Coke Making Technology

Chapter 7
Manufacture of Metallurgical Coke and

Recovery of Coal Chemicals
J. L. Sundholm, Senior Development Engineer, LTV Steel Company
H. S. Valia, Scientist, Ispat Inland, Inc.
F. J. Kiessling, Director, Coke Marketing, Indianapolis Coke
J. Richardson, Manager, Coke and Coal Chemicals, ICF Kaiser Engineers, Inc.
W. E. Buss, Vice President and General Manager, Thyssen Still Otto Technical Services
R. Worberg, Thyssen Still Otto Anlagentechnik GmbH
U. Schwarz, Thyssen Still Otto Anlagentechnik GmbH
H. Baer, European Cokemaking Technology Center
A. Calderon, President, Calderon Energy Company
R. G. DiNitto, Group Executive of Operations and Marketing, Antaeus Energy
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Carbon as a Reducing Agent
Although the oxides of iron may be reduced to metallic iron by many agents, carbon (directly or
indirectly) is the reducing agent found to be best suited for the economical production of iron. Car-
bon of suitable reactivity and physical strength was at one time produced from wood by distilla-
tion, yielding wood charcoal; but for the operation of a modern large blast furnace the carbon
required for the smelting of iron is obtained from the destructive distillation of selected coking
coals at temperatures in the range from 900°C to 1095°C (1650°F to 2000°F).
7.1.2 Chemical Effects of Coking

Coal is made up principally of the remains of vegetable matter which has been partially decom-
posed in the presence of moisture and the absence of air and subjected to variations in tempera-
ture and pressure by geologic action, see Chapter 6. It is a complex mixture of organic compounds,
the principal elements of which are carbon and hydrogen with smaller amounts of oxygen, nitro-
gen and sulfur. It also contains some noncombustible components called ash. The ash consists pri-
marily of inorganic compounds which became imbedded in the coal matrix during the
coalification process.
The chemical compounds making up coals, like most of those in animal and vegetable life, are
unstable when subjected to a high degree of heat or thermal treatment. When heated to high tem-
peratures, in the absence of air, the complex organic molecules break down to yield gases, together
with liquid and solid organic compounds of lower molecular weight and a relatively non-volatile
carbonaceous residue (coke).
Copyright © 1999, The AISE Steel Foundation, Pittsburgh, PA. All rights reserved 381
Ironmaking Volume
Coke, then, is the residue from the destructive distillation of coal. Structurally, it is a cellular,
porous substance which is heterogeneous in both physical and chemical properties. The physical
properties of metallurgical coke, as well as its composition, depend largely upon the coal used and
the temperature at which it is carbonized. Not all coals will form coke, and not all-coking coals
will give the same firm, cellular mass characteristic of coke suitable for metallurgical purposes.
Some coals will produce an acceptable coke without blending with other coals, while others are
usable only as constituents of blends. The type and method of operation of coking facilities also
exert a profound influence on the quality and yield of coke for the blast furnaces.
7.1.3 Kinds of Coke

There are three principal kinds of coke, classified according to the methods by which they are man-
ufactured: low-, medium- and high temperature coke. Coke used for metallurgical purposes must
be carbonized in the higher ranges of temperature (between 900°C and 1095°C) (1650°F and
2000°F) if the product is to have satisfactory physical properties. Even with good coking coal, the
product obtained by low temperature carbonization between 480°C and 760°C (900°F and 1400°F)
is unacceptable for good blast furnace operation.
7.1.4 Important Properties of Metallurgical Coke

Probably the most important physical property of metallurgical coke is its strength to withstand
breakage and abrasion during handling and its use in the blast furnace. In the United States, the
standard ASTM tests used to evaluate these properties are the stability index for breakage and the
hardness index for abrasion. Both of these tests involve tumbling coke of selected size in a stan-
dard drum rotated for a specific time at a specific rate. The stability index and the hardness index
are the percentages of coke remaining on 1 in. and 1⁄4 in. screens, respectively, when the coke is
screened after tumbling.
In modern blast furnace practice, the trend is toward use of iron-bearing burden materials of con-
trolled size such as sinter and pellets; thus, the size of the coke used in the burden assumes more
importance then in the past when only crude ore was used. The size of coke produced in byprod-
uct ovens is somewhat dependent upon the type of coal, heating rate, width of the ovens, and the
bulk density of the coal charge, greater amounts of low-volatile coal, wider ovens and greater bulk
density of the coal charge generally tend to produce larger coke while faster heating rates tend to
produce smaller coke. Because relatively uniform size is desired, crushing and screening of the
coke must be resorted to when controlled size is desired. Most blast furnace operators prefer coke
sized between about 18.5 and 76 mm (3⁄4 in. and 3 in.) for optimum furnace performance. Other
physical properties of the coke such as porosity, density and combustibility are controllable only
to a small extent, and their importance in affecting blast furnace operation has not been definitely
established.
7.1.5 Methods of Manufacturing Metallurgical Coke

There are two proven processes for manufacturing metallurgical coke, known as the beehive
process and the byproduct process. In the beehive process, air is admitted to the coking chamber
in controlled amounts for the purpose of burning therein the volatile products distilled from coal
to generate heat for further distillation. In the byproduct method, air is excluded from the coking
chambers, and the necessary heat for distillation is supplied from external combustion of some of
the gas recovered from the coking process (or, in some instances, cleaned blast furnace gas or a
mixture of coke oven and blast furnace gas). With modern byproduct ovens, properly operated, all
the volatile products liberated during coking are recovered as gas and coal chemicals, and, when
coke oven gas alone is used as fuel, about 40% of the gas produced is returned to the ovens for
heating purposes. While the beehive process was the leading method for manufacture of coke up
to 1918, largely the byproduct process as discussed later in this chapter now has replaced it. There
is a difference of temperature of coking in the two processes, that of the byproduct being somewhat
382 Copyright © 1999, The AISE Steel Foundation, Pittsburgh, PA. All rights reserved.
Manufacture of Metallurgical Coke and Recovery of Coal Chemicals
lower than the beehive. Beehive coke is usually larger, though not as uniform in size. In general,
properly carbonized beehive coke and byproduct coke both are silvery gray in appearance. A mod-
ification of the beehive technology, known as non-recovery ovens, is gaining prominence and is
discussed in Section 7.8.
Other processes for producing metallurgical coke are known as continuous processes; many vari-
ations have been proposed but none has been adopted on a commercial scale. In one continuous
process, finely pulverized coking or non-coking coal is dried and partially oxidized with steam or
air in fluidized bed reactors to prevent agglomeration when coking coal is used. The reactor prod-
uct is carbonized in two stages a successively higher temperatures to obtain a char. Using a binder
produced from tar obtained in the carbonization stages, the char is briquetted in roll presses. The
“green” briquettes are cured at low temperatures, carbonized at high temperatures, and finally
cooled in an inert atmosphere to produce a metallurgical coke of low volatile content. This type of
coke often is referred to as formcoke. Briquetting will be discussed again later in this chapter.
7.1.6 Products of Coal Carbonization

