations in the Deccan also suggest decline in the urban
settlements after the Satavahana phase.
SANGAM AGE
Sangam literally means ‘union’. It was an assembly or Union of Tamil Poets.
Although it was compiled/written in 6-7th C AD, it depicts the society of 1st – 4th AD.
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Three types of Tamil Literary pieces are found – Grammar, Poems and Epics.
It describes the period of Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas, the three important rival kingdoms of
South India. Detailed coverage of these kingdoms will be done later.
According to Legend (not history)
• There were 3 sangams which took more than 10000 years to complete.
• They were patronized by 197 kings.
• 6598 poets participated.
Historically, these figures are considered too exaggerated.
According to the legend, the three sangams were held at:
• Madurai – Presided by Saint Agastya

• Kapatpuram – Presided by Tolkappiyar
• Madurai – Presided by Nakkhiran
IMPORTANT LITERARY PIECES

• The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu,
Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
• Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature.
• It is a work on Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and
socioeconomic conditions of the Sangam period.
• The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai,
Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
• The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai,
Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu,
Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
• Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram
(valour).
• Pathinen-kilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals.
• The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
• Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also
provides valuable information on the Sangam polity and society.
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Tolkappiyam – By Tolkappiyar
It is a treatise on Grammar.
Collection of 18 Anthologies (collection of poems):
• Ettitugai – 8 anthologies
• Padipattu – 10 anthologies
TWO GREAT EPICS

SHILAPADDIGRAM (Jeweled Anklet): by Ilango Idigal
Main characters –
• Kovlan
• Kannagi (wife of Kovalan)
• Madhavi (lover of Kovalan)
Story
First half of novel covers love affair between Kovalan and Madhavi. In second half Kovalan is
executed falsely with a charge that he has stolen a jeweled anklet. Kannagi proves the innocence
of her husband and curses the village. The village asks for forgiveness and she retreats to the
jungle.
Kannagi was worshipped throughout the South up to Srilanka as a Goddess of Chastity.
MANIMEKALAI – by Sattanar
It can be considered a sequel to Silapadigram.
Manimekalai was the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.
She was chased by the local prince for marriage. She refuses and runs away. Since all the cities
are mentioned in the epic, we get to know about the condition of the cities, occupation of people,
dressing sense, trade and other habits of contemporary society.
Finally she takes shelter in a Buddhist monastery and becomes a monk.
HISTORICAL INFORMATION FROM SANGAM LITERATURE

• In Sangam literature, three kingdoms are mentioned – Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas.
• The literature informs us about the contemporary economy, like agriculture was well
developed and land was fertile.
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• Cotton cloth industry was also well developed. Main center was Uraiyur.
• They had well developed port cities like Muziri in Kerala.
• Roman coins have been found at Arikamedu (Pondicherry) and a Roman Colony was also
found there. Showing trade relations with Europe.
• They used animal pulled carts for transportation.
• Traders used to take their female folks with them unlike the traders of the north.
• In the society, there were certain similarities and dissimilarities from the north:
• The Varna ‘Kshatriya’ is almost missing in the south.
• The Brahmins enjoyed the highest position in the South as in the north but second highest
social significance was that of Vaishya.
• Similar Vedic rituals were prevalent here like that of North.
• The Brahmins of South Ate non – vegetarian and also took wine. It was not a taboo here
like it was in North India.
• According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in
ancient Tamil Nadu (popularly called Muchchangam)
• These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas.
• It is believed that the 1st Sangam was held at Madurai and it was attended by gods and
legendary sages but no literary work of this Sangam is available.
• 2nd Sangam – held at Kapadapuram - all the literary works had perished except
Tolkappiyam.
• 3rd Sangam – at Madurai. It was founded by Mudathirumaran.
• It was attended by a large number of poets who produced voluminous literature but only
a few had survived.
• These Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam
Age.
Period of Sangam Literature
• The most probable date of the Sangam literature has been fixed between the third
century B.C. to third century A.D.
POLITICAL HISTORY
• The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the Chera, Chola and Pandyas
during the Sangam Age.
THE CHERAS
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• The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their capital was Vanji and their important
seaports were Tondi and Musiri.
• Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan and Cheran
Senguttuvan were the famous rulers of this dynasty.
• Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to 2nd century A.D. His younger brother was Elango Adigal,
the author of Silappathigaram.
• Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in
Tamil Nadu.
THE CHOLA
• It extended from modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh.
• Capital was first located at Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar.
• Karikala – one of the famous king of the Sangam Cholas. Pattinappalai portrays his early
life and his military conquests.
• In the Battle of Venni he defeated the mighty confederacy consisting of the Cheras,
Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains.
• Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by him in which nine enemy
chieftains submitted before him.
• He built Kallanai across the river Kaveri.
THE PANDYAS
• The Pandyas ruled over the present day southern Tamil Nadu. Their capital was Madurai.
• The earliest kings of the Pandyan dynasty were Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi
Peruvaludhi and Mudathirumaran.
• There were two Neduncheliyans. The first one was known as Aryappadai Kadantha
Neduncheliyan (one who won victories over the Aryan forces). He was responsible for the
execution of Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt Madurai.
• The other was Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra (who won the battle at Talaiyalanganam)
Neduncheliyan. He was praised by Nakkirar and Mangudi Maruthanar.
• He wore this title after defeating his enemies at the Battle of Talaiyalanganam, which is
located in the Tanjore district.
• Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes the socio-economic condition
of the Pandya country.
• The last famous Pandyan king was Uggira Peruvaludhi.
SANGAM POLITY
• Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period.
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• The king had also taken the advice of his minister, court-poet and the imperial court or
avai.
• Titles adopted by kings –
o Chera - Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar.
o Chola kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi.
o Pandya kings like Thennavar and Minavar.
• Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem –
o Cholas – tiger
• Cheras - bow
• Pandyas - carp
• The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils.
• They were –
o ministers (amaichar)
o priests (anthanar)
o military commanders (senapathi)
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o envoys (thuthar)
o spies (orrar).
o Imagine - our PM assisted by ministers, chiefs of army, navy and Air force, RAW
and IB head
o Commanders of the army were credited with the title of ‘Enadi’ at a formal
ceremony
• Each ruler had a regular army and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
• Chief source of state’s income - Land revenue. While custom duty was also imposed on
foreign trade.
• Pattinappalai - custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar.
• Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury.
SANGAM SOCIETY
• Tolkappiyam- five-fold division of lands - Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam
(agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert). (also recall types of land under
Akbar…polaj was one )
• The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as
gods for worship.
• Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and honey collection.
Figure 1korravai
• Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with
dairy products.
• Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
• Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.
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• Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.

o Korravai ancient goddess of war and victory and mother of Murugan,
• Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes –
o Arasar – term for ruing class.
o Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion.
o Vanigars carried on trade and commerce.
o Vellalas were agriculturists (they were rich peasants).
• Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
• Agricultural operations were generally carried on by members of the lowest class
(kadaisiyar). They were landless laborers.
RELIGION
• Primary deity of the Sangam period - Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.
• The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God
Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam literature.
• He was honored with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu.
• The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period. The Hero Stone
was erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle.
POSITION OF WOMEN
• Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period
and contributed to Tamil literature.
• Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women.
• Love marriage was a common practice.
• Women were allowed to choose their life partners.
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• The life of widows was miserable.

• The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society.
FINE ARTS
• Panar and Viraliyar – singing bards
• Kanigaiyar – dance person
• Koothu – most famous form of entertainment
ECONOMY OF THE SANGAM AGE
AGRICULTURE
• Agriculture - chief occupation.
• Common crop – Rice.
• Other crops - Ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and a variety
of fruits
• Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country.
• Chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country – Paddy
OTHERS
• The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular and included weaving, metal works
and carpentry, ship building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
• Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality.
• There was a great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
TRADE
• Flourished during this period
• Merchants carried the goods on the carts and on animal-back from place to place.
• Internal trade was mostly based on the barter system.
• External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms.
• The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this
port with precious goods.
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• Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and
Marakkanam.
• The author of Periplus provides the most valuable information on foreign trade and he
was the critic of India as it drained Rome’s gold.
• Main exports - cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and
turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones.
• Chief imports - Gold, horses and sweet wine.
GUPTA PERIOD
BACKGROUND
• Emerged over a good part of the former dominions of both the Kushans and Satavahanas.
• Gupta Empire may have been of Vaisya origin.
• It was not as large as the Maurya Empire but it kept North India politically united for more
than a century, from AD 335 to 455.
• UP was the center Point of Gupta Empire.
• The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushans in Uttar Pradesh
• Their basic strength was because of horses.
• The Guptas enjoyed certain material advantages like –
o Fertile land of MP, Bihar and UP
o Iron ores
o Proximity to silk trade route and Byzantine empire (Roman empire)
• Guptas set up their rule over –
o Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin)
o Prayag (modern Allahabad)
o Saketa (modern Ayodhya) (Important terms can be asked in exam)
Gupta Dynasty was started by Sri Gupta. He was a feudatory of Kushans and not a sovereign
ruler. Ghatotkacha was son of Sri Gupta and he succeeded him after his death
The true independent ruler of Gupta Empire was Chandragupta I. He was son of Ghatotkacha
and is considered to be the real founder of Gupta Empire.
Gupta Empire
320 CE–550 CE
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Sri Gupta (240 – 280) not an

independent ruler
Ghatotkacha (280 – 319) not an
independent ruler
Chandragupta I (320 – 335)
Samudragupta (335 – 380)
Ramagupta (375 – 380)
Chandragupta II (380 – 413/415)
Kumaragupta I (415 – 455)
Skandagupta (455 - 467)
Purugupta (467 – 473)
Kumaragupta II (473 - 476)
Budhagupta (476 – 495)
Narasimhagupta (495 – ?)
Kumaragupta III
Vishnugupta (540 – 550)
Vainyagupta (550 – ?)
Bhanugupta
• Beyond Skandgupta the chronology is not well established.
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CHANDRAGUPTA I (AD 319 - 334)
Figure - Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I, depicted on a coin of their son
Samudragupta, 335–380.
• Chandragupta I was the first independent ruler of Gupta Dynasty.

• He married a Lichchhavi Princess.
• The Guptas were possibly vaisyas, and hence marriage in a Kshatriya family gave them
prestige.
• He seems to have been a ruler of considerable importance because he started the Gupta
era in A.D. 319-20, which marked the date of his accession.
• Later many inscriptions came to be dated in the Gupta era.
Two of the greatest kings of Guptas were –
• Samudragupta
• Chandragupta II
SAMUDRAGUPTA (A.D. 335-380)

• The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta I’s son and successor
Samudragupta (A.D. 335-380).
• Samudragupta delighted in violence and conquest. (Opposite to Asoka’s policy of peace
and non-aggression)
• His court poet Harishena wrote a glowing account of the military exploits of his patron in
Allahabad’s inscription (Prayag Prashasti)
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• The best source to know about Samudragupta is the Prayag Prashasti in Allahabad.
• It is written on an Ashokan pillar. It is of great historical importance as details of three
kings are engraved on it.
o 1st - Ashoka, who initially established it.
o 2nd - Samudragupta, who got his account written on it in Sanskrit
o 3rd - Jahangir, who got his account inscribed in Persian.
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Figure Prayag Prashasti
According to Prayag Prashasti: Samudragupta defeated
• 9 kings of Aryavrata, the most famous of them being Nag dynasty.

• 18 kings of central India – most famous being Atvika (a forest tribe)
• 12 kings of Southern India – most famous of them being Pallavas.
He had close contact with the kingdom of Ceylon and South East Asian colonies. The eulogy of
Harisena describes him as hero of 100 battles. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna, this has been
testified by a seal of Samudragupta bearing a Horse. This was probably first Ashvamedha after
Pushyamitra Shunga.
Vincent Arthur Smith called him the Napoleon of India.
According to the Prayag Prashasti he returned the kingdoms of most of the kings on three
conditions:
• The defeated king had to pay tribute to Samudragupta.

• The defeated king had to come personally to his court at least once in a year, generally
on his birthday.
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• They had to get their daughter married to Samudragupta.
He minted several types of gold coins with different images. His own image with goddess Lakshmi
as he claimed he is an Avatar of Vishnu on earth.
Coin issued by Samudragupta
• Images of ‘Garuda’ were also minted.

• Images showing him playing Veena and doing Ashvameghayajna.
• He was also known as Kaviraja.
CHANDRAGUPTA II: (380 – 415 AD)
Figure - Coin of the Gupta king Chandragupta II
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• He adopted the title of Vikramaditya. 1st Ujjain ruler to do so

• He extended the limits of his empire by marriage alliance and conquests.
• By marrying his daughter (Prabhavati) to Vakataka prince, he exercised indirect control
over the Vakataka kingdom in central India.
• This move helped him later to conquer western malwa and Gujarat from Shakas.
• He issued Silver coins. He was the first Gupta king to do so.
• He made Ujjain his second Capital.
• He was a great patron of Art and literature. It is believed that he had Navratnas in his
court. It is a matter of debate whether Aryabhatta was in his court or not.
• Chandragupta’s inscription has been found in Udaigiri and Khandgiri.
Udaigiri caves of Odisha
Fa Hien: the first Chinese pilgrim came to India during 399 – 412 AD. i.e. during Chandragupta II
reign.
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Figure - Fa Hien
• He came through land and returned through sea route via Sri Lanka.
• He came to collect the Holy Buddhist texts.
• He visited several important Buddhist sites and cities, including Patliputra and praised the
beauty of the throne of Chandragupta Maurya.
• He wrote about different Buddhist sects in India.
• He wrote about Indian society, there were things that he praised like Cultural diversity
and certain things that he criticized like untouchability.
• However, he did write about the moral character of Indians which he thought was good.
A circle of famous nine persons known as Nine Gems or Navaratnas were present in the court of
Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. The nine gems of the group were
• Kalidasa was a famous Sanskrit writer and poet in the court of Chandragupta II
(Vikramaditya). He is commonly regarded as the greatest poet in the Sanskrit language.
Kalidasa was the author of three famous plays. Those are:
o Abhijnanasakuntalam: tells the story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala
o Malavikagnimitram tells the story love of King Agnimitra with Malavika
o Vikramorvasiyam tells the love story of King Pururavas and celestial fairy Urvashi
o Kalidasa was also the author of two famous Sanskrit epic poems: a) Raghuvamsa
("Raghu Dynasty ") and b) Kumarasambhava.
• Vetala Bhatta - a magician
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• Varahamihira - Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of

Gupta era. He is famously known for his great work Pancha Siddhantika, a book on
mathematical astronomy. His other important contribution to the Indian Sanskrit
literature is the Brihat – Samhita, an encyclopedia of astrology and other subjects of
human interest.
• Vararuchi – grammarian and Sanskrit scholar, author of Prakrit Prakasha, which is first
Grammar of Prakrit Language.
• Amarasimha – was a Sanskrit lexicographer and a poet and his Amarkosha is a vocabulary
of Sanskrit roots, homonyms and synonyms.
• Dhanvantari – Physician - is regarded as one of the world’s first surgeons and medical
practitioner from Gupta era. He is considered as the origin exponent of Ayurveda. He is
also worshipped as the God of Medicine. Sushruta, the author of famous Sushruta
Samhita was the student of Dhanvantari. He is also credited for the discovery of the
antiseptic properties of turmeric and the preservative properties of salt. Dhanvantari is
considered to be the pioneer of modern plastic surgery.
• Kshapanak- Astrologer, wrote Jyotishashtra
• Shanku- great scholar and was the author of Shilpashastra.
• Ghatakarpura- expert in sculpture and architecture
KUMARAGUPTA
• His inscription has been found from several of UP and MP like Mathura and Mandsor.
• During his period, the Huns (Central Asian tribe) made their first attack in India.
• During his period the famous Nalanda Buddhist monastery and University was built. He
donated one village to it.
SKANDGUPTA
• His famous inscription has been found in Junagarh.
• This inscription informs us of the victory of Skandgupta over the Huns.
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GUPTA ADMINISTRATION
Unlike Mauryan and Nandas Empire who were centralists, the model of Guptas was different and
this difference lied in decentralized administration.
• Gupta kings adapted pompous titles such as Paramesvara, Maharajadhiraja and

Paramabhattaraka. This signifies that they ruled over lesser kings in their Empire.
• King was considered as divine. In ancient time, this theory was accepted in China and
Persia as well. Samudragupta claimed he was the avatar of Vishnu on earth.
• Kingship was hereditary.
• There was no fixed rule for succession. (primogeniture not fixed)
• King was an absolute monarch.
• Largest number of gold coins is found from this period.
• The violators of guild were punished by fine or excommunication.
ARMY
• The numerical strength - unknown.
• A standing army was maintained. Feudatories occasionally supplemented the forces.
• Cavalry came to the forefront.
• Horse archery became prominent in military tactics.
TAXATION SYSTEM
• Land taxation keep on increasing
• Taxation on trade and commerce decreased
• Taxation rate – ¼ to 1/6 of produce.
• Local people had to feed army when it passes through the countryside
• Villagers were subjected to forced labour called vishti for serving the royal army and
officials.
There were several types of taxes in Gupta era as follows:
• Bali: Bali which was voluntary in Maurya era and was given to the King becamecompulsory
in Gupta Era.
• Bhaga: King’s share in all produce of the cultivators. It was 1/6th part of produce.
• Bhoga: Bhoga refers to the tax in kind of gifts, flowers, woods, fruits etc.
• Hiranya: This was the tax paid in cash (Gold) {Hiranya means Gold}
• Halivakara: Halivakra was a kind of tax slab, those who owned a plough used to pay tax.
• Kara: It might have been some irregular tax charged from villagers.
• Shulka: It was custom or toll tax very much similar to Chungi / Octroi in modern times.
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• Udinanga: It might be a social security kind of tax.

• Klipta: It was related to sale and purchase of lands.
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
• More developed than earlier times
• Several law books compiled
• 1st time demarcation of criminal and civil laws
• Criminal law – theft and adultery
• Civil law – disputes regarding various types of property
• Elaborate laws laid down about inheritance
• Like earlier time many laws continued to be based on differences in varnas.
• It was the duty of the king to uphold the law.
• The king tried cases with the help of Brahmana priests.
• During this period autonomous trading bodies called ‘guilds’ were active.
• Rules were made by the guilds for the member of the guilds like fixing the price, quality
of goods and obligations of the members. Guilds used to interfere in some personal issues
as well.
• Guilds of artisans, merchants and others- governed by their own laws. Seals from Vaisali
and from Bhita near Allahabad ludicate that these guilds flourished exceedingly well in
Gupta times.
BUREAUCRACY
• The ministers could hold more than one post unlike the Mauryan administration.
• The post of some ministers and officers was also hereditary.
• The officers were also paid in land. This was the first time in history when officers were
paid in the form of land. This led to the rise of feudalism. (Note: Satavahanas granted land
to priests, not officers.)
• The Brahmins got land grants with power to punish the people to maintain law and order.
These villages were called Agrahara village or Brahmandeya Village.
• The Guptas as compared to Mauryas had small size bureaucracy and the administration
was more decentralized
PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

• The empire was divided as –
• Divisions (bhuktis) → districts (vishayas) → vithis → villages.
• Order of their officers –
• Uparika (for bhuktis)→ Vishayapati (for Vaisayas)
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Gupta rulers did not require as many officials as the Mauryan did because –
• Since much of the imperial administration was managed by feudatories and beneficiaries
• State did not take part in economic activities on any big scale
• Guilds participation in administration
The Key officers of the Gupta machinery include the below:
Official Functions
Mahabaladhikrita Commander in Chief
Mahadandnayaka Chief Justice
Mahapratihar Maintainance of Royal Palaces
Mahasandhivigrahika or War and Peace

Sandhivigrahaka
Dandpashika Head of Police department
Bhadagaradhikreta Royal Treasury
Vinaysthitisansthapaka Education Department
Sarvadhyaksha Inspector of all central departments
Mahashwapati Cavalary
Mahamahipalapati Elephants
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Official Functions
Vinayapura One who represented guests to

King’s court
Yuktapurusha Accounts of war booty
Khadyapakika Royal Kitchen
Ranbhandagarika Arms and ammunitions stores
Mahanarpati Infantry
ECONOMY
Source – Fa Hien
• According to him the Empire had lot of cities and rich people who gave donations to
Buddhism
• Gold coins – largest in number.
o Not as pure as kushanas
o Served to pay officers, meet the need of sale and purchase of lands
• Silver coins – issued after the conquest of Gujarat for local exchange
• Copper coins – very few
• Decline in long distance foreign trade.
• Eastern Roman Empire learnt from the Chinese the art of growing Silk. This adversely
affected the export trade of India.
• Demand for Indian silk abroad had slackened.
• Guild of silk weavers left their original home in Gujarat and migrated to Mandasor and
took to other professions.
• Gupta period had many cloth centers and silk industry witnessed a significant
development during this period. The Mandsor Inscriptions gives account that Gupta
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people were helped to a great extent for the growth of Silk Industry. Gold, silver and
Copper was used in making ornaments and issuing coins. The Gold coins show the pomp,
power and prosperity of the empire.
• In Gupta Era, the activities of Guilds were increased and these activities are recorded in
various literature, inscription, clay seals etc. There is a mention of Guild of architects in
Raghuvamsa. The Indore Copper plate inscription mentions about a guild of oilmen.
The Mandsor Inscription mentions the guild of silk weavers. The guild system declined
after the Gupta Period.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS
Land grants to the Brahmanas on a large scale mean that the Brahmana supremacy continued in
Gupta times.
The Guptas made three types of grants.
• First was the religious grants to brahmans, individually or collectively, known
as brahmadeya grants
• Second was the grants to institutions such as temples and monasteries known
as devagrahara or devadana
• Third were secular grants to crown officers, craft guilds or also military commanders in
rare occasions.
CASTE SYSTEM
• The castes proliferated into numerous sub castes.
• Professions were determined by caste though not very rigidly.
• For example –
• Brahmans - followed trade, architecture and service as professions. They had even
become kings.
• Vaishyas - The Gupta emperors were Vaishyas.
• Kshatriyas – they followed commercial and industrial vocations.
• Suhdras - There were many sub-castes among the Vaishyas and Sudras than among the
higher castes. Sudras also could become traders and agriculturists like the Vaishyas.
• Untouchables – lived outside the main settlements. They stroked a piece of wood while
entering the city so that men might know of their coming and they could be avoided. They
were engaged in hunting, fishery, scavenging and similar professions.
FAMILY SYSTEM
• Joint family system was prevalent in the Hindu society.
• Partitions or nuclear family in the lifetime of the father was not approved.
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• Ownership of property was vested in the father but the rights of sons and brothers to the
property were also recognized.
• Adoption was not very much approved.
• The head of the family governed the family unit.
• Patriarchal system - The male members dominated the family and society.
POSITION OF WOMEN UNDER GUPTA EMPIRE

• Though women were subordinate to men in society, yet their position was no less
significant.
• Their position improved than earlier periods.
• She was idealized in literature.
• They were given education but they could not recite the Vedic mantras.
• Pre-puberty or child marriages were common.
• Purdah had begun among the higher castes.
• Widow Remarriage was allowed sometimes.
• Sati example 1st – 510 AD
• Ideally woman was regarded as Shakti, the energizing principle. A woman was considered
as Saraswati and Goddess Kali, creator and destroyer.
• They not only participated in public life but there is also reference to women teachers.
• Permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas. They could also worship a new god called
Krishna
• Upper caste women were treated as property by their husbands.
o They were completely depended on husband for livelihood and it was expected
that they would follow her husband to next world.
• Lacked proprietary rights.
BUDDHISM AND BHAGVATISM

• No longer received royal patronage.
• According to Fa-Hien Buddhism flourished but in reality, it was not so important in the
Gupta period as it was in the days of Asoka and Kanishka.
• Instead Buddhism had been replaced by Bhagvatism.
• Two Gods who commanded were - Vishnu and Siva.
• Vishnu emerged as the god of devotion, and represented as the saviour of the varna
system.
• Vishnupuran – Compilation of legends about Vishnu
• Vishnusmriti – A law book was also name after this god.
• 4th century AD – Bhagavadgita, philosophical text, which taught devotion to Lord Krishna.
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• Siva – The god of destruction was also worshipped.

• Idol Worship – Became a common feature from this period.
• The Gupta kings followed a policy of tolerance towards the different religious sects.
LITERATURE
Gupta age was a golden period of literature. Gupta literature can be broadly classified into
• Religious literature
• Secular literature
RELIGIOUS LITERATURE
PURANAS
• It literally means the ‘Past’.
• There are 18 puranas written in ancient period some before Guptas, some during Guptas
and some post Guptas.
• They are written in Chaste Sanskrit and are tales of Gods and Goddesses.
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Some of the important Puranas are:
• Adi purana
• Agni Purana
• Matsya Purana
• Bhagwati Purana
• Bhavisya Purana
• Shiv Purana
• Through these books we get the chronology of the ancient rulers/dynasties, including that
of ‘Mahajanapadas’.
• These literatures are a good source to know the contemporary society and culture and to
understand different social institutions like marriage.
• The books are written in future tense.
• The modern Hindus treat them as holy books whereas reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy
and Dayanand Saraswati condemned the Puranas and said that many social evils of Hindu
society have their roots in Puranas. Dayanand Saraswati said, ‘Go back to the Vedas’.
SMRITIS
• Literally it means ‘Memory’.
• These are the law books written in Gupta and pre- Gupta period.
• Manu Smriti – the oldest Smriti written during post Mauryan period. It is the most
comprehensive law book of the ancient time.
• Narada Smriti – it gives a list of various privileges of Brahmans.
• These smritis made or fixed laws for individual and society based on Varna system or caste
heritage.
• In general most important rights were reserved for the upper caste male and most duties
especially physical duties were assigned to people of lower Varnas and females of all
Varnas.
• Most smritis assigned legalized property rights only to the male members of the family.
Some smriti writers gave ‘Stree dhan’ a right of female but it was given only at the time
of marriage and in the form of cash and jewelry.
• In 18th C the British Government codified some laws of Manusmriti under the title, ‘A code
of Gentoo laws’. It was drafted in 1776.
RAMAYANA
• It is believed by linguistic analysis that it was written in different phases between 2 nd C
and 4th C AD.
• Broadly it was written in two phases:
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• In the first phase 12000 shlokas were written, then again in second phase 12000 more
shlokas were written. Totally there are 24000 shlokas.
• It is believed that it was written by Valmiki.
• This was one of the most famous epics written in long poetic style in Sanskrit. Many other
versions of Ramayana were written in different cultures and periods. Two most popular
ones are Kamban’s Ramayana in Tamil and Ramcharitramanas in Hindi by Tulsidas.
• The epic gives some important messages based on the contemporary value system:
1. Truth shall prevail.
2. Father must be obeyed – Dashrath sent Ram for vanvas and Ram went without a
protest.
3. Elders must be respected – Laksman voluntarily accompanied Ram.
4. Women must obey their husband – Agnipariksha
MAHABHARAT
• Written in different phases, but finally compiled during Gupta period i.e. 4 th – 5th C AD.
• Broadly it was in three phases:
o 1st phase: 8800 shlokas – known as Jai Samhita
o 2nd phase: 16000 shlokas – known as Tav Samhita
o 3rd phase: 1,00,000 shlokas – known as Shat Sahastra Samhita
• Longest epic in the world.
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• The story is set in Later Vedic period to Gupta period. Kingdoms and cities that are
mentioned are of Post Mauryan times.
• Two stories are told parallel. There is a clan clash for kingdom in the story between
Kauravas and Pandavas. The other story is of Vasudev Krishna of Mathura, believed to be
the 8th incarnation of Vishnu. (Ram is 7th incarnation)
• During Gupta period, Ram and Krishna avatars of Vishnu were not that popular. Matsya
avatar was more popular.
For a very long time Mahabharata characters were played on stage in the form of Rasleela.
(Ramayana has been played in the form of Ramleela.)
DRAMAS
• Daridracharudatta – By Bhasa (It is the oldest drama written in India)
• Mrichchakatikam (A little clay cart) – by Shudrak
• Devichandraguptam – by Vishakhadutta
• Mudrarakshas – by Vishakhadutta
Note: Chanakya Niti is mentioned in Mudrarakshas. In order to get the work done, one need
to use the following tools – Sam (agreement), Dam (bribe), Dand (attack) and Bheda(divide).
The most important work in drama is considered by Kalidasa.
Kalidasa’s wok:
Dramas –
• Abhijyan Shakuntala – this is the most famous of his works and his last work as well.
• Malvikaagnimitra
• Vikramurvashi
Epics: (Mahakavya)
• Raghuvansham
• Kumarsambhav
Poetic Collection:
• Ritu Sambhav
• Meghadootam
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SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
ARYABHATTA
Aryabhatta was an extraordinary teacher and scholar who had immense knowledge about
mathematics and astronomy. He suggested the heliocentric theory which proved that the sun is
located in the centre of the solar system and all the planets revolve around it. In fact he made
this discovery way before Copernicus made this discovery in the West.
Aryabhatta was born in Kerala and lived from 476 AD to 550 AD, he completed his education from
the ancient university of Nalanda and later he moved to Bihar and continued his studies in the
great centre of learning located in close proximity to Kusumapura in Bihar and lived in Taregana
District in Bihar in the late 5th and early 6th century.
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He also said that the moon has no light and shines because it reflects light from the sun. He also
proved wrong the false belief that eclipse is caused because of the shadows formed by the
shadows cast by the earth and the moon.
Aryabhatiya: On astronomy and mathematics – By Aryabhatta
• Aryabhatiya is a treatise that includes various facts related to Hindu mathematics and
astronomy that appeared during those times. The treatise comprises of four chapters that
are concerned with sine tables and astronomical constants. It also comprises of rules to
calculate the longitudes of the planets by utilizing epicycles and eccentrics and also the
rules related to trigonometry and calculation of eclipses.
• Aryabhatta was the first person to use ‘zero’. A person who invented zero is an unknown
Indian. (Note: this question has been asked in UPSC. That who of the following have
invented zero? And the answer given was an Unknown Indian.)
• Aryabhatta was the first in India to treat mathematics and Astronomy as the separate
branches.
• He was the one who deduced the approximate value of pi, which he found it to be 3.14.
He also derived the correct formulas for calculating the areas of triangles and circles. He
also played a very important role in the formation of the table of Sines
PANCHASIDDHANTIKA: by Vrahamihir
• The book deals with astronomy and astrology.
Panchatantra: by Vishnu Sharma
• They short animal stories to build social values and morals.
Kamasutra – by Vatsyana
• Book on 64 different arts and crafts it includes – music, sculptor, drama and lovemaking.
ART
• Gupta Era is also known as Golden Age of India
• But it is not true in economic field because towns were declining.
• Guptas possessed a large amount of gold and issued the largest number of gold coins.
• Both Samudragupta and Chandragupta II were patrons of art and literature.
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• Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute (mm) and Chandragupta II is
credited with maintaining in his court nine luminaries or great scholars.
• In ancient India art was mostly inspired by religion.
• Buddhism gave great impetus to art in Mauryan and post-Mauryan times. (creating pillars,
cutting of beautiful caves, stupas and Buddha image sculptures)
• Over 2-metre high bronze image of the Buddha, which was recovered from Sultanganj
near Bhagalpur. (see image)
Figure 2 Sultanganj Buddha
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• Fa-Hein saw an over 25-meter-high image of the Buddha made of copper, but it is not
traceable now.
Figure- Sarnath Budhha Figure - Buddha image Mathura
• Beautiful images of the Buddha were made at Sarnath and Mathura in this period.
• One new school was added i.e. Sarnath School of Sculpture
• Noteworthy example is Sultanganj Buddha (7.5 ft in height) – (Near Bhagalpur in Bihar)
• Ajanta painting – time period 1 to 7 C AD. – They depict various events in the life of
Gautama Buddha.
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ARCHITECTURE
• Gupta Period is called the “Golden age of India” or the “Classical Age of India” partially
due to the unprecedented activities and development in the arts, architecture, sculpture,
painting and literature.
• During Gupta Era, the rock cut architecture reached its zenith and this era marked
the beginning of the Free-Standing temple Architecture.
• Buddhist University at Nalanda was set up in the 5th century, and its earliest structure,
made of brick, belongs to this period.
• Nagara & Dravidian styles of Temple making evolved during this period
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• There are few temples made of brick in Uttar Pradesh and a stone temple. These are brick
temples of Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur and Deogarh in Jhansi.
• Bhitargaon’s temple: It is the first brick temple of India.
Figure-brick temples of Bhitargaon in Kanpur
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Art of temple making started during this time. Most important temples attributed to this period
are:
• Sanchi’s temple – Sanchi

• Dashavatar temple – Devgarhi, Jhansi (UP) – first pyramidal shaped temple in India.
• Nachnakuthar temple – MP
• Bhitargaon’s temple – near Kanpur
Sanchi’s Temple
• It is found near the great Sanchi stupa. It is regarded as the oldest existing temple.
• It is small and has a flat roof.
Dasavtar Temple
• It is the first pyramidal shaped temple in India.

