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INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS / PITOT-STATIC PRESSURE-
SENSING FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS (PART ONE)

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Pitot-Static Pressure-
Sensing Flight
Instruments (Part One)
FILED UNDER: AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

Pitot-Static Pressure-Sensing Flight

Instruments

The basic Aight instruments are directly

connected to the pitot-static system on
many aircraft. Analog Aight instruments
primarily use mechanical means to measure
and indicate various Aight parameters. Digital
Aight instrument systems use electricity and
electronics to do the same. Discussion of the
basic pitot-static Aight instruments begins
with analog instruments to which further
information about modern digital
instrumentation is added.

Michael Page

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Altimeters and Altitude

An altimeter is an instrument that is used to

indicate the height of the aircraft above a
predetermined level, such as sea level or the
terrain beneath the aircraft. The most
common way to measure this distance is
rooted in discoveries made by scientists
centuries ago. Seventeenth century work
proving that the air in the atmosphere
exerted pressure on the things around us led
Evangelista Torricelli to the invention of the
barometer. Also in that century, using the
concept of this Trst atmospheric air pressure
measuring instrument, Blaise Pascal was
able to show that a relationship exists
between altitude and air pressure. As
altitude increases, air pressure decreases.
The amount that it decreases is measurable
and consistent for any given altitude change.
Therefore, by measuring air pressure,
altitude can be determined. [Figure 10-30]

Figure 10-30. Air pressure is inversely related to

altitude. This consistent relationship is used to
calibrate the pressure altimeter.

Altimeters that measure the aircraft’s altitude

by measuring the pressure of the
atmospheric air are known as pressure
altimeters. A pressure altimeter is made to
measure the ambient air pressure at any
given location and altitude. In aircraft, it is
connected to the static vent(s) via tubing in
the pitot-static system. The relationship
between the measured pressure and the
altitude is indicated on the instrument face,
which is calibrated in feet. These devises are
direct-reading instruments that measure
absolute pressure. An aneroid or aneroid
bellows is at the core of the pressure
altimeter’s inner workings. Attached to this
sealed diaphragm are the linkages and
gears that connect it to the indicating pointer.
Static air pressure enters the airtight
instrument case and surrounds the aneroid.
At sea level, the altimeter indicates zero
when this pressure is exerted by the ambient
air on the aneroid. As air pressure is reduced
by moving the altimeter higher in the
atmosphere, the aneroid expands and
displays altitude on the instrument by
rotating the pointer. As the altimeter is
lowered in the atmosphere, the air pressure
around the aneroid increases and the pointer
moves in the opposite direction. [Figure 10-
31]

Figure 10-31. The internal arrangement of a

sealed diaphragm pressure altimeter. At sea level
and standard atmospheric conditions, the
linkage attached to the expandable diaphragm
produces an indication of zero. When altitude
increases, static pressure on the outside
of the diaphragm decreases and the aneroid
expands, producing a positive indication of
altitude. When altitude decreases, atmospheric
pressure increases. The static air pressure on the
outside of the diaphragm increases and the
pointer moves in the opposite direction,
indicating a decrease in altitude. [click image to
enlarge]

The face, or dial, of an analog altimeter is

read similarly to a clock. As the longest
pointer moves around the dial, it is
registering the altitude in hundreds of feet.
One complete revolution of this pointer
indicates 1,000 feet of altitude.

The second-longest point moves more

slowly. Each time it reaches a numeral, it
indicates 1,000 feet of altitude. Once around
the dial for this pointer is equal to 10,000
feet. When the longest pointer travels
completely around the dial one time, the
second-longest point moves only the
distance between two numerals—indicating
1,000 feet of altitude has been attained. If so
equipped, a third, shortest or thinnest pointer
registers altitude in 10,000 foot increments.
When this pointer reaches a numeral, 10,000
feet of altitude has been attained.
Sometimes a black-and-white or red-and-
white cross-hatched area is shown on the
face on the instrument until the 10,000 foot
level has been reached. [Figure 10-32]

Figure 10-32. A sensitive altimeter with three

pointers and a crosshatched area displayed
during operation below 10,000 feet.