The reactions occurring during the carbonization of coal for the production of metallurgical coke
are complex. The process can be considered as taking place in three steps: (a) primary breakdown
of coal at temperatures below 700°C (1296°F) yields decomposition products some of which are
water, oxides of carbon, hydrogen sulfide, hydroaromatic compounds, paraffins, olefins, phenolic,
and nitrogen-containing compounds; (b) secondary thermal reactions among these liberated pri-
mary products as they pass through hot coke, along hot oven walls and through highly heated free
space in the oven involve both synthesis and degradation. A large evolution of hydrogen and the
formation of aromatic hydrocarbons and methane occur in the stage above 700°C (1296°F).
Decomposition of the complex nitrogen-containing compounds produces ammonia, hydrogen
cyanide, pyridine bases and nitrogen; (c) progressive removal of hydrogen from the residue in the
oven produces hard coke.
During carbonization, from 20–35% by weight of the initial charge of coal is evolved as mixed
gases and vapors which pass from the ovens into the collecting mains and are processed through
the coal-chemical recovery section of the coke plant to produce coal chemicals. When the produc-
tion of coke is accomplished in modern byproduct coke ovens with equipment for recovering the
coal chemicals, one ton of coking coal in typical American practice yields about the following pro-
portions of the coke and coal chemicals presented in Table 7.1, depending upon the type of coal
carbonized, carbonization temperature and method of coal-chemical recovery.
The coke oven gas contains the fixed gases so classified because they are gases at 760 mm (29.92
in.) pressure and 15.5°C (60°F). They are: hydrogen, H2; methane, CH4; ethane, C2H6; carbon
monoxide, CO; carbon dioxide, CO2; illuminants which are essentially unsaturated hydrocarbons,
such as ethylene, C2H8; and acetylene, C2H2. Other fixed gases present are: hydrogen sulfide, H2S;
ammonia, NH3; oxygen, O2; and nitrogen, N2.
Table 7.1 Coke and Coal Chemical Typical Yields Following Carbonization
Per Metric Ton Per Net Ton
Blast Furnace Coke 600–800 kg 1200–1400 lb

Coke Breeze 50–100 kg 100–200 lb
Coke Oven Gas 296–358 m3 9500–11,500 ft3
Tar 30.3–45.4 litres 8–12 gal
Ammonium Sulfate 10–13.8 kg 20–28 lb
Ammonia Liquor 56.8–132.5 litres 15–35 gal
Light Oil 9.5–15.1 litres 2.5–4 gal
Ironmaking Volume
Other substances in the raw gases and vapors leaving the ovens, which are liquids at ordinary tem-
peratures and pressures, are discussed here.
7.1.6.1 Ammonia Liquor

Primarily this is the water condensing from the coke oven gas and is an aqueous solution of ammo-
nium salts of which there are two kinds—free and fixed. The free salts are those which are decom-
posed on boiling to liberate ammonia. The fixed salts are those which require boiling with an alkali
such as lime to liberate the ammonia.
7.1.6.2 Tar
Tar is the organic matter that separates by condensation from the gas in the collector mains. It is a
black, viscous liquid, a little heavier than water. The following general classes of compounds may
be recovered from tar: pyridine, tar acids, naphthalene, creosote oil and coal-tar pitch.
7.1.6.2 Light Oil

Light oil is a clear, yellow-brown oil somewhat lighter than water. It contains varying amounts of
coal-gas products with boiling points from about 40°C to 200°C, and benzene, toluene, xylene and
solvent naphthas are the principal products recovered from it.
7.1.7 Recovery of Coal Chemicals

In the recovery of coal chemicals, the first step is the recovery of the basic crude materials (coke
oven gas, ammonia liquor, tar and light oil) as a primary operation in accordance with commercial
practice. Secondary operations consist of the processing of these primary products to separate them
into their components as discussed in detail in Section 7.7 of this chapter.
In addition, environmental regulations have been enacted which stipulate maximum allowable lev-
els of sulfur-bearing compounds in coke oven gas. These limits are generally expressed in terms of
equivalent H2S units. In the United States the limit is expressed in grains per 100 dscf and range
up to 50 gr/dscf. To satisfy the sulfur regulation, many coke plants have installed coke oven gas
desulfurization systems.
7.2 Coals for Metallurgical Coke Production

7.2.1 Selecting Coals for Quality Coke
7.2.1.1 Introduction
Most coal and coke producers follow the practice of coal blending in order to conserve the limited
resources of high cost, prime coking coals. This is also due to the fact that a single coal does not
usually meet all the requirements of coke quality and cokemaking. The challenge to a coke pro-
ducer is in designing a blend that on carbonization would consistently produce a low cost, high
quality coke with safe oven pushing performance. More rigid coke quality requirements will be
placed on coke producers as ironmakers try to increase productivity and reduce costs by reducing
the coke rate and by increasing the pulverized coal injection rate. The success of a coke production
facility, thus, would be dependent upon whether a balance can be achieved between the competing
sets of requirements such as throughput, high quality, and cost efficiency all the while keeping
importance of the battery life in mind.
With the above requirements in mind, the coal design efforts can be grouped into the following
categories:
Table 7.2 Procedure for Coking Coal Selection (modified from Ref. 1)
Vendor’s Data Laboratory Testing Pilot Oven Carbonization Plant Trial
1) Obtain coal quality 1) Predict coking quality 1) Conduct test on 100% coal. 1) Monitor plant
data sheet. from 5 lb. sample. trial.
2) Predict coking 2) Conduct economic 2) Conduct test on blend. 2) Adopt coal for
quality. evaluation. plant use.
3) Assess cost/ 3) Order coal for pilot 3) Conduct contraction and

availability. oven carbonization. gas pressure test.
4) Request 5 lb. coal 4) Recommend for plant trial.*

sample.
*Final selection also takes into account price, mine, preparation plant, and quality control capabilities and nature
of quality variation from future mining areas as assessed through a mine visit.
1. Coal blend design to satisfy coke physical properties.

2. Coal blend design to satisfy coke chemical properties.
3. Coal blend design to satisfy coke oven pushing performance.
4. Coal blend design to satisfy maximum usage of low value carbon materials.
5. Economic evaluation of the designed blend.
6. Assurance of high quality coal shipments.
Usually, the coal blend design is done through a series of steps. An example of coal selection and
blend design is shown in Table 7.2.1
After screening the desired coals from vendor data sheets, the coal qualities are generally deter-
mined through various analytical techniques. Thereafter, the coke qualities are predicted via coke
prediction models and cost effective blend is designed. Then the designed coal blend is tested in a
pilot oven, which is then implemented in the commercial batteries. Once the confidence is built
through use of coke quality and oven pushing performance models, the pilot oven tests can be by-
passed and a coal can be directly implemented in the commercial blends through use of prediction
models only. It should be kept in mind that the properties predicted are only valid for the range of
coals used and the controlled conditions of carbonization and whenever possible, the coke quality
should be determined via pilot oven carbonization.
Only the use of coal inherent properties for coal blend design will be discussed here. Those coal
and coke properties and analytical tests and predictive methods that are commonly used in design-
ing coal blends are described.
7.2.1.2 Coal Blend Design to Satisfy Physical Properties