• It is the first temple to have a Mandapa
• Garbha Griha (the room where chief deity is kept) – was generally made dark and narrow
to keep its mystical value intact.
• Devdassi Culture: Devdasis were the girls married to Gods. They devoted their lives to
upkeep of temples. Later on, they were exploited by the priest and merchants.
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PAINTINGS DURING GUPTA PERIOD
They are found from Ajanta and Bagha caves.
The most famous painting of Buddha at Ajanta
• Ajanta’s Rock cut caves were built during 2nd C – 7th C AD. They were patronized by
different rulers and followers of Buddhism.
• 25 caves are Vihara type (Where monks could live and pray) and 4 are Chaitya type.
• The paintings are found on the walls and ceilings of these caves.
• Most famous paintings have been found from caves 16, 17 and 19.
• Natural colours from vegetation were used.
• The themes were taken from Jataka tales and various shades of Buddha’s life.
• Amongst the most famous paintings the ‘Apsara’ of Ajanta had attracted the attention of
the critics the most.
DECLINE OF GUPTA EMPIRE
Reasons of decline
Huna invasion
• Huna invasion made them weak

• Weak successors
• Use of stirrups made of metal by Hunas so they can move quickly. (see image)
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Figure - stirrup
• Excellent archers of Hunas
Loss of Malwa and Yashodharman
• Malwa which was closer to port was lost.

• Though Yashodharman had overthrowed Hunas, he had given severe blow to Guptas
Rise of feudatories
• They tended to become independent
Other reasons
• By 550 Bihar and Uttar Pradesh had passed out of Gupta hands. By the beginning of the
sixth century we find independent princes issuing land grants in their own rights in
northern Madhya Pradesh.
• Loss of western India deprived the Guptas of the rich revenues from trade and commerce
and crippled them economically.
• Difficult to maintain large army
• Land grants had reduced the revenues
• Moving of Thaneswar prince towards Kannauj
• Decline of foreign trade had affected income
• No demand of cloth produced by them.
• Debasement of the coins and gradual disappearance of gold coins during the post-Gupta
period indicates the Decline of Trade.
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Do You Know?
• The Dashavatara Temple or Vishnu Temple also called Gupta temple at Deogarh. It was
built in the Gupta Period. Archaeologists have inferred that it is the earliest known
Panchayatana temple in North India. A Hindu temple is a Panchayatana one when the
main shrine is surrounded by four subsidiary shrines.
• Samudragupta calls himself Lichchavi – Dauhitra the son of the daughter of the Lichchavis.
• The gold coins of Gupta period were called Dinara inspired by the Roman coins but later
the coins were minted in the Indian style with the weight standard of 9.2 gms of gold and
called Suvarna.
• Samudragupta adopted the title of Kaviraj (King of poets), he was an expert ‘Veena’
player.
• Harisena was the court poet of Samudragupta, who mentioned the achievements of
Samudragupta in the Prayag-Prasasti inscription.
• The University of Nalanda was established at Badagoan,Bihar in the 5th century during
the reign of the Gupta emperor Kumaragupta I.
• Kalidasa was regarded as the greatest poet and dramatist of ancient India. He wrote the
Ritusamhara, the Meghadutta, the Kumarasambava, the Raghuvansa, the
Viramavamsiya, the Malavikagnimitra and Abhijnana Sakuntalam. He was the court poet
of Chandragupta II.
• The titles of Skandagupta are Parambhattaraka, Paramdevta, Maharajadhiraj,
Kramaditya, Vikramaditya, etc. In the Kahaum inscription he is also known as
KsitipaSatapatih (or lord of a hundred kings).
• As per Natya – Darpana (by Vishakadata), the Iron pillar had been put up by Chandragupta
II himself after defeating Vahilakas. He designated that pillar as a memory of the victory.
The pillar is made of 98% wrought iron and has stood more than 1,600 years without
rusting or decomposing.
• The Gupta emperor, Samudragupta granted permission to Buddhist king of Ceylon
Meghavarman to build a monastry at Bodh Gaya. Hence, he was also known as
Anukampavan (full of compassion).
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HARSHA AND HIS TIMES

Harsha Kingdom
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IMPORTANT POINTS REGARDING HARSHAVARDHAN:

• He belonged to Pushyabhati dynasty.
• His elder brother, Rajya Vardhan, was killed by Shashank, the king of Bengal. He is the
same Shashank who chopped off the Bodhi tree.
• Harsha took revenge and defeated Shashank.
• Harsha made Kannauj as his capital.
• The main source of Harsha is ‘Harshacharita’ his biography written by Banbhatta. It’s the
first biography of an Indian king. (Remember, the first biography ever written in India is
that of Buddha that we have discussed before.) Banbhatta also wrote ‘Kadambri’ a
Sanskrit play. Banabhatta was a friend, courtier and biographer of Harsha.
The four most notable works of Banabhatta

• Include Kadambari, Harshacharitam, Chhandakasthtaka and Parvatiparinaya.
• Harsha himself wrote three dramas:
Priyadarshika
Nagananda They can be remembered calling them ‘PNR’
Ratnavali
• According to the Aihole Inscription, Pulakesin II (A chalukyan king) defeated Harsha on
the bank of river Narmada. This is the first instance when a South Indian king had defeated
a north Indian king.
• Huen Tsang visited his kingdom. According to Huen Tsang, Harsha divided his income into
4 equal parts:
• Army and administration
• Royal expenditure
• Religious grants
• Poor and destitute
• He conducted an all religion conference at Kannauj which was presided by Huen Tsang.
• A fire burnt the conclave and 500 Brahmins were exiled by Harsha in this charge. This is
regarded as one of his intolerant acts.
• A festival called ‘Mahamokshaparishad’ held at every 5 years at Prayag (Allahabad) in
which Shiva, Ganesha and Buddha were worshipped. The fourth day was reserved for
donations.
Note: Harshavardhan was a follower of Shiva and Buddha Both. He was a Shaivite and
later converted to Buddhist by Huen Tsang.
• He is regarded as the last great king of the Ancient Indian History.
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ADMINISTRATION
• He governed his Empire on the same lines as the Gupta’s did.
• His administration had become more feudal and decentralized.
• It is believed that the facts about cavalry and military were exaggerated.
• Harsha could possess a larger army only if he could mobilize the support of all his
feudatories at the time of war.
• Land grants continued to be made to priests.
• It seems that practice of rewarding and paying officers with grants of land seems to have
begun under Harsha. And this was the reason for lesser availability of Harsha coins.
• According to Huen Tsang the revenues of Harsha was divided into 4 parts –
o 1st for King
o 2nd for scholars
o 3rd for endowment of officials and public servants
o 4th for religious purposes.
• Law and order were not well maintained.
• Huen Tsang’s belongings were robbed of.
• Severe punishments were there for crime but it seems that under the influence of
Buddhism the severity of punishment was mitigated, and criminals were imprisoned for
life.
HUEN TSANG
• He came through the land route and returned from the same route (unlike Fa- Hien).
• He came to study at Nalanda, where he studied ‘Yogashastra’ and also taught for 9 years.
He wrote in detail about Nalanda.
• There was an entrance test for Nalanda.
• 10,000 monks lived there, including teachers and students. (Based on archeological
findings, modern historians believe that this was an exaggerated number.)
• 200 villages were assigned for the maintenance of Nalanda.
• This institution attracted large number of scholars from SE Asia.
• He also describes the ruined city of Patliputra which was burnt before his arrival. Hence
the importance of Kannauj politically increased.
• Huen Tsang also met Pulakesin II at Badami and Narsimha Varman of Pallava dynasty at
Kanchi, Tamil Nadu.
• He wrote about Indian society and people. He praised the moral character of the general
public but complained against regular robbery. He himself was robbed four times.
• He also wrote about various sects of Buddhism (18) which suggests that Buddhism was
still flourishing in India.
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• He wrote his account under the name ‘Shi – Yu – Qui’ (The World of the West).
TEST YOUR CONCEPTS
PAINTINGS/SCULPTURES/ART FROMS/TEMPLES & THEIR LOCATIONS
Statue of The Bodhisattva Maitreya: Pakistan; ancient region of Gandhara (Gandhara School of
Art)
Flying Demigods- Bamiyan, Afghanistan, 5th Century
Famous Paintings of Ajanta
• Avalokiteshvara – Padmapani, Mural Painting

• The Buddha receiving Alms from a Women and Child
• Fighting Elephants, Mural Painting
• Fighting Bulls
• Persian Price and Princess
• Seated Girl, Mural Painting
Famous Statues
• Avalokitesvara holding a lotus flower: Nalanda, Bihar, India, 9th century

• Colossal Bronze Buddha: Sultanganj, Bihar, Gupta Period
• Budda’s Parinirvana- Colossal Rock sculpture, Ceylon
• Horse Trampling a Demon – Konark
• A Girl Musician with Cymbals – Konark
• Maithunas – Konark and Khajuraho
• Apsaras – Orissa and Khajuraho
• Brahaspati, the God of Jupiter- Orissa
• Siva Trimurthi- Colossal Rock-sculpture- Elephanta Island
• The Descent of Ganga- Colossal Rock Sculpture, Mamallapuram
• Torso of Budhisattva- Sanchi
• Seated Buddha- Sarnath, Gupta Period
• Standing Buddha- Mathura, Gupta Period
• Head of Buddha- Gandhara School
• Buddha Preaching-Gandhara School
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IMPORTANT POIINTS/TERMS FROM ANCIENT INDIA & CULTURE

• Zanzibar- A story of 6th or 7th century tells of a merchant’s son who sailed to the island
of the Black Yavanas. It is Zanzibar, present day it is the main island in the Tanzanian
archipelago of Zanzibar.
• The oldest Indian Linguistic text- Yaska’s Nirukta- Dating 5th -7th Century
• Ashtadhyayi- Author- Panini- 4th Century- Sanskrit- a sutra-style treatise on Sanskrit
grammar.
• Mahabhyasa- Author Patanjali
• Kasika Vriti- Author Jayaditya and Vamana
• The first important dynast to use Sanskrit- Sakas of Ujjain and Inscription of Rudraman
at Girnar (Earliest certainly dated records of ancient India, and proves that Rudraman was
reigning in A.D 150.
• Banabhatta: one of the greatest masters of Sanskrit prose, famed principally for his
chronicle, Harshacharita (“The Life of Harsha”). He used Kavya style. His second great
work, the prose romance Kadambari, is named for the heroine of the novel. The book
describes the affairs of two sets of lovers through a series of incarnations.
• Subandhu: Wrote Vasavadatta, is a classical Sanskrit romantic tale written in an ornate
style of language.
• Amarasimha: was a Sanskrit grammarian and poet from ancient India. He is said to have
been "one of the nine gems that adorned the throne of Chandragupta Vikramaditya as
per Xuanzang. He was contemporary of Kalidasa.
• Amarakosha: a thesaurus in Sanskrit written by the ancient Indian scholar Amarasimha.
The Amarakosha is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes
called Trikanda or the "Tripartite". It is also known as "Namalinganushasana.
• Sthaviravadin Buddhists: Buddha taught in Prakrit Magadhi language. Magadhi was the
official language of the Mauryan Court.
• Sauraseni Language: Type of Prakrit, spoken originally in the Western part of modern
Uttar Pradesh.
• Apabhramsa (Falling away): A vernacular of Western India which was used by Jaina
writers in Gujarat and Rajasthan for poetry.
• Brahmi Script- Left to Rigth, Kharosthi Script – Right to Left, Semitic Script – Right to Left
• Play by Kalidasa:
o Vikramōrvaśīyam is a five-act Sanskrit play by ancient Indian poet Kalidasa who
flourished in the 4th Century CE, on the Vedic love story of king Pururavas and an
Apsara, a celestial nymph named Urvashi. This story is mentioned in Satapatha
Brahmana.
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o The Mālavikāgnimitram: The play tells the story of the love of Agnimitra, the
Shunga Emperor at Vidisha, for the beautiful lun-maiden of his chief queen. He
falls in love with the picture of an exiled servant girl named Mālavikā. The play
contains an account of the Rajasuya sacrifice performed by Pushyamitra Shunga
and an elaborate exposition of a theory on music and acting.
o Abhijñānashākuntala: dramatizing the story of Shakuntala told in the epic
Mahabharata. It is considered to be the best of Kālidāsa's works
• Poems by Kalidasa: Raghuvaṃśa ("Dynasty of Raghu") and Kumārasambhava (Birth of
'Kumara' or Subrahmanya). Minor Peoms- Meghaduta and Rtusamhara (Garland of
Seasons).
• Santi Parvan – A dissertation on statecraft and ethics recited by Bhisma (Mahabharata)
• Author of Mahabharata – Veda Vyās or Krishna Dvaipāyana.
• Uttararamacarita- by Bhavabhuti – Drama/Play of 8th century concludes with the full
reconciliation of Rama and Sita. He also wrote Mahaviracarita.
• Sisupala-Vadha (Sanskrit Poem) – by Magha
• Janaki-harana (Sanskrit Mahakavya): By Kumaradasa
• The Kirātārjunīya (Sanskrit Mahakavya): By Bharavi
• Kavyamimamsa (Sanskrit Poem): By Rajashekhara
• The Ramacharitam (Sanskrit Poem): By Sandhyakar Nandi during Pala Empire
• Bhartṛhari: Sanskrit writer, Vākyapadīya, on Sanskrit grammar and linguistic philosophy
and the Śatakatraya, a work of Sanskrit poetry
• Bilhana: 11th-century Kashmiri poet. He is known for his love poem, the Caurapañcāśikā.
He also authored Vikramankadevacarita.
• Jayadeva: The Gita Govinda is a work composed by the 12th-century Indian poet,
Jayadeva. It describes the relationship between Krishna and the gopis (female cow
herders) of Vrindavana, and in particular one gopi named Radha.
• Brihatkatha: is an ancient Indian epic, said to have been written by Guṇāḍhya.
• The Kathāsaritsāgara ("Ocean of the Streams of Stories") is a famous 11th-century
collection of Indian legends, fairy tales and folk tales as retold in Sanskrit by a Shaiva
named Somadeva.
• Hammira-mahakavya: By Jaina Monk, Nayacandra Suri (Sanskrit)
• Yavanika: A diminutive form of the name by which the Greeks were generally known in
India. The term 'Yavanapriya' mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts denoted pepper.
• Bhasa: The oldest complete plays are probably those attributed to Bhasa. The Dream of
Vasavadatta (Svapnavasavadatta), Yaugandharayana’s Vows (Pratijnayaugandharayana).
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• Sudraka: Contemporary of Kalidasa, wrote Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart-Play). Love
story between Charudatta and Vasantasena. Also wrote Vinavasavadatta, and a bhana
(short one-act monologue), Padmaprabhritaka. He was an Indian King.
• Visakhadatta: Mudraraksasa play (Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya). Also wrote
Devichandragupta.
• King Harsha: Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda
• Mahendravikramavarman (Palva King): Mattavilasa, a Sanskrit Play
• Dasakumaracarita (Tales of the Ten Princes) – By Dandin.
• Lavana in ancient India refers to Salt and Kalaya, a type of Pea.
• The Panchatantra "Five Treatises" is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal
fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, arranged within a frame story. The text's author is
unknown, but has been attributed to Vishnu Sharma in some recensions and Vasubhaga
in others, both of which may be pen names.
• Hitopadesha (Beneficial Advice or Salutary Instruction) is an Indian text in the Sanskrit
language consisting of fables with both animal and human characters. It incorporates
maxims, worldly wisdom and advice on political affairs in simple, elegant language, and
the work has been widely translated. The surviving text is believed to be from the 12th-
century, but was probably composed by Narayana between 800 to 950 CE.
• Suparnas: A class of large mythical bird, of whom Garuda is the chief.
• Theragatha and Therigatha: Elder Monks and Nuns in Buddhism
• The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle", Pali Mahāvaṃsa) (5th century CE) is an epic poem
written in the Pali language. It relates the history of Sri Lanka from its legendary
beginnings up to the reign of Mahasena of Anuradhapura (A.D. 302) covering the period
between the arrival of Prince Vijaya from India in 543 BCE to his reign (277–304 CE). It
was composed by a Buddhist monk at the Mahavihara temple in Anuradhapura about the
fifth century A.D.
• Sūtrakṛtāṅga also known in Prakrit as Sūyagaḍaṃga is the second agama of the 12 main
aṅgās of the Jain canons. According to the Svetambara tradition it was written by
Gandhara Sudharmasvami in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit.
• Saptasataka (Seven Hundred) By Hala in Prakrit.
• Pattuppattu: The Ten Songs- Tamil Poem.
• Narrinai-Love Poem, Kuruntogai-Love Poem, Aingurunuru- Erotic Poem, Padirruppattu-
Poem in praise of Cera King, Paripadal-Poems in praise of GODs, Kallitogai-Love Poem,
Agananuru- Love Poem, Purananuru-Poems in praise of Kings.
• Silappatikaram: The Jeweled Anklet is one of Five Great Epics according to later Tamil
literary tradition. Ilango Adigal is the author of Silappatikaram. The epic revolves around
Kannagi, who having lost her husband to a miscarriage of justice at the court of the
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Pandyan Dynasty, wreaks her revenge on his kingdom. Kovalan - Son of a wealthy
merchant in Puhar. Kannagi - Wife of Kovalan
• Manimekalai: is one of The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature according to later Tamil
literary tradition. Satthanar or Chithalai Satthanar was the Tamil poet who composed
the epic Manimekalai. A total of 11 verses of the Sangam literature have been attributed
to Satthanar, including verse 10 of the Tiruvalluva Maalai
• Sivaka Sintamani: is a classical Tamil epic poem. It is a Jain religious epic authored by
Tirutakkatevar. It means "fabulous gem", is also known by alternative name Mana nool
or Book of Marriage.
• Samyutta Nikaya: is a Buddhist scripture, the third of the five nikayas, or collections, in
the Sutta Pitaka, which is one of the "three baskets" that compose the Pali Tipitaka of
Theravada Buddhism. It was translated into Chinese by Fa-hsien.
• Pravrajya: Ceremony to mark a person’s going forth from home into homelessness (in
Buddhism)
• Parajika: It includes four most serious offences involving expulsion from the Sangha i.e
Sexual intercourse, killing someone, making false claim of spirirual attainment and taking
what is not given. (in Buddhism)
• Upasakas: Male followers who have taken refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha
but who have not taken monastic vows. (Upasika is for female followers)
• Pavarana: It is a Buddhist holy day celebrated on Aashvin full moon of the lunar month.
It marks the end of rainy season, also called Buddhist Lent.
• Uposatha/Upavasatha: Ceremony held on full moon and new moon for act of confession
(Buddhism)
• Paribbajaka/Parivarajaka: Wandered
• Samana/Shramana: One who strives to realize the truth.
• According to Buddha’s First Sermon: Craving which is at the bottom of human misery is
ultimately due to ignorance, a sort of cosmic ignorance which leads to the delusion of
selfhood. The ignorance primarily concerns the fundamental nature of the universe,
which has three salient characteristics- it is full of sorrow (dukkha), it is transient (anicca)
and it is soulless (anatta).
• Paticca-samuppada: Chain of Dependent Origin, is a key principle in Buddhist teachings,
which states that all dharmas arise in dependence upon other dharmas: "if this exists,
that exists; if this ceases to exist, that also ceases to exist"
• Dipavamsa (Island Chronicle), Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle) and Culvamsa (Lesser
Chronicle): Verse chronicle that tell the history of Buddhism in Ceylon
• Sautrantikas, Saravastivadins, Sammitiyas: Sects of Buddhism
• Mahakalpa: Over an enormous period of time.
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• Krakusandha, Kanakmuni, Kasyapa, Sakyamuni and Maitreya (yet to come): Cycle of

Buddha. Kakusandha (the first Buddha of the bhadrakalpa), Kanakmuni (the second
Buddha of the bhadrakalpa), Kassapa (the third Buddha of the bhadrakalpa), Gautama
(the fourth and present Buddha of the bhadrakalpa), Maitreya (the fifth and future
Buddha of the bhadrakalpa).
• It is nowhere claimed in the Pali scriptures that the Buddha was in any way supernatural.
• Saoshyant: Saoshyant is the Avestan language expression that literally means "one who
brings benefit", and which is used in several different ways in Zoroastrian scripture and
tradition.
• Amitabha or Amitayus: The Buddha’s body of bliss is the presiding deity of the most
important Mahayana heaven, Sukhavati, the Happy Land (Heaven), where the blessed
are reborn in the buds of lotuses, which rise from a lovely lake before the Buddha’s
throne. This divine Buddha is usually called Amitabha (Immeasurable Glory) or Amitayus
(Immeasurable Age)
• Tathagatagarbha: Tathagata is a Pali and Sanskrit word; Gautama Buddha uses it when
referring to himself in the Pāli Canon. The term is often thought to mean either "one who
has thus gone" (tathā-gata) or "one who has thus come" (tathā-āgata). The
Tathagatagarbha are a group of Mahayana sutras that present the concept of the
"womb" or "embryo" (garbha) of the tathāgata, the buddha.
• Lalitavistara: Mahayana Text- A flowery narrative of the life of the Buddha containing
much more of supernatural and marvelous than the Pali account.
• Light of Asia: Written by Sir Edwin Arnold
• Madhyamika: also known as Sunyavada (the emptiness doctrine) and Niḥsvabhavavada
(the no svabhāva doctrine) refers to a tradition of Buddhist philosophy and practice
founded by the Indian philosopher Nagarjuna. The foundational text of the Mādhyamaka
tradition is Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Root Verses on the Middle Way).
• Yogacara: or Vijnanavadin School completely rejected the realism of the Lesser Vehicle
and maintained a thorough-going idealism. It emphasize the study of cognition,
perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditative and yogic practices.
(School of Buddhism)
• Vajrayana: School of Buddhism: The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt. (Vajra also means
Diamond). Followed in China, Tibet, Bhutan, East Asia etc.
• The Acharanga Sutra or Acaranga Surta is the first of the twelve Angas, part of the
agamas which were compiled based on the teachings of Mahavira (Jainism)
• Tattvopaplavasimha – The Lion Destroying all Religious Truths, it is an anti-religious text
written by Jayarasi in 8th century.
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• Charles Wilkins – Only British who learnt Sanskrit. Founding member of The Asiatic
Society. He is notable as the first translator of Bhagavad Gita into English, and as the
creator, alongside Panchanan Karmakar, of the first Bengali typeface.
• William Jones – Sir William Jones' translation of Kālidāsa's play, was first published in
Calcutta, followed by European republications. Charles Wilkins and William Jones
together is known as Fathers of Indology.
• Alexander Cunningham – Father of Indian Archeology.
• Archaeological Survey – Was formed in with the effort of Lord Curzon and John Marshall
was its Director General.
• Vibhisaka or Vibhidaka – The word ‘Aksa’ in the context of gambling is generally
translated as ‘Dice’ but aksas in the earliest gambling games were not dice but small hard
nuts called vibhisaka or vibhidaka.
• Viragal – A stone erected in the memory of a hero killed in battle
• Viravalanjigar- Company of Merchant
• Visti – It is kind of forced labour.
• Vratya – wandering ascetic, member of either an ethnic group or a sect, located
principally in the Magadha (Bihar) region of ancient India. In the Veda, a type of
unorthodox ascetic.
• Vajji or Vrijji was a confederacy of neighbouring clans including the Licchavis and one of
the principal mahājanapadas of Ancient India.
• Vritra or Vrtra- In the early Vedic religion, Vritra is a serpent or dragon.
• Vyapti, (relation of constant concomitance) a Sanskrit expression, in Hindu philosophy
refers to the state of pervasion. It is considered as the logical ground of inference which
is one of the means to knowledge.
• Campa and Tamralipti Port- In the East the Ganga Basin was served by Campa Port.
Tamralipti Port became important in the times of Mauryan (Ganga Basin).
• Musiri Port- Kerala, Korkai Port-Tamil Nadu
• Trika- School of Saivism in Kashmir. Also known as Triad because of three chief scriptures.
• Syadvada, in Jaina metaphysics, the doctrine that all judgments are conditional, holding
good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or senses, expressed by the word syat
(Sanskrit: “may be”). The ways of looking at a thing (called naya) are infinite in number.
• Sutrakratanga-Jaina Text. It is the second agama of the 12 main aṅgas of the Jain canons.
• Sarvastivada (din) and Vaibhasika- Early School of Buddhism.
• Mulasarvastivada- Early School of Buddhism.
• Sautrantika or Sutravadin- Early School of Buddhism/Buddhist Sect
• Sammitiya, Dhammuttariyas, Bhadrayanikas, and the Sandagarikas - Buddhist Sect
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• Pudgalavada- was a Buddhist philosophical view and also refers to a group of Nikaya
Buddhist schools (mainly known as Vatsiputriiyas)
• Mahavibhasa- The Abhidharma Mahavibhaṣa Sastra is an ancient Buddhist text
• Vita- A character in Ancient Texts/Drama- Noted as cultured but rather shallow man of
the World who befriends the Hero, and somewhat resembles the parasite of classical
Greek Comedy.
• Vidusaka- Who provides cosmic relief.
• Susruta- was an ancient Indian physician known as the main author of the treatise The
Compendium of Suśruta. Susruta Samhita is a Medical text.
• Suta- Royal Charioteer
• Sthanvisvara- Modern Thanesar in Haryana
• Srauta Sutra- Text on sacrificial rituals
• Snataka- Unmarried man who has completed his studenthood
• Sivaga-sindamani- Tamil Epic
• Sigala- Address to, sermon of Buddha
• Sandhivigrahika- Minister of Peace and War
• Samskara- Personal Ceremonies
• Sahasrara- Center of psychic energy in the skull
• Romaka Siddhanta- System of Astronomy
• The Rbhus are a class of gods often mentioned in the Rgveda
• Gandharva is a name used for distinct heavenly beings in Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism. Divine Musicians mentioned in Rig Veda. It is also a term for skilled singers in
Indian classical music.
• Ratnins- Officers who advised the king. Court Dignitaries.
• Raksasa- Marriage by capture (Also known as class of Demon)
• Rajatarangini- By Kalhana, metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-
western Indian subcontinent, particularly the kings of Kashmir.
• Pyrrhonism was a school of skepticism founded by Pyrrho in the fourth century BC.
• The five precepts- is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay people. hey
constitute the basic code of ethics undertaken by lay followers of Buddhism.
• Pratyeka Buddha- A Buddha who does not preach his doctrines.
• Prajnaparamhita- Buddhist Goddess. It means "the Perfection of Wisdom" in Mahāyāna
Buddhism. Prajnaparamita refers to this perfected way of seeing the nature of reality, as
well as to a particular body of sutras and to the personification of the concept in the
Bodhisattva known as the "Great Mother"
• Pradvivaka- Chief Judge and Legal Adviser
• Pinda- A ball or lump, specially of rice offered at ceremonies
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• Parivrajaka- A wandering ascetic

• Pancaratra- Vaisnavite Sect
• Forms of Marriage- The eight types are: brahma, daiva, arsa, prajapatya, asura,
gandharva, raksasa and paisaca.
• Paksa- Fortnight
• Nayavada- Jaina theory of stand point. The doctrine of Nayavada signifies the system of
describing reality from different points of view. ‘Naya’ can be understood as partially true
statements but they cannot lay claim to absolute validity.
• Syādvāda, in Jaina metaphysics, the doctrine that all judgments are conditional, holding
good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or senses, expressed by the word syāt
(Sanskrit: “may be”).
• Niska- Gold ornament
• Mitaksara- Legal text and system of family law.
• Marumakkatayam- Matrilineal family
• Marduk- Mesopotamian God
• Manvantara- Secondary Cosmic Cycle
• Manigrama- Merchant Company
• Majjhima Nikaya- Pali Text, Buddhist Scripture
• Mahasanghika- Buddhist Sect
• Mahamatra- A High Official
• Mahamantri- Chief Councilor
• Mahasamanta- Great Vassal (equivalent to prime minister)
• Kundalini- Serpent-power. in Hinduism refers to a form of divine energy (or shakti) said
to be located at the base of the spine (muladhara).
• Kulinism- Hypergamous matrimonial system in Bengal
• Kumaramatya- Title of honour
• Khuddaka Nikaya- Pali Text, Thervada Buddhism
• The Nitisara of Kamandaka (Polity), also known as the Kamandakiya-Nitisara, was
composed during the period of Gupta Dynasty. It was based on Kautilya’s Arthashastra.
• Kalkin- 10th incarnation of Vishnu
• Jimutavahana was an Indian Sanskrit scholar and writer of legal and religious treatises of
early medieval period.
• Jaimini was an ancient Nepali scholar who founded the Mimansa school of Hindu
philosophy. He was a disciple of sage Veda Vyasa, the son of Parashara. Traditionally
attributed to be the author of the Mimamsa Sutras and Jaimini Sutras, he is estimated to
have lived around the 4th-century BCE.
• Gopa- Petty officials supervising small group of families
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• Gosala Maskariputra- Founder of Ajivika Sect

• Vamana, the dwarf, is the fifth of the ten avatars (Dashavataras) of the god Vishnu
• Digha Nikaya- Pali Text, Thervada Buddhism.
• The Dhammapada is a collection of sayings of the Buddha in verse form and one of the
most widely read and best known Buddhist scriptures. The original version of the
Dhammapada is in the Khuddaka Nikaya, a division of the Pali Canon of Theravada
Buddhism
• Dayabhaga-legal text and system of family law. The Dayabhaga is a Hindu law treatise
which primarily focuses on inheritance procedure.
• Dadhikara- A divine Horse
• Cakravartin- Universal Emperor
• Cakrapalita- City Governor
• Candala- Untouchable, one who is engaged in carrying and cremation of corpses.
• Antyesti- Funeral Rights
• Antapala- Warden of Roads
• Antahpura-Women’s quarters
• The Anguttara Nikaya is a Buddhist scripture, the fourth of the five nikayas, or
collections, in the Sutta Pitaka, which is one of the "three baskets" that comprise the Pali
Tipitaka of Theravada Buddhism.
• Amuktamalyada-Text on Polity. Amuktamalyada is an epic poem in Telugu composed by
Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagar Dynasty. Amuktamalyada translates to a garland of
pearls. Amuktamalyada describes the story of wedding of the Hindu Lord Vishnu and
Andal the Tamil Alvar poet and daughter of Periyalvar, at Srirangam
• Agrahara was a grant of land and royal income from it, typically by a king or a noble
family, to religious purposes, particularly to Brahmins to maintain temples in that land or
a pilgrimage site and to sustain their families.
SIX SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY
Early Indian philosophical schools can be classified into Astika and Nastika. The Astika schools
accepted the authority of the Vedas and comprised a number of schools that later came to be
considered the six classical systems of Hindu philosophy.
The Nastika schools, such as the Buddhist, Jaina, and Charvaka, which rejected the authority of
the Vedas.
Six systems of the Astika tradition: Purva Mimamsa, Uttara Mimamsa (or Vedanta), Nyaya,
Vaisheshika, Samkhya and Yoga
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Nyaya
• Logic and Epistemology.