Many altimeters also contain linkages that

rotate a numerical counter in addition to
moving pointers around the dial. This quick
reference window allows the pilot to simply
read the numerical altitude in feet. The
motion of the rotating digits or drum-type
counter during rapid climb or descent makes
it diacult or impossible to read the numbers.
Reference can then be directed to the
classic clock-style indication. Figure 10-33
illustrates the inner workings behind this
type of mechanical digital display of
pressure altitude.

Figure 10-33. A drum-type counter can be driven

by the altimeter’s aneroid for numerical display of
altitude. Drums can also be used for the
altimeter’s setting indications. [click image to
enlarge]

True digital instrument displays can show

altitude in numerous ways. Use of a
numerical display rather than a reproduction
of the clock-type dial is most common. Often
a digital numeric display of altitude is given
on the electronic primary Aight display near
the artiTcial horizon depiction. A linear
vertical scale may also be presented to put
this hard numerical value in perspective. An
example of this type of display of altitude
information is shown in Figure 10-34.

Figure 10-34. This primary Wight display unit of a

Garmin 1000 series glass cockpit instrumentation
package for light aircraft indicates altitude using
a vertical linear scale and a numerical counter. As
the aircraft climbs or descends, the scale behind
the black numerical altitude readout changes.
[click image to enlarge]

Accurate measurement of altitude is

important for numerous reasons. The
importance is magniTed in instrument Aight
rules (IFR) conditions. For example,
avoidance of tall obstacles and rising terrain
relies on precise altitude indication, as does
Aying at a prescribed altitude assigned by air
traac control (ATC) to avoid colliding with
other aircraft. Measuring altitude with a
pressure measuring device is fraught with
complications. Steps are taken to reTne
pressure altitude indication to compensate
for factors that may cause an inaccurate
display.

A major factor that adects pressure altitude

measurements is the naturally occurring
pressure variations throughout the
atmosphere due to weather conditions.
Diderent air masses develop and move over
the earth’s surface, each with inherent
pressure characteristics. These air masses
cause the weather we experience, especially
at the boundary areas between air masses
known as fronts. Accordingly, at sea level,
even if the temperature remains constant, air
pressure rises and falls as weather system air
masses come and go. The values in Figure
10-30, therefore, are averages for theoretical
purposes.

To maintain altimeter accuracy despite

varying atmospheric pressure, a means for
setting the altimeter was devised. An
adjustable pressure scale visible on the face
of an analog altimeter known as a
barometric or Kollsman window is set to read
the existing atmospheric pressure when the
pilot rotates the knob on the front of the
instrument. This adjustment is linked through
gears inside the altimeter to move the
altitude indicating pointers on the dial as
well. By putting the current known air
pressure (also known as the altimeter
setting) in the window, the instrument
indicates the actual altitude. This altitude,
adjusted for atmospheric pressure changes
due to weather and air mass pressure
inconsistency, is known as the indicated
altitude.

It must be noted that in Aight the altimeter

setting is changed to match that of the
closest available weather reporting station or
airport. This keeps the altimeter accurate as
the Aight progresses.

While there was little need for exact altitude

measurement in early Txed wing aviation,
knowing one’s altitude provided the pilot
with useful references while navigating in
the three dimensions of the atmosphere. As
air traac grew and the desire to Ay in any
weather conditions increased, exact altitude
measurement became more important and
the altimeter was reTned. In 1928, Paul
Kollsman invented the means for adjusting
an altimeter to reAect variations in air
pressure from standard atmospheric
pressure. The very next year, Jimmy Doolittle
made his successful Aight demonstrating the
feasibility of instrument Aight with no visual
references outside of the cockpit using a
Kollsman sensitive altimeter.