Below the cohesive zone in the blast furnace, coke is the only solid material remaining; hence, coke
provides the strength and the void spaces. Therefore, for a stable blast furnace operation, the phys-
ical properties of coke are of paramount importance. A large mean coke size with narrow size vari-
ations help maintain a stable void fraction for the flow of gases and molten products and
consequently improves blast furnace productivity. Coke size for blast is typically controlled by
screening. In terms of coke strength, the coke strength after reaction with CO2 (CSR) and drum
index (such as ASTM stability) are the most important parameters. CSR and stability are primar-
ily controlled by coal properties and secondarily by battery operations.2–4
7.2.1.2.1 Blend Design for Coke Strength in a High Temperature Environment Tests indicating coke strength
in a high temperature environment are increasingly being used for coke quality evaluation.5 CSR,
Ironmaking Volume
as determined through Nippon Steel
130
Corporation (NSC) method, is widely
used to assess coke’s behavior inside
120
a blast furnace.6 CSR measures the
110
potential of the coke to break up 80 70
under a high temperature CO2 envi-
100
ronment, which occurs in the blast
60
Plastic Range ( C)
furnace.
90
The use of CSR as a coke quality tool
has been in use for about 20 years. 50
80
CSR prediction models have been
developed and successfully adopted.
70
The models are used to design blends 40
60
and to monitor changes in blend
design. 50
At Ispat Inland, CSR is predicted by 30

measuring many local characteris-
40
tics: these include the plastic range

30
of coal, as determined by the Giesler 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 37.5 40
Plastometer, and the catalytic index
(CI) of CO2 gasification (Fig. 7.1). Fig. 7.1 Ispat Inland CSR prediction model.
The catalytic index is comprised of
the alkali index and sulfur. The alkali index is calculated as a product of coal ash content times the
weight percent ration of (CaO+MgO+Fe2O3+Na2O+K2O)/(SiO2+Al2O3). According to this model,
CSR increases with an increase in the plastic range and decreases with an increase in Catalytic
Index. This is explained by the fact that the increase in plastics range optimizes the extent and size
of anisotropic carbon form from mesophase which, in turn, reduces the CO2 gasification.7 The
increase in alkalies, Fe2O3, and sulfur may affect CSSR in two ways: (a) by creating functional
groups between the elements affecting fluidity and inhibiting of nematic liquid crystals and (b) by
simply acting as a catalyst of CO2 gasification.8
It has been shown that CSR is a lin-
130
early additive property. Thus, the

CSR of coke produced from blended
120
coals can be predicted from individ-

ual coal characteristics through the
80
110
application of the additivity law (Fig. 70

7.2). The line connecting the compo- B
100
sition points for two coals such as A- 60

B and C-D (Fig. 7.2) delineates all the
D
90
Plastic Range ( C)
blend compositions that could possi- A

80
bly result from mixing A and B or C

C 50
and D coals. CSR prediction models
70
can also be used for monitoring the

incoming coal quality, blend quality, 40
60
reserve evaluation, and mine and

preparation plant design and control.
50
30
7.2.1.2.2 Blend Design for Coke Strength
40
in an Ambient Temperature Condition

Coke strength properties measured in
30
an ambient condition are generally 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 37.5 40
referred to drum strength properties Catalytic Index

as determined using a tumbler. These Fig. 7.2 Ispat Inland CSR blend prediction.
indices measure the ability of coke to withstand breakup at room temperature and reflect coke han-
dling behavior outside the blast furnace and coke breakage in the upper part of the blast furnace.
ASTM Tumbler Test (stability and harness), Micum Test, IRSID Test, and Japanese Tumble Test are
variations of drum tests to characterize breakage and abrasion of coke. Blend design techniques
have been developed based on these tests. Various coal characteristics are used to predict the drum
indices. Of those, petrographic analysis has become the prime analytical tool for predicting the
drum strength index of coals. Various blend design techniques to achieve desirable coke strength
are presented below.
7.2.1.2.2.1 Coal Petrography Petrographic analysis of a coal is a major tool for predicting coke
strength.9, 10 Prediction through petrography is done in three steps. First step involves the identifi-
cation of macerals which are describes as microscopically distinct organic entities in coal. There-
after, the macerals are grouped into reactive, semi-inert, and inert categories. These categories are
partially based on maceral behavior during carbonization. Lastly, the rank of coal is determined by
measuring the reflectance and calculating the strength of the binding materials created through
carbonization of reactives. Using these characteristics, the strength (rank) and inert indices are cal-
culated and coke strength is predicted.
The petrographic coke strength (ASTM Stability factor) prediction method developed at U.S. Steel
(U.S.S.) is shown in Fig. 7.3. Coke of high stability can be produced from coal blends which have
an optimum ration of reactive components to inert components. The reactive components con-
tribute fluidity to the coal and act as binders, while the inert components (either organic or inor-
ganic) act as fillers in the formation of the coke structure. On the other hand, the Ispat Inland
stability prediction method, Fig. 7.4, considers inerts to be detrimental to stability. Some Japanese
steelmakers use modifications of the U.S.S. method; however, the iso-stability lines are replaced
by JIS D130/15 lines, Fig. 7.5. The optimum coal blend area is shown by the boxed area (Fig. 7.3)
or the hatched zone (Fig. 7.5).
Coke resistant to crushing Coke resistant to abrasion

Greatest
7.0 Stability
Factor 65
Coke from low volatile coals
Coke Reactivity Relative to Strength Index
Forms coke
6.0 mass or
dead man
at the tuyeres
60
Coke Strength
Coke from medium volatile coals

5.0
50
40
4.0
Optimum Good tuyere
Optimum Metallurgical action
Coke Properties 30
Metallurgical
Properties 20
10
3.0 Coke from high volatile coals Coke used
0 before tuyeres
Least 2.0
9.0 7.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
10.0 8.0 6.0 0.9 0.7
COMPOSITION - BALANCE INDEX
Inert-r ich Inert-deficient
Large Foundry Coke Metallurgical Chemical Coke