• Founder- Gautama
• Logic and reasoning as means of salvation
Vaiseshika
• School of individual characteristics

• Founder-Uluka Kanada
• More focus on physics than theology
• Nature is atomic. Atoms are distinct soul and each element has individual characteristics
which distinguish it from the four non-atomic substances (time, space, soul and mind)
• Dualism of Matter and soul
Samkhya
• Oldest
• Founder is Kapila Muni
• It resembles Jainism in its rigid dualism and fundamentalism atheism
• Purusha (soul) and Prakriti are the basis of reality. And they are absolute and
independent.
• Believed in dualism or dvaitavada. Soul and Matter are distinct. And this was basis of real
knowledge.
• Knowledge can be acquired through Perception, Inference and Hearing
Yoga
• Salvation by combining meditation and physical application of yogic techniques.

• The orgin of Yoga School is attributed to Yogasutra of Patanjali.
Mimamsa
• Founder is Rishi Jaimini

• Reasoning, interpretation and application
• Vedas contain the eternal truth and Samhita and Brahmana are part of it.
Vedanta
• Believe in Upanishads. Vedanta literally means the ‘end of the vedas’. They denote the
last phase of vedic period.
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• Brahma is the reality of life and everything else is unreal or Maya
Advaitya Vedanta
• Shankaracharya- Founded this philosophy

• Brahma has no attributes
• Knowledge is the mean of attaining salvation
Ramanujan
• Brahma has certain attributes

• Loving the faith and practicing devotion as the path to attain salvation.
Various Era
• Vikram Era (58 B.C)

• Saka Era (78 AD)
• Gupta Era (320 AD)
• Harsha Era (606 A D)
• Kalacuri Era (248 A D)
• Kali Era (3102 A D)
Local Era
• Laksmana Era
• Saptarsi or Laukika Era
• Nevar Era
• Kollam Era
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All rights are reserved. No part of this document should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without prior permission of IASbaba.
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ILP-2022
HISTORY
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IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE (PART 2)
FORMATION OF NEW STATES
During the reign of Ashoka
The three Dravidian dynasties of Chola, Chera and Pandya were ruling the south.
Their rule remained glorious in south India from several points of view. After them, the Vakatakas
repeated their performance. Beginning from late 3rd century A.D., the Vakatakas maintained a
big empire in the South till early 6th century A.D. After them, the politics of south India passed in
the hands of the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Pallavas and the Cholas who ruled there during
the period 600-1200 A.D.
THE NEW PHASE

• A.D 300 -750 – 2nd historical phase in the regions South of the Vindhyas.
• The 2nd phase continued 1st historical phase’s (area 200 B.C —A.D. 300) processes.
• 1st phase –
o Ascendancy of the Satavahanas over the Deccan and that of the Tamil kingdoms
in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu.
o Appearance of numerous crafts, internal and external trade, widespread use of
coins and a good number of towns.
o Extensive Buddhist monuments in both Andhra and Maharashtra.
o Beginning of the construction of stone temples for Siva and Vishnu in Tamil Nadu
under the Pallavas, and in Karnataka under the Chalukyas of Badami.
• nd
2 Phase –
o Trade, towns and coinage seem to be in a state of decline
o A large number of land grants made to the Brahmanas free of taxes.
o More expansion of agrarian economy
o Coming of Agrarian economy
o South India had ceased to be the land of megaliths
• Sanskrit became the favorite language of rulers and literate class.
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STATES OF THE DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA
Story in short
• In the north, the Pratiharas and the Palas contested for sovereignty.
• In the same way after the destruction of the Vakataka empire, the Chalukyas and the
Rashtrakutas of Dakshinapath (Deccan) and the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Pandyas of
the far south contested among themselves for the mastery of the South.
• From the middle of the sixth century A.D. onward, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas
of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madura fought against each other for nearly two hundred
years.
• Then, the Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas and the contest between them
and the Pallavas and the Pandyas continued for a hundred years.
• By the middle of the ninth century A.D., the Pandyas and the Pallavas were thrown out of
contest and their place was taken by the Cholas.
• The Cholas fought for sovereignty over South India for nearly 350 years (850-1200 A.D.),
first against the Rashtrakutas and then against their successors, the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
• A few powerful rulers of these south Indian dynasties interfered in the politics of north
India as well, and sometimes their interference proved quite effective but mostly they
concentrated themselves on the politics of the South.
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VAKATAKAS
• Vakatakas had succeeded the Satavahanas in Northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha.

• Vakatakas were Brahmanas.
• Being Brahmana, they granted lands to Brahmana and performed numerous Vedic
sacrifices.
• We have already seen in Gupta chapter that how Chandragupta II made marriage alliance
with Vakatakas and then indirectly controlled Vakataka kingdom and conquered Malwa.
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CHALUKYAS
The Chalukyas of Badami ruled over Dakshinapatha (the territories between Mt. Vindhya and
the river Krishna which included Maharashtra in the west and the territories of Telugu speaking
people in the east) from the middle of the eighth century.
The first ruler of this dynasty, about whom something is known, was Jayasinha. He was followed
by his son Ranaraga. Both flourished in the Badami region of Bijapur district in the first half of the
sixth century A.D. However, the first independent ruler of this dynasty was Pulakesin I, son of
Ranaraga.
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• Vakatakas were followed by Chalukyas of Badami.

• They ruled for two centuries until overthrown by its feudatories, the Rashtrakutas.
• They claimed their descent either from Brahman or Marin or Moon and even ruled at
Ayodhya. But all this was not true and was done to earn respect.
• They seem to have been a local Kanarese people, who were improvised into the ruling
Varna under Brahmanical influence.
• They setup their kingdom in 6th century AD.
• Capital – Vatapi (modern Badami, bijapur district, Karnataka)
• Branched into several ruling houses but main branch at vatapi only.
The most important ruler of this dynasty was Pulakesin II. The Aihole inscription issued by him
gives the details of his reign.
Aihole Inscription
Administration and Social Order
• The Chalukya administration was highly centralized unlike that of the Pallavas and the
Cholas.
• Village autonomy was absent under the Chalukyas.
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• The Chalukyas had a great maritime power. Pulakesin II had 100 ships in his navy. They
also had a small standing army.
• The Badami Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus but they gave respect to other religions.
Importance was given to Vedic rites and rituals. It is believed that the founder of the
dynasty Pulakesin I performed the asvamedha sacrifice. A number of temples in honour
of Vishnu, Siva and other gods were also built during this period.
• Hiuen Tsang mentioned about the decline of Buddhism in western Deccan. But Jainism
was steadily on the path of progress in this region. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin
II who composed the Aihole inscription was a Jain.
The Chalukyas established an extensive empire in the Deccan.
• They brought glory to their family, first under the Chalukyas of Badami for nearly two
hundred years, and, then, for nearly the same period of time, under the Chalukyas of
Kalyan. Thus, the dynasty ruled over an extensive area of south India for quite a long time.
It produced many capable rulers both as military commanders and good administrators.
• Many rulers of this dynasty fought against the mighty rulers of both the south and north
India and succeeded many times. They assumed high titles like Parameswara,
Paramabhattaraka, etc., and governed their empire well. Thus, this dynasty played an
important part in the politics of south India for quite a long time.
• The Chalukyas also helped in the progress of south Indian culture. The kingdom of the
Chalukyas was economically prosperous and it had several big cities and ports which were
the centres of internal and external trade even with countries outside India. The
Chalukyas utilised this prosperity for the development of literature and fine arts.
• The Chalukyas were the followers of Hinduism. The Chalukyas performed many yajnas
according to Vedic rites and many religious texts were written or compiled during their
rule. They constructed many temples also in honour of Siva and Vishnu. But the Chalukyas
were tolerant rulers. They showed respect to other religions. Jainism was a popular faith
in south Maharashtra and therefore, the Chalukyas treated it with respect.
• The famous Jain scholar Ravikirti was given the highest honour in the court of Pulakesin
II. Vijayaditya and Vikramaditya also donated many villages to Jain scholars. Buddhism
was certainly on the decline in India but the Chalukyas treated it with tolerance. The
Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang found many well established Viharas and monasteries
during his visit to the kingdom of the Chalukyas. Even the Parsees were allowed to settle
down and practice this faith, without any interference by others, in the Thana district of
Bombay.
• Among fine arts, primarily, it was painting and architecture that flourished under the
patronage of Chalukyas. Some of the frescoes of the caves of Ajanta were prepared
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during the reign of the Chalukyas. One of these fresco-paintings exhibits the scene of
welcome to the ambassador of Persia at the court of Pulakesin II. In the field of
architecture, the temples constructed during the rule of the Chalukyas helped in the
progress of the art.
• Many temples were built under the patronage of the Chalukyas. One important feature
of this temple architecture was that practically all temples were carved out of mountains.
Many cave-temples and Chaitya halls, which were constructed during their rule, have
been found at different places. The cave-temple in honour of Vishnu was constructed at
Badami by king Mangalesh. The temple of Siva at Meguti, which has the Prasasti of king
Pulakesin II prepared by Ravikirti, was built in 634 A.D.
• The temple of Vishnu at Aihole, which also has an inscription of king Vikramaditya II,
has been regarded as a fine specimen of temple-architecture of the age of the Chalukyas.
King Vijavaditva constructed the Siva temple of Vijayeswara in the district of Bijapur which
now is called the temple of Sangameswara. A sister of king Vijayaditya constructed a Jaina
temple at Lakshameswara, while the wife of king Vikramaditya constructed another
temple in honour of Siva in the Bijapur district called the Lokeswara temple.
• Now this temple is called the temple of Virapaksya. Mr Havell has praised the art of this
temple very much. Another wife of king Vikramaditya built the temple of Trilokeswara
near this temple. All these temples have been regarded as fine specimens of south Indian
architecture.
• Thus, the Chalukyas contributed not only to the politics of the Deccan but also to the
economic and cultural progress of south India.
The Chalukyas were great patrons of art. They developed the vesara style in the building of
structural temples. However, the vesara style reached its culmination only under the
Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas
• They erected numerous temples at Aihole from about AD. 610.

• Aihole contains as many as 70 temples.
• The work was continued in the adjacent towns of Badami and Pattadakal.
• Pattadakal has 10 temples, built in 7th and 8th centuries.
• Most famous - Papanatha temple (c. 680), and the Virupaksha temple (0. 740).
Papanatha Temple
• Dedicated to Mukteswara according to inscriptions, this modest temple seems to have

been completed around 740 A.D.
• There seems to have been a change of intention during the course of construction of this
temple as can be known from its too narrow circumambulatory path whose floor slabs
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conceal the external moulding of the garbhagriha walls and the buttress like projections
of the north and south garbhagriha-walls into the ardha-mandapa, both of which are
unusual features.
Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal
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• Virupaksha temple is the largest and grandest of all temples in Pattadakal built in 8th
century, built by queen Lokamahadevi (Trilokyamahadevi) in 745 to commemorate her
husband's victory (Vikramaditya II) over the Pallavas of Kanchi.
• Its original name was Lokeshvara or Lokapaleshvara.
How were these temples maintained?
• Land grants to temple (started in 8th century)

• The grants were recorded in walls of temple.
• Taxes collected from common people.
• Donations by traders
• Offerings by common people
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PALLAVAS
• The Pallavas were the 1st well-known dynasty in the history of South India after the fall of
the Satavahanas.
• Their origin is shrouded in mystery.
• According to some scholars they came from the north and were of Brahmanical origin.
• But most of the scholars think that the Pallavas were the original settlers of South India.
• A distinct feature of the Pallava dynasty was a perennial war with the Chalukyas in the
earlier part and with the Rashtrakutas in the later part of the rule of the Pallava Empire.
• The earliest Pallava king referred to in a north Indian record was Vishnugopa of Kanchi
who was captured and then liberated by Samudragupta. The history of the dynasty
became more definite from the reign of Simhavishnu who came to the throne in the
second half of the sixth century.
MAHENDRAVARMAN I
• Son and successor of King Simhavishnu.
• He was the 1st great and powerful king of the Pallava dynasty.
• He was a versatile genius.
• He was famous for his many public works,
• But he was defeated by the Chalukyan king Pulakesin II who wrested Vengi from him.
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• It started the long-drawn Pallava-Chalukya hostilities.
NARASIMHAVARMAN I
• Succeeded his father Mahendravarmana.
• He was the most successful and distinguished king of this dynasty.
• He avenged the defeat of his father and won back Vengi.
• He defeated the powerful Chalukya king Pulakesin II and occupied his capital Vatapi.
• In this struggle Pulakesin was killed. After this, Narasimhavarman I assumed the title of
“Victor of Batapi”.
• This victory made the Pallavas the most dominant power in southern India.
• Like his father, Narasinhavarmana also was a great patron of art and architecture.
o He laid the foundation of a new city which is known as Mahamallapuram
(Mahabalipuram) and which he adorned with beautiful rock-cut Rathas or ‘Seven
Pagodas’.
PARAMESVARVARMAN I
• Next important king of the dynasty.
• During his reign the old enmity between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas was revived.
• Both sides claimed victories for themselves.
• From the evidences received it may be reasonably presumed that neither of the
antagonists was able to have a decided advantage over the other.
• Paramesvarvarman I was a devotee of Siva and built a number of fine Siva temples in his
realm.
NANDIVARMAN II (730-800)
• Last important king of Pallava dynasty.
• During his reign there was a renewal of Pallava Chalukya struggle for supremacy.
• Though initially hardly pressed, he was finally able to recover the lost ground.
• He also resisted the invasion of a league of southern states.
• Possibly he suffered a setback at the hands of Rashtrakuta monarch Dantidurga.
• But during his life time the Pallava power remained almost intact.
APARAJITA
• Last ruler of Pallava dynasty.
• He was defeated by the Cholas and his territory was annexed by them.
• Thus, the Pallava dynasty came to an end.
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Administration
• Land tax- primary source of revenue

• State was divided into Kottams
• Well-trained army
• Devadhana-land grants to temples (free from tax)
• Brahmadeya- land grants to Brahmans (free from tax)
Social Order
• Rigid caste system, The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society.
• The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the decline
of Buddhism and Jainism.
Art and Architecture
• Worship of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, especially of the last two, was getting popular during
this period.
• 7th century onwards – cult of Bhakti started dominating the religious life of south Indian.
Alvar saints popularized the worship of Vishnu and Naynars popularized the Shiva
worship. (remember the Alvar has a V alphabhet which means Vishnu and because Alvar
is Vishnu and Naynar has to be Shiva)
• In 7th and 8th century – Pallavas constructed number of stone temples.
• Most famous – Seven Ratha temple at Mahabalipuram (built by Narsimhavarman)
• Shore temple – It is so named because it overlooks the shore of the Bay of Bengal. It is a
structural temple, built with blocks of granite, dating from the 8th century AD. It was built
on a promontory sticking out into the Bay of Bengal at Mahabalipuram, a village south of
Chennai in the state of Tamil Nadu in India. At the time of its creation, the village was a
busy port during the reign of Narasimhavarman II of the Pallava dynasty.
• As one of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, it has been classified as a UNESCO
World Heritage Site since 1984. It is one of the oldest structural (versus rock-cut) stone
temples of South India.
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Figure-Shore temple
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• The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and
Mandapas found at Mamallapuram.
• Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful architectural monuments. The
five rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava rathas, signifies five different styles
of temple architecture. The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls.
• The most popular of these mandapas are Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi
Mandapam and Varaha Madapam.
CHOLAS
The Chola dynasty was one of the ancient ruling dynasties of the far South. The dynasty
maintained its power and prestige during the Sangama age but afterwards it was reduced to
feudatory status. In turn, the Cholas remained subordinate chiefs of the Rashtrakutas, the
Chalukyas and the Pallavas.
During the middle of the ninth century A.D., they got the opportunity not only to revive their
independence but to establish themselves as a supreme power of the far south. The Cholas
maintained an extensive empire which included all the territories south of the river Tungabhadra
and many islands of the Arabian Sea for more than two hundred years. They contributed fairly to
the polity and culture of south India.
Important Kings:
• Vijayalaya (Founder)
• Prantaka I (Uttaramerur inscription)
• Rajaraja I (985 – 1014)
• Rajendra I (1014 – 1044)
RAJRAJA CHOLA
• He invaded and annexed N Sri Lanka
• He installed the statue of himself and his wife in temple – (1st Indian to do so)
• Eulogy of Kings on stone was started
• He built a massive temple at Tanjore – Brihaddeshwara temple (90m)
• It is the first granite temple in the world.
RAJENDRA CHOLA
• Annexed entire Sri Lanka
• He invaded Java and Sumatra (not annexed)
• It is claimed that he won battles in North India near Ganga. That’s how he gained the title
Gangaikonda Chola.
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• He built a city Gangaikonda Cholapuram near Tanjore

• He also built a grand temple in this city named Brihadeshwara temple.
Role of Temples in Economy
• It was second largest employer after agriculture
• It gave loans to traders and kings with interest varying from 3% – 30%. Eg. For kings and
external trade interest rate was high.
• Temples helped in urbanisation
• They promoted local art, dance, music and craftmenship.
• They patronised ‘Devdasis’ and ‘Ganikas’.
• Ganikas were independent dancers hired for special occasions.
Natraja Statue
• Shiva has been shown balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the apasmara,
the demon of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot of the same leg.
• There is an oval ring around the original figure of Shiva Nataraja. It represents the cosmic
fire he uses to destroy the universe as part of the cycle
• Shiva’s third eye represents his cosmic knowledge.
• On Shiva’s right ear is an earring depicting a makara, a mythical water creature. His
• left ear is adorned with a circular earring worn by women. The pair represents Shiva’s
male and female aspects (Ardhnarishwar).
• The open palm of Shiva’s right hand forms the abhayamudra, or hand gesture, signifying
that the worshipper need have no fear.
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• In one hand, he has Damaru, that Shiva beats a rhythm that brings the universe into
creation.
• Shiva takes the snake and coils it around himself, thereby neutralizing it as a weapon.
• Flame of the cosmic fire he uses to end the universe in its cycle of creation and
destruction.
• The tiny figure perched in Shiva’s hair is the River Ganga (Ganges) in the form of a goddess.
• He raises his left leg in bhujangatrasita stance, it represents kicking away of veil of Maya.
Administration and Polity

• The king was the head of the administration and all powers were concentrated in his
hands.
• The Chola kings assumed high sounding titles. Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram,
Mudikondan and Kanchi remained the various capitals of different Chola rulers at various
times. Rajendra Chola I was the most famous King.
• The Chola empire was extensive and prosperous and the rulers enjoyed high powers and
prestige.
• The Chola rulers started the practice of electing their successor or Yuvaraja and of
associating him with administration during their life-time.
• That is why there were no wars of succession among the Cholas. The position of the king
was hereditary and, normally, the eldest son of the king was nominated as the successor.
But, sometimes, if the eldest son was found incompetent, the successor was chosen from
amongst the younger sons or brothers of the king.
• The Cholas maintained powerful armies and navies. The infantry, the cavalry and the war
elephants constituted the main parts of the army of the Cholas.
• The kings kept their personal bodyguards, called the Velaikkaras, who were sworn to
defend the person of the king at the cost of their lives.
• The Cholas attacked and forced the kings of Ceylon and Srivijava empire to accept their
suzerainty, defended their trade on high seas and became the masters of the Bay of
Bengal.
• The Chola army caused much injury to the civil population, including women. The soldiers
engaged themselves in loot, destruction, killing of civil population and dishonouring of
women during warfare.
• The primary source of the income of the state was land revenue.
• The empire was divided into Mandals for the convenience of administration. They were
either seven or eight in number. The Mandals were divided into Nadus and Nadus into
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Kurrams or Kottams. Every Kurram had several villages which were the smallest units of
administration.
• The arrangement of local self-government has been regarded as the basic feature of the
administration of the Cholas. Probably, no other ruling dynasty of either the North or the
South had such an extensive arrangement of local self-government at different units of
the administration as the Cholas. The administration of the Cholas had the provision of
local self- government beginning from the village up to the Mandal level at the top.
Cholas were great builders and have left some of the most beautiful examples of early Dravidian
temple architecture. Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur is a fine example and has been listed as
one of the United Nations sites.
Decentralisation of Cholas
• Details are known from Uttaramerur inscription of Prantaka I
• 3 types of villages in south India - Ur, Sabha and Nagaram.
• Ur - the usual type of village inhabited by peasant castes, who perhaps held their land in
common.
o It was the responsibility of the village headman to collect and pay taxes on their
behalf.
o Mainly found in southern Tamil Nadu.
• Sabha type of village consisted of brahamdeya villages or those granted to the
Brahmanas and of agrahara villages.
o The brahmana owners enjoyed individual rights in the land but carried on their
activities collectively.
• Nagaram type of village – It consisted of the villages settled and dominated by
combinations of traders and merchants.
o This happened possibly because trade declined and merchants moved to villages.
o In the Chalukya areas rural affairs were managed by village elders called
mahajana.
Variam
• 30-member executive council of sabha.
• Members were called Variapperumakkal.
• Elected assembly.
Rules to contest for election –
• 35 – 70 age limit.
• No criminal record
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• Not committed any sin

• Must have the knowledge of Vedas
• Not allowed for re - election for next three years.
Variam had 3 committees:
• Tank Committee
• Garden Committee
• Gold Committee
Literature
• The period of the rule of the Cholas was the golden age of Tamil literature. Mostly, the
texts were written as Kavya (poetry). Different scholars received patronage from different
rulers and engaged themselves in scholarly writings. Among noted scholars of this period
were Tirutakadevara, who wrote the Jiwana-Chintamani, Tolamokti, who wrote the
Sulamani, Jayagodar, who wrote the Kalingatuppani and Kambana, who wrote the
Ramavatrama. Kambana was one of the greatest figures in Tamil poetry.
• His Ramayana known as the Kamba Ramayana has been regarded as a masterpiece of
Tamil literature.
• The Buddhist scholar, Buddhamitra, wrote the text named the Rasoliyan while another
Buddhist scholar wrote the Kundalakesha and the Kalladama. Scholars, like Dandina and
Pugalenda, also flourished under the patronage of the Cholas.
• Besides Tamil, texts were written in the Sanskrit language also. During the reign of
Parantaka I, Venkatmadhava wrote has commentary of the Rigveda while
Keshavaswamina wrote his scholarly work titled Nanartharnava. Thus, literature, both in
Tamil and Sanskrit, progressed under the rule of the Cholas.
Architecture
• Rajendra I constructed a huge lake at his capital, Gangaikondacholapuram which was
filled up by the waters of the rivers Kalerun and Bellara and which supplied water to many
canals constructed for irrigation purposes. The same way, many dams at different rivers,
canals and tanks were constructed by different Chola rulers.
• The best specimens of the Chola art of early period are the temples of Vijayalaya-
Cholesvara, the Nagesvara temple, the Koranganatha temple and the Muvarakovitna
temple.
• Rajaraja I constructed the Rajarajesvara temple at Tanjore and the temple of
Viruvalisvarama in the Tinnaveli district. Rajendra Chola also constructed a huge temple
of Siva at his capital Gangai-kondacholapuram.
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Special features of Chola architecture
• The Cholas followed the Pallava style of architecture.

• Sanctum of the Chola temples are both circular and square in size.
• Inner side of the external walls and the sanctum were beautified. On the upper side of
the sanctum special vimanas are built.
• Dome shaped sikhara and kalasa were also there on the top of Gopurams. Chola temples
are noted for the sculptures and ornamental works.
• Gopurams of these temples were meaningful. They were large entry gates which were
built as independent structures. They were multistory and were intricately carved.
• Many temples are having pillared mandapams namely arthamandapa, mahamandapa
and nandi mandpa. Sculptures and inscriptions are also fixed on the walls of these
temples.
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ILP-2022
HISTORY
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IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 2 VAN
TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE IN NORTH
• After the disappearance of centralized politics in northern India, many states came into
existence and struggle for supremacy among them.
• One of the political ambitions of the period of 8th to 12th century was to conquer and
ruled over the city of Kannauj which was a symbol of imperial power and Ganga – Yamuna
Doab region.
• Kannauj became the bone of contentment between the three powers i.e, the
Rashtrakutas, Pratiharas and Palas.
• Many of their military activities were directed to conquer Kannauj.
• Pratiharas of Kanary became more powerful sometimes but was later defeated by the
Palas.
• The Rashtrakutas fled away to the west and south Deccan.
• While these powers were busy in fighting against each other, their feudatories established
numbers of small regional kingdom in northern India.
GURJARA PRATIHARAS
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• Gujara-Pratiharas were the early Rajput who ruled from Gujarat to South Western
Rajasthan.
• Later they ruled over Kannauj.
• Nagabhata I was the first great ruler of this dynasty.
• He defeated the Arab forces and prevented them entering India.
• Bhoja I was one on the famous ruler of this dynasty. He was devotee to Vishnu and later
adopted a name Adhivaraha, which has been incorporated as a legend in some of his
coins.
PALAS
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• The Pala dynasty came into power in Bengal in about the middle of 8th century.
• Gopala I was the founder of this dynasty, who was elected as a king by the people.
• Dharmapala and Devapala were the two famous rulers of this dynasty. They extend and
consolidated the Pala empire.
• The Pala ruled over Bihar, Bengal and some parts of Orissa and Assam with many ups and
down in learning and religions.
• During the reign of Dharmapala, he founded a famous Buddhist Monastery at
Vikramshila which was just second to the Nalanda in fame for higher learning.
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Vikramshila University
• During the reign of Devapala, the two kings of South east Asia established a Monastery at
Nalanda institution and seek Devapala to endow the income of five of his village for the
maintenance of the Monastery.
RASHTRAKUTAS
The Rashtrakutas established their empire after destroying the empire of the Chalukyas of
Badami. They maintained their ascendancy in the Deccan for nearly 223 years and then were
destroyed by later Chalukyas of Kalyana.
Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated the Gurjaras and captured
Malwa from them. Then he annexed the Chalukya kingdom by defeating Kirtivarman II. Thus, the
Rashtrakutas became a paramount power in the Deccan.
• His successor Krishna I was also a great conqueror. He defeated the Gangas and the
eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He built the magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple
at Ellora. The next important king of this dynasty was Govinda III. He achieved victories
over north Indian kingdoms.
• The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Amoghavarsha. Amoghavarsha was unlike his father
Govinda II as he was a warrior, but he succeeded in defeating the East-Chalukya Kings.
• It was Amoghavarsha who had arrested the progress of King Bhoja I towards south India.
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The Rashtrakuta Empire was divided into several provinces called rashtras under the control of
rashtrapatis. They were further divided into vishayas or districts governed by vishayapatis. The
next subdivision was bhukti consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the control of bhogapatis. These
officers were directly appointed by the central government.
There was an active commerce between the Deccan and the Arabs. The Rashtrakuta kings
promoted the Arab trade by maintaining friendship with them.
The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and Elephanta. At Ellora, the
most remarkable temple is the Kailasa temple.
• Rashtrakuta king, krishna-1 had built the Kailash temple of Ellora. It is considered as the
wonder of rock-out architecture. Kailasanath Temple is a famous temple, one of the 34
monasteries and temples, known collectively as the Ellora Caves, extending over more
than 2 km, that were dug side by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff in the complex
located at Ellora, Maharashtra, India.
Kailashnath Temple
• The Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel with it beautiful sculptures. The sculpture of
the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying the Buffalo demon. In another sculpture Ravana
was making attempts to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva. The scenes of Ramayana
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were also depicted on the walls. The general characteristics of the Kailasa temple are
more Dravidian.
Social Structure
• Society dominated by – princes and priests.