The term pressure altitude is used to

describe the indication an altimeter gives
when 29.92 is set in the Kollsman window.
When Aying in U.S. airspace above 18,000
feet mean sea level (MSL), pilots are required
to set their altimeters to 29.92. With all
aircraft referencing this standard pressure
level, vertical separation between aircraft
assigned to diderent altitudes by ATC should
be assured. This is the case if all altimeters
are functioning properly and pilots hold their
assigned altitudes. Note that the true
altitude or actual height of an aircraft above
sea level is only the same as the pressure
altitude when standard day conditions exist.
Otherwise, all aircraft with altimeters set to
29.92 “Hg could have true altitudes higher or
lower than the pressure altitude indicated.
This is due to the pressure within the air
mass in which they are Aying being above or
below standard day pressure (29.92). The
actual or true altitude is less important than
keeping aircraft from colliding, which is
accomplished by all aircraft above 18,000
feet referencing the same pressure level
(29.92 “Hg). [Figure 10-35]

Figure 10-35. Above 18,000 feet MSL, all aircraft

are required to set 29.92 as the reference
pressure in the Kollsman window. The
altimeter then reads pressure altitude.
Depending on the atmospheric pressure that day,
the true or actual altitude of the aircraft may
be above or below what is indicated (pressure
altitude). [click image to enlarge]

Temperature also adects the accuracy of an

altimeter. The aneroid diaphragms used in
altimeters are usually made of metal. Their
elasticity changes as their temperature
changes. This can lead to a false indication,
especially at high altitudes when the
ambient air is very cold. A bimetallic
compensating device is built into many
sensitive altimeters to correct for varying
temperature. Figure 10-33 shows one such
device on a drum-type altimeter.

Temperature also adects air density, which

has great impact on the performance of an
aircraft. Although this does not cause the
altimeter to produce an errant reading, Aight
crews must be aware that performance
changes with temperature variations in the
atmosphere. The term density altitude
describes altitude corrected for nonstandard
temperature. That is, the density altitude is
the standard day altitude (pressure altitude)
at which an aircraft would experience similar
performance as it would on the non-
standard day currently being experienced.
For example, on a very cold day, the air is
denser than on a standard day, so an aircraft
performs as though it is at a lower altitude.
The density altitude is lower that day. On a
very hot day, the reverse is true, and an
aircraft performs as though it were at a
higher elevation where the air is less dense.
The density altitude is higher that day.

Conversion factors and charts have been

produced so pilots can calculate the density
altitude on any particular day. Inclusion of
nonstandard air pressure due to weather
systems and humidity can also be factored.
So, while the edects of temperature on
aircraft performance do not cause an
altimeter to indicate falsely, an altimeter
indication can be misleading in terms of
aircraft performance if these edects are not
considered. [Figure 10-36]

Figure 10-36. The e^ect of air temperature on

aircraft performance is expressed as density
altitude.

Other factors can cause an inaccurate

altimeter indication. Scale error is a
mechanical error whereby the scale of the
instrument is not aligned so the altimeter
pointers indicate correctly. Periodic testing
and adjustment by trained technicians using
calibrated equipment ensures scale error is
kept to a minimum.

The pressure altimeter is connected to the

pitot-static system and must receive an
accurate sample of ambient air pressure to
indicate the correct altitude. Position error, or
installation error, is that inaccuracy caused
by the location of the static vent that
supplies the altimeter. While every edort is
made to place static vents in undisturbed air,
airAow over the airframe changes with the
speed and attitude of the aircraft. The
amount of this air pressure collection error is
measured in test Aights, and a correction
table showing the variances can be included
with the altimeter for the pilot’s use.
Normally, location of the static vents is
adjusted during these test Aights so that the
position error is minimal. [Figure 10-37]
Position error can be removed by the ADC in
modern aircraft, so the pilot need not be
concerned about this inaccuracy.

Figure 10-37. The location of the static vent is

selected to keep altimeter position error to a
minimum.

Static system leaks can adect the static air

input to the altimeter or ADC resulting in
inaccurate altimeter indications. It is for this
Click Here!
reason thatFind
static system
Aircrafts Here! maintenance

includes leak checks every 24 months,