Coke Size Small
Least Greatest
Coke Friability
Fig. 7.3 U.S.S. stability prediction method. (Adopted from Ref. 26)
Ironmaking Volume
8.0
40 50 55 59 60
65
7.0
6.0
5.0
Rank Index
65
4.0
30 60
59
20
3.0
55
10 50
40
30
2.0
20
10
1.0
9.0 5.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
Inert Index
Fig. 7.4 Ispat Inland stability prediction method. (From Ref. 11)
94 92 90 80
8
American LV
Beatrice
Keystone
Itmann
7 70
Yellow stone
Smokey river
Aus - LV
Saxson Cand. Soviet - MV
6
Field of Blended Coal Peak Downs Balmer
For B.R. Coke Making South Bulli
Fording
K - 10
Continental Balmer
Strength Index
5 Vicary creek
American - MV 50
Carribean
Aus - MV
Jap - HV Pittston
4
American - HV Lynco Moura
Blackwater
Yubari Kellerman Wollondilly
Ohyubari Elkhorn
Meiwo No. 2 Ashoken
3 Miike Bigben
Liddell Newdell
Akabira Aus - HV
2
30
JIS - Drum Index DI 15 (%)
(Coke from test oven)
1
0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 2.0 3.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.5 4.0
Composition Balance Index
Fig. 7.5 Japanese D130/15 prediction method. (From Ref. 12)
7.2.1.2.2.2 Gieseler Plastometry Some8, 13 have indicated that the fluidity of coal is an important para-
meter affecting coke stability by providing bonding to various coal components. In order to ensure
optimum coal particles interaction, it is important that the temperature intervals of the plastic state
for coals constituting a blend should overlap. The longer the overlapping of maximum activity
intervals of two particles, the more the number of chemical bonds formed in the contact area.
The Japanese have13 used reflectance and the maximum fluidity to define optimum blends that
would produce high strength coke, Fig. 7.6. The graph can be dissected into four quadrants. Coals
from quadrants I and II provide fluidity to the blend (bonding and high CSR), whereas coals from
quadrant IV provide rank (coke strength) to the coal blend. Those coals representing lower ranks
in quadrant III would provide filler and the most opportunities for cost reductions to a coke pro-
ducer. Reflectance and maximum fluidity values have also been used to predict stability with spe-
cial reference to Canadian coals, Fig. 7.7. The desired blending area suitable for Canadian coals is
shown by the cross-hatched zone.
7.2.1.2.2.3 Dilatometer Some measure coke strength through the use of dilatometry which is much
prevalent in some European countries. Dilatation is measured using either Arnu or Ruhr dilatome-
ters. Dilatation can be used to predict Micum Indices (M40 and M10). A cokability factor called
G-Factor has been developed. One application of the G-Factor15, shown in equation. 7.2.1, is to
predict M40, shown in equation 7.2.2.
V1k d
G - Factor = E + 2 + V1k + Ed (7.2.1)
Kyoei Oyubari VM 42 - 46
30 000 Miike Jap. HV (A)
Heiwa Yubari> 27 500 d.d.p.m.Inerts 48 - 96
20 000
VM 35 - 36
USA HV (A) Inerts 16 - 20
10 000 Blackhawk
Mass No. 3
5000 Lynco
4000
3000 II Gem No. 5 I
Elkhon
2000 St. Sewell 1
VM 22 - 31
1000 USA MV Inerts 12 - 26
Akabira
Ashibetu
Jap. HV (B)
St. Sewell 2 Jewel Pocahontas

500
CCB
300 Mix
Goonyella
200 Mojir Wollondilly 1
Field of blended coal for
coke making
100
Inerts 16 - 25
Borehole
Aust. HV VM 38 - 45
Gem No. 3
50 Newdell Moura Relations between max.
1 fluidity and rank of coals in
1
case of low inerts content
20 Canada MV VM 17 - 21
VM 21 - 25
USA LV Inerts 8.5 - 24
Wolondilly 2
Inerts 26 - 34
Liddell
10 Indian Ridge
Hebburn Toro
Can
Vicary 2
Newdell 2 IV
ada
5 Moura 2
Keystone
LV
Vicary 1
3 III Australia MV Kopperstone
Sm
VM 29 - 32 Balmer
oke
Inerts 26 - 34 Bird B
Itmann
yR
G6 Beatrice
iver
1
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
Mean max. reflectance of vitrinite (%)
Fig. 7.6 D130/15 Prediction using reflectance and maximum fluidity. (From Ref. 13)
Ironmaking Volume
30,000
20,000
10,000 14 kPa
8,000 30 35 45
40 50
6,000
4,000
55
Stability
2,000 factors
1,000
800
600 58 60
400
200
Fluidity (DDPM)
100
80 60
60
40 58
20
35 40 45 50 55 Increasing
10 kPa
8
6 Decreasing
4 30 kPa
2 25
0
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Reflectance (R )
Fig. 7.7 Stability prediction with special reference to Canadian coals. (From Ref. 14)
where:
E = softening temperature (°C)
V1 = resolidification temperature (°C)
k = % contraction
d = % dilatation.
Thus,
1.196V5 2.57V2 88V
M = 103.9 + 24.8G + 106 + T – T (7.2.2)
where:
V = volatile matter of blend (dry ash free %)
T = time (h) of carbonization to a center temperature of 900°C in an oven of average
width of 46 cm.
The G-Factor for most medium and strongly caking coals is usually between 0.95–1.15. It has been
shown to be linearly additive for blends and can be used in equations to predict coke strength.16
Others have used a relationship between the total dilatation and reflectance to predict the ASTM
stability factor, Fig. 7.8. It should be noted that the stability factor lines in the graph are not based
300.0
40 0
G - factor line 60 50 30
Japanese target
blending area
Calculated total dilation

NCB blending
area
200.0
55
65
100.0
50
65 40
30
60
55 20 0
50 10
30 0
0.0
1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8
Reflectance
Fig. 7.8 Stability prediction using total dilatation and rank. (From Ref. 14)
on actual coke stability measurements but are calculated using reflectance and inert contents of
coals. The blend target areas as defined by the National Coal Board (NCB) and by Japanese steel-
makers are also shown in Fig. 7.8.
7.2.1.2.2.4 Free Swelling Index (Crucible Swelling Index), Gray-King Coke Test, and RogaTest These tests
give an indication whether a coal will carbonize to form a coherent coke or not. Table 7.3 shows
an approximate comparison between the three indices.15 These tests are used only to assess the
coking ability of a coal.
7.2.1.2.3 Blend Design for Coke Size The as-formed size of the coke is influenced by the amount of
inert components of the coal lend. As the inert content decreases, the size of coke decreases. Thus,
the coal type influences the coke size. The coke size is also highly dependent on operating vari-
ables. Various additives such as coke breeze, anthracite, petroleum coke when added to a coal
blend, can result in an increase in coke size. In normal practice, the coke size for blast furnace is
mostly controlled by screening.
7.2.1.2.4 Blend Design for Coke Yield The amount of coke produced in a coke oven will be inversely
proportional to the coal volatile matter. The relationship used at Ispat Inland is given in Fig. 7.9.17
Table 7.3 Comparison Between Free Swelling Index, Gray-King Coke Type, and Roga
Index
Free Swelling Index Gray-King Coke Type
0–1⁄2 A–B
1–4 C–G2
41⁄2–6 F–G4
61⁄2–8 G3–G9
81⁄2–9 G7 and above
Free Swelling Index Roga Index
0–1⁄2 0–5
1–2 5–20
21⁄2–4 20–45
>4 >45
Ironmaking Volume
In North America, the coal 85

volatile matter range of Yield (VMf) = 98.0 - 0.78 (blend VM)
29–31% (dry, ash free) is gen- r 2 = 0.94
erally desired for the produc-
tion of high strength coke. 80
Total coke yield (%, dry basis)