• The princes claimed the status of brahmanas or kshatriyas but many of them were local
tribal chiefs
• They were promoted to the second varna through benefactions made to the priests.
• The priests invented respectable family trees for these chiefs and traced their descent
from age-old solar and lunar dynasties to help rulers to acquire acceptability and respect
in the eyes of people.
• Priests – Brahmanas, Budhhist and Jaina monks.
o They gained influence because of land grants.
• Peasants – they were divided into many peasant sub castes.
o Most were called as Shudras in brahmanical system
o If they failed to produce or service or pay, then it was considered as breach of
dharma or norm.
• It was king’s duty to maintain the social order.
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RISE OF THE RAJPUTS

• In the early 12th century, the term Rajaputa came into prominence, which referred to
certain specific lineage-based clans.
• The basis of Rajput society was the clan, and every clan traced its descent from a common
ancestor (real or imaginary).
• Some historians believe that they were the descendants of various groups of foreign
invaders such as the Shakas, the Kushanas, the Hunas, and so on, who had gradually
settled down in the region of Rajasthan and, after intermingling with Indian society,
emerged as a warrior class. Since they are not purely indigenous, they are also called ‘Patit
Kshatriyas’.
• In the poetic tale – ‘Prithvirajraso’ by Chander Bardai. He has mentioned about the
mythical origin of Rajputs. According to the story, at Mt. Abu and grand Yajna was
performed supervised by Rishi Vashishta to defeat a demon. From the Fire Altar first
Gurjar Pratiharas came out but couldn’t defeat the demon. Then Pramar, Solanki and
Chauhans came out. Finally, Chauhan defeated the demon. Since their origin is believed
to be from Fire, they are called Agni Kulin.
• The distribution of land among royal kinsmen allowed many local chiefs to acquire enough
financial and political power to set up an independent authority. Inter-clan collaboration
in the form of political and matrimonial alliances as well as the construction of fortresses
on an unprecedented scale led to a consolidation of the clan structure.
• These clans dominated a compact territory. Attachment to land, family, and ‘honour’
were the characteristic features considered important by the Rajput clans.
RAJPUT POLITY
• Feudal Polity – Not Centralised.
• Many military officers got land as salary.
• They had powers to live in Forts, issue coins and levy new taxes. So they had every chance
to become independent.
• They believed in divine theory of Kingship. The Brahmins recognized this status and in
return got land grants. This land was called ‘Agrahara land’. Brahmins got the rights to
punish people on that land.
• Ideal King – Who attacks neighbour after Vijaydashmi. War was treated like a sport.
• Reason for frequent wars – Limited fertile land and most land was already gifted.
ECONOMY
• Economy was primarily agriculture based.
• Lack of cities and currency confirms that there was limited market economy.
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• External trade declined after the decline of Roman empire.
SOCIETY
• Caste based – Brahmins enjoyed top position, got land grants, power to punish people
and were given important posts especially in revenue department.
• No. of rituals increased and helped the position of brahmins.
• Rajputs considered dying in war an honour.
• Condition of women deteriorated most during this period. She was treated as the honour
of the clan which lead to Child marriages, Purdah, Polygyny, Sati and Jauhar.
• No of war widows increased during Rajput period and upper caste women suffered more
than lower caste women.
THE CHAHAMANAS/ CHAUHANS

• The Chahamanas of Shakambhari, colloquially known as the Chauhans of Sambhar, ruled
in parts of the present-day Rajasthan and its neighbouring areas between 7th and 11th
centuries CE.
• They were the most prominent ruling family of the Chahamana clan.
• The Chahamanas originally had their capital at Shakambari, which is identical to modern
Sambhar near Jaipur in the Sapadalaksa country (part of present-day Rajasthan).
• However, the later rulers moved the capital to Ajmer, and for this reason, they are also
known as the Chahamanas (Chauhans) of Ajmer.
• They were originally feudatories of the Pratiharas and assumed independence during the
reign of King Simharaja.
PRITHVIRAJ III (C.1177−1192 CE)

• The most famous of all Chauhans, is popularly known as Prithviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora
in the folk legends.
• He scored victories over all his neighbours, including the Chandella king Paramardi,
Chalukya Bhima II and Gahadvala Jayachandra.
• Ascended the throne at the young age of 11, after death of his father Someshvara, but
took the reigns of administration in his hands when he was 16.
• Led an expedition in Bundelkhand against the Chandella ruler and its capital Mahoba and
it was in this struggle the famous Chandella warriors Alha and Udal lost their lives.
• Defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain in c.1191 CE.
• In 1192 CE, Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain,
and subsequently executed him.
• His defeat at Tarain is seen as a landmark event in the Islamic conquest of India, and has
been described in several semi-legendary accounts, most notably the Prithviraj Raso.
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• Two great poems, Prithviraj Raso and Prithviraj Vijaya, were written by his court poets
Chandbardai and Jayanaka respectively.
HARI-RAJA (C. 1193−1194 CE)

• Muhammad Ghori followed up his victory by the conquest of Ajmer and Delhi and placed
the young son of Prithviraj, Govinda, as his vassal in Ajmer.
• Govinda was de-throned and banished by Prithviraja’s brother Hari-raja for accepting
Muslim suzerainty.
• Govinda then established the Chahamana branch of Ranastambhapura (Ranthambore).
• Hari-raja regained Ajmer and followed a policy of hostility against the conquerors of Delhi.
• Qutabuddin Aibak invaded Ajmer, overthrew Hari-raja and took the principality.
• The Chauhan dynasty then retired to Ranthambhor and ruled there in diminishing glory.
But in c.1301 CE, Ala-ud-din Khilji captured Ranthambhor and uprooted the last
stronghold of Chauhan power.
THE CHANDELLAS OF BUNDELKHAND

• The Chandellas of Bundelkhand trace their descent to a mythical ancestor named
Chandratreya, born of the moon.
• The Chandellas initially ruled as feudatories of the Gurjara−Pratiharas of Kannauj, and
were involved in conflicts with the Pratiharas, the Palas, and the Kalachuris of Chedi (who
bordered the Chandellas on the south).
• The Chandellas are well-known for their art and architecture, most notably for the fully
developed Nagara- style temples at their original capital Khajuraho.
• The Lakshmana Temple (c. 930–950 CE), the Vishvanatha Temple (c. 999-1002 CE), and
the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (c. 1030 CE) were constructed during the reigns of
Chandella rulers Yashovarman, Dhanga, and Vidyadhara respectively.
• They also commissioned a number of water bodies, palaces and forts at other places,
including their strongholds of Jayapura-Durga (modern Ajaigarh), Kalanjara (modern
Kalinjar), and their later capital Mahotsava-Nagara (modern Mahoba).
• In the first quarter of the 9th century CE, the dynasty was founded by Nannuka, who was
the ruler of a small kingdom and established his capital at Kharjjuravahaka (Khajuraho).
THE PARAMARAS OF MALWA

• The Paramaras of Malwa were originally based in the Mount Abu area of Rajasthan.
• There are several branches of this dynasty, though the main branch ruled at Malwa, with
its capital at Dhara (modern Dhar, MP).
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• The c. 949 CE Harsola copper-plates issued by the Paramara king, Siyaka II, establish that
the early Paramara rulers were feudatories of the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, and were
probably established in the 10th century CE.
• The Paramara power rose and declined several times as a result of their struggles with
the Chalukyas of Gujarat, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Kalachuris of Tripuri, and other
neighbouring kingdoms.
• The later Paramaras moved their capital to Mandapa-Durga (now Mandu) after Dhara was
sacked multiple times by their enemies.
• Malwa enjoyed a great level of political and cultural prestige under the Paramaras.
• The Paramaras were well-known for their patronage to poets and scholars and Bhoja was
himself a renowned scholar.
• Most of the Paramara kings were Shaivites and built several Shiva temples, although they
also patronised Jain scholars.
THE CHALUKYAS OF GUJARAT/THE SOLANKI RAJPUTS

• The Solanki Rajputs are also known as the Chalukya family of Gujarat, which was different
from the earlier Chalukyan dynasty of Badami.
• It ruled parts of Gujarat and Kathiawar between c.950 and 1300 CE.
• Unlike the Chalukyas of Kalyani and Vengi, the Solankis never claimed a shared descent
or any other association with the original Chalukya dynasty.
• Interestingly, they never used the term ‘Chalukya’ to describe themselves, but chose to
use its variant, ‘Chaulukya’.
• They had many branches, though three branches were the most prominent.
• The oldest branch ruled from Central India’s Mattamayura and its earliest rulers were
Simhavarman, Sadhanva, and Avanivarman.
• The other branch was founded by Barappa in Lata (South Gujarat); the most prominent
city of their kingdom was Bhrigukachchha (Broach).
• Another branch was founded by Mularaja I, whose capital was at Anahilapataka (or
Anahilavada, which is identical to modern Patan, Gujarat).
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ARABS AND THEIR INVASION
India had trading connections with the Arabs. They first came to Malabar coast as traders before
the rise of Islam. The trade continued without disruption which led to exchange of ideas.
Arabs, as invaders came to Sindh. The first successful raid was led by Mohammad bin Qasim in
711-712 AD. He defeated King Dahir of Chach Dynasty.
Mohammad bin Qasim and King Dahir
Details of Chach Dynasty is known from the book Chachnama by Ali Kufi.
• In 712 A.D., Muhammad bin Qasim, commander of the Umayyad kingdom, invaded Sind.
• Qasim defeated Dahir, the ruler of Sind and killed him in a well-contested battle.
• Dahir’s capital Aror was captured.
• Qasim extended his conquest further into Multan.
• Qasim organized the administration of Sind.
• The people of Sind were given the status of zimmis (protected subjects). There was no
interference in the lives and property of the people. Soon, Qasim was recalled by the
Caliph.
• The Arabs lost control over Sindh in 779 AD.
What was the result of conquest of Sind by Muslims or How Indian culture diffused abroad?
• There was diffusion of culture between Sind and Indian people
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• Arab travelers visited Sind. They had carried Indian medicine and astronomy to, far off
lands
• The Indian numerals in the Arabic form went to Europe through them.
Why Muslims could not expand their authority further into India?
• Due to the presence of the powerful Pratihara kingdom in western India.
How Islam came to India?
• Arab conquest of Sindh resulted in the spread of Islam to North India.

• Merchants and migrants first brought the teachings of the holy Quran to India in the 7th
century.
• But Islam was first introduced in India by Malik Ibn Dinar in Kerala in 644 AD.
Impact:
• Arabs ruled over Sindh for next 300 years and influenced the local culture including the
language.
• Arabs and Indians interacted and learned from each other.
• Arabs learned mathematics and medical science. Some Indian scientists like Hala (a
Physicist) and Manak (a surgeon) were invited by the Khalifa of Baghdad.
• Indians learnt in the field of Geography, History, medicine and Algebra.
Arabs couldn’t penetrate into other parts of India. One main reason was the presence of strong
Gurjara Pratihara as their neighbours.
TURKISH INVASION
Turks were group of tribes living in vast part of Central Asia.
They were relatively recent converts to Islam and were mostly warrior class (in contrast to Arabs
who were mostly traders).
Before coming to India, they had settled in Iran and Afghanistan.
1st major Turkish invasion took place in late 10th and early 11th century by Alaptgin, Subuktgin
and Mahmud of Ghazni.
ALAPTGIN:
Alaptgin was a Turkic Slave in Persian Samanid Empire. He rose to the post of Commander of
Army in Khoransan. In a political fallout over succession of the Samanids he crossed the Hindu
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Kush mountains southward and captured Ghazna, located strategically between Kabul and
Kandahar in present-day Afghanistan, and thereby establishing his own principality, which,
however, was still under Samanid authority.
Alaptgin got in conflicts with Hindu Shahi Dynasty ruling over Eastern Afghanistan and western
Punjab region.
SUBUKTGIN:
Sabuktigin lived as a slave during his youth and later married the daughter of his master Alptigin,
the man who seized the region of Ghazna.
When his father-in-law Alptigin died, Sabuktigin became the new ruler and expanded the
kingdom after defeating Jayapala of Kabul to cover the territory as far as the Neelum River in
Kashmir and the Indus River in what is now Pakistan.
MAHMUD OF GHAZNI:
Mahmud was the first independent ruler of the Turkic dynasty of Ghaznavids, ruling from 999 to
1030. At the time of his death, his kingdom had been transformed into an extensive military
empire, which extended from northwestern Iran proper to the Punjab in the Indian subcontinent,
Khwarazm in Transoxiana, and Makran.
• During his rule, he invaded and plundered the richest cities and temple towns in medieval
India seventeen times, and used the booty to build his capital in Ghazni.
• His first attack in 1001 AD was against the Hindu Shahi dynasty which was ruling over
Eastern Afghanistan.
• His most infamous attack was in 1025-26 on Somnath Temple, ruled by Bhima II of Solanki
dynasty. He was called ‘But Shikan’.
• His last attack was against the Jats of Punjab.
Impact of raids
• His conquest of Punjab and Multan completely changed the political situation in India.
• He paved the way for the Turks and Afghans for further conquests and make deeper
incursions into the Gangetic valley at any time.
• Drained the resources of India
• Deprived India of her manpower.
o This resulted in adverse effect on the political future of India.
• Hindu Shahi kingdom was guarding the gates of India against foreign invaders.
o Mahmud destroyed it and thus India’s frontiers became defenceless.
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• The inclusion of Punjab and Afghanistan in Ghazni’s kingdom made the subsequent
Muslim conquests of India comparatively easy.
Ghaznavid Empire
• He built wide Empire

• Punjab in the east to the Caspian Sea on the west and from Samarkand in the north to
Gujarat in the south.
• It roughly included Persia, Trans-oxyana, Afghanistan and Punjab.
• His achievements were due to his leadership and restless activity.
Patronization of Art and Culture
• He also patronized art and literature.
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• Firdausi - poet-laureate in the court of Mahmud.

o He wrote Shah Namah.
• Mahmud was interested in finding out more about the people he conquered, and
entrusted a scholar named Al-Baruni to write an account of Indian subcontinent.
ABU REHAN AL BERUNI
• Al Beruni was a famous scholar who came to India during the reign of Mahmud Ghaznavi.
• He accompanied Mahmud in his conquests to South Asia. Al Beruni was the First Muslim
Scholar to study India and its Brahmanical tradition. He is called father of Indology and
the first anthropologist.
• He studied Sanskrit at Benaras and wrote famous book – Tahqiq e Hind/ Kitab ul Hind.
This book is known as a mirror of 11th C India.
• He wrote in detail about the Indian religion, society, caste Hierarchy, festival, climate,
flora and fauna, wealth of India and the sense of time of Indians.
• He criticized Brahmins and called them insulators but wrote that their ancestors were not
like them.
• He was shocked to see the condition of Untouchables.
• He praised the colourful festivals of India.
He has been criticized for relying too much on ancient Sanskrit texts to write about India rather
than his personal experiences.
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DELHI SULTANATE
• The Delhi Sultanate was a kingdom in India that existed between 1206 and 1526.
• Five dynasties ruled the Sultanate for 320 years.
• The Slave Dynasty, the Khilji Dynasty, the Tughlaq Dynasty, the Sayyid Dynasty and the
Lodi Dynasty were the five dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The Delhi Sultanate ended when the Mughals, led by Babur, defeated the Lodi army at
the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.
The Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 by Qutub-ud-din Aibak. He was also the founder of the
Slave Dynasty. The last emperor of the Delhi Sultanate was Ibrahim Lodi. He died in 1526 fighting
the invading Mughal army, the only emperor of the Sultanate to die on the battlefield.
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ESTABLISHMENT OF DELHI SULTANATE:
Ghoris were vassals of Ghazni but became independent after the death of Mahmud.
Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori, also known as Muhammad of Ghor or Muhammad bin Sam,
was the Sultan of the Ghurid Empire along with his brother Ghiyas ad-Din Muhammad from 1173
to 1202 and as the sole ruler from 1202 to 1206. He is credited with laying the foundation of
Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent. He had made it a habit to regularly raid India.
Difference between Gazni and Ghori:
Ghazni Ghori
• He came as a plunderer • He came for empire

• He destroyed temples and other • He destroyed and he built as well.
structures but did not build • He lost two battles.
anything. • He came to India from Bolan Pass.
• He never lost a battle. (He was the first invader to come
• He came to India through Khybar through Bolan pass.)
pass. • He left a deep impact on India.
• He did not have any major impact
on India.
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Raids of Ghori
1st attack on Multan – 1175 against Qarmatian Rulers.
2nd on Gujrat – 1178
Battle of Kayadara, 1178, against Chaulukya ruler Mularaja II. First loss of Ghori.
Most important battles –
Battle of Tarai I against Prithviraj Chauhan III in 1191.
The two armies of Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan met near the town of Tarain, 14 miles from
Thanesar in present-day Haryana. The battle was marked by the initial attack of mounted Mamluk
archers to which Prithviraj responded by counter-attacking from three sides and thus dominating
the battle. Ghori got badly injured and retreated.
Battle of Tarai II against Prithviraj Chauhan III in 1192.
The battle was fought at the same place as before. This time Ghori was prepared. He had a
1,20,000 strong cavalry. According to Firishta, "the Chauhan army consisted of 3,000 elephants,
300,000 cavalry and infantry", which is considered an exaggeration by modern historians.
According to Satish Chandra the figures were exaggerated in order to "emphasise the challenge
faced by Muizzuddin and the scale of his victory".
Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated and executed.
Impact of Battle of Tarain
• Major disaster for the Rajputs.

o Political prestige suffered a serious setback.
• The whole Chauhan kingdom now lay at the feet of the invader.
• The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly established in India at Ajmer and a new era in
the history of India began.
o After his victory, Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni and left his favorite
general Qutb-ud-din Aibak to make further conquests in India.
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• 1193 – Aibak made preparations for easy invasion by Muhammad Ghori against the
Gahadavala ruler Jayachandra.
o Battle of Chandawar - Muhammad routed Jayachandra’s forces. Kanauj was
occupied by the Muslims.
Battle of Chandwar – 1194 against Raja Jaichandra.
Last attack in 1206 against Khokar – a Tribe in Punjab.
While returning to Ghazni from this campaign he was killed by a rival Muslim sect.
He left 3 famous slaves behind him –
• Qutub ud Din Aibak – Delhi – Ajmer – Lahore

• Tajuddin Yalduz – Lahore – Afghanistan
• Nasir Ud Din Qabacha – Multan – Ucch Area
Delhi and Lahore were the bone of contention between the three. Aibak won Lahore from Yalduz
and later married his daughter to Qabacha to have an alliance. He finally established the Delhi
Sultanate.
SLAVE DYNASTY (1206 -1290)

• Also known as Mamluk dynasty.
• Mamluk – Arabic term for slave. There were different types of Slaves. Household slaves
were called Ghulams. Mamluks were not ordinary slaves. They were respected and
trained like warriors. They had chances to rise up in administrative hierarchy.
• 3 dynasties were established during 1206 – 1290
o Qutbi dynasty (1206-1211) founded by Qutbuddin Aibak.
o First Ilbari dynasty (1211- 1266) founded by Iltutmish
o Second Ilbari dynasty (1266-1290) founded by Balban.
QUTBUDDIN AIBAK (1206-1210)
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• Slave of Muhammad Ghori (remember his appointment as Governor of Ghori’s Indian

possessions.
• Set up his military headquarters at Indraprasta, near Delhi.
• Even during the life time of Ghori he raised a strong army and hold over north India.
• 1206 – Ghori died and Aibak declared his independence.
• He broke all connections with the kingdom of Ghori and thus founded the Slave dynasty
as well as the Delhi Sultanate.
• He assumed the title Sultan
• He made Lahore his capital.
• Rule lasted - 4 years’ short period.
• He was called as “Lakh Baksh or giver of lakhs” because he gave liberal donations.
• Aibek was great patron of learning and patronised writers like
o Hasan-un-Nizami, author of 'Taj-ul-Massir'
o Fakhruddin,author of 'Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shah'
• He built –
o Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi (First mosque built in Delhi)
o
Quwattul Islam Mosque
o Adhai-Din-Ka-Jhonpra mosque in Ajmer.
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o He started the construction of Qutb Minar in memory of sufi saint Qutbuddin

Bakhtiar Kaki which was completed by his successor, Iltutmish
• Death - he died suddenly while playing chaugan (horse polo) in 1210.
• Successor - his son Aram Baksh, who was replaced by Iltutmish after eight months.
SHAMSUDDIN ILTUTMISH (1211-1236)
Iltutmish’s Tomb
• Belonged to Ilbari tribe and so dynasty’s name Ilbari dynasty.

• Aibak bought him and made him son-in-law
• Appointed as iqtadar of Gwalior by Aibak
• 1211 – defeated Aram Baksh (son of Aibak) and became Sultan.
• Shifted capital from Lahore to Delhi.
• In first 10 years focused on securing his throne from rivals.
• Mongol policy of Iltutmish saved India from the wrath of Chengiz Khan.
o He refused to shelter Jalaluddin Mangabarni (also known as Khwarizm Shah),
whom Chengiz was chasing.
Military conquests
• Established his control over Bengal and Bihar

• Annexed Sind and Multan into the Delhi Sultanate.
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• He suppressed the Rajput revolts and recovered Ranthambore (not Ranthampur), Jalor,
Ajmir and Gwalior.
• Led an unsuccessful expedition against the Paramaras of Malwa.
• Iltutmish was a great statesman. He received the mansur, the letter of recognition, from
the Abbasid Caliph in 1229, which bestowed him the title of Sultan of Hindustan.
• He nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor. Thus the hereditary succession to
Delhi Sultanate was initiated by Iltutmish.
• He patronized many scholars and a number Sufi saints came to India during his reign.
Minhaj-us-Siraj, Taj-ud-din., Nizam-ul-mulk Muhammad Janaidi, Malik Qutb-ud-din Hasan
and Fakhrul-Mulk Isami were his contemporary.
o Minhaj-us-Siraj is author of 'Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'.
• He completed the construction of Qutb Minar at Delhi, the tallest stone tower in India
(238 ft.).
• He built a magnificent mosque at Ajmer.
• Iltutmish introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital-the two basic coins of the
Sultanate period, with a standard weight of 175 grains.
•
• The silver tanka remained the basis of the modern rupee.
• Iltutmish had also created a new class of ruling elite of forty powerful military leaders -
Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa or Forty
• Organize Iqtadari system: division of empire into Iqtas, which were assigned to the nobles
and officers in lieu of salary.
RAZIYA SULTAN (1236-1240)
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• Razia was the first and last female ruler of Delhi Sultanate.
• Even Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor, the Qazi of Delhi and Wazir
put Ruknuddin Feroz on the throne.
o Nasiruddin Mahmud - real brother of Raziya
o Rukn ud din Firuz and Muizuddin Bahram - step brothers
• Raziya with the support of Amirs of Delhi seized the throne, when Ruknuddin marched to
Multan to suppress the revolt.
• She appointed an Abyssinian slave Yakuth as superintendent of the royal stables.
• She discarded the female apparel and held the court with her face unveiled.
• She even went for hunting and led the army.
• Turkish nobles don’t like these activities and so resentment against her aroused in them.
• 1240 - Altunia, her lover and the governor of Bhatinda revolted against her.
• She went in person to suppress the revolt but Altunia killed Yakuth and took Raziya
prisoner.
• In the meantime, the Turkish nobles put Bahram on the throne.
• However, Raziya won over her captor, Altunia, and after marrying him proceeded to Delhi.
But she was defeated and killed by court intriguers.
• The fall of Raziya paved the way for the ascendancy of the Forty. In the next six years,
Bahram and Masud ruled Delhi.
• There ensued a struggle for supremacy between the Sultans and the nobles.
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• In 1246 Balban succeeded in putting Nasiruddin Mahmud as Sultan.
ERA OF BALBAN (1266-1287)
• Ghiyasuddin Balban, who was also known as Ulugh Khan

• He was Naib or regent of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud.
• Balban was all powerful in the administration but like most of rulers he had to face the
intrigues of his rivals in the royal court.
• 1266 – Nasiruddin Mahmud died and Balban succeeded to throne.
• Earlier Balban was regent and so, he was aware of the problems of Delhi Sultanate.
• He believed that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called the Forty.
(remember the Turkan-i-Chahalgani?)
Steps to Enhance Power and Authority of Monarch
• He was convinced that he has to enhance the power and authority of monarch to
overcome the problems and hence he took some steps like
o He started the idea of divinity of King and declared that Sultan was God’s shadow
(Zill e Ilahi) on earth and the recipient of divine grace.
o He introduced rigorous court discipline and new customs such as prostration
(Sajda) and kissing the Sultan’s feet (Pabos) to prove his superiority over the
nobles.
o Balban claimed that he is descendent of Afrasiyab Dynasty (A mythical Persian
dynasty). He also named his grandsons on the name on the Kings of this dynasty –
Kaiqubad, Kaikans, Kaikhusro and Kaimursa. (Names are not that important for
UPSC)
o Introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz.
o He was champion of Turkish nobility but did not share his power with other
nobles.
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o Indian Muslims were not given important post in the government.

o Spies were appointed to monitor the activities of the nobles.
o No one was allowed to sit in the court except the King. No one was allowed to
smile in the court to maintain the decorum.
Forty- NOBLES
He believed that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called the Forty.
(remember the Turkan-i-Chahalgani?)
• Balban was determined to break the power of the Forty, the Turkish nobles.
• Only the most obedient nobles were spared and rest were eliminated by fair or foul
means. For example –
o Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Badaun, was publicly flogged for his cruelty
towards his servants.
o Haybat Khan, the governor of Oudh, was also punished for killing a man who was
drunk.
o Sher Khan, the governor of Bhatinda was poisoned.
Restoration of law and order
• His focus was more on restoration of law and order instead of expansion of his kingdom.
• Many forts were built to check Mongol attack. He appointed special officers called the
‘Warden of Marches’.
• Established Diwan-i-Arz - a separate military department and reorganized the army.
• Balban took severe action against Mewatis who often plundered the outskirts of Delhi.
Robbers were mercilessly pursued and put to death. As a result, the roads became safe
for travel.
Mongol threat
• Mongols reappeared in the northwest and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud against
them. But the prince was killed in the battle and it was a moral blow to the Sultan.
• He could not fully safeguard India from the Mongol invasions.
• Balban died in 1287.
• He was one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate.
• When Balban died, one of his grandsons Kaiqubad was made the Sultan of Delhi. After
four years of incompetent rule, Jalaluddin Khalji captured the throne of Delhi in 1290.
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Tomb of Balban – First building with true Arches.
THE KHALJI DYNASTY (1290-1320)
JALALUDDIN KHALJI (1290 - 1296)

• The advent of the Khalji dynasty marked the zenith of Muslim imperialism in India.
• Founder of the Khalji dynasty - Jalaluddin Khalji.
• He was seventy years old when he came to power.
• He was generous and lenient. For example –
o Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban was allowed to remain the governor of Kara. But
when Chhajju revolted, it was suppressed but he was pardoned.
o When the robbers looted the country, they were allowed to go after a severe
warning.
o In 1292 when Malik Chhajju revolted for the second time, he was replaced by
Jalauddin’s son-in-law, Alauddin Khalji.
• In 1296 while taking expedition to Devagiri Alauddin Khalji treacherously murdered his
father-in-law Jalaluddin Khalji and usurped the throne of Delhi.
ALAUDDIN KHALJI (1296-1316)
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• 2nd ruler of Khalji dynasty

• He called himself as ‘Second Alexander’
• He took the title ‘Sikander-i-Sani’.
• Early name was Ali Gurushap.
• He banned drinking of alcohol in open in his kingdom.
• He built the city Siri, the second of the seven cities of Delhi, near Qutub Minar.
Nobles
• He made enormous gifts to the hostile nobles and Amirs of Delhi to win over them to his
side. Those who still opposed him accession were punished severely.
• He framed regulations to control the nobles.
• Basic reasons according to sultan for noble rebellions -
1. General prosperity of the nobles.
2. Intermarriages between noble families.
3. Inefficient spy-system.
4. Drinking liquor.
• Therefore, he passed 4 ordinances.
1. He confiscated the properties of the nobles.
2. Reorganization of intelligence system and immediate report of secret activities of
nobles
3. The public sale of liquor and drugs was totally stopped.
4. Social gatherings and festivities without the permission of Sultan were forbidden.
• By such harsh measures his reign was free from rebellions.
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Reforms of Alauddin Khalji
Army reforms
• He had a large permanent standing army, which was paid in cash from the royal treasury.
• This was done through the produce collected as tax from lands between the Ganga and
Yamuna. Tax was fixed at 50 per cent of the peasant’s yield.
• According to the Ferishta, Persian historian, he recruited 4,75,000 cavalrymen.
• He introduced the system of dagh (branding of horses) and prepared huliya or chehra
(descriptive list of soldiers).
• A strict review of army from time to time was carried out so that the army has its
maximum efficiency.
• Military expeditions into southern India started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji.
Note: In the camps of Alauddin the language Urdu/Hindvi was born. It is believed that the first
poet of Urdu was Amir Khusro.
Market reforms
• Alauddin chose to pay his soldiers salaries in cash rather than iqtas.
• The soldiers would buy their supplies from merchants in Delhi and it was thus feared that
merchants would raise their prices.
• To stop this, Alauddin controlled the prices of goods in Delhi.
• Alauddin Khalji established four separate markets in Delhi –
1. For grain
2. For cloth, sugar, dried fruits, butter and oil
3. For horses, slaves and cattle
4. For miscellaneous commodities.
• Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna-i-Mandi.
• The supply of grain was ensured by holding stocks in government store-houses in same
way as today Food Corporation of India (FCI) does.
• Regulations were issued to fix the price of all commodities.
• A separate department called Diwan –I – Riyasat, which was renaming of Diwan-i-Rasalat
was created under an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat.
o During the reign of Alauddin Khilji, this department was renamed or replaced by
the department called Diwan-i-riyasat whose primary function was to implement
the economic regulations issued by the Sultan and control the markets and prices.
• Every merchant was registered under the Market department.
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• There were secret agents called munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding the
functioning of these markets.
• The Sultan also sent slave boys to buy various commodities to check prices.
• Harsh punishment was given if any shopkeeper charged a higher price, or tried to cheat
by using false weights and measures.
• Even during the famine, the same price was maintained.
Land Revenue Administration reforms
• He was the first Sultan of Delhi who ordered for the measurement of land.
o After measurement the revenue from the land was assessed according to the
measurement of land.
• Even the big landlords could not escape from paying land tax.
• Land revenue was collected in cash so he can pay the soldiers in cash.
• His land revenue reforms provided a basis for the future reforms of Sher Shah and Akbar.
• To know about the revenue arrears and collect them, he introduced a new department
of Diwan-i-mustakhraj.
ARCHITECTURE
• Alai Minar – He attempted a Minar twice the size of Qutub Minar in the same Mehrauli
complex. However, only first floor of that Minar is completed.
• Alai Darwaza – First true arch dome. It is designed on a horse shoe shape.
Jamat Khana Mosque – It is the first complete Islamic style building in India. It located in the same
complex with Tomb of Nizam ud din Auliya. It has got tomb, true arch and Arabesque.
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Jamaat Khana Mosque.
Hauz I Alai – (Hauz Khas) – It is an artificial lake built by Alauddin which provided water to the
entire city.
Hauz Khas
MILITARY CAMPAIGNS
Mongol Invasions
• He had sent his army six times against the Mongols.

• First 2 times - he was successful
• Third time - Mongol invader Khwaja came up to Delhi but they were prevented from
entering into the capital city.
• Next three times - Mongol invasions were dealt with severely.
• The north western frontier was fortified and Gazi Malik was appointed to as the Warden
of Marches to protect the frontier.
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Conquest of Gujrat
• He sent Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to capture Gujarat in 1299. The king and his
daughter escaped.
• While the queen was caught and sent to Delhi. Kafur, a eunuch, was also taken to Delhi
and later he was made the Malik Naib – military commander.
Conquest of Rajasthan
• In 1301, Alauddin marched against Ranthambore (not Ranthampur) because the ruler
Hamirdevra had declined sultan to handover the Mongol nobles who had took shelter
there.
• After a three month’s siege Ranthambore fell. The Rajput women committed jauhar or
self-immolation.
• After Ranthambore he turned to Chittor. It was the powerful state in Rajasthan.
• The siege lasted for several months. In 1303 Alauddin stormed the Chittor fort and won
the Battle.
• Later during Mughal period Malik Mohammad Jaysi wrote an epic poem ‘Padmavat’ in
1540 in Awadi language. It relates an allegorical fictional story about the Delhi Sultan
Alauddin Khalji's desire for the titular Padmavati, the Queen of Chittor. Alauddin Khalji
and Padmavati's husband Ratan Singh are historical figures, whereas Padmavati is a
fictional character.
Conquest of Deccan
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• Alauddin Khalji’s greatest achievement was the conquest of Deccan and the far south.
• This region was ruled by 4 important dynasties –
1. Yadavas of Devagiri – ruler Ramachandra Deva
2. Kakatiyas of Warangal - Pratabarudra Deva
3. Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra - Vira Ballala III
4. Pandyas of Madurai - Vira Pandya
• Malik Kafur, Alauddin’s military commander, subdued all four region’s rulers one by one
and seized vast quantity of booty and returned to Delhi.
• Alauddin Khalji died in 1316.
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Patronization of Art
• He patronized poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.