7.2.1. 3 Coal Blend Design to
Satisfy Chemical Properties
75
With a physically stable set of
raw materials in the blast fur-
nace, further control of the
blast furnace process is
70
achieved through control of
the chemical properties. The
most important coke chemical
properties are moisture, fixed
65
carbon, ash, sulfur, phospho-
rus and alkalies. Most of these
properties are primarily depen-
dent on the coals used. Coke 60
ash and sulfur affect stability 20 25 30 35 40
negatively. Similarly, the coke Blend volatile matter (%)
ash, sulfur, and alkalies affect
Fig. 7.9 Relationship between coal volatile matter and coke yield. (From Ref. 17)
CSR negatively. However,
phosphorous affects CSR pos-
itively,18 but it is undesirable as it goes completely into the hot metal. In order to obtain a high qual-
ity coke with high yield, it is desirable that the coal blend should contain low amounts of moisture,
ash sulfur, alkalies, phosphorus and high fixed carbon content.
7.2.1.4 Coal Blend Design to Satisfy Coke Oven Pushing Performance

7.2.1.4.1 Coking Pressure Direct measurement of coking (wall) pressure can be obtained in a movable
wall pilot oven. This type of oven is widely used in order to estimate coking pressure of different
coals and different process conditions. The maximum coking pressure should not exceed 14 kPa (2
psi). Of all the inherent coal properties, rank and inert content appear to be of primary importance,
Fig. 7.10. The rank has a direct relation with coking pressure. Low volatile coals exert excessive
coking pressure; however, they also contribute to high coke strength and produce high coke yields.
Coals of similar rank but possessing high inertinites produce lower pressure. Western Canadian and
Australian low volatile coals generally produce low wall pressure and are included in blends to
reduce the coking pressure.
Because of the difficulty of measuring the coking (wall) pressure in a commercial oven, the wall
pressure and gas pressure measurements from a pilot oven are usually correlated with gas pressure
measurements in commercial ovens. Once the correlation is established, the gas pressure measure-
ments at the commercial facility are used to monitor the coking pressure. Gas pressure increases
with rank, Fig. 7.11, and decreases with inertinite content.
7.2.1.4.2 Charge Contraction Coal charge contraction occurs during two different phases of the cok-
ing process, the first phase is present during plastic layer information is mainly dependent on coal
properties. Once the plastic layers have transformed to semi-coke, the second phase begins during
the shrinkage of the semi-coke and is mainly dependent on the operating conditions. At Ispat
Inland, during the earlier years, sole heated oven (SHO) measurements were adopted to character-
ize the first phase and the coke mass vertical shrinkage measurements were adopted to simulate
the second phase.21 Thereafter, new procedures were developed to measure lateral contraction.22
Two sources of information were used for prediction and evaluation of the contraction behavior of
100
50
20
Low inert coals
10
Peek coking pressure (psi)
5
Fig. 7.10 Effect of coal rank and coal
type on wall pressure. (From Ref. 19)
1
High inert coals
0.5
0.2 Low volatile

coals
0.1
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Reflectance of vitrinite
1.5
1.2
Center gas pressure (psi)
0.9
Fig. 7.11 Effect of rank on gas pres-
sure. (From Ref. 20)
0.6
0.3
1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3

Reflectance (%)
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new coal blends. SHO contraction and 74

Gieseler maximum fluidity values are
used to predict Phase I of the lateral con- 62 Coal C
traction. Blends with high SHO contrac-
tion and high fluidity produced higher Coal D
50 Coal B
lateral contraction. This is followed by
measurements of the vertical shrinkage Blend
taken directly at the battery; this is mainly 38
dependent on operating parameters such

as coking temperature and heating rate. 26
7.2.1.5 Coal Blend Design to Maximize Usage 14

Coal A
of Low Value Carbon Materials 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Time (days)
In order to lower the operations costs
while maintaining the coke quality, low Fig. 7.12 Effect of oxidation on CSR. (From Ref. 24)
value carbon materials are added in vary-
ing amount to the commercial blends. Coal fines, coke breeze, coal tar, petroleum coke, asphal-
tene, and non-coking coals have been shown to have a positive effect on coke quality and coking
operation, provided they are added in the right amount and to the right kind of blend.23 Such prac-
tices have resulted in lower cost, better operation, and conservation of resources.
Oxidized (weathered) coals could also be considered as low value carbon material as the oxidation
generally results in a drop in CSR, stability, coke size, coke yield, and generally worsens the expan-
sion and wall pressure characteristics.24 CSR is most sensitive to coal oxidation; the magnitude of
CSR drop is higher for the lowest rank coals, Fig. 7.12. Hence, the use of oxidized coal should be
minimized.
7.2.1.6 Economic Evaluation of the Designed Blend

The technological evaluation of the coal blend is supplemented by an economic evaluation and an
evaluation of the utilization cost of the coke produced. Coke plant operation and blast furnace oper-
ation models are used to assess the cost competitiveness of various blends.
7.2.1.6.1 Coke Plant Operation Model The coal quality parameters are entered into the program. The
computer first calculates the predicted coke properties such as blend CSR, blend stability, blend
reflectance, coke ash, coke sulfur, yield, production of coke over gas, tar, light oils. Thereafter, the
processing cost per ton of coal is predicted. The most cost effective blends are selected for further
evaluation through a blast furnace operation model.
7.2.1.6.2 Blast Furnace Operation Model Blast furnace rules of thumb are used to evaluate the utiliza-
tion cost of cokes that would be produced from carbonization of the most cost-effective blends as
selected through the coke plant operation model.
Using predicted coke quality and coke rate, the
ISO-CSR
quality-adjusted price of blends are determined.
The blend that would produce coke with highest
potential cost savings at the blast furnace is rec- 75
t
ou
ommended for implementation at the coke plant.

ed
Min
70
7.2.1.7 Assurance of Coal Quality Shipments
Blend design is half of the job. The other half is
to make sure that consistent quality coke is pro-
duced from the batteries. In order to produce a
consistent high quality coke, the producer must
monitor the coal quality and forecast the reserve
quality. Petrographic, rheologic, chemical and Fig. 7.13 Coal reserve evaluation for CSR. (From Ref. 1)
ash chemistry characteristics are some of the inherent coal quality variables that should be moni-
tored on a routine basis for coal shipments.1, 25 In addition to monitoring shipments, it is essential
to forecast the coal quality data for the coal reserves and incorporate the quality data into the min-
ing plan.1, 25 This will assure consistent quality coal shipments in the future. An example of a
reserve evaluation map is shown in Fig. 7.13.
It should be noted that the coal blend design helps to achieve the potential mean value of a desired coke
property. Thereafter, the control of the battery operation is effectively used to reduce the variability.
Applying the coal selection procedure described in this section, cokemakers can achieve a balance
between the requirements of throughput, high coke quality, battery life, and cost efficiency with an
assurance of a consistent supply of high quality coals from the future mining areas.
7.2.2 Preparation of Coal Charge for Byproduct Ovens

The importance of coal preparation cannot be overemphasized. It is a very important step in the
coke-making process in terms of coke quality and uniformity. The proper preparation of the coal
blend affects both the smoothness of operation and the productivity of the coke battery.
A simplified flow diagram of a typical coal handling and preparation facility is shown in Fig. 7.14.
A brief description of the elements of this system and its operation follows.
7.2.2.1 Coal Unloading