• Amir Khusru is known as the ‘Parrot of India’
Amir Khusro
• Amir Khusru is considered as the father of Urdu language and the inventor of Sitar and
Qawwali singing.
• He was pioneer of three ragas – Aiman, Sanam and Ghora.
• Poetic Collections of Amir Khusro – Ghurrat ul Kamaal, Nihayat ul Kamaal and Vastul
Hayaat.
• Nuh Sipahar (on Mubarak Shah Khilji), Tughlaq Nama (On Ghayas ud din Tughlaq),
Muftah ul Futuh (On Jalal Ud Din Khilji) and Khazain ul Futuh (on Alauddin Khilji) are the
famous works of Amir Khusru.
End of dynasty
• Khilji dynasty came to an end when the Mubarak shah Khalji was killed by Khusrau Khan.
• Some historians consider Khusrau Khan as the last Khalji Sulthan.
• Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur, killed the Sultan Khusru Shah and ascended the
throne of Delhi under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in 1320.
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THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1414)
Founder of dynasty - Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

GHIYASUDDIN TUGHLAQ (1320 - 1325)
• His real name was Ghazi Malik.
• Ghiasuddin Tughlaq founded the dynasty after killing Khuzru Khan in 1320.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Juna Khan to fight against Warangal.
• He defeated Pratabarudra and returned with rich booty.
• Ghiyasuddin laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad near Delhi.
o He built the Tughlaqabad Fort. The fort is made of rough sandstone and it is
characterized by Sloppy walls.
Tughlaqabad Fort
• First Sultan to start irrigation works.
• He had differences with Sufi Saint – Nizam ud din Auliya.
• Ghiazuddin died by the collapse of a pavilion. Before his death, he had built his own
mausoleum. Tomb of Ghiyas Ud din Tughlaq is the first example of marble dome in India.
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Tomb of Ghiyas ud Din
MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ (1325-1351)
• Ulugh Khan (also known as Juna khan) was said to have treacherously killed his father
and ascended the throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325.
• He had introduced many ambitious schemes and novel experiments but all of them ended
in miserable failures because they were all far ahead of their time.
• Very tolerant in religious matters.
• Maintained diplomatic relations with far off countries like Egypt, China and Iran.
• Contemporary writers like Isami, Barani and Ibn Battutah were unable to portrait correct
picture about his personality.
• He was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary, religious and
philosophical education.
Experiment 1 - Transfer of Capital
• He wanted to make Devagiri (which he renamed Daulatabad) his second capital so that
he might be able to control South India better.
• The moving of capital was not successful.
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Why this experiment failed?
• It was too far from northern India (more than 1500 kms) and sultan could not keep a
watch on the western frontiers.
• Everyone, including nobles, population had to suffer the hardship of summer and long
distance.
• Many people died. Those who opposed were supressed.
• He returned to Delhi and once again it was made the capital.
Impact -
• Southern kingdoms saw this as sign of weakness of sultan

• Soon after Bahamani and Vijayanagar kingdom in Deccan declared their independence.
Experiment 2 – Token Currency
• The sultan decided to issue ‘token’ coins in brass and copper which could be exchanged
for silver coins from the treasury
• Kublai Khan issued paper money in China. Sultan tried to copy the same.
Why did this experiment fail?
• Because he was not able to prevent forging the new coins.

• The goldsmiths began to forge the token coins on a large scale.
Impact -
• Soon the new coins were not accepted in the markets.

• Finally, he had to discontinue the circulation of token currency and promised to exchange
silver coins for the copper coins. Soon the treasury became empty.
• According the Barani, the heap of copper coins remained lying on roadside in
Tughlaqabad.
Experiment 3 – Taxation in Doab
• There were many reasons for this 3rd experiment –

o He wanted to conquer India and central Asia, this means large army and that
means large amount of money to pay their salaries
o To overcome financial difficulties
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• So, he increased the land revenue on the farmers of Doab (land between Ganges and
Yamuna rivers).
Why did this experiment fail?
• It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers.

• At the same time there struck a famine in doab which made the condition worse.
Impact -
• Serious peasant revolts.

• Farmers fled from the villages.
Experiment 4 – Agricultural Reforms
• Lately Sultan realized that real solution lies in adequate relief measures and the
promotion of agriculture.
• A separate department for agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi was established.
• He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were given to the
farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation.
• Model farm under the state was created in an area of 64 square miles for which the
government spent seventy lakh tankas.
• This experiment was further continued by Firoz Tughlaq.
Rebellions
• In Sultan’s later part of reign, there were no. of revolts against Sultan by nobles and
provincial governors.
• Madurai sultanate established by rebellion Hasan Shah.
• 1336 – Vijayanagr Kingdom founded.
• 1347 - Bhamini kingdom established.
• Governors of Oudh, Multan and Sind revolted.
• Gujarat - Taghi rose in revolt.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s health became worse and he died in 1351.
• According to Baduani, the Sultan was freed from his people and the people from the
Sultan.
• Moroccan Traveller Ibn Batuta visited India during his period.
• According to Barani, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a mixture of opposites. His reign
marked the beginning of the process of its decline.
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o He was also known as a wisest fool, Pagal padushah, unfortunate idealogue and
the predecessor of Akbar in intellectual and religious matters.
o Ibn Batuta called him ‘‘an ill-starred idealist’’.
o Edward Thanas described him as ‘prince of moneyers’.
• Ibn Battuta came from Tanjier, Morocco.

• He was made Qazi (judge of Delhi)
• He was sent to China as an ambassador of Mohd. Bin Tighlaq.
• He wrote his memoirs in the book – Kitab ul Rahla. (Travelogue)
• He was removed from his post and in his writings, he later criticised the Sultan.
FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351-1388)
• Firoz Tughlaq had the unique distinction of being chosen as sultan by the nobles.
• He was the author of Fatuhat -i- Firozshahi
• His wazir (Prime minister), Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert helped the
Sultan in his administration and maintained the prestige of the Sultanate during this
period.
Military Campaigns
• He had to face the problem of preventing the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate.
• As no. of rulers started declaring themselves as independent. He tried to focus on
northern India instead of reasserting the control over southern India
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• Bengal - He led two unsuccessful expeditions to Bengal.

o Bengal became free from the control of Delhi Sultanate
• Jajnagar (modern Orissa) – successful expedition and returned with rich booty acquired
from the temples.
• Nagarkot – made its ruler to pay tributes.
o Collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from the Jawalamukhi temple library and got
them translated into Persian.
• Thatta in the Sind region – crushed a rebellion there.
Administrative Reforms
• His reign was more notable for his administration.
Nobles, Ulemas and Revision of Iqta system
• Ulemas – scholars of Islamic learning who were generally orthodox in their outlook.
• Strictly followed the advice of the ulemas in running the administration.
• He pleased the nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties.
• Thus, the iqta system was not only revived but also it was made hereditary.
Taxes
• As per the Islamic law he levied the taxes.

• First Sultan of Delhi to impose Jaziya.
o Jaziya - It was a religious tax for the freedom of worship.
• He was the first Sultan to impose irrigation tax.
• The special tax on 28 items was abolished by him since they were against the Islamic law
Agriculture
• Imposed irrigation tax.

• Irrigation canals and wells were dug.
• The longest canal was about 200 kilometres from Sutlej to Hansi.
• Another canal was between Yamuna and Hissar.
• There were about 1200 fruit gardens in and around Delhi yielding more revenue.
Factories
• New royal factories were developed known as karkhanas in which thousands of slaves
were employed.
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Towns
• About 300 new towns were built.

• The famous among them was Firozabad near Red Fort in Delhi, now called Firoz Shah
Kotla.
Other reforms
• Old monuments like Jama Masjid and Qutb-Minar were also repaired.
• A new department called Diwan-i-Khairat was created to take care of orphans and
widows.
• Free hospitals and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were also established.
• He patronized scholars like Barani and Afif.
• He was guided by the ulemas and so he was intolerant towards Shia Muslims and Sufis.
• He treated Hindus as second grade citizens and imposed Jiziya. In this respect he was the
precursor of Sikandar Lodi and Aurangazeb.
• Defeated soldiers and young persons were created as slaves and Firoz’s successor had to
face the rebellion of slaves at his death in 1388
• In upcoming years there was further disintegration of Sultanate.
o Many provinces had revolted
o Timur invaded India in 1398 and returned back in 1399. In that 1-year duration he
had sacked the Delhi and India and killed many people.
SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451)
KHIZR KHAN (1414 - 1421)

• Before his departure from India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan.
• He occupied Delhi and declared himself as sultan and founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
• He died in 1421
MUBARAK SHAH (1421 - 1434)

• After Khizr khan death, he was succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah.
• He was a man of great vision, but the nobles were against him and kept revolting.
MUHAMMAD SHAH (1434 -1445)

• Nephew of Mubarak Shah.
• Always busy against conspirators and gradually lost control over his nobles.
• Buhlul Khan Lodi dominated everything.
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• Muhammad Shah died in 1445.
ALAM SHAH (1445 - 1451)

• Muhammad Shah was succeeded by his son Alam Shah (1445-1451)
• The weakest of the Sayyid princes.
• He handed over the throne to Bahlol Lodi and retired to Badaun.
• Bahlul formally crowned himself when ruler of Delhi died in 1451
LODI DYNASTY (1451-1526)
The Lodis, who succeeded Sayyids, were Afghans.
BAHLOL LODI (1451 - 1489)
• Founder of Lodi Dynasty

• Bahlol Lodi was the first Afghan ruler while his predecessors were all Turks.
• He died in 1489 and was succeeded by his son, Sikandar Lodi.
SIKANDAR LODI (1489 - 1517)
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Tomb of Sikandar Lodi
• He was the greatest of the three Lodi sovereigns.

• He controlled the Ganga valley as far as western Bengal.
• He moved the capital from Delhi to new city because he thought he would have better
control over kingdom. This city later became famous as Agra.
• He extended his empire from the Punjab to Bihar. He was a good administrator.
• He was one of the great Lodi sultans who made the sultanate strong and powerful.
• He tried to win people by various measures of public welfare.
o Tried to maintain price control and encouraged low prices.
o Roads were laid.
o Many irrigational facilities were provided for the benefit of the peasantry.
• He was a bigot.
IBRAHIM LODI (1517 - 1526)
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• He succeeded Sikandar Lodi.

• He was defeated by Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar.
• He was arrogant. He insulted his nobles openly in court and humiliated them and those
who revolted were put to death.
• His own uncle, Alauddin revolted.
• Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of the Lahore was insulted and discontent emerged
between them.
• Greatly displeased by the arrogance of Ibrahim, Daulat Khan Lodi along with Ibrahim’s
uncle, Alam khan, plotted with Babur, the king of Kabul to invade India.
• Babur marched against Delhi and defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of
Panipat (1526).
• The Afghan kingdom lasted for only seventy-five years.
CAUSES OF DECLINE OF DELHI SULTANATE
The main causes were:
• Despotic and military type of government which did not have the confidence of the
people
• Degeneration of Delhi Sultans (esp. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, Incompetence of Firoz
Tughlaq)
• War of succession as there was no fixed law for it.
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• Greed and incompetency of nobles

• Defective military organization.
• Vastness of empire and poor means of communication
• Financial instability
• Number of slaves increased to 1,80,000 in Firoz Tughlaq's time which was a burden on
the treasury
• Invasion of Timur
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INDIA UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE
Administration
• Powerful and efficient administration.

o Reason - establishment and expansion of the Delhi Sultanate.
• At its peak point, Delhi sultanate had extended as far south as Madurai.
• Though the Delhi Sultanate had started disintegrating but still their administrative system
had left a powerful impact on the Indian provincial kingdoms and later on the Mughal
system of administration.
State and Sultan
• The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam.
• Sultans were representatives of the Caliph.
• Name of the Caliph was included in the khutba or prayer and even inscribed on the coins.
• Balban who called himself the shadow of God, to increase the power of monarch also
continued to practice of including the name of Caliph in the khutba and coins.
• Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq obtained mansur or letter of
permission from the Caliph.
Office of Sultan and his authority
• Office of the Sultan was the most important in the administrative system.
• He was the ultimate authority for the military, legal and political activities just like our
today’s political heads of state.
Law of Succession
• Absence of law of succession.

• This means all the children of sultan had equal right to the throne. Razia was perfect
example of it.
• Iltutmish nominated Razia (his daughter) in preference to his sons.
• But nobles had a very big say in such nominations or successions and so they were to be
accepted by the nobles.
• Sometimes ulemas also played crucial role in accepting the succession to the throne.
• But military superiority remained the main factor in matters of succession not only in that
period but also in upcoming times.
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Central Government
• The Sultan was assisted by a number of departments and officials in his administration.
Post of Naib
• Most powerful
• Practically enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan
• Exercised general control over all the departments
Finance department
• Headed by - Wazir
• Department name – Diwan-i-Wizarat
Military department
• Headed by - Ariz-i-mumalik
• Department name – Diwan-i-Ariz
• Head was responsible for recruiting the soldiers and administering the military
department.
• He was not the commander-in-chief of the army.
• The Sultan himself was the commander-in-chief of the army.
• This department was 1st set up by Balban
• Further improvisation by - Alauddin Khalji, whose army strength was 3 Lakh
• Alauddin introduced - system of branding of the horses and payment of salary in cash.
• Cavalry was given importance under the Delhi Sultanate.
Department of religious affairs
• Headed by – Chief Sadr

• Department name – Diwan-i-Rasalat
• This department made Grants for the construction and maintenance of mosques, tombs
and madrasas.
Judicial department
• Headed by - chief Qazi or Qazi ul Quzzat.

• Other judges or qazis were appointed in various parts of the Sultanate.
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Civil matters
• For Muslims – their personal law or sharia was followed.

• For Hindus - their own personal law and their cases were dispensed by the village
panchayats.
Criminal matters
• Based on the rules and regulations made by the Sultans.
Department of correspondence
• Department name – Diwan-i-Insha

• All the correspondence between the ruler and the officials was dealt with by this
department.
Name of department Known by Headed by
Finance department Diwan-i-Wizarat Wazir
Military department Diwan-i-Ariz Ariz-i-mumalik
Religious affairs department Diwan-i-Rasalat Chief Sadr
Judicial department Chief Qazi
Correspondence department Diwan-i-Insha Dahir-i-mumalik
Local Administration
• Sultante was divided into provinces, which were called as Iqtas.

• Iqtas holder was called Iqtadar or Muqti.
• Initially iqtas were under the control of the nobles.
• Like the earlier Sultans, the Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders
as governors of iqtas.
• The provinces were divided into shiqs and the next division was pargana.
• Shiqdar controlled shiq
• Amil headed pargana which comprise of number of villages.
• Village remained the basic unit of the administration.
• Village headman – ‘muqaddam or chaudhri’.
• Village accountant – ‘patwari’ and today also it is known by the same name.
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Muqtis
• Duty of the muqtis –

o To lead military campaigns
o Maintain law and order in their iqtas.
• In exchange for their military services, the muqtis collected the revenues of their
assignments as salary.
• They also paid their soldiers from these revenues.
• Control over muqtis was most effective when –
o These offices were not inheritable
o If iqtas were assigned for a short period of time before being shifted.
• These harsh conditions of service were rigorously imposed during the reigns of Alauddin
Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.
• Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of revenue collected by
the muqtis.
• Care was taken that the muqti collected only prescribed taxes and maintained the
required number of soldiers.
Economy
• Delhi Sultans introduced reforms in the land revenue administration.

• The lands were classified into three categories:
1. Iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services.
The officials collect revenues from these iqtas as their salaries.
2. Khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues
collected were spent for the maintenance of royal court and royal household.
3. Inam land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions.
• Land revenue paid by peasantry – 1/3rd or sometimes ½ of their total production
• They also paid other taxes and always led a hand-to-mouth living.
• Frequent famines made their lives more miserable.
• Tughlaq dynasty rulers like Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq took some steps
to enhance agricultural production –
o By providing irrigational facilities
o By providing takkavi loans
o Encouraging the farmers to cultivate superior crop like wheat instead of barley.
o Firoz encouraged the growth of horticulture.
o Muhammad bin Tughlaq created a separate agricultural department, Diwan-i-
Kohi.
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Urbanization
• During sultanate period process of urbanization had started.

• No. of cities and towns like Lahore, Multan, Broach, Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad,
Delhi and Jaunpur had grown during this period.
• Delhi remained the largest city in the East.
Trade and Commerce
• The economic reforms of Alauddin Khilji brought the prices to very low but that had also
increased the import goods since the Sultan made advances to the foreign traders to
import their goods and he always subsidised in such cases.
• Contemporary writers like Ibn Battutah described growth of trade and commerce
• India exported a large number of commodities to countries of Persian Gulf, West Asia and
South East Asia.
• Overseas trade - Multanis and Afghan Muslims controlled it.
• Inland trade - Gujarat Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra merchant’s domination.
• Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated smooth transport and
communication.
• Balban was the first Sultan who got dense forests cut; roads built and secured form the
danger of bandits.
• It also helped the traders and their commercial caravans to move from one market place
to another
• Sarais or rest houses were made on the highways for convenience of travelers.
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• Cotton textile and silk industry flourished

• Introduction of Sericulture on a large scale made India less dependent on other countries
for the import of raw silk.
• Growth of Paper industry led to extensive use of paper from 14th and 15th centuries.
• leather-making, metal-crafts and carpet-weaving flourished due to the increasing
demand.
• The royal karkhanas whose workers were slaves supplied the goods needed to the Sultan
and his household. They manufactured costly articles made of gold, silver and gold ware.
• The nobles always tried to imitate the luxurious life style of Sultans.
• They were well paid and accumulated enormous wealth.
Coins
• Qutub ud din Aibak did not mint coins on his name. He minted coins on the name of Ghori,
his master. He was the only Sultan of Delhi sultanate who minted the image of Goddess
Lakshmi on his coins.
• Iltutmish issued several types of silver tankas.
• During the Khalji rule, 1 silver tanka = 48 jitals (like today we have 1$ = 60 `)
• During Tughlaq rule, 1 silver tanka = 50 jitals during the Tughlaq rule.
• Gold coins or dinars became popular during the reign of Alauddin Khalji after his South
Indian conquests.
• Copper coins were less in number and dateless.
• Recall failure of Muhammad bin Tughlaq token currency experiment had exhausted the
royal treasury.
• Though he issued several types of gold and silver coins. At least 25 varieties of gold coins
were issued by him.
Social Life
Hindu society
• There was little change in the structure of the Hindu society.

• Traditional caste system
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• Upper strata of the society – Brahmins.

• Women –
o Subservient position
o Practice of Sati
o Seclusion of women
o Wearing of purdah among the upper-class women
Muslim society
• It remained divided into several ethnic and racial groups - The Turks, Iranians, Afghans
and Indian Muslims
• There were no intermarriages between these groups.
• Hindu converts from lower castes were also not given equal respect.
• Muslim nobles – occupied high offices
• Hindu nobles – high offices very rarely given in the government.
• Hindus had to pay Jaziya.
• In the beginning jiziya was collected as part of land tax.
• During Firoz Tughlaq period it was collected as a separate tax. Sometimes Brahmins were
exempted from paying jiziya.
Music
• New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during this period.
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• Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as ghora and sanam.
• He evolved a new style of light music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian
systems.
• The invention of sitar was also attributed to him.
• The Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of Firoz
Tughlaq.
• Pir Bhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period.
• Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great lover of music. He encouraged the composition of
a great musical work called Man Kautuhal.
Literature
• The Delhi Sultans patronized learning and literature.

• Many of them had great love for Arabic and Persian literature.
• Learned men were from Persia and so Persian language got encouragement.
• Besides theology and poetry, the writing of history was also encouraged.
• Some Sultans kept their own court historians. The most famous historians were Hasan
Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afif.
Amir Khusrau (1252 -1325)
• The famous Persian writer of this period.

• He wrote a number of poems.
• He experimented with several poetical forms and created a new style of Persian poetry
called ‘Sabaq-i-Hind or the Indian style’.
• He also wrote some Hindi verses.
• Amir Khusrau was author of Khazain-ul-Futuh and Tughlaq Nama.
Languages
• Sanskrit and Persian languages functioned as link languages in the Delhi Sultanate.
• Zia Nakshabi – 1st person to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian.
• Book Tutu Nama or Book of the Parrot – was a popular book and translated into Turkish
and later into many European languages.
• The famous Rajatarangini written during the period of Zain-ul-Abidin, the ruler of
Kashmir.
• Many Sanskrit works on medicine and music were translated into Persian.
• In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the most famous work.
• Regional languages also developed during this period.
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• Chand Baradi – famous Hindi poet of this period.

• Bengali literature had also developed and Nusrat Shah patronized the translation of
Mahabharata into Bengali.
• The Bakthi cult led to development of Gujarati and Marathi languages.
• The Vijayanagar Empire patronized Telugu and Kannada literature.
Author name/ Book written About book

Writer/Historian
Minhaj – i – Siraj Tabaqat-i-Nasiri A general history of Muslim

dynasties up to 1260.
Ziauddin Barani Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi History of Tughlaq dynasty
Amir Khusrau Khazain-ul-Futuh Alauddin’s conquests
Amir Khusrau Tughlaq Nama Rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq
Kalhana Rajatarangini About early Kashmir and its

neighbours in the north
western parts of the Indian
subcontinent
Al Baruni Kitab-ul-Hind History of India
Abu Nasr bin Muhammad al Kitab-ul-Yamini History of the reign of

Jabbaral Utbi Subuktigin and Mahmud
Ghazani
Shaikh Abdul Husan Kamil-ut-Tawarikh account of Muhammad of

popularly, known as ‘Ibn-ul- Ghur’s conquest of India.
Asir’
Taj-ul-Maasir Hasan Nizami Account on the career &

reign of Qutub-ud-din Aibak
& the early years of Iltutmish
Ibn Battutah Kitab-in-Rahlab Book of travels which

furnishes a lot of historical
information
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Firoz Shah Tughlaq Futuhat-i-Firozeshahi Small autobiography of Firoz

Shah Tughlaq
Ahmad Yadgar Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afghana Account of the rise and fall of

the Lodis and Suris. Written
during Akbar’s reign.
Chand Bardai Prithviraja Raso Events relating to Prithviraj.
Chandrasekhar Surjana Charita Kavya Source of information of the

Chauhan rulers.
BHAKTI MOVEMENT
Bhakti means complete devotional surrender to a perceived God.
It is believed to have been originated in 2nd C BC with Bhagwatism – A form of Vaishnavism in

which Vasudeva Krishna was worshipped. (There hasn’t been a mention of Krishna before 2nd C
BC).
• Bhakti believes that Man (Soul) has direct relation with God rather than the contemporary
traditional belief that a priest is an intermediary between the two.
• Bhakti movement practically started in 6th – 7th C by Alvars and Nainars in Southern India.
• The evolution of Bhakti Movement in medieval India, which gained momentum in the
northern parts of the country during the 12th−17th century CE, differs from the southern
Bhakti Movement.
• The Bhakti Movement in the north included socio-religious movements that were linked
to one of the acharyas from the south, and is sometimes seen as a continuation of the
movement that originated in the south.
• Though there were similarities in the traditions of the two regions, the notion of bhakti
varied in the teachings of each of the saints.
• The northern medieval Bhakti Movement had the influence of the spread of Islam in India.
The distinctive characteristics of Islam such as Monotheism or belief in one God, equality
and brotherhood of man, and rejection of rituals and class divisions certainly influenced
the Bhakti Movement of this era.
• Moreover, the preaching of Sufi teachers shaped the thinking of Bhakti reformers like
Ramananda, Kabir, and Nanak, as the Bhakti Movement also initiated certain reforms in
the society.
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• Some scholars consider the rise of the Bhakti Movement as a reaction against feudal
oppression and against conformist Rajput−Brahman domination. The anti-feudal tone in
the poetry of Bhakti saints like Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya, and Tulsidas is seen as testimony
to this point.
• According to scholars, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the demand for manufactured
goods, luxuries, and other artisanal goods increased, leading to a movement of artisans
into the cities. The movement gained support from these classes of the society as these
groups were dissatisfied with the low status accorded to them by the Brahmanical system,
and hence they turned towards Bhakti since it focused on equality.
• Though there is no single opinion about the origins of the Bhakti Movement, there is
unanimity of thought over the fact that the Bhakti Movement focused on the message of
equality and devotional surrender to a personally conceived supreme God.
• The Bhakti movement is also divided into two different ideological streams of ‘Saguna’
(those poet-saints who composed verses extolling a god with attributes or form) and
‘Nirguna’ (those extolling gods without and beyond all attributes or form).
• The Saguna Bhaktas like Tulsidas upheld the caste system and the supremacy of the
Brahmans, and preached a religion of surrender and simple faith in a personal God, having
a strong commitment towards idol worship.
• On the other hand, the Nirguna Bhaktas like Kabir rejected the varnashrama and all
conventions based on caste distinctions. They championed new values, helping the
emergence of new groups and new unorthodox or protestant sects.
• The Nirguna Bhakatas are also known as Monotheistic Bhakti saints, who gave more
importance to the personal experience of Bhakti saints with god.
• They rejected the authority of the Brahmans and attacked the caste system and the
practice of idolatry.
Similarities and Characteristics of Bhakti Saints:
• Both focused on singular devotion, mystical love for God, and had a particular focus on a
personal relationship with the Divine.
• Both were highly critical of ritual observances as maintained and fostered by the Brahman
priesthood. In fact, many poet saints, especially in northern areas, were themselves of
lower caste lineages. Women were also en
• Another commonality was their usage of the vernacular or regional languages of the
masses, as opposed to the sacred Language of the elite priesthood, Sanskrit.
• They composed their poems in popular languages and dialects spoken across north India.
This enabled them to transmit their ideas among the masses and also among the various
lower classes.
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SANKARACHARYA
• Great thinker, distinguished philosopher, and leader of the Hindu revivalist movement of
the 9th century, which gave a new orientation to Hinduism.
• He was born in Kaladi (Kerala) and propounded the Advaita (Monism) philosophy and
Nirgunabrahman (god without attributes).
Philosophy
• In Advaita, the reality of the world is denied and Brahman is considered as the only reality.
• It is only Brahman at its base that gives it its reality.
• Although it is only the Brahman that exists all around us, we see the world, which is only
a reading of Brahman by our minds.
• According to the philosophy, Creator (God) and created beings (Soul) are not two but one.
But they appear two because of Maya (Illusion).
• Maya (Illusion) is because of Agyanta (ignorance).
• Agynata can only be removed through Vedic knowledge (Gyan). But once we attain
realisation and see that it was Brahman all along, we do not see the world anymore.
• According to him, gyaan (knowledge) alone can lead to salvation. Followers of
Shankaracharya were called gyan margi.
He wrote commentary on the Bhagvat Gita, on the Brahmasutra and the Upanishads, and wrote
books like: (a) Upadesh Shastri (b) Vivek Chudamani (c) Bhaja Govindum Stotra
He is also believed to have established 4 mathas at Sringiri, Dwarka, Puri, and Badrinath.
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RAMANUJA
• Born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai in the 12th century.

• He opposed the mayavada of Shankara and advocated the philosophy of Vishista
Advaitavada (qualified monoism), and founded the Shrivaishnava sect.
• According to him, God is Saguna Brahman. The creative process and all the objects in
creation are real but not illusory as was held by Sankaracharya.
• Therefore, God, soul, matter, are real. But god is inner substance and the rest are his
attributes.
• In Vishista Advaita, the world and Brahman are also considered two equally real entities,
as in dualism, but here the world is not separate from Brahman but is formed out of
Brahman.
• The practice of religion in Vishista Advaita is similar to Dualism, and the only difference is
that mankind enjoys a higher status than in pure dualistic worship and is nearer to God.
• Thus, in Vishista Advaita, although both the world and Brahman are considered equally
real, they are not considered two separate entities as in Dualism.
• He also advocated prabattimarga or the path of self-surrender to God. He invited the
downtrodden to Vaishnavism and advocated salvation by bhakti rather than Vedic
knowledge.
MADHAVACHARYA
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• In the 13th century, Madhava from Kannada region propagated Dvaita or the dualism of
the Jivatma and Paramatma.
• According to this philosophy, the world is not an illusion but a reality, full of real
distinction.
• According to Madhava, Brahman and the world are considered to be two equally real
entities and not related in any way.
• The God of dualism is the Hindu God, Vishnu. Vishnu has created the world, and the world
stands separate from God and in an inferior position to God with no link between the two.
• Vishnu controls the world and all world events, and the duty of all person is to worship
and pray to god. God, soul, and matter are all unique in nature, and hence they are
irreducible to each other. He also founded the Brahma Sampradya.
NIMBRAKA
• Younger contemporary of Ramanujam who propounded the Dvaita advaita philosophy

and the philosophy of Bheda Abheda (difference/non–difference).
• According to him, Brahman or the supreme soul transforms itself into the souls of the
world, which are therefore real, distinct, and different from Brahman.
• Like Vishista Advaita, the Bheda Abheda school also believes that the world and Brahman
are both equally real, and that the world is a part of Brahman. The difference is on
emphasis only.
• The world also is but a manifestation of Brahman, but it is a very small manifestation, and
the difference with Brahman is very large.
• Preacher of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telangana region.
• Worshipper of Krishna and Radha and established his ashrama in Braja (Mathura).
• He also founded the Sanak Sampradaya.
VALLABHACHARYA
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• Born in Benaras in the 15th century and lived at the court of Krishnadeva Raya.
• He propounded the Shudhadvaita (pure monism).
• In Shudhadvaita, as in Vishista Advaita, the world is taken to have a real existence, as also
Brahman.
• But it is said that there is no change of Brahman into the world, the world exists as it were
as an aspect of Brahman without undergoing any change, it is a part of Brahman.
• There is no change — the world is a part of the coin that is Brahman. Hence, this is called
‘Shudh Advaita’ because it is said that there is only one and there is no change.
JNANESWARA
• A 13th century pioneer bhakti saint of Maharashtra, whose commentary on the Bhagvat
Gita called Jnanesvari served as a foundation of the bhakti ideology in Maharashtra.
• Arguing against caste distinctions, he believed that the only way to attain god was through
bhakti.
NAMDEVA
• He was a poet-saint from Maharashtra belonging to the 14th century, who belonged to
the Varkari sect.
• He attracted individuals from diverse classes and castes during community-driven bhajan
singing sessions.
• It is interesting to note that while he is remembered in the north Indian monotheistic
tradition as a nirguna saint, in Maharashtra he is considered to be part of the Varkari
tradition (the Vaishnava devotional tradition).
• He is considered one the five revered gurus in the Dadupanth tradition within Hinduism,
the other four being Dadu, Kabir, Ravidas, and Hardas.
• According to tradition, Namdeva was a tailor who had taken to banditry before he became
a saint.
• His Marathi poetry breathes a spirit of intense love and dedication to god.
• His companions during worship sessions included Kanhopatra (a dancing girl), Sena (a
barber), Savata (a gardener), Chokhamela (an untouchable), Janabai (a maid), Gora (a
potter), Narahari (a goldsmith), and Jnanesvar (also known as Dnyandev, a Brahmin).
• It is believed that his Abhangas were included in the Guru Granth Sahib.
EKNATH
He was a prominent Marathi saint, scholar, and religious poet of the Varkari sampradaya,
belonging to the 16th century CE.
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• In the development of Marathi literature, Eknath is seen as a bridge between his

predecessors—Dnyaneshwar and Namdeva—and the later Tukaram and Ramdas.
• He introduced a new form of Marathi religious song called Bharood. Eknath’s teachings
in Marathi attempted to shift the emphasis of Marathi literature from spiritual to
narrative compositions.
• He is believed to be a family man and emphasised on the fact that stay in monasteries or
resignation from the world are not necessary for leading a religious life.
TUKARAM
• Tukaram was a 17th century poet-saint of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra who also
was part of the egalitarian Varkari devotionalism tradition and was a Sudra by birth.
• Tukaram is known for his Avangas (dohas), which constitute the gatha devotional poetry,
and community-oriented worship with spiritual songs known as kirtans.
• His poetry was devoted to Vitthala or Vithoba, an avatar of the Hindu God Vishnu.
• He was a contemporary of Shivaji and was responsible for creating a background for
Maratha nationalism, ‘Parmaratha’.
RAMDASA
• He was born in c.1608 CE and was the spiritual guide of Shivaji.