Coals are received at coke plants by rail, river barge or, in some cases, by motor truck. Railroad
cars usually are unloaded by rotary dumpers or bottom dumping. Rotary car dumpers usually are
preferred.
Coal unloading
Since coal freezes to the railroad cars during the winter months, a
car thawing facility is provided to thaw the coal prior to dumping.
Stockpile
Some coal mines spray de-icing compounds on the coal as it is
loaded at the mines to prevent freezing.
Blending bins Throughout the unloading operation, coal identity must be main-
tained so that selected coals always are unloaded to the proper bin or
stockpile. Any coal misplaced to the wrong storage bins can cause
serious operating problems and possibly damage the coke batteries
in addition to having a negative affect on coke quality.
Proportioning
7.2.2.2 Bed Blending

Oil
X
The coals as received can vary in sulfur and ash content. One of the
methods used to reduce this variability is to bed blend about ten days
Pulverizing supply of coal in horizontal layers and reclaim it vertically. Individ-
ual coals, according to classification, can be bed blended prior to coal
preparation. A minimum of two stockpiles for each classification of
coal is required; one being stockpiled and one being reclaimed. Usu-
Bulk - Density ally, a more uniform quality coke is produced from coals that have
control
been bed blended, which has a beneficial effect on blast furnaces
operating at high production rates. Coal bed blending can be accom-
plished either by use of stacker/reclaimers or by utilizing mobile
equipment such as carryalls, trucks and front end loaders.
Battery bunkers
7.2.2.3 Primary Crushing
Fig. 7.14 Schematic diagram of
a typical coal preparation facility.
Coal received at the coke plant varies in size from run-of-mine,
Coal reserve evaluation for CSR. which includes large lumps, to crushed coal which could be essen-
(From Ref. 1) tially 100% –19 mm (–3⁄4 in.). In addition, large chunks of frozen
Ironmaking Volume
coal are not uncommon during the winter months, and contaminants such as wood, rock and metal
are usually present.
Primary crushers are used to break up the large coal with a minimum of fines generation. Not all
plants are equipped with primary crushers, but plants that are equipped usually employ roll type
crushers or Bradford breakers, Fig. 7.15. The Bradford breaker is a large rotating drum over 6 m
(20 ft) long and about 4.2 m (14 ft) in diameter, with holes about 63 mm (2.5 in.) in diameter
spaced uniformly over the entire shell. Baffle plates inside the drum lift and drop the coal as the
drum rotates. This repeated impact crushes the coal, which then passes through the holes in the
shell to a conveyor. The rock, slate and extraneous refuse are discharged from the end of the drum.
Plants not equipped with breakers of this type usually use magnetic separators and/or scalping
screens to separate foreign material.
7.2.2.4 Blending Bins and Weigh Feeders

Blending bins and weigh feeders are used for blending the individual coals in proportion to the
final coal blend which will be charged to the coke ovens from the bunker located above the coke
batteries. This operation can be performed either before or after pulverization. Some plants have
raw coal bins ahead of the pulverizers plus coal bins for storing pulverized coal prior to blending.
Other plants pulverize the coal as it is unloaded and accumulate the pulverized coal in bins prior
to blending.
In a well designed plant, blending bins are provided for each coal or groups of coals. The number
and size of the bins is determined by the number of coals to be blended and the daily throughput
of coal. The bins can be either round or rectangular with conical bottoms constructed of concrete
or steel. However, they should be designed with mass-flow bottom discharge. Bins usually are
grouped together to facilitate distribution of coal to the top of the bins and to shorten the conveyor
lengths required at the bottom discharge.
Quality analysis proves that a consistently well-proportioned coal blend is essential to the produc-
tion of the highest quality, most uniform coke possible from the coals supplied. In any given situ-
ation, regardless of the design or age of the facility, every effort should be made to get the
Fig. 7.15 Cut-away view of a rotary Bradford breaker.
maximum performance from the combined mixing bin and weigh feeder systems. Coal propor-
tioning is too important to take lightly or to ignore simply because the facility is too old to main-
tain properly or because repair parts are difficult to obtain. The benefits in uniform coke quality
and in the resultant blast furnace performance justify a concerted operating effort and an adequate
maintenance program.
Each bin is provided with a discharge weigh belt for controlling the weight of the coal delivered.
Coal weight control is accomplished by scales and control circuitry which regulates either the
speed of the belt carrying a constant depth of coal or the depth of the coal on a constant-speed belt.
There is probably little difference in the performance of these two types of weigh feeders provided
the machines are of modern design and well maintained. Usually, if the weigh feeders and control
circuits are in good condition and an error exists, it is probably due to the bin above the feeder. If
the flow from the bin is not constant because of poor bin design or because of wet coal or extra-
neous material, the weigh feeder cannot deliver the required flow rate. The subject of bin design
and mass flow of materials from bins is too extensive to discuss in detail here. Suffice it to say that
the bin and feeder must be treated as an integral unit if accurate proportioning is to be accom-
plished. The best feeder is useless without a proper bin above it.
7.2.2.5 Coal Screening

Most of the coals received at the coke plants contain large amounts of –3 mm (–1⁄8 in.) coal. Screens
are sometimes installed in the pulverizers (described below) to remove and bypass this fine coal
around the pulverizers. This reduces pulverizing costs, reduces plugging problems caused by wet
fines, reduces the amount of very fine coal (–147 micron or –100 mesh) produced. These screens,
however, tend to plug or blind, reducing efficiency especially when the coal is wet. Without con-
stant cleaning, this blinding permits a large portion of the fine coal to pass over the screens and
through the pulverizers. Because of this problem, larger screen openings are sometimes used and
this allows larger coal to by pass the pulverizers. This negates the effectiveness of the pulverizers,
resulting in an oversized coal blend and lower coke strength.
7.2.2.6 Secondary Crushing (Pulverizing)

Many different types of pulverizers are available for crushing coal, but three types find wide appli-
cation in coke plants: these are the hammer mill (Fig. 7.16), the impact mill and cage mill.
Dust gate
Breaker
block
Rotor
discs
Hammer
suspension impa
bars 1 or ct Breaker
ne z plate
zo
on
e
Rotor shaft Rotor

one
Hammers
Screen bars
nz
zo
io
ne
2 o r it
r a tt
Cage
Cage
adjustment
linkage
Trap
Fig. 7.16 Sectional view of a reversible hammer mill.
Ironmaking Volume
The hammer mill is a commonly used type. a