• He wrote Dasabodha, combining his vast knowledge of various sciences and arts with the
principles of spiritual life.
RAMANANDA
• He is believed to have lived in the first half of the 15th century, born in Allahabad, and
was originally a follower of Ramanuja.
• Later, he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi at Benaras and Agra.
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• He considered it to be the link between the South Indian Bhakti and North Indian
Vaishnava Bhakti traditions.
• Ramananda brought to North India what Ramanuja did in South India.
• He raised his voice against the increasing formalism of the orthodox cult and founded a
new school of Vaishnavism based on the gospel of love and devotion.
• His most outstanding contribution is the abolition of distinctions of caste among his
followers.
• He looked upon Ram and not Vishnu as the object of bhakti.
• He worshiped Ram and Sita and came to be identified as the founder of the Ram cult in
north India.
• He, like the monotheist bhakti saints, also rejected caste hierarchies and preached in the
local languages in his attempt to popularise the cult.
• His followers are called Ramanandis, like Tulsidas.
• He put emphasis on bhakti and avoided both gyana marg and karma marg.
• Gave rise to two schools of thought: (a) Orthodox school – Represented by Nabhadas,
Tulsidas (b) Liberal – Represented by Kabir, Nanak, and others.
KABIR
• Among the disciples of Ramananda, one of the most famous was Kabir.
• He was a 15th century Bhakti poet and saint, whose verses are found in the Sikh holy
scripture, Adi Granth.
• He was born near Benares to a Brahman widow, but was brought up by a Muslim couple
who were weavers by profession.
• He possessed an inquiring mind, and while in Benares, learnt much about Hinduism and
became familiar with Islamic teachings also.
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• He denounced idolatry and rituals and laid great emphasis on the equality of man before
God.
• He regarded devotion to god as an effective means of salvation andurged that to achieve
this one must have a pure heart, free from cruelty, dishonesty, hypocrisy, and insincerity.
• Though familiar with yogic practices, he considered neither asceticism nor book
knowledge important for true knowledge.
• He strongly denounced the caste system, especially the practice of untouchability.
• Kabir’s object was to reconcile Hindus and Muslims and establish harmony between the
two sects.
• He emphasised the essential oneness of all religions by describing Hindus and Muslims
“as pots of the same clay”. To him “Rama and Allah, temple and mosque” were the same.
• He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints and his followers are called
Kabirpanthis.
• Among those who were influenced by Kabir were Raidas, who was a tanner by caste, from
Benares, Guru Nanak, who was a Khatri merchant from Punjab, and Dhanna, who was a
Jat peasant from Rajasthan.
• Bijak is the best known of the compilations of the compositions of Kabir.
DADU DAYAL
• Dadu Dayal is one of the major representatives of the Nirguna Sant traditions in Northern
India.
• He was a saint from Gujarat, who spent the best part of his spiritual life in Rajasthan.
‘Dadu’ means ‘brother’, and ‘Dayal’ means ‘the compassionate one’.
• Later, his followers came to be known as the Dadupanthis who set up ashrams known as
Thambas around the region.
• According to tradition, he was the foster son of an affluent businessman who had found
him floating on the river Sabarmati.
• It is believed that Emperor Akbar was one of his followers.
• Dadu believed that devotion to God should transcend religious or sectarian affiliation, and
that devotees should become non-sectarian or nipakh.
CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU
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• Well-known saint, ascetic Hindu monk, and social reformer of Bengal, who popularised
the Krishna cult in the 16th century.
• With him, the Bhakti Movement in Bengal began to develop into a reform movement as
it questioned social division on the basis of caste – Popularised the Sankirtan/Kirtan
system (group devotional songs accompanied with ecstatic dancing).
• He renounced the world, became an ascetic, and wandered all over the country preaching
his ideas.
• He proclaimed the universal brotherhood of man and condemned all distinction based on
religion and caste, and emphasised love and peace.
• He showed great empathy towards the suffering of other people, especially that of the
poor and the weak, and believed that through love and devotion, song and dance, a
devotee can feel the presence of God.
• He accepted disciples from all classes and castes, and his teachings are widely followed in
Bengal even today.
• The biography of Chaitanya was written by Krishnadas Kaviraj.
NARSINGH MEHTA
• Saint from Gujarat who wrote songs in Gujarati depicting the love of Radha–Krishna.
• Author of Mahatma Gandhi’s favorite bhajan – “Vaishanava jan to”
SAINT TYAGARAJA
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• Was one of the greatest composers of Carnatic music, who composed thousands of
devotional compositions, most in Telugu and in praise of Lord Ram.
• He was a prolific composer and composed the famous Pancharatna Kritis (meaning five
gems).
• He was highly influential in the development of the classical devotional music tradition.
AKKAMAHADEVI
• During the 12th century CE, Akkamahadevi, also known as Akka or Mahadevi, belonging
to the southern region of Karnataka, established herself as an ardent devotee of Shiva
whom she addressed as Chennamallikarjuna.
JANABAI
• Was born around 13th century in Maharashtra in a low caste Sudra family.
• She worked in the household of one of the most revered of the bhakti poets, saint
Namdeva.
• She wrote over 300 poems focusing on domestic chores and about the restrictions she
faced as a low caste woman.
MIRABAI
• She belonged to a high-class ruling Rajput family.
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• Mirabai’s poetry speaks of her vision of Lord Krishna when she was a child. From that
point onwards, Mira vowed that she would forever be his bride.
• However, against her wishes, she was married to the son of Rana Sanga of Mewar at an
early age.
• Central to these accounts are Mirabai’s struggles within the family she had been married
into, including unsuccessful attempts made by her jealous husband to kill her, and her
sisters-in-law’s efforts to obstruct Mirabai in her desires to join the company of wandering
saints.
• Eventually, Mirabai left her husband and family and went on a pilgrimage to various
places associated with her divine husband, Krishna.
• Here too she was rejected initially because she was a woman, yet Mirabai’s reputation of
devotion, piety, and intellectual astuteness eventually led to her inclusion within the
community of the saints of Brindavan.
• Mirabai’s poetry portrays a unique relationship with Krishna as she is not only being
portrayed as the devoted bride of Krishna, but Krishna is also portrayed as in pursuit of
Mira.
BAHINABAI
She was a poet-saint from 17th century Maharashtra, writing in the form of abangas, women’s
folk songs, that portray the working life of woman, especially in the fields.
SIKKHISM
GURU NANAK
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• The first Sikh Guru and founder of the Sikhism, who was also a Nirguna Bhakti Saint and
social reformer.
• He was born in a Khatri household in the village of Talwandi (now called Nankana), on the
banks of the river Ravi in c.1469 CE.
• His father was an accountant, and even Nanak was trained in Persian to follow his father’s
footsteps, but he was inclined towards mysticism.
• He was opposed to all distinctions of caste as well as the religious rivalries and rituals, and
preached the unity of god and condemned the formalism and ritualism of both Islam and
Hinduism.
• He laid a great emphasis on the purity of character and conduct as the first condition of
approaching, God, and the need of a guru for guidance.
• Like Kabir, he advocated a middle path in which spiritual life could be combined with the
duties of the householder.
• He started the practice of Sangat (Sitting near the Guru) and Pangat (Community kitchen).
• After Guru Nanak the followers started/continued his tradition and evolved the tradition
of Gurus.
Guru Angad – He was the pioneer in Gurumukhi script.
Guru Amardas
Guru Ramdas – He got land from Akbar in Amritsar and a pond.
Guru Arjan – 1st Hereditary Guru
• He compiled the holy book – Originally called Adi Granth in 1604 (during Akbar’s reign).
• Guru Arjan built Harmandir Sahib on the land received by Guru Ramdas.
• He died in prison during the reign of Jehangir.
Guru Hargovind – He refused payment of money on behalf of Guru Arjan for giving shelter to
Shah Jehan who rebelled against Jehangir.
He was the first the first Guru who started using weapon – Sword.
Sikh Gurus were no longer only Spiritual Guru but Spiritual cum political Guru.
They started collecting money/alms and charity. However, Mughals called it a ‘tax’ and said that
Sikh Guru is trying to make a state with in a State. Mughals also accused the Guru that he is giving
shelter to rebels of Mughals.
In Guru’s defence, Mughal officials were exploiting the peasants and aggrieved poor sufferers
came in the Matha of Sikh Guru for shelter and Protection.
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Guru Har Rai – Guru Har Rai is notable for maintaining the large army of Sikh soldiers that the
sixth Sikh Guru had amassed, yet avoiding military conflict. He supported the moderate Sufi
influenced Dara Shikoh instead of conservative Sunni influenced Aurangzeb.
Guru Harkrishan – He was 8 years old when he became a Guru. He contracted smallpox in 1664
and died before reaching his eighth birthday. It is said that he died because he contracted
smallpox while successfully curing his followers. He is also known as Bal Guru (Child Guru).
Guru Tegh Bahadur – Guru Tegh Bahadur was controversially publicly executed in Chandni
Chowk at Delhi as he refused to get converted to Islam. At this time Guru’s popularity was at its
peak. He was widely respected not only by Sikhs but Hindus, Sufi’s and Shias. Aurangzeb being
an orthodox Sunni persecuted Sikh, Shias, Hindus and liberal Muslims.
Guru Gobind Singh – He established Khalsa panth in 1699 at Anandpur Sahib. Khalsa was a
dedicated Sikh militia unit under the command of Guru Gobind Singh ji.
SUFI MOVEMENT
Sufism or tasawuf is the name for various mystical and movements in Islam.
It aims at establishing direct communion between god and man through personal experience of
mystery which lies within Islam.
Every religion gives rise to mystical tendencies in its fold at a particular stage of its evolution. In
this sense, Sufism was a natural development within Islam based on the spirit of Quaranic Piety.
The Sufis while accepting the Shariat did not confine their religious practice to formal adherence
and stressed cultivation of religious experience aimed at a direct perception of god.
There developed a number of Sufi orders of silsilah in and outside India. All these orders had their
specific characteristics. However, there were a number of features which are common to all Sufi
orders.
Sufism stressed the elements of love and devotion as effective means of the realization of God.
Love of God meant love of humanity and so the Sufis believed service to humanity was
tantamount to service to God.
In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God by sense
of perception.
While orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
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While the orthodox believe in blind observance of rituals, the Sufis consider love and devotion as
the only means of attaining salvation.
According to Sufis one must have the guidance of a pir or guru, without which spiritual
development is impossible.
Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers.
Other ideas emphasised by Sufism are meditation, good actions, repentance for sins,
performance of prayers and pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression of passions by ascetic
practices.
Many Silsilas were started in India.
Silsila Founder
Chisti Silsila Khwaja Moin Uddin Chisti
Suhrawardi Silsila Shahab Uddin Suhrawardi
Firdausi Sheikh Yahya Maneri
Naqsh Bandiya Silsila Baqi Billah
Qadiriya Silsila Jalal Uddin Abdul Qadir
Roahniya Silsila Mian Bayazid Ansari
Most Prominent of them was Chisti Silsila
THE CHISTI SILSILAH
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Moinuddin Chisti’s Dargah at Ajmer
• The Chisti Order was established in India by Mouinuddin Chishti who moved to India after
the invasion of Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori and subsequently to Ajmer in 1206.
• The fame of Khwaja Mouinuddin grew after his death in 1235.
• His grave was visited by Muhammad Tughlaq after which the mosque and dome were
erected by Mahmud Khalji of Malwa in the fifteenth century.
• The patronage of this dargah peaked after the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
• The Chishtis believed in love as the bond between God and individual soul and tolerance
between people of different faiths.
• They accepted disciples irrespective of their religious beliefs.
• They associated with Hindu and Jain yogi’s, and used simple language.
• The Chishti presence in Delhi was established by QutbuddinBakhtiyar Kaki who settled in
Delhi from his homeland in Trans-oxiana in 1221.
• This was at the time of the Mongol invasions when there was a steady flow of people
from central Asia fleeing from the Mongols.
• Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki presence in Delhi was a threat to the Suhrawardis who sought
to force him to leave by leveling charges against him. The Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish,
dismissed these attempts eventually forcing the Suhrawardis to relent.
• The Chishtipirs laid great emphasis on the simplicity of life, poverty, humility and selfless
devotion to God.
• The renunciation of worldly possessions was regarded by them as necessary for the
control of the senses that was necessary to maintain a spiritual life.
• Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti argued that highest form of devotion to God was to redress
the misery of those in distress, fulfilling the need of the helpless and to feed the hungry.
• Chisti’s refused to accept any grant for their maintenance from the Sultans.
• The other important Chishti Baba Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar, established himself at Hansi
(in Haryana) on the route between Multan and Lahore.
• Nizamuddin Auliya, was the best known Chishti saint of the Sultanate period. He lived in
the fourteenth century, during a period of political change and turmoil. During his lifetime
he was witness to the establishment of the Khalji rule after the death of Balban and
subsequently the establishment of the Tughlaq’s.
• There are numerous stories surrounding the life of Nizamuddin Auliya, famous among
them were stories of his confrontations with the Sultans of Delhi. The Khwaja is said to
have maintained a strict
• policy of not involving himself with the various groups and factions of the Sultan’s court
in Delhi earning him the respect of many.
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• Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlvi was another of the Chishti saint of Delhi. He played an active
role in the political affairs of the period.
• In the 13th century the Chishti Order was established in the Deccan by Shaikh
Burhanuddin Gharib.
• Between the 14th and 16th centuries many Chishti Sufis migrated to Gulbarga. This was
accompanied with a change where some of the Chishtis began accepting grants and
patronage from the ruling establishment.
• Muhammad Banda Nawaz was among the famous pirs in the region.
• The Deccan city of Bijapur emerged as an important centre for Sufi activity.
• Last of the prominent Saints was Salim Chisti whos tomb was built by Akbar at Fatehpur
Sikri.
SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
The Hindu philosophy is categorized into six Orthodox and three Heterodox philosophies.
The classification is based on the acceptance of the authority of the Vedas. The Orthodox
school of philosophy also called the Aastika school believes in the authority of Vedas, while the
Heterodox school of philosophy, popularly known as Nastika school rejects the principle of
authority of Vedas.
The six orthodox schools are called as shatdarshanas and include Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga,
Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta Philosophy). Most of these schools
of thought believe in the theory of Karma and rebirth. Moksha (salvation) is believed to be the
liberation from the cycle of birth and death and is the ultimate goal of human life.
1. Nyaya Philosophy - Nyaya school follows a scientific and a rational approach. Sage Gautama is
the founder of this school. Nyaya school banks upon various pramanas (mechanism of attaining
knowledge). It believes that gaining knowledge through the five senses is the sole way of
attaining liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
2. Sankhya Philosophy - Sankhya is the oldest of all philosophies put forth by the sage Kapila. It
is a dualistic philosophy with Purusha (soul) and Prakriti (nature) in it. Advaita Vedanta derives
its base from Sankhya School. Sankhya also devolves philosophical basis for Yoga. It emphasizes
the attainment of knowledge of self through meditation and concentration. It is the oldest
philosophy.
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3. Yoga Philosophy - Yoga school introduces the methods of the discipline of body and mind.
Sage Patanjali is the founder of Yoga. Emancipation of Purusha from Prakriti by self-awareness
through the discipline of body and mind is conceptualized by Yoga. It is believed that practising
Ashtanga Yoga is the way to relieve oneself from past sins in order to make way for liberation.
4. Vaisheshika - Vaisheshika school deals with metaphysics. It was founded by the sage Kanada.
It is an objective and realistic philosophy of the Universe. According to the Vaisheshika school of
philosophy, the universe is reducible to a finite number of atoms, Brahman being the
fundamental force causing consciousness in these atoms.
5. Purva Mimamsa - Purva Mimamsa school believes in the complete authority of Vedas. It is
based on sage Jaimini’s Mimamsa Sutras. It emphasizes the power of yajnas and mantras in
sustaining the activities of the universe. It states that a human being can attain salvation only by
acting in conformity with the principles of Vedas.
6. Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta) - Vedanta school is a monoistic school of philosophy that believes
that the world is unreal and the only reality is Brahman. The three sub-branches of Vedanta are
Advaita of Shankaracharya, Vishishta Advaita of Ramanujacharya and Dvaita of Madhwacharya.
Uttara Mimamsa is based on Upanishads (the end portions of Vedas).
Three Heterodox Schools of Indian Philosophy
Schools that do not accept the authority of vedas are by definition unorthodox (nastika) systems.
The schools belonging to heterodox schools of Indian Philosophy are Carvaka, Buddhism &
Jainism.
Carvaka - It is characterised as a materialistic and aesthetic school of thought. Accepted direct

perception as the surest method to prove the truth of anything. Insists on joyful living. Also
known as Lokayata, Carvaka is a materialistic school of thought. Its founder was Carvaka, author
of the Barhaspatya Sutras in the final centuries B.C.
Note-Covered in Ancient India VAN also.
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
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SOURCES TO KNOW ABOUT EMPIRE
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The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary, archaeological and
numismatics.
• Krishnadevaraya’s Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani

Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of this period.
• The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler
Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among eminent foreign
travelers who left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the Vijayanagar
Empire.
• The copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide
the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar rulers.
• The Hampi ruins and other monuments of Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural
contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers.
• The numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers contain figures and legends
explaining their tittles and achievements.
POLITICAL HISTORY
The Vijayanagar empire was founded in 1346 as a direct response to the challenge posed by the
sultanate of Delhi.
• The empire was founded by brothers, Harihara and Bukka. Their dynasty was named after
their father, Sangama.
• There are several theories with regard to the origin of this dynasty. According to some
scholars, they had been the feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and after their fall
they served the Kampili state.
• Another view says that they were the feudatories of the Hoysalas and belonged to
Karnataka.
• Harihara and Bukka were helped and inspired by contemporary scholar and a saint
Vidyaranya for the establishment of their kingdom.
• It is believed that to commemorate the memory of their guru, the brothers established
the city of Vidyanagar or Vijayanagara on the banks of river Tungabhadra.
• The empire included people from different cultural regions, the Tamil, Telegu and
Karnataka region who all spoke different languages and belonged to different cultures.
• Between 1336 and 1565, Vijayanagar was ruled by three different dynasties- Sangama,
who remained in power till 1485; the Saluva who remained in power till 1503 and the
Tuluvas.
• The last dynasty was the Aravidu dynasty that ruled till seventeenth century.
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• Foreign travellers like Nicolo Conti, Fernao Nuniz, Domingo Paes, Duarto Barbosa and
Abdur Razzaq wrote about the magnificence of Vijayanagar.
KRISHNA DEVA RAYA (1509 – 1530)
• The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha.

• The greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty.
He possessed great military ability. His imposing personality was accompanied by high
intellectual quality. His first task was to check the invading Bahmani forces. By that time
the Bahmani kingdom was replaced by Deccan Sultanates.
• The Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by Krishna Deva Raya.
• Then he invaded Raichur Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with the Sultan of
Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured the city of Raichur
in 1520. From there he marched on Bidar and captured it.
• Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful.
• He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the whole of Telungana.
• He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese.
• Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva Raya.
• Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions.
• He was a great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja.
• Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court.
• Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called Andhrakavita Pitamaga. His
important works include Manucharitam and Harikathasaram.
• Pingali Suranna and Tenali Ramakrishna were other important scholars.
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• Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit
works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
• He built the famous Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar.
• He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi.
• Besides, he built a large number of Rayagopurams.
• After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the throne.
• During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda
and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565. This battle is also known as
Raksasa Thangadi. Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of Vijayanagar was
destroyed. This battle was generally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar
Empire. However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about
another century.
• Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the important rulers of this
• dynasty.
• The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.
ADMINISTRATION
• The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters.
• He was the highest court of appeal.
• The succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary. Sometimes usurpation
to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha came to power by ending the Sangama
dynasty.
• The king was assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration.
• The Empire was divided into different administrative units called Mandalams, Nadus,
sthalas and finally into gramas.
• The governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.
• Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the administration.
• Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs collected
at the ports, taxes on various professions were other sources of income to the
government.
• Land revenue was fixed generally one sixth of the produce.
• The expenditure of the government includes personal expenses of king and the charities
given by him and military expenditure.
• In the matter of justice, harsh punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants
were followed.
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ARMY AND MILITARY ORGANISATION
• In order to wage continuous warfare, there was a need to keep a large army.
• Artillery was important and well-bred horses were maintained.
• The Vijayanagar rulers imported high quality horses from across the Arabian Sea from
Arabia and other Gulf countries.
• The port of Malabar was the centre of this trade and trade in other luxury commodities.
The Vijayanagar rulers always attempted to control the port of Malabar. Like the
Bahamanis, the Vijayanagar state also was familiar with the use of firearms and employed
Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare.
• One of the rayas, Deva Raya II enrolled Muslims in his armed services, allotted them jagirs
and erected a mosque for their use in the city.
• The walls of the forts to counter the firearms were now made thick and special kinds of
door with fortified walls front were constructed.
• On the walls of the forts, special kinds of big holes were made to rest the guns. Special
kinds of parapets were constructed on the forts to put the canons on it.
• Firearms were used. Some firearms were small and comprised of rifles and pistols. Some
like canons were heavy and had to be put on a bullock cart or on an elephant and pushed
into the battlefield.
• One of the important characteristics of the Vijayanagar administration was the
amaranayaka system. In this system, the commander of the Vijayanagar army was called
the nayaka. Each nayaka was given an area for administration.
• The nayaka was responsible for expanding agricultural activities in his area. He collected
taxes in his area and with this income maintained his army, horses, elephants and
weapons of warfare that he had to supply to the raya or the Vijayanagar ruler. The nayaka
was also the commander of the forts.
• Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works.
The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal
court with gifts to express their loyalty.
• In the seventeenth century, several of these nayakas became independent and
established separate states.
• The feudal Nayankaras used to maintain their own soldiers, forces and elephants. They
were a powerful section that challenged the Vijayanagar authority, weakened its internal
structures and contributed to the defeat of the Vijayangar in the battle of Talikota.
SOCIETY
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• Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence of four castes – Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras – in the Vijayanagar society.
• Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the splendour of buildings and luxurious social life
in the city of Vijayanagar.
• Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress.
• Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people.
• Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household
servants.
• Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery.
• Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were some of the amusements.
• Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar. They were continued by the
Nayak rulers in the later period.
• The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples for casting
of metal images.
• Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
ECONOMY
• According to the accounts of the foreign travelers, the Vijayanagar Empire was one of the
wealthiest parts of the world at that time.
• Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the people.
• The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus to its further growth by providing irrigation
facilities.
• New tanks were built and dams were constructed across the rivers like Tunghabadra.
Nuniz refers to the excavation of canals.
• There were numerous industries and they were organized into guilds.
• Metal workers and other craftsmen flourished during this period.
• Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur district.
• Vijayanagar was also a great centre of trade. The chief gold coin was the varaha but
weights and measures varied from place to place.
• Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the general prosperity.
• There were a number of seaports on the Malabar coast, the chief being Cannanore.
• Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia, South Africa and Portugal on the west and with
Burma, Malay peninsula and China on the east flourished.
• The chief items of exports were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter and
sugar.
• The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk and velvet
clothes. The art of shipbuilding had developed.
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CULTURE
VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE HAMPI
• The temple building activity further gained momentum during the Vijayanagar rule.
• The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall
Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple
premises.
• The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive features. The horse was the
most common animal found in these pillars.
• Large mandapams contain one hundred pillars as well as one thousand pillars in some big
temples. These mandapams were used for seating the deity on festival occasions.
• Also, many Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during this period.
• The most important temples of the Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi ruins or
the city of Vijayanagar.
• Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples were the best examples of this style.
• The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples for the
magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of temple architecture.
• The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of
Vijayanagar.They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period.
• The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples for casting
of metal images.
• Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
• Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished in the regions.
• There was a great development in Sanskrit and Telugu literature.
• The peak of literary achievement was reached during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya.
• He himself was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu.
• His famous court poet Allasani Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu literature.
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BAHAMANI KINGDOM
• The Deccan region was a part of the provincial administration of the Delhi Sultanate.
• In order to establish a stable administration in the Deccan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq
appointed amiran-i-sada/ Sada Amir, who were the administrative heads of hundred
villages.
• From 1337 the conflict between the officers in Deccan and Delhi sultanate accelerated
which led to the establishment of an independent state in the Deccan in 1347 with the
capital at Gulbarga in Karnataka.
• Its founders Haran Gangu assumed the title Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah as he traced
his descent from the mythical hero of Iran, Bahman Shah and the kingdom was named
after him, the Bahamani Sultanate.
• After Mohammad bin Tughlaq there were no attempts by the Delhi Sultanate to control
the Deccan region, therefore, the Bahamani Sultans without any checks annexed the
kingdom.
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• There was a total of fourteen Sultans ruling over this kingdom. Among them, Alauddin
Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I and Firoz Shah were important.
• Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
• The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the rule of Muhammad Shah
III. It extended from the Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal. On the west it extended from
Goa to Bombay. On the east, it extended from Kakinada to the mouth of the river Krishna.
• The success of Muhammad Shah was due to the advice and services of his minister
Mahmud Gawan.
• One of the important acquisitions was the control over Dabhol, an
• important port on the west coast.
• Under Bahman Shah and his son Muhammmad Shah, the administrative system was well
organised.
• The kingdom was divided into four administrative units called ‘taraf’ or provinces. These
provinces were Daultabad, Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga.
• Muhammad I defeated the Vijayanagar kingdom and consequently Golconda was
annexed to Bahamani kingdom.
• Every province was under a tarafdar who was also called a subedar.
• Some land was converted into Khalisa land from the jurisdiction of the tarafdar. Khalisa
land was that piece of land which was used to run expenses of the king and the royal
household.
• Further the services and the salary of every noble was fixed. Those nobles who kept 500
horses were given 1000,000 huns annually.
• If short of the stipulated troops, the tarafdar would have to reimburse the amount to the
central government.
• Nobles used to get their salary either in cash or in form of grant of land or ‘jagir’.
• Bahamani ruler depended for military support on his amirs.
• There were two groups in the ranks of amirs: One was the Deccanis who were immigrant
Muslims and had been staying for a long time in the Deccan region. The other group was
Afaquis or Pardesis who had recently come from Central Asia, Iran and Iraq and had
settled in the Deccan region recently.
• Between both these groups there was always tension to appropriate better
administrative positions and because of their feuds, the stability of the Bahamani
Sultanate was affected.
• For the first time in India both Bahamani and Vijaynagar kingdoms used gunpowder in the
warfare.
• The Bahamanis were already familiar with the use of firearms. They employed Turkish
and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare.
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MAHMUD GAWAN
Madarsa and Tomb of Mahmud Ghawan
• One of the most important personalities in the Bahamani kingdom was Mahmud Gawan.
The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of Mahmud Gawan.
• Mahmud Gawan’s early life is obscure. He was an Iranian by birth and first reached Deccan
as a trader. He was granted the title of ‘Chief of the Merchants’ or Malikut-Tujjar by the
Bahamani ruler, Humayun Shah.
• The sudden death of Humayun led to the coronation of his minor son Ahmad III. A regency
council was set for the administration and Mahmud Gawan was its important member.
• He was made wazir or the prime minister and was given the title of ‘Khwaju-i-Jahan.’
• The history of Bahmani kingdom after this period is actually the record of the
achievements of Mahmud Gawan.
• He lived a simple life and was magnanimous. He was also a learned person. He possessed
a great knowledge of mathematics.
• He made endowments to build a college at Bidar which was built in the Persian style of
architecture.
• He was also a military genius. He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and
the sea pirates on the Arabian sea.
• His conquests include Konkan, Goa and Krishna-Godavari delta and thus he expanded the
Bahmani Empire through his conquests.
• Despite of being an Afaqui he was liberal and wanted a compromise between the Afaquis
and the Deccanis.
• He controlled the kingdom in an efficient manner and provided it stability.
• Gawan conquered the Vijayanagar territories up to Kanchi.
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• On the western coast, Goa and Dhabol were conquered. Losing these important ports was
a great loss for Vijayanagar.
• Bahamani strengthened its trading relations with Iran and Iraq after gaining control over
Goa and Dabhol.
• His administrative reforms were aimed to increase the control of Sultan over the nobles
and provinces.
• Gawan carried out many internal reforms and attempted to put an end to the strife in the
nobility. Royal officers were appointed in each province for this purpose. Most of the forts
were under the control of these officers.
• In order to curb the military power of the tarafdar, Gawan ordered that only one fort of
each province was to be under the direct control of the provincial tarafdar.
• The remaining forts of the province were placed under a Qiladar or commander of the
forts. The Qiladar was appointed by the central Government.
• However, soon after his death, the governors declared their independence and the
Bahamani kingdom broke up.
• In the fifteenth and the sixteenth century, some amirs in Bidar, Ahmadnagar, Golconda
and Bijapur and Berar established independent sultanates of their own and formed new
states.
• These were the NizamShahis of Ahmadnagar, the AdilShahis of Bijapur, the QutbShahis of
Golconda, and the ImadShahis of Berar and the BaridShahis of Bidar.
• They formed a league of states and strengthened them by matrimonial alliances.
• They maintained the traditional rivalry with the Vijayanagar rulers.
• Golconda and Bijapur entered into matrimonial alliances and led the Battle of Talikota
against Vijayanagar.
• They finally succumbed to the Mughal armies.
CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE VIJAYANAGA R AND THE BAHAMANI KINGDOMS
• There were constant conflicts between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani kingdoms over
the control of Raichur doab which was the land between rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra.
• This area was fertile and rich in mineral resources. The famous diamond mines of
Golconda were located in the eastern part of the doab region.
• The geography of both the kingdoms was such that expansion was possible only across
Tungabhadra in the Deccan.
• It appears that the battles between the two were not conclusive and the status quo was
maintained.
• Sometimes, Bahamani had an advantage and sometimes, Vijayanagar had an advantage.
For instance, in 1504, the Bahamani managed to reconquer the Raichur doab. However,
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with the ascent of Krishna Deva Raya, the Bahamanis lost Raichur, Mudkal, Nalgonda and
other inland towns.
• An important result of these wars was that both the powers were so involved amongst
themselves that they never realized the increasing power of the Portuguese on the coast
of South India.
• Besides, continuous warfare exhausted the resources of both the states and weakened
them.
• The other areas of conflict were the Marathwada region and the deltaic region of Krishna-
Godavari.
• Both regions had fertile areas and important ports that controlled trade to the foreign
countries.
• The fertile area in the Marathwada region was the Konkan belt that also had the port of
Goa which was an important region for trade and export and import especially import of
horses from Iraq and Iran.
• Often, the battles between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani states are perceived as
Hindu-Muslim conflicts, but the above-mentioned reasons show that the struggle was not
due to any religious differences.
• Territorial and economic motives were the main causes for the war.
• Despite hostilities between the two states, there were times when they also co-operated
with each other.
• Krishna Deva Raya, for example, supported some claimants to power in the Sultanates
and took pride in the title “establisher of the Yavana kingdom”.
• Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession disputes in Vijayanagra
following the death of Krishna Deva Raya.
• There were also sharing and exchange of ideas, especially in the field of art, literature and
architecture.
MUGHALS
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BABAR
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• Babur (Zahiruddin Muhammad) was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
• Babur was related to Timur from his father’s side and to Chengiz Khan through his mother.
• Babur succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza as the ruler of Farghana, but was soon
defeated by his distant relative and as a result lost his kingdom.
• He became a wanderer for some time till he captured Kabul from one of his uncles.
• Then, Babur took interest in conquering India and launched three expeditions between
1519 and 1523.
• The opportunity to fulfil his ambition came to Babur when he was invited to India by
discontented party, Daulat Khan Lodhi the most powerful noble of the Punjab and Alam
Khan an uncle of Ibrahim Khan Lodhi sought Babur to help to fight against Ibrahim Lodhi.
• India was then distracted by ambitions, rivalries and disaffection of nobles and the Delhi
sultanate existed only in name.
• This was his fourth expedition in which he occupied Lahore in 1524 and such occupation
was not what Daulat Khan desired.
• He had hoped that Babur would retire after a raid leaving the field clear for him and so
he turned against him and Alam Khan also joined hands with him.
• Babur had to retire to Kabul to collect re-enforcements.
• Babur soon re-occupied the Punjab in 1525 and Daulat Khan Lodhi submitted to Babur.
• On the eve of Babur’s invasion of India, there were five prominent Muslim rulers – the
Sultans of Delhi, Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal and the Deccan – and two prominent Hindu
rulers – Rana Sangha of Mewar and the Vijayanagar Empire.
• Most of the soldiers and officers of Daulat Khan Lodhi joined the ranks of Babur.
• Babur got rid of all the self-seeking Afghan nobles of the Punjab.
• He received messages of support from disaffected and opportunist nobles of Ibrahim’s
court and Rana Sangha of Mewar is also said to have sent him an invitation for a joint
invasion of Delhi.
1ST BATTLE OF PANIPAT
• On 21st April 1526 the first Battle of Panipat took place between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi,
who was killed in the battle.
• One of the causes of Babur’s success in the battle was that Babur was seasoned General
whereas Ibrahim was a head strong, inexperienced youth. As Babur remarks he was ‘an
inexperienced man, careless in his movements, who marched without order, halted or
retired without method and engaged without foresight.’
• Babur was the master of a highly evolved system of warfare which was the result of a
scientific synthesis of the tactics of the several Central Asian people. While Ibrahim fought
according to the old system then in existence in the country.
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• Babur had a park of artillery consisting of big guns and small muskets while Ibrahim’s
soldiers were absolutely ignorant of its use.
• Also, Ibrahim did not get the backing of his people which weakened his power.
• Moreover, his army was organised on clannish basis.
• The troops lacked the qualities of trained and skilful soldiers.
• Babur was right when he recorded in his diary that the Indian soldiers knew how to die
and not how to fight.
• On the other hand, Babur’s army was well trained and disciplined and shared the ambition
of conquering rich Hindustan.
• Babur occupied Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
• Babur proclaimed himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.
HUMAYUN
• Humayun succeeded Babar in December 1530 at the young age of 23 and the newly
conquered territories and administration was not yet consolidated.
• Unlike Babur, Humayun did not command the respect and esteem of Mughal nobility.
• The Chaghatai nobles were not favourably inclined towards him and the Indian nobles,
who had joined Babur’s service, deserted the Mughals at Humayun’s accession.
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• He also confronted the hostility of the Afghans mainly Sher Khan in Bihar on the one hand
and Bahadurshah, the ruler of Gujarat, on the other.
• As per the Timurid tradition Humayun had to share power with his brothers.
• The newly established Mughal empire had two centres of power; Humayun was in control
of Delhi, Agra and Central India, while his brother Kamran had Kabul and Qandhar and by
subsequently annexing the Punjab, had deprived him of the main recruiting ground of his
army.
• However, the granting of the Punjab and Multan had the advantage that Humayun was
free to devote his attention to the eastern part without having to bother about his
western frontier.
• In A.D. 1532, Humayun first turned his arms against the Afghans, who under Sultan
Mahmud Lodi threatened his position in the east and defeated the Afghan forces which
had conquered Bihar and overrun Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh at a place called
Daurah near Lucknow.
• After this success Humayun besieged Chunar then held by the able Afghan chief named
Sher Khan.
• Sher Khan showed a submission and Humayun made a fatal mistake in allowing Sher Khan
to retain possession of Chunar. Humayun was anxious to return to Agra as he had to face
the growing power of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• The attitude of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was hostile to Humayun from the very beginning.
Humayun defeated Bahadur Shah but could not retain his conquest as he was soon
recalled to the east to meet the revolt of Sher Khan.
• Humayun marched into Bengal but Sher Khan did nothing to oppose him as his object was
to lure Humayun into the interior and then to cut off his communication.
• In the Battle of Chausa (A.D. 1539) Humayun was completely defeated by Sher Khan.
• In 1540 Humayun had one more encounter with Sher Shah at Bilgram near Kannauj but
again met with a crushing defeat and was compelled to leave Hindustan.
• The battle of Kannauj (A.D. 1540) was bitterly contested and it decided the issue between
Sher Khan and the Mughals.
• Humayun now became a prince without a kingdom; Kabul and Qandhar remaining under
Kamran.
• Wandering Humayun found temporary refuge at Amarkot from where he made his way
to Persia.
• The Persian king Shah Tahmasp, agreed to help him on condition that Humayun should
conform to the Shia creed. Humayun yielded to the necessity and conquered Kabul and
Qandhar from his brother Kamran, with the help of Persian troops. Freed from his
brother’s opposition Humayun was now in a position to attempt the reconquest of India.
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• He had secured the services of an able officer named Bairam Khan and the time was also
favourable to him.
• Humayun defeated the Afghan forces of Sikandar Sur and occupied Agra and Delhi (A.D.
1555).
• It is clear that the major causes of Humayun’s failure against Sher Khan was his inability
to understand the nature of the Afghan power.
• Due to existence of large numbers of Afghan tribes scattered over north India, the
Afghans could always unite under a capable leader and pose a challenge.
• In 1556, Humayun died after tumbling down from the stairs of his library.
• His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of speech earned him
the title of Insan-i-Kamil (Perfect Man), among the Mughals.
SHER SHAH SURI
• The first Afghan kingdom under the Lodis was replaced by the Mughals under Babur in
1526.
• After a gap of 14 years Sher Shah succeeded in establishing the Afghan rule again in India
in 1540.
• Sher Shah and his successors ruled for 15 years and this period is known as the period of
second Afghan Empire.
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• The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah, whose original name was Farid.
• He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar. Later, Farid served under
the Afghan ruler of Bihar, who gave him the title Sher Khan for his bravery.
• He defeated Humayun at the Battle of Chausa and became the ruler of Delhi in 1540.
• Sher Khan was a great tactician and able military commander.
• Sher Shah waged extensive wars with the Rajputs and expanded his empire.
• His conquests include Punjab, Malwa, Sind, Multan and Bundelkhand.
• His empire consisted of the whole of North India except Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and
Gujarat.
• Sher Shah after his death in 1553 was succeeded by his son Islam Shah.
• Islam Shah had to face a number of conflicts with his brother Adil Khan and many Afghan
nobles.
• The Afghan empire was substantially weakened. Humayun saw an opportunity and
moved towards India who again captured his lost kingdom by 1555 and ended the second
Afghan Empire.
ADMINISTRATION
Although Sher Shah’s rule lasted for five years, he organized a brilliant administrative system.
The central government consisted of several departments. The king was assisted by four
important ministers:
1. Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance.
2. Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.
3. Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister.
4. Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications.
Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty-seven sarkars.
Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) were the two officers in charge of the
administration in each sarkar.
Each sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue),
Fotedar (treasurer) Karkuns (accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana.
There were also many administrative units called iqtas.
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LAND REVENUE SYSTEM
• Sher Shah’s most striking contribution was made in the field of revenue.
• Sher Shah, however, as the only sovereign who is known to have gained a practical
experience in managing a small body of peasants before rising to the throne came with
his scheme of revenue settlement readymade and successfully tested by experiment. It
was but an extension of the system introduced by him at Sasaram.
• As a monarch, he unilatereally decided that the best system of assessment must be based
on actual measurement. According, the empire was surveyed.
• In order to ensure the accuracy of measurement and honesty of collection he fixed the
wages of the measurers and the collectors.
• The uniform system of measurement in spite of strong opposition from some quarters,
was enforced all over the empire, with the exception of Multan where political turmoil
could endanger the security of the State.
OTHER REFORMS
Sher Shah not only took necessary measures to ameliorate the condition of the people but also
paid attention to the promotion of education. He gave liberal grants to both the Hindu and
Muslim educational institutions.
The Hindus were free to regulate their educational institutions and Sher Shah did not interfere in
their working.
Similarly, the Muslim educational institution were mainly attached with mosques and imparted
elementary education to the children.
To help the poor and brilliant students he awarded liberal scholarships.
Sher Shah also made liberal provisions for the support of blind, the old, the weak, widows etc.
Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying four important highways. They were:
1. Sonargaon to Sind
2. Agra to Burhampur
3. Jodhpur to Chittor
4. Lahore to Multan.
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AKBAR (1556 – 1605)
• Akbar was at Kalanaur in Punjab at the death of Humayun’s death and therefore his
coronation took place in Kalanaur itself in 1556.
• Humayun’s favourite and confidant Bairam Khan, who served as the regent and tutor of
the Mughal emperor from 1556 to 1560. He became the wakil of the kingdom with the
title of Khan-i-Khanan.
• One of the major achievements of Bairam Khan’s regency period was the defeat of Hemu
and the Afghan forces who were posing a serious threat to the Mughal Empire. In the
second Battle of Panipat in 1556,
• Hemu was almost on the point of victory. But an arrow pierced his eye and he became
unconscious. The Mughal victory was decisive.
• Bairam Khan consolidated the Mughal empire. After five years he was removed by Akbar
due to court intrigues and sent to Mecca. But on his way Bairam was killed by an Afghan.
• Akbar started a policy of expansion after overcoming initial problems and consolidating
his hold on the throne. The major political powers spread in different parts of the country
were:
o The Rajputs who were spread throughout the country as independent chiefs and
kings, and were concentrated mainly in Rajasthan.
o The Afghans held political control mainly in Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal.
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o Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and few other kingdoms in South India
and Deccan were quite powerful.
o Kabul and Qandhar, though ruled by Mughal Akbar Military policy factions, were
hostile towards Akbar.
• Akbar’s conquered northern India from Agra to Gujarat and then from Agra to Bengal.
• He strengthened the northwest frontier and later on he went to the Deccan.
• Akbar through a systematic policy started the task of expanding his Empire.
• The first step that Akbar took after the dismissal of Bairam Khan was to put an end to the
conflict within the nobility. He demonstrated great diplomatic skills and organizational
capabilities in handling it.
• Akbar started his policy of expansion with central India. In 1559–60 the first expedition
was sent to capture Gwalior before moving towards Malwa. Akbar deputed Adham Khan
to lead the expedition against Malwa in central India which was ruled by Baz Bahadur. Baz
Bahadur was defeated and fled towards Burhanpur.
• Gondwana, an independent state in Central India ruled by Rani Durgawati, widow of
Dalpat Shah, was also conquered and annexed to the Mughal empire in 1564.
Battle of Haldighati – Fought between Maharana Pratap and Man Singh I.
• The Mughal emperor Akbar was intent on securing a stable route to Gujarat through
Mewar; when Pratap Singh was crowned king (Rana) in 1572, Akbar sent a number of
envoys entreating the Rana to become a vassal like many other Rajput leaders in the
region. When the Rana refused to personally submit to Akbar, war became inevitable..It
was a battle fought on 18 June 1576 between Maharana Pratap and Akbar's forces led
by Man Singh I of Amber.
• The Mughals were the victors and inflicted significant casualties among the Mewaris but
failed to capture Pratap, who escaped. The site of the battle was a narrow mountain pass
at Haldighati near Gogunda in Rajasthan. Maharana Pratap fielded a force of around
3,000 cavalry and 400 Bhil archers. The Mughals were led by Raja Man Singh of Amber,
who commanded an army numbering around 5,000–10,000 men. After a fierce battle
lasting more than three hours, Pratap found himself wounded and the day lost. While a
few of his men bought him time, he managed to make an escape to the hills and lived to
fight another day. The casualties for Mewar numbered around 1,600 men. The Mughal
army lost 150 men, with another 350 wounded.
• Haldighati was a futile victory for the Mughals, as they were unable to oust Maharana
Pratap. While they were able to capture Gogunda and nearby areas, they were unable to
hold onto them for long. As soon as the empire's focus shifted elsewhere, Pratap and his
army came out of hiding and recaptured the western regions of his dominion.
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RELIGIOUS POLICY
• Various factors were responsible for the religious policy of Akbar.

• The most important among them were his early contacts with the sufi saints, the
teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput women, his association with
intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak and his two illustrious sons – Abul Faizi and Abul
Fazl – and his ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan.
• In the beginning of his life, Akbar was a pious Muslim.
• He abolished the pilgrim tax and in 1562, he abolished jiziya.
• He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods.
• Later, he became a skeptical Muslim.
• In 1575, he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new
capital Fatepur Sikri.
• Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and
Zoroastrianism.
• He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters.
• In 1579, he issued the “Infallibility Decree” by which he asserted his religious powers.
• In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith. It believes in one
God. It contained good points of all religions. Its basis was rational. It upholds no dogma.
It was aimed at bridging the gulf that separated different religions.
• However, his new faith proved to be a failure. It fizzled out after his death. Even during
his life time, it had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did not compel anyone
to his new faith.
LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
• Akbar made some experiments in the land revenue administration with the help of Raja
Todar Mal.
• The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system.
• It was further improved by Raja Todar Mal. It was known as Dahsala System which was
completed in 1580.
• By this system, Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land measurement.
• The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of past ten years.
• Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.
According to Ain-i-Akbari land was classified as –
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1. Polaj – It was land which is annually cultivated for each crop in succession and is never
allowed to lie fallow.
2. Parauti – land left out of cultivation for a time that it may recover its strength.
3. Chachar – land that has lain fallow for three or four years.
4. Banjar - land uncultivated for five years and more.
Of the first two kinds of land, there are three classes, good, middling, and bad. Third of this
represents the medium produce, one-third part of which is exacted as the Royal dues.
MANSABDARI SYSTEM
• The 'Mansabdari system 'was the administrative system of the Mughal Empire introduced
by Akbar in 1572 A.D
• The word mansab is of Arabic origin meaning rank or position. The system, hence,
determined the rank of a government official. Every civil and military officer was given a
‘mansab’ and different numbers which could be divided by ten and were used for ranking
officers. It was also meant for fixing the salaries and allowances of officers.
Do you know?
• The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles. Princes of royal blood
received even higher ranks. The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar. Zat means
personal and it fixed the personal status of a person. Sawar rank indicated the number of
cavalrymen of a person who was required to maintain. Every sawar had to maintain at
least two horses. The mansab rank was not hereditary. All appointments and promotions
as well as dismissals were directly made by the emperor.
• Towards the end of the reign it was raised to 7,000. According to Badauni, it was fixed at
12,000. Higher mansabs were given to princes and Rajput rulers who accepted the
suzerainty of the emperor.
In Short
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• Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration.

• Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab).
• The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles.
• Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
• The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.
• Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person.
• Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was required to
maintain.
• Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses.
• The mansab rank was not hereditary.
• All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals were directly made by the
emperor.
JAHANGIR (1605-1627)
• After the death of Akbar, Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of
World) in 1605.
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• Soon after accession to the throne, Jahangir tried to win the hearts of all the people by
various measures.
• He released prisoners and struck coins in his name.
• He issued 12 ordinances to be uniformly implemented all over his empire:
• Prohibition of cess.
• Regulations about highway robbery and theft
• Free inheritance of property of deceased person
• Prohibition of sale of wine and of all kinds of intoxicating liquor
• Abolition of inhuman corporal punishments
• Prohibition of forcible seizure of property
• Building of hospitals and appointment of physicians to attend the sick
• Prohibition of slaughter of animals on certain days
• Respect pay to Sunday
• General confirmation of mansabs and jagirs
• Confirmation of aima lands i.e. lands devoted to the purposes of
• prayer and praise (of God)
• Amnesty to all prisoners in forts and prisons of all kinds.
• Jahangir also set up a famous chain of justice between the Shah Burj in the fort of Agra
and a stone pillar fixed on the banks of Yamuna to enable the people to approach him
without any servant.
• Jahangir was a lover of art, literature and particularly painting.
• John Hawkins resided at Agra for two years and the emperor called him Inglish Khan. Sir
Thomas Roe arrived in India in September A.D. 1615 and was granted audience at Ajmer.
He was granted a Farman by prince Khurram, which gave the English reasonable facilities
for trade.
• Jahangir’s rule witnessed a spate of rebellions. He suppressed the rebellion of his son
Khusrau and the prince was imprisoned. The fifth Sikh Guru Arjun was sentenced to death
for his blessings to the rebel prince.
• He also pardoned his political opponents and accorded generous treatment to them. The
few changes that Jahangir effected in the offices of the state were intended to secure him
a band of supporters.
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RELIGIOUS POLICY
• Jahangir was born of a Rajput mother and had grown in the atmosphere of ‘Idabat khana’
debates. The result was that Jahangir imbibed these liberal tendencies and his religious
views became enlightened and liberal.
• Jahangir had respect for the teachings of Islam and retained this attitude till the end of
his life, but he can by no means be described staunch or even an orthodox follower of the
principles of his faith.
• He was friendly to the Christians.
• He held religious discourses with a Hindu saint named Yadurup and participated in the
celebration of Hindu festivals.
• He did not seek to revive the Jizya or the Pilgrim Tax and the Hindus still occupied high
office and enjoyed the freedom to erect new temples.
• But some of his acts reflects of his harshness and discrimination. After the conquest of
Kangra, he destroyed the local Jwalamukhi temple.
• Similarly, he ordered destruction of the Varah temple at Pushkar near Ajmer because he
was convinced that God could never have incarnated himself in that form. But even
though his action might be rationally sound, he committed the grave error of disregarding
the freedom of conscience of others in upholding his own religious predilections.
• He suspected the Jains of having sided with Khusrau and on that ground banished them
from empire.
• On the same charge, he imposed a fine of two lakhs of rupees on Guru Arjun and when
he refused to pay the fine, he put him to death on charge of treason.
• When offended by the conduct of Christians, he had their church closed down.
• But the only conclusion that can be drawn from these various stray incidents is that
Jahangir was not always careful to avoid wounding religious susceptibilities of others. But
it cannot be maintained that he persecuted the Hindus, the Jains, the Christians or the
Sikhs as a community. His action affected only an individual or a particular locality and
each instance of alleged religious persecution had some non- religious motive at its base.
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NUR JAHAN
• In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of World).
• Her father Itimaduddauala was given the post of chief diwan.
• Other members of her family also benefited from this alliance. Nur Jahan’s elder brother
Asaf Khan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the nobles.
• In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as Mumtaj), married
Jahangir’s third son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).
• It was believed by some historians that Nur Jahan formed a group of “junta” and this led
to two factions in the Mughal court.
• This drove Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in 1622, since he felt that Jahangir
was completely under Nur Jahan’s influence.
• However, this view is not accepted by some other historians. Till Jahangir became weak
due to ill health, he only took important political decisions. It is revealed from his
autobiography.
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• However, it is clear that Nur Jahan dominated the royal household and set new fashions
based on Persian traditions.
• She encouraged Persian art and culture in the court.
• She was a constant companion of Jahangir and even joined him in his hunting.
SHAH JAHAN (1627-1658)
• Shah Jahan rose in revolt against his father who ordered him to go to Kandahar. This
rebellion distracted the activities of the empire for four years.
• After Jahangir’s death in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with the support of the nobles
and the army and was proclaimed emperor.
• Nur Jahan was given a pension and lived a retired life till her death eighteen years later.
• The Portugese settlement at Hoogly was destroyed by him in A.D. 1632.
• The fort of Daulatabad was occupied by Mahabat Khan in June 1633.
• After ascending the throne, Shah Jahan ordered Khan Jahan Lodi to recover Balaghat from
Nizam Shah but as the latter failed, Shah Jahan recalled him to court.
• Khan Jahan turned hostile and rebelled. He took shelter with Nizam Shah. This infuriated
Shah Jahan and he decided to follow aggressive policy towards the Deccan states. Shah
Jahan’s main concern was to recover the lost territories of the Deccan.
• He believed that independence of Ahmednagar was in the way of Mughal control in the
Deccan. He decided to isolate Ahmednagar and win over Bijapur and Marathas. He was
successful. Fath Khan son of Malik Ambar also made peace with Mughals.
• Now Mahabat Khan was appointed governor of Deccan, but the conflict with Deccan
states continued.
• Finally, in 1636 treaties were signed with Bijapur and Golconda which ended the conflicts
in the Deccan.
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• A distinct change in Mughal policy came towards 1656–57 when the treaties were
ignored. Shah Jahan asked Aurangzeb to conquer and annex the territories of Deccan
kingdoms. It is argued by some historians that this change of policy was to exploit
resources of the Deccan states for Mughals. However, this change did not benefit the
Mughal empire in any substantial way and created more problems for future.
• Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar
and other ancestral lands. The Mughal army lost more than five thousand lives during the
successive invasions between 1639 and 1647. Then Shah Jahan realized the futility of his
ambition and stopped fighting.
WAR OF SUCCESSION
• The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by a bitter war of succession among his
four sons – Dara Shikoh (crown prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (governor
of Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat).
• Towards the end of 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill at Delhi for some time but later recovered.
But the princes started fighting for the Mughal throne.
• Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle. He entered the Agra fort after defeating
Dara. He forced Shah Jahan to surrender. Shah Jahan was confined to the female
apartments in the Agra fort and strictly put under vigil. But he was not ill-treated.
• Shah Jahan lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara. He died in
1666 and buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.
• Foreign travelers like Bernier, Travernier and Manucci have left accounts about his reign.
Moti Masjid (Agra), Red Fort (Delhi), Jama Masjid (Delhi) and above all the Taj Mahal –
the mausoleum of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal are his famous buildings.
RELIGIOUS POLICY
• Orthodox Muslims did not like the views of Akbar and Jahangir and there was some
resentment among them.
• In his early years, a policy of religious persecution and religious discrimination in favour
of Islam is clearly noticeable.
• He stopped sijda, forbade the use of the royal portrait as an adornment to the cap or the
turban and restored the use of the Hijri era in place of the Ilahi era.
• In 1633 he ordered wholesale demolition of all newly built temples and in Benaras alone
72 temples were destroyed. Similarly, destruction took place in Allahabad, Gujarat and
Kashmir.
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• He established a separate department for securing conversions to Islam. These incidents

show that Akbar’s policy of religious liberty and equality was gradually being forsaken and
religious discrimination, began under Jahangir, was gaining in virulence and scope.
• But even under Shahjahan, there was no permanent adoption of religious persecution as
an integral element of state policy. He too did not revive the Jizya.
• During the later part of his reign there is no reference to temple destruction or any other
form of religious persecution.
• He continued Jharokha darshan, tula dan and tilak.
• Nor did he deprive the Hindus of high office. 20% to 25% of the higher mansabs were still
given to the Hindus. Nor did he deprive the Hindu poets, artists and scholars of state
patronage.
• It thus appears that in his early years he issued certain orders and did certain acts on
grounds of political expediency which proved harmful to certain individuals and localities.
But he never adopted a general policy of discrimination, persecution and hatred and
retained the affections of his Hindu subjects till the end of his reign.
• But this twin-headed policy of Shahjahan led to emergence of two rival groups in the state
as the supporters of these two policies, which proved very harmful to the state and
facilitated Aurangzeb’s accession to the throne. If he had adopted a liberal policy from
the very outset, there might have been no dissensions at court.
AURANGAZEB (1658-1707)
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• Aurangazeb was crowned emperor at Delhi in A.D. 1658, but it was only after the final
defeat of Dara Shikoh at Deorai that he celebrated his coronation in A.D. 1659.
• He assumed the title Alamgir (World Conqueror).
• He faced serious difficulties in the latter part of his reign. The Jats and Satnamis and also
the Sikhs revolted against him. These revolts were induced by his harsh religious policy.
• Guru Teg Bahadur, the ninth Guru of Sikhs, was besieged and taken to Delhi where he
was beheaded.
• In A.D. 1679, over the question of succession in Marwar, Aurangzeb interfered and
defeated the Rathors near Pushkar and their dominion was occupied.
• Later Udaipur was also occupied, and the Rana of Mewar made peace with Mughals.
DECCAN POLICY
• The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar, who conquered
Khandesh and Berar.
• Jahangir fought against Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar.
• During the Shah Jahan’s reign, Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed an aggressive
Deccan policy.
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• When he became the Mughal emperor, for the first twenty-five years, he concentrated
on the northwest frontier.
• At that time, the Maratha ruler, Sivaji carved out an independent Maratha kingdom in the
territories of north and south Konkan.
• To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur and
Golkonda.
• He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed his kingdom.
• Then, he proceeded against Golkonda and eliminated the Kutb Shahi dynasty and
annexed it.
• In fact, the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms was a political blunder on the part of
Aurangazeb. The barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas was removed and there
ensued a direct confrontation between them.
• Also, his Deccan campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury. According to J.N. Sarkar, the
Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangazeb.
RELIGIOUS POLICY
• Aurangazeb was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his personal life.

• His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.
• He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered officer
called Muhtasib.
• Drinking was prohibited.
• Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned.
• Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court.
• He discontinued the practice of Jarokha-darshan.
• He also discontinued the celebration of Dasarah and royal astronomers and astrologers
were also dismissed from service.
• Initially Aurangazeb banned the construction of new Hindu temples and repair of old
temples. Then he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples. The celebrated temples at
Mathura and Benares were reduced to ruins.
• In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax.
• He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The commemoration of Muharram was
stopped.
• He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur. This had
resulted in the transformation of Sikhs into a warring community.
• His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the Marathas and Sikhs into
the enemies of Mughal empire.
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• It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of Mewar.
Therefore, Aurangazeb was held responsible for the decline of the Mughal empire.
THE REVOLTS AGAINST AURANGZEB
Revolt of the Jats
• Bold, brave and ferocious with a deep sense of loyalty towards their tribal organisation,
the Jat peasantry was more akin to any martial community.
• They were notorious for cattle-lifting who frequently, raided the traders between Agra
and Delhi.
• Confined to the not so fertile regions of west of Agra, they constituted the marginal
sections of peasantry.
• In 1669 A.D. the Jats under their leader Gokul, revolted. They killed the Faujdar and
plundered the Pargana of Sadabad. The rebellion soon spread to other districts.
• Aurangzeb ruthlessly suppress the rebellion. Gokul and his limbs were publicly displayed.
The Jats, however, remained defiant and in 1686 A.D. once again rose in revolt, under
Rajaram. He too, was slain but his nephew, Churaman, continued the Jat resistance till
Aurangzeb’s death.
Revolt of the Satnamis
• They were a peasant religious brotherbood who resided in Narnol.

• Its other memebrs belonged to the low professions.
• Firmly united and militant, they never hesitated to use arms to aid the harassed members.
• Thus, when a Satnami cultivator was killed by a Muslim soldier, the whole tribe arose to
seek to seek revenge and broke into rebellion.
• When, of the Mughal efforts, they could not be quelled, the Mughals resorted to ruthless
warfare.
• Over a thousand Satnamis were slain before peace was secured in the region.
• The Jats and the Satnamis revolts only convinced Aurangzeb of the disloyalty of the
Hindus to the Mughals state who therefore needed to be ruthlessly suppressed.
• Moreover, it also convinced him that only the emergence of an Islamic state would reduce
the Hindus to their proper place in State.
The Revolt of the Sikhs
• The Sikh organisation was founded by Guru Nanak, a devout social reformer, as a peaceful
universal brotherhood which was free from the shackles of caste and community.
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• Under the next three Gurus too, the community remained peaceful and enjoyed amicable
relation with Akbar who granted Guru Ram Das a piece of land which became renowned
as Amritsar.
• The fifth Guru, Arjan Singh, proved a more dynamic and zealous organiser. He wielded
the community into one compact whole. He also was the first Guru who actively
participated in politics.
• Consequently, the Mughal-Sikh conflict can be traced to Jahangir’s reign. He ordered
Arjan Singh’s execution. This was done on purely grounds for sheltering the fugitive
Khusrav and in no way was it accompanied by the religious persecution of the Sikhs.
Nevertheless, the act deeply embittered the Sikhs against the Mughals.
• Under the leader, Har Gobind, the character of the Sikh movement, for the first time,
became more militant, while its democratic social set up attracted the Jat peasantry in
large numbers.
• Henceforth, any harshness towards the peasantry was regarded as an oppression by the
Mughal state towards the Sikhs.
• The military character was further developed under Guru Teg Bahadur who in order to
strengthen the Sikh interests encouraged the creation of a state within the state.
• In the earlier years of Aurangzeb’s reign, there was no conflict between Teg Bahadur and
Aurangzeb. However, once the Guru publicly condemned Aurangzeb’s anti-Hindu
measures as is clearly evident from the support that he rendered to the Hindu population
of Kashmir, Aurangzeb became suspicious of the Guru’s motives.
• Their relation rapidly deteriorated and ultimately resulted in the gruesome murder of Teg
Bahadur in 1675 A.D.
• While Guru Teg behadur’s persecution was not accompanied by the annihilation of the
sons; (Ram Rai continued to live at the Mughal court and his sons were granted mansabs).
• The last Guru, Gobind Singh, was determined to militarily strengthen his community. To
unite them, he formed the brotherhood of Khalsa which free of caste and creed,
advocated equality of mankind.
• To this end, he initiated the practice of drinking water, conservated by a sword or dagger
(Amrit chakna). To distinguish the member from other communities, they were asked to
wear five things—Kanghi (comb), Kachha (underwear), Kara (iron bangle), Kesh and
Kirpan (sword).
• Henceforth, the Guru lived like a regal monarch, holding court, building forts with the help
of his followers who were as zealously dedicated to the cause of Skihism as the soldiers
of Islam.
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• Their expansionist activities inevitably led to clash of arms with the Mughals. The Sikhs
were defeated, his two sons were executed while the Guru ultimately escaped and settled
at Anandpur.
• Guru Govind Singh was murdered by an Afghan in 1708 A.D.
• Guru Gobind’s aspirations of founding a Sikh state were completed by Banda, who the
Guru had nominated as his military successor.
The Marathas
• The Marathas emerged in the Deccan as a vital force under Shivaji in the middle of the
17th century and began to challenge the Mughal authority.
• Shivaji started his offensive operations in 1656 and captured the principality of Javli.
• Shivaji raided the Bijapur territory, and, in 1659, the Sultan of Bijapur sent his general,
Afzal Khan, to capture Shivaji, but Shivaji killed him.
• In 1662, the Sultan of Bijapur entered into a peace settlement with Shivaji and
acknowledged him as an independent ruler of his conquered territories.
• Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan, the viceroy of the Deccan, with a big army against Shivaji
and the Treaty of Purandhar (1665) was signed between the two.
• Out of the 35 forts held by Shivaji, he agreed to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals. The
remaining 12 forts (with annual income of one lakh of huns) were to be left with Shivaji.
• Shivaji was asked to pay a visit to the Mughal court at Agra. But, when Shivaji went there,
he was ill-treated and was taken a prisoner. He managed to escape, reaching Raigarh in
1666.
• Soon he conquered all the forts which he had surrendered to the Mughals.
• In 1670, he plundered Surat for the second time.
• In 1674, Shivaji made Raigarh his Capital and celebrated his coronation, and assumed the
title of Chatrapati.
• Shortly, after this, he made a great expedition into southern India and conquered Jinji
Vellore and many forts in Karnataka.
• He died at Raigarh in 1680 after ruling for only six years. In this short time he founded the
Maratha kingdom, which dominated western India for a century and a half.
• Shivaji’s successor was his son Sambhaji.
• Many Maratha chiefs did not support Sambhaji and extended help to Rajaram the other
son of Shivaji.
• The internal conflict weakened Maratha power. Finally Sambhaji was captured and put to
death in 1689 by Aurangzeb.
• Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram as his son Sahu was still young.
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• Rajaram died in 1700 and was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji III under the regency of
Tara Bai, his mother.
• The failure of Aurangzeb against the Marathas was largely due to Tara Bai’s energy and
administrative genius.
• The Mughals, however, succeeded in dividing the Marathas into two rival camps – one
under Tara Bai and the other under Sambhaji’s son, Sahu.
• Sahu, who for long was in the Mughal court, was released. He succeeded in deposing Tara
Bai with the help of a Chitpavan Brahman named Balaji Vishwanath.
PERSONALITY AND CHARACTER OF AURANGAZEB
• In his private life, Aurangazeb was industrious and disciplined. He was very simple in food
and dress. He did not consume wine.
• He earned money for his personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those copies.
• He was learned and proficient in Arabic and Persian languages. He was a lover of books.
• He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers five times a day. He strictly
observed the Ramzan fasting.
• In the political field, Aurangazeb committed serious mistakes. He misunderstood the true
nature of the Maratha movement andantagonized them. Also, he failed to solve the
Maratha problem and left an open sore. His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also
proved to be a wrong policy.
• His religious policy was also not successful. Aurangazeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim.
But his move to apply his religious thought rigidly in a non-Muslim society was a failure.
His antagonistic policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims to his
side. On the other hand, it had strengthened political enemies of the Mughal Empire.
CAUSES FOR THE DOWNFALL OF THE MUGHALS
• The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangazeb and the causes for the
downfall of the Mughal Empire were varied.
• The vastness of the empire became unwieldy. It is quite evident that the territorial
expansion of Mughal empire achieved under Akbar continued to be the core of the
empire. Its further expansion during Aurangzeb’s reign was in Deccan and in small
measure in North-East region. During Aurangzeb’s period the Mughal empire had the
largest area.
• However, the beginning of the decline of the Mughal empire also could be traced to the
rule of Aurangzeb.
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• To some extent, the religious and Deccan policies of Aurangazeb contributed to its
decline.
• The breaking up of the association with the potent regional forces like the Rajputs and
failing relationships with the Deccani states and Marathas shook the unity and stability of
the Mughal empire.
• Under his weak successors the empire kept disintegrating and demoralization of the
Mughal army also paved the way for it.
• The Mughal court became the scene of factions among the nobles.
• The financial difficulties due to continuous wars led to the decline.
• The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when the Europeans began to settle
in India.
• Further, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the Mughal state.
• The weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal
Emperor and looted Delhi in 1739.
• Thus, the decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire was due to the combination of
political, social and economic factors.
ART AND CULTURE
MUGHAL PAINTING
Paintings
• Mughal’s contribution to Painting is remarkable.