In this machine, hammers made of flat steel
bars or cast steel sections swing freely on
eight to ten steel shafts which rotate in the
mill at speeds of up to 100 rpm. The hammers
first impact and grind the coal against heavy
plates and finally force it though a bar screen.
The degree of pulverization is determined by
the speed of the hammers and the openings in
the bar screen. The hammer mill is an excel-
lent heavy duty machine which can withstand
the abuse of oversize material and tramp
metal, usually without serious damage. One c
important disadvantage however, is its ten-
dency to generate a large amount of fine coal b1 b2
(–147 micron or –100 mesh) by the grinding
action of the hammers forcing the coal Fig. 7.17 Reversible impactor for pulverizing coal: (a) feed
through the bar screen. This fine coal is unde- chute, (b) breaker plates, (c) rotor.
sirable in cokemaking as much of it is carried
out of the ovens into the gas collector mains during charging, adversely affecting tar quality.
Impact mills are essentially hammer mills with the bar screen removed and fitted with special
impact plates, Fig. 7.17. Coal enters the top of the machine where the coal particles are struck by
the rapidly moving hammers and thrown against the impact plates which are located at various
positions outside the path of the hammers. The impact shatters the coal particles, usually along nat-
ural cleavage lines. The degree of pulverization depends on the hammer speed, the number of ham-
mers and impact plates, and the hammer-to-plate spacing. Impact mills are as rugged as hammer
mills but have an added advantage of providing a high degree of pulverization with a lower level
of fine coal generation. Because of this, impact mills are the most commonly used pulverizers in
coke plants at this time.
The third type of pulverizer commonly used in coal pulverization is the cage mill, Fig. 7.18. In this
machine, two cages, one inside the other, are rotated in opposite directions at speeds of up to 500
rpm. Coal enters the center of the machine, is struck by the impact plates of the inside cage and
thrown into the plates of the outside cage, which is rotating in the opposite direction, and is dis-
charged out of the machine. The degree of pulverization is controlled by the rotational speed and
the spacing between the cages. The advantage of this machine is that it provides a high level of pul-
verization and good control of top size, with low levels of fine coal generation. The disadvantages
are its susceptibility to damage by tramp metal and plugging by softer material such as wood and
rags. Each cage mill installation must be protected by installing both magnets and metal alarms on
the conveyors ahead of the pulverizers. With this protection, the cage mill is probably the best pul-
verizer for coal preparation in coke plants.
Constant monitoring of the performance of the crushers by screen analysis of the crushed-coal
product is essential if consistently high quality coke is to be produced. When the pulverization level
falls, immediate corrective action must be taken to assure a production of high quality coke.
7.2.2.7 Bulk Density Control

The last step in the process of preparing coal for coking is adjustment of the bulk density of the
coal blend. If some form of control is not practiced, the bulk density of the coal blend charged to
the ovens could easily vary as much as 64–80 kg/m3 (4–5 lb/ft3) over short periods of time (min-
utes) and even more over longer periods as weather conditions might affect moisture content of the
coal. Additionally, without control, the average bulk density of the coal blend would usually be sig-
nificantly lower than desired in most cases. This is particularly true considering the high coal pul-
verization levels now considered to be standard practice at all coke plants.
Fig. 7.18 Cut-away view of a cage mill for pulverizing coal.
A coke battery cannot be operated smoothly and efficiently without bulk density control. It would
be impossible to heat the battery properly, coal level in the ovens would be variable, stickers and
oven damage by high coking pressure and insufficient contraction could occur and coke strength
would be variable.
Bulk density of the coal blends is affected by moisture content, as shown in Fig. 7.19. For exam-
ple, coal with a bulk density of 700 kg/m3 (43.7 lb/ft3) containing 8% moisture actually contains
only 644 kg of dry coal per cubic metre (40.3 lb/ft3). Consequently, it is desirable to maintain a
constant moisture content in the coal blend by adding water if necessary.
Most bulk density control systems
are based on the use of No. 2 or
800 50
diesel grade oil, or other similar
oils, to increase bulk density of
Box bulk density (lb/ft3)
775
Box bulk density (kg/m3)
48 the coal blend. In a manual sys-

750 Wet tem, bulk density measurements
46 are made regularly (usually every
725 hour) by hand in an ASTM bulk
Dry 44
density box, and the oil flow rate
700
is adjusted manually as required
675
to hold bulk density at the control
42
point.
650
40 There are two systems for auto-
625 matic control of bulk density;
namely, mechanical weigh belts
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
and gamma ray units. The bulk
Moisture (%) density of the coal as it leaves the
Fig. 7.19 Effect of moisture content on the bulk density of selected (Con- pulverizer or coal mixer is mea-
cord) coal. sured continuously by either of
Ironmaking Volume
these systems and the amount of oil needed to attain the control point is automatically adjusted.
The oil is sprayed onto the coal stream just ahead of the pulverizers or mixers where it is distrib-
uted and mixed with the coal blend.
The gamma ray unit, when applied to measuring bulk density of coal, is a very complex system in
which many factors influence the measurement. Some of the more important factors are: (1) the
depth of the coal on the belt as it passes under the radioactive source; (2) changes in the radiation
absorption coefficient of the coal; (3) dust or other material in the signal path; (4) temperature of
the detector; (5) thickness and tension of the conveyor belt; and (6) size consistency, moisture con-
tent and temperature of the coal. The advantages of the gamma ray system are that it is less expen-
sive than the weigh belt system and is less expensive to operate and maintain. Both systems,
properly maintained, can perform with an accuracy of at least ±16 kg/m3 (1 lb/ft3).
Fig. 7.20(a) shows the effect of oil addition on coal bulk density for a typical coal blend and Fig.
7.20(b) shows the changes in coke stability which result from changes in coal pulverization, bulk
density and coking rate for the same coal blend.
The use of oil is not the only means available to increase and/or control coal blend bulk density. In
Japan, many coke plants add water to the coal in the stockpiles as it is being conveyed into the plant
to control moisture content to about 9%. This is done primarily to control dust, but the operators
also aim for uniform moisture content. This uniform moisture content, in combination with a uni-
form coal blend pulverization level, results in a uniform bulk density for the coal blend. In most
cases, the bulk density is quite low, averaging only about 688 kg/m3 (43 lb/ft3). Some Japanese
plants briquette about one-third of their coal blend; this increases bulk densities and also improves
coke quality (see Section 7.5). In the Saar region of West Germany, a process called stamp charg-
ing is employed to increase the bulk density of the fine, high moisture coals used in that area. In
Pulverization (%_ 1/8")
60 67 74 81 88 95
Coking rate (in./h)

0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.0
Bulk density (lb/ft3,dry)

45.5 47.0 48.5 50.0 51.5 53.0 54.5
Oil addition (pints per net ton)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Geneva blend
71% Wellington / 29% coal basin
900 Geneva blend 56
71% Wellington / 29% coal basin
x 59
54
x
22.9mm/h
850 x
A S T M c o n e b u l k d e n s i t y, l b / f t 3 ( w e t )
769kg/m3
(0.9in/h
x x 52 57 48lb/ft)
Coke stability
x Pulverization
Bulk density (kg/m3)*
800 50 55
_
70% 3.2mm
x x 22.9mm/h
(70%_1/8"
0.90in/h)
48 Bulk density
53
750
x 46 Coking rate 70%_3.2mm
51 769kg/m3
x (70%_1/8"
x _4 . 5 % m o i s t u r e 3
48lb/ft )
x _6 . 0 % m o i s t u r e 44
700 _7 0 % _1 / 8 " ( 3 . 2 - m m ) b l e n d
_8 0 % _1 / 8 " ( 3 . 2 - m m ) b l e n d 49
60 67 74 81 88 95
_9 0 % _1 / 8 " ( 3 . 2 - m m ) b l e n d
Puverization (%_3.2mm)
42
21 22 23 24 25 26
x Coking rate (mm/h)
650
40 750 775 800 825 850
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
sBulk density (kg/m3, dry)
Oil addition (litres per metric ton)
*Calculated from ASTM cone bulk density
(b)
(a)
Fig. 7.20 (a) Bulk density response to oil additions for a coal blend; (b) changes in coke stability resulting from changes
in coal pulverization, bulk density and coking rate.
this latter process, a large compacting device located on the pusher side of the battery is used to
compress the coal blend into a rectangular mass slightly smaller in size than the coking chamber
of an oven. This stamped charge is then inserted into the oven from the pusher side. Bulk densities
as high as 1040 kg/m3 (65 lb/ft3) are not uncommon when using this practice. Coal preheating can
also be considered as a means of controlling bulk density because the moisture content (0%) and
the pulverization level are controlled.
7.2.2.8 Coal Mixing

The use of the pulverizer for mixing blended coals can be considered adequate provided the coals
are layered properly on the conveyor feeding the pulverizer. However, hammer-type pulverizers
provide little or no mixing from side to side; so, if one of the coals is loaded into one side of the
conveyor, it will come out of the pulverizer in the same location and will not be mixed with the rest
of the coals. If this situation exists because of the arrangement of the coal conveyors and weigh
feeders, it can be partially corrected by the use of belt plows or belt mixers.
Some plants install continuous mechanical mixers after the pulverizers and prior to conveying the
coal to the coal bunker to ensure thorough mixing of the blended coals. There are numerous types
of solid-solid continuous mixers such as ribbon, paddle and zigzag blenders. The choice of mixers
for a specific installation is a function of many variables such as throughput, coal size and mois-
ture content, retention time required, space availability, cost and so on, and the choice is usually
made after an engineering evaluation.
7.3 Metallurgical Coke Production Processes

7.3.1 The Beehive Process for Carbonizing Coal
Until 1918, most of the coke produced in the United States was made in beehive coke ovens. Bee-
hive ovens usually were located close to coal mines so that freshly mined coal could be charged
directly into the ovens; no provision was made for stocking or mixing coal at the oven site. The
beehive process has virtually been phased out of production in the United States. Lack of coals
suitable for the process and more stringent rules regarding air pollution were the major factors
causing the decline of the process. Refer to Section 7.8 for a thorough discussion of modern non-
recovery oven technologies.
Tr u n n e l h e a d Larry
car
Refractor y br ick
Ear th fill lining
Pusher
machine
Quencher
car
Fig. 7.21 Ideal section of a beehive coke oven in a single block battery, showing refractory lining, earth fill, larry car, pusher,
quencher car and other details, including the trunnel head at the top through which the coal was charged and the volatile
products escaped. Vertical lines in the coke bed indicate the fissures that developed during coking, giving beehive coke its
characteristic columnar structure.
Ironmaking Volume
A beehive coke oven was a circular, domed firebrick structure with a flat floor that sloped toward
the door through which coke was removed when the coking process was completed. An opening
called the trunnel head in the center of the domed roof permitted coal to be charged into the oven
and allowed the gases generated during the coking process (called foul gas) to escape into the
atmosphere. A typical oven was about 3.7 m (12 ft) in diameter and processed about 4.5–6.3 tonnes
(5–7 tons) of coal per charge. From 48 to 72 hours were required to complete a coking cycle.
Beehive coke oven plants were constructed according to three general arrangements: (1) the bank
system, in which the ovens were built in a single row against a bank of earth, natural or artificial,
with a retaining wall in front of the ovens; (2) the single block system, which consisted of a single
row of ovens, all facing the same way, with retaining walls at both the front and back of the row,
Fig. 7.21; and (3) the double block system, in which the ovens, in a double row, were built back to
back or staggered with a retaining wall extending along the front of each row. In all cases, the space
above the ovens between the bank and the retaining wall or between the two retaining walls was
filled with earth. Tracks were laid on top of the rows to carry larry cars from which coal could be
charged directly into the ovens; other tracks at yard level in front of the ovens carried cars which
received the coke as it was removed from the ovens.
7.3.1.1 Charging
Beehive ovens were charged as soon as practicable after drawing the coke from the oven at the end
of the previous cycle, in order that stored heat from the previous charge would be sufficient to start
the coking process. New ovens had to be heated gradually to the coking temperature by wood and
coal fires, after which small charges of coal were coked until the ovens reached normal working con-
ditions. With the oven in readiness for charging, the door was partially bricked up and the coal charge
was dropped through the trunnel head from the larry car above, leaving the coal in a cone-shaped pile
in the oven. In order to secure uniform coking of the coal, this pile had to be leveled so that the coal
would lie in a bed of uniform depth of about 46–610 mm (18–24 in.) over the entire floor of the oven.
This leveling was done by machine or by hand. In works not equipped with a machine, the leveling
was accomplished with a long-handled scraper, operated through the door of the oven, which was pur-
posely bricked up to only two-thirds of its height at the time of charging. After leveling the coal, the
door opening was bricked up to within about 38 mm (1.5 in.) from the top.
7.3.1.2 Coking Process

The coking process began very soon after leveling was completed, as the oven retained enough heat
in the brick of the walls and the earth fill to start liberation of volatile matter from the coal. As the
temperature of the coal charge increased, the temperature of the combustible volatile gases soon
reached the kindling (ignition) point and, in presence of the air admitted to the oven, they ignited
with a slight explosion at first and then continued to burn quietly in the crown of the oven or as
small candle-like flames at the surface of the coking mass, thus supplying heat to continue the
process. Coking proceeded from the top of the coal downward, so that the coking time depended
upon the depth of the coal. The generation of gas from the coal rapidly approached a maximum
which was maintained for a period and then declined to practically nothing. The burning of the
volatile matter during this period was regulated by gradually closing up the opening at the top of
the door for the admission of air. This regulation was necessary to maintain the temperature at a
maximum and conserve coke, as an excess of air at the beginning of the coking period tended to
cool the oven and later consumed some of the carbon of the coke. The yield was also reduced by
improper leveling. If the coal was not of uniform depth, the thin portions coked through before the
thick, and some of the thin sections was consumed while the coking of the thick sections was being
completed. On the other hand, if the process was stopped when the thin areas had coked through,
there was a loss due to uncoked butts on the thick areas. Coking proceeded downward from the top
of the charge, in which the coal at increasing depths passed through a plastic stage as the temper-
ature rose. This produced expansion and contraction of the charge with the result that the coke was
ramified by a great number of irregular vertical fissures that divided the coke mass into very irreg-
ular columnar pieces that extended from the top to the bottom of the mass.
7.3.1.3 Watering and Drawing

At the end of the coking period, the brickwork closing the door was torn out and the coke was watered
out by spraying with a stream of water directed through the door of the oven or, in later ovens, by the
use of a spraying device inserted through the door. After watering, the coke was removed from the
oven by hand or by machine. Fig. 7.21 shows the use of a pusher to remove the coke.
7.3.2 The Byproduct Process for Carbonizing Coal

7.3.2.1 Introduction
Byproduct coke ovens are those designed and operated to permit collection of the volatile