• Foundation of painting was laid by Humayun, who brought two Persian painters, Mir Sayyid
Ali and Abdal Samad, after return from Persia.
• They became famous during Akbar’s reign.
• Several literary and religious text’s illustrations were painted on orders of Akbar.
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• He invited large no. of painters from all over India, which includes Hindus and Muslims.
• Important painters in Akbar’s court were Baswan, Miskina and Daswant.
• Mughal painting is a particular style of South Asian painting, which is generally confined to
miniatures, and emerged from Persian painting.
• No miniatures survived from reign of Babur. Copies of Baburnama were illustrated by his
descendants.
Miniature painting
• Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharat and Ramayana were produced in miniature

form.
• Akbar had enlarged his father’s painting library.
• Akbarnama, written by Abul Fazal, also remained the main themes of Mughal paintings.
• The most important work is Hamznama, which consisted 1200 paintings.
Illustration from Hamzanama (This illustration shows the witch Anqarut in the guise of a
beautiful young woman, who hopes to seduce the handsome king Malik Iraj, whom she has
captured and tied to a tree.)
• Hamzanama – It narrates the legendary exploits of Amir Hamza, an uncle of the Prophet
Muhammad, though most of the stories are extremely fanciful, "a continuous series of
romantic interludes, threatening events, narrow escapes, and violent acts"
• Indian colours such as peacock blue, Indian red began to be used.
Mughal paintings under Jahangir
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• He employed a number of painters like Abul Hasan, Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar,
Govardhan and Ustad Mansur. He had deep interest painting art and under him Mughal
painting achieved its zenith.
• Many albums containing paintings and calligraphy were produced during the Mughal period.
• Brushwork became finer and the colours lighter.
• He was deeply influenced by European paintings.
• He encouraged paintings depicting events of his own life, individual portraits, and studies of
birds, flowers and animals, scenes of hunting, battles and royal courts
• The Jahangirnama, written during his lifetime, which is an autobiographical account of
Jahangir's reign, has several paintings, including some unusual subjects such as the union of
a saint with a tigress, and fights between spiders.
Mughal paintings under Shah Jahan
• Continued to develop, but they gradually became cold and rigid.

• Themes including musical parties; lovers, ascetics gathered around a fire, abound in the
Mughal paintings of this period.
Mughal paintings under Aurangzeb
• Aurangzeb (1658-1707) did not actively encourage Mughal paintings.
MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
• Mughals built many forts, palaces, public buildings, mosques and mausoleums.
MUGHAL GARDENS
• Babur described his interest in planning and laying out formal gardens, placed within
rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels.
• These gardens were called chahar bagh, four gardens, because of their symmetrical division
into quarters. Beginning with Akbar, some of the most beautiful chahar baghs were
constructed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi.
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• Some of the Mughal gardens such as the Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, the Shalimar Bagh at Lahore
and the Pinjore garden in the Haryana (not Punjab) have survived even today.
Nishat Bagh, Kashmir
Shalimar Garden, Lahore
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Pinjore garden Punjab
FORTS
• Large scale construction of buildings started.
• He built most famous Agra Fort.
• It was built in red sandstone.

• His other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad.
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Lahore fort
• The climax of fort-building reached its climax during the reign of Shah Jahan. The famous Red
Fort at Delhi with its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas was his creation.
• It was during Shah Jahan’s reign that the different elements of Mughal architecture were
fused together in a grand harmonious synthesis.
• His reign witnessed a huge amount of construction activity especially in Agra and Delhi.
• The ceremonial halls of public and private audience (diwan-i khas or am) were carefully
planned.
• These courts were also described as chihil sutun or forty-pillared halls, placed within a large
courtyard.
• Shah Jahan’s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a mosque.
• The pedestal on which his throne was placed was frequently described as the qibla, the
direction faced by Muslims at prayer, since everybody faced that direction when court was in
session.
• The idea of the king as a representative of God on earth was suggested by these architectural
features.
• The connection between royal justice and the imperial court was emphasised by Shah Jahan
in his newly constructed court in the Red Fort at Delhi. Behindthe emperor’s throne were a
series of pietra dura inlays that depicted the legendary Greek god Orpheus playing the lute.
• It was believed that Orpheus’s music could calm ferocious beasts until they resided together
peaceably. The construction of Shah Jahan’s audience hall aimed to communicate that the
king’s justice would treat the high and the low as equals where all could live together in
harmony.
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Red fort, Delhi
Fatehpur Sikri Complex
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1. Buland Darwaza
2. Jamat Khana
3. Zanana Rauza
4. Tomb of Sheik Salim Chisthi
5. Jama Masjid Mosque
6. Badshahi Darwaja
• Akbar also built a palace cum-fort complex at Fatepur Sikri (City of Victory
• Many buildings in Gujarati and Bengali styles are found in this complex.
• Gujrati style buildings were probably built for his Rajput wives.
• The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the gateway to it called Buland
Darwaza or the Lofty Gate.
• The height of the gateway is 176 feet. It was built to commemorate Akbar’s victory over
Gujrat.
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OTHER IMPORTANT BUILDINGS AT FATEPUR SIKRI ARE JODH BAI’S PALACE AND PANCH
MAHAL WITH FIVE STOREYS.
TOMBS
Humayun’s Tomb
• During Akbar’s reign, the Humayun’s tomb was built at Delhi and it had a massive dome of
marble.
• It may be considered the precursor of the Taj Mahal.
• There were several important architectural innovations during Akbar’s reign. For inspiration,
Akbar’s architects turned to the tombs of his Central Asian ancestor, Timur.
• The central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) became important aspects of
Mughal architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb.
• It was placed in the centre of a huge formal chahar bagh and built in the tradition known as
“eight paradises” or hasht bihisht – a central hall surrounded by eight rooms. The building
was constructed with red sandstone, edged with white marble.
Akbar’s Tomb
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Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara near Agra was completed by Jahangir.
Itimaddaulah’s Tomb
• Nur Jahan built the tomb of Itimaddaulah at Agra.

• It was constructed wholly of white marble with floral designs made of semi-precious stones
on the walls. This type of decoration was called pietra dura.
• This method became more popular during the reign of Shah Jahan.
• The pietra dura method was used on a large scale in the Taj Mahal by Shah Jahan.
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Taj Mahal
• Taj Mahal is considered a jewel of the builder’s art.

• It contains all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals.
• The chief glory of the Taj is the massive dome and the four slender minarets.
• The decorations are kept to the minimum.
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• Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal, the grandest
architectural accomplishment of his reign.
• Here the white marble mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of the river and the
garden was to its south.
• Shah Jahan developed this architectural form as a means to control the access that nobles
had to the river. In the new city of Shahjahanabad that he constructed in Delhi, the imperial
palace commanded the river-front. Only specially favoured nobles – like his eldest son Dara
Shukoh – were given access to the river. All others had to construct their homes in the city
away from the River Yamuna.
Mosque
• Mosque building had reached its peak during Shah Jahan’s reign.
• The Moti Masjid at Agra was built entirely in white marble.
• The Jama Masjid at Delhi was built in red stone.
o Built by Shah Jahan in his new capital at Shahjahanabad.
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The Mughal architectural traditions continued in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century.
Their influence in the provincial kingdoms is clearly visible. Many features of Mughal tradition
can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE DURING MUGHAL PERIOD
Literature during Akbar
• Akbar ordered one of his close friends and courtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a history of his reign.
Akbar receiving the Akbar Nama from Abul Fazl.

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• Abul Fazl wrote a 3-volume history of Akbar’s reign titled, Akbar Nama.
o 1st volume – dealt with Akbar’s ancestors
o 2nd volume – recorded the events of Akbar’s reign.
o 3rd volume – is Ain-i Akbari. It deals with Akbar’s administration, household, army, the
revenues and geography of his empire. It also provides rich details about the traditions
and culture of the people living in India. The most interesting aspect about the Ain-i
Akbari is its rich statistical details about things as diverse as crops, yields, prices, wages
and revenues.
• Abul Fazl set a style of prose writing and it was followed by many generations.
• The leading poet of that period was his brother Abul Faizi.
o The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under his
supervision.
• Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets.
Literature during Jahangir
• Jahangir’s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, written by Jahangir was famous for its style.
• He patronized many –
o Scholars – like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and Niamatullah.
o Writers and historians – like Abdul Hamid Lahori (author of Padshah Nama) and Inayat
Khan (author of Shah Jahan Nama).
• His son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language.
Literature during Aurangzeb
• Many historical works were written during the reign of Aurangazeb.

• Famous dictionaries of the Persian language were also compiled during the Mughal period.
Language
• Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar’s reign.
• Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Gujarathi had also developed
during this period.
• Many devotional works including the Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated into
regional languages.
• From the time of Akbar, Hindi poets were attached to the Mughal court. The most influential
Hindi poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.
MUSIC
• Music had also developed under the Mughals. Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior.
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• Tansen composed many ragas.

• Tansen was prominent Hindustani classical music composer, musician and vocalist.
• He was disciple of Swami Haridas
Tansen Tomb in Gwalior
• Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music.

• The classical music performed in the Mughal courts survives today in the form known as
Dhrupad.
• The Ain-i-Akbari, written by Abul Fazl suggests that there were 36 musicians in the Mughal
court of Akbar.
• It mentioned two bin players native to Gwalior, Shihab Khan and Purbin Khan.
• Akbar himself was a learned musician.
Tansen
• Music had well developed under the Mughals. Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior.
Tansen composed many ragas. Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music.
• Tansen, also referred to as Tan Sen or Mian Tansen, was a prominent figure of North
Indian (Hindustani) classical music. Born in a Hindu family, he learnt and perfected his art
in the northwest region of modern Madhya Pradesh.
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• He began his career and spent most of his adult life in the court and took patronage of
the Hindu king of Rewa State, Ram Chand, where Tansen's musical abilities and studies
gained widespread fame. This reputation brought him to the attention of the Mughal
Emperor Akbar, who sent messengers to Ram Chand requesting Tansen to join the
musicians at the Mughal court. Tansen did not want to go, Ram Chand encouraged him
to gain wider audience, and sent him along with gifts to Akbar. In 1562, about the age of
60, the Vaishnava musician Tansen joined the Akbar court, and his performances became
a subject of many court historians.
Do you know?
• Akbar considered him as a Navaratnas (nine jewels), and gave him the title Mian, an
honorific, meaning learned man.
• Tansen is remembered for his epic Dhrupad compositions, creating several new ragas,
as well as for writing two classic books on music Sri Ganesh Stotra and Sangita Sara.
SHER SHAH ARCHITECTURE

• He built a new city on the banks of the river Yamuna near Delhi called Shergarh.
• Shergarh (now known as Old Fort) became the citadel of this city
• The city which he started (and later completed by his son Islam Shah) had 14.4 Km perimeter
and was located between the present Humayun's Tomb and the Shahjahanabad.
• The north gate was called Kabuli Darwaza and another one was called Lal Darwaza. Both these
gates still exist. The Khooni Darwaza opposite Feroz Shah Kotla was one of the gates of the
city.
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• The Khooni Darwaza (Bloody Gate) earned its name after the three princes of the Mughal
dynasty - Bahadur Shah Zafar's sons Mirza Mughal and Mirza Khizr Sultan and grandson Mirza
Abu Bakht, were shot by a British Soldier, Captain William Hodson on September 22, 1857
during the Indian Rebellion.
Lal Darwaza or Sher Shah Gate, the Southern Gate to the Sher Shah Suri's city, Shergarh
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Khuni Darwaza or Lal Darwaza
• He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master pieces of
Indian architecture
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Sher Shah Suri Tomb at Sasaram
VIJAYNAGAR ARCHITECTURE
• Temple building activity gained momentum in this period.
• Hampi – located in the Krishna-Tunghbadra basin.
o Nucleus of the Vijaynagar empire founded in 1336
o Well-fortified city
o No mortar or cementing agent was used in construction of these walls
• Chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture –
o Construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways
o Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises
o Sculptures carvings on the pillars
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Virupaksha temple gopuram
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Kalyana mandapam (Marraige Hall), Vittala Temple, Hampi + o Sculptures carvings on the
pillars
• Most common animal found on these pillars - Horse.

• Large mandapams contain 100 pillars as well as 1000 pillars in some big temples.
• Use of mandapas - For seating the deity on festival occasions.
• Many Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during this period.
• Vijayanagar style’s most important temples were found - in Hampi ruins or the city of
Vijaynagar.
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Hampi ruins or the city of Vijaynagar
• Best examples of this style –

o Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples.
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Vittalaswamy temple, Hampi
Hazara Ramaswamy temple
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o Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram
Varadharaja temple, Kanchipuram
Ekamparanatha temples, Kanchipuram
• Vijayanagar rulers constructed Raya Gopuram at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram
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Annamalaiyar Temple at Thiruvannamalai
• Nayak rulers continued construction of Raya Gopuram

• Casting of metal images was also there in Vijaynagar
o Example - Metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati
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• Also patronized music and dancing.
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MARATHAS
The emergence and growth of the Maratha state during the 17th century was an important
episode in the history of India.
The Territory which includes modern state of Bombay Konkan, Kandesh, Berar, part of Madhya
Pradesh, and part of Hyderabad state was Maratha state.
The physical environment of the Maratha country shaped certain peculiar qualities among the
Marathas. The mountainous region and dense forests made them brave soldiers and adopt
guerilla tactics. The Marathas built a number of forts on the mountains.
The spread of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra inculcated a spirit of religious unity among
them. The spiritual leaders like Tukaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit and Eknath fostered social unity.
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The political unity was conferred by Shivaji. The Marathas held important positions in the
administrative and military systems of Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar. There were
a number of influential Maratha families such as the Mores and Nimbalkers. But the credit of
establishing a powerful Maratha state goes to Shahji Bhonsle and his son Shivaji.
SHIVAJI
• Shivaji was born at Shivneri in 1627.

• His father was Shahji Bhonsle and mother Jija Bai.
• He inherited the jagir of Poona from his father in 1637.
• After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji assumed full charge of
his jagir. Even before that he conquered Raigarh, Kondana and Torna from the ruler of
Bijapur.
• He captured Javli from a Maratha chief, Chanda Rao More. This made him the master of
Mavala region.
• In 1657, he attacked the Bijapur kingdom and captured a number of hill forts in the
Konkan region.
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• The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan against Shivaji, but Afzal Khan was murdered by
Shivaji in 1659 in a daring manner.
• The Mughal emperor Aurangazeb sent the Mughal governor of the Deccan, Shaista Khan
against Shivaji. Shivaji suffered a defeat at the hands of the Mughal forces and lost Poona.
But Shivaji once again made a bold attack on Shaista Khan’s military camp at Poona in
1663, killed his son and wounded Khan. This daring attack affected the prestige of Khan
• and he was recalled by Aurangazeb.
• In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, the chief port of the Mughals and plundered it. This time
Aurangazeb sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber to fight against Shivaji. He made elaborate
preparations and succeeded in besieging the Purander fort where Shivaji lodged his family
and treasure.
• Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh and the Treaty of Purander was signed in 1665.
According to the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals out of 35 forts
held by him. The remaining 12 forts were to be left to Shivaji on condition of service and
loyalty to Mughal empire.
• On the other hand, the Mughals recognized the right of Shivaji to hold certain parts of the
Bijapur kingdom. As Shivaji asked to exempt him from personal service to the Mughals,
his minor son Shambaji was granted a mansab of 5000.
• Shivaji visited Agra in 1666 but he was imprisoned there, but, he managed to escape from
prison and made military preparations and renewed his wars against the Mughals.
• Surat was plundered by him for the second time in 1670. He also captured all his lost
territories by his conquests.
• In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title Chatrapathi.
• He led an expedition into the Carnatic region and captured Ginjee and Vellore. After his
return from this expedition, Shivaji died in 1680.
SHIVAJI’S ADMINISTRATION
• Shivaji had laid the foundation of a sound system of administration and his administrative
system was largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the Deccan state.
• Like all other medieval rulers, Shivaji was a despot with all powers concentrated in his
hands. He possessed all executive and legislative power.
• Shivaji was a great organizer and constructive civilian administrator. The one of the
novelty of Shivajis administration was the introduction of Maratha language as the state
language.
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
• The king was at the helm of the affairs.
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• The administration was divided into eight departments headed by ministers who are
sometimes called Ashtapradhan.
• The eight ministers were:
1. Peshwa who looked after the finances and general administration.
2. Sari-Naubat who was the Senapati.
3. Majumdar looked after the accounts.
4. Waqai navis looked after the intelligence, post and household affairs.
5. Surnavis or Chitnis looked after official correspondence.
6. Dabir looked after foreign affairs.
7. Nyayadhish looked after justice.
8. Pandit Rao looked after ecclesiastical affairs.
• The ashtapradhan was not a creation of Shivaji and many of these officers like Peshwa,
Majumdar, Waqai navis, Dabir and Surnavis had existed under the Deccani rulers also.
• All the members of the asthapradhan except Pandit Rao and Nyaydhish were asked to
lead military campaigns.
• Under Shivaji these offices were neither hereditary nor permanent and held the office at
the pleasure of the king. They were also frequently transferred.
• Each of the ashtapradhan was assisted by eight assistants diwan, Majumdar, Fadnis,
Sabnis; Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamadar and Potnis.
• Chitnis dealt with all diplomatic correspondences and wrote all royal letters.
• The Fadnis used to respond to the letters of commanders of the forts.
• The Potnis looked after the income and expenditure of the royal treasury.
PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
• The provincial administration was also organized on the Deccani and Mughal system.
• All the provincial units already existed under the Deccani rulers. Shivaji reorganized and
in certain cases renamed them.
• The provinces were known as Prants. The Prants were under the charge of Subedar.
• Over a number of Subedar there were Sarsubedar to control and supervise the work of
Subedar.
• Smaller than Prant were Tarfs which were headed by a Havaldar.
• Under Tarfs there were Mauzas or villages which were the lowest unit of administration.
• At the level of village, Kulkarni used to keep accounts and maintained records while Patil
had legal and policing power.
• At the level of Pargana, Deshpande used to keep account and maintain records while
Deshmukh had legal and policing powers.
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• The Police officer in rural area was called Faujdar and in urban area was called Kotwal.
• The Maratha polity did not have unified civilian-cum-military rank.
• Under the Marathas performance-based Brahmin elites manned the central bureaucracy
and the local administration. In this capacity they were called Kamvishdar who enjoyed
wide powers of tax assessment and collection. They adjudicated cases, provided
information about local conditions and kept records. Later on, the British District collector
was modelled on this Maratha officer only.
ARMY
• Cavalry and infantry constituted the primary part of the army.

• The Paga cavalrymen were called the Bargirs. They were provided horses by the state
while the Silahdars purchased their armies and horse themselves.
• The Paga cavalry was well organized. Twenty-five horsemen formed a unit which was
placed under a Havildar.
• Shivaji preferred to give cash salaries to the regular soldiers, though some time the chief
received revenue grants.
• Strict disciplines were maintained in the army. The plunder taken by each soldier during
campaign was strictly accounted for in the army organization of Shivaji.
• Shivaji maintained a navy as well. The navy was divided into two parts and each part was
commanded by Darive Nayak and Mai Nayak respectively.
FINANCE AND REVENUE
• The revenue system seems to have been patterned on the system of Malik Ambar land
revenue; Trade Tax etc. were the primary source of the fixed income of Shivaji.
• But income from these sources was not sufficient to meet the expenditure of the state.
Therefore, Shivaji collected the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the territory which was
either under his enemies or under his own influence.
• The chauth was 1/4 part of the income of the particular territory while the Sardeshmukhi
was 1/10. Shivaji collected these taxes simply by force of his army. These taxes
constituted primary source of the income of Shivaji and after wards helped in the
extension of the power and territory of the Marathas.
• The revenue system of Shivaji was Rytowari in which the state kept direct contact with
peasants.
• Shivaji mostly avoided the system of assigning Jagir to his officers and whenever he
assigned Jagir to them, the right of collecting the revenue was kept with state officials.
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SUCCESSORS OF SHIVAJI
• There ensued a war of succession after the death of Shivaji between his sons, Shambaji
and Rajaram and Shambaji emerged victorious but later he was captured and executed
by the Mughals.
• Rajaram succeeded the throne but the Mughals made him to flee to the Ginjee fort. He
died at Satara.
• Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji II with his mother Tara Bai as regent.
• The next ruler was Shahu in whose reign the Peshwas rose to power.
PESHWAS
BALAJI VISWANATH (1713-1720)
• Balaji Viswanath began his career as a small revenue official and became Peshwa in 1713.
• As Peshwa, he made his position the most important and powerful as well as hereditary.
• He played a crucial role in the civil war and finally made Shahu as the Maratha ruler.
• He sought the support of all Maratha leaders for Shahu.
• In 1719, Balaji Viswanath got certain rights from the then Mughal emperor, Farukh Siyar.
1. First, the Mughal emperor recognized Shahu as the Maratha king.
2. Second, he allowed Shahu to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the six Mughal
provinces of the Deccan including the Carnatic and Mysore.
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BAJI RAO I (1720-1740)
• Baji Rao was the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath and he succeeded his father as Peshwa at
the age young of twenty.
• The Maratha power reached its zenith under him.
• He initiated the system of confederacy among the Maratha chiefs. Under this system,
each Maratha chief was assigned a territory which could be administered autonomously.
• As a result, many Maratha families became prominent and established their authority in
different parts of India.
• They were the Gaekwad at Baroda, the Bhonsle at Nagpur, the Holkars at Indore, the
Scindias at Gwalior, and the Peshwas at Poona.
BALAJI BAJI RAO (1740-1761)
• Balaji Baji Rao succeeded his father as Peshwa at the young age of nineteen.
• The Maratha king Shahu died in 1749 without issue. His nominated successor Ramraja
was imprisoned by the Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao at Satara.
• The full control of the Maratha kingdom came under the Peshwa.
• Peshwa entered into an agreement with the Mughal Emperor in 1752.
• According to it, the Peshwa gave assurance to the Mughal Emperor that he would protect
the Mughal Empire from internal and external enemies for which the Chauth of the
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northwest provinces and the total revenue of the Agra and Ajmer provinces would be
collected by the Marathas.
• Thus, when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India, it became the responsibility of the
Marathas to protect India. The Marathas fought very bravely against Ahmad Shah Abdali
in the third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
• But they got defeated. Many Maratha leaders and thousands of soldiers died in this
battle.
• Balaji Baji Rao also died on hearing the news of defeat at the battle of Panipat. Also, this
battle gave a deadly blow to the Maratha power. Thereafter, the Maratha confederacy
weakened due to internal conflicts among the Maratha chiefs.
THE BHONSLES
• The line at Nagpur Bhonsles was subordinate to the Satara rulers.

• A crucial figure from this line was Raghuji Bhonsle (ruled 1727-55), who was responsible
for the Maratha incursions on Bengal and Bihar in the 1740s and early 1750s.
• The relations of his successors, Janoji, Sabaji, and Mudhoji, with the Peshwas and the
Satara line of Bhonsles were varying, and it is in this sense that these domains can be
regarded as only loosely confederated, rather than tightly bound together.
• Other subordinate rulers who emerged under the overarching umbrella provided by the
Satara ruler and his Peshwa were equally somewhat opportunistic in their use of politics.
THE GAIKWADS
• The Gaikwads, gathered prominence in the 1720. Initially they were subordinate not only
to the Bhonsles but also to the powerful Dabhade family.
• However, it was only after the death of Sahu, when the power of the Peshwas was further
enhanced, that the position of the Gaikwads truly improved.
• By the early 1750s, their rights on large portion of the revenues of Gujarat were
recognized by the Peshwa.
• The expulsion of the Mughal governor of the Gujarat province from his capital of
Ahmadabad in 1752 set the seal on the process.
• The Gaikwads preferred, however, to establish their capital in Baroda, causing
realignment in the network of trade and consumption in the area.
• The rule at Baroda of Damaji (1768) was followed by a period of some turmoil.
• The Gaikwads still remained partly dependent on Pune and the Peshwa, especially to
intervene in moments of succession crisis.
• The eventual successor of Damaji, Fateh Singh (ruled 1771- 89), did not remain allied to
the Peshwa for long in the late 1770s and early 1780s, and chose to negotiate a settlement
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with the English East India Company, which eventually led to increased British
interference in his affairs.
• By 1800, the British rather than the Peshwa were the final arbiters in determining
succession among the Gaikwads, who became subordinate rulers under them in the
nineteenth century.
THE HOLKARS
• Initially the Holkars had very little political power. However, by 1730s their chief Malhar
Rao Holkar consolidated his position. He was granted a large share of the chauth
collection in Malwa, eastern Gujarat, and Khandesh.
• Within a few years, Malhar Rao consolidated his own principality at Indore, from which
his successors controlled important trade routes as well as the crucial trading centre of
Burhanpur.
• After Malhar Rao, control of the dynastic fortunes fell largely to his son’s widow, Ahalya
Bai, who ruled from 1765 to 1794 and brought Holkar power to great glory.
THE SINDHIAS
• The Sindhias carved a prominent place for themselves in North Indian politics in the
decades following the third battle of Panipat (1761).
• The Sindhias were based largely in central India, first at Ujjain, and later (from the last
quarter of the 18th century) in Gwalior.
• During the long reign of Mahadaji Sindhia (1761-94) family’s fortunes were truly
consolidated.
• Mahadaji, proved an effective and innovative military commander. He employed a large
number of European soldiers in his force. His power grew rapidly after 1770.
• He managed to make substantial inroads into North India that had been weakened by
Afghan attacks.
• He intervened with some effect in the Mughal court during the reign of Shah Alam II. The
Mughal king made him the “deputy regent” of his affairs in the mid-1780s.
• His shadow fell not only across the provinces of Delhi and Agra but also on Rajasthan and
Gujarat, making him the most formidable Maratha leader of the era.
• The officials of the East India Company were very cautious in dealing with him. His
relations with the acting Peshwa, Nana Fadnavis at Pune were fraught with tension.
• Eventually, the momentum generated by Mahadaji could not be maintained by his
successor Daulat Rao Sindhia (1794-1827), who was defeated by the British and forced by
treaty in 1803 to surrender his territories both to the north and to the west.
IASBABA 146
NmQyNTczYTkxNmQ5
• The careers of some of these potentates, especially Mahadaji Sindhia, illustrate the
potency of Mughal symbols even in the phase of Mughal decline. For instance, after
recapturing Gwalior from the British, Mahadaji took care to have his control of the town
sanctioned.
DECLINE
After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas emerged as a great power in India but they
could not succeed in preventing the establishment of British power in India. The important causes
for the downfall were that there was lack of unity among the Maratha chiefs like Holkar, Scindia
and Bhonsle. Also, the superiority of the British army and fighting methods ultimately won.
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IASBABA 147

Ias Baba History 2022

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Value Add Notes (VAN)

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

Rig Veda .......................................................................................................................... 43

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

MAURYAN EMPIRE ..................................................................................................................... 106

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

Trade with Eastern Roman Empire ................................................................................. 175

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

This art of writing events in a sequential order became histography.

Let us look into few previous years’ questions to get an idea:

1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

1. The concept of Bodhisattva is central to Hinayana sect of Buddhism

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. They possessed great palaces and temples.

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Q.10) The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of

a) Mimamsa and Vedanta

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment

Select the correct answer using the codes given below

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

PERIODISATION OF INDIAN HISTORY (TIMELINE)

• Stone Ages - 5 lakh - 1000 BC

Histography is the writing of History or the study of the written Histories.

Marxist Historians: They wrote history as class struggles in different phases-

• Ancient period – Masters vs. Slaves

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

• Medieval period – feudal lords vs. peasants

SOURCES TO STUDY ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY:

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

• Paleolithic Age: 5 lakh – 10,000 BC

Also known as Old Stone Age

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

Clothing: Used to wear leaves and hides of animals.

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

MESOLITHIC AGE: (10,000 – 4000 BC)

Pic courtesy: entrancegeek.

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

NEOLITHIC AGE: (7000 – 1000 BC)

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

CHALCOLITHIC AGE (2500 – 700 BC)

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

THE HARAPPAN CULTURE: BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATION

• Largest site to be excavated/ on river Indus

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

Let’s do some advertising too.. :P :P

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

Yes Mr Gowarikar.. Absolutely Identical!! :D

Largest Number of Seals:

Assembly Hall: A large assembly hall was found at the citadel.

Cotton: Evidence of Cotton fabric was found in fossilized form.

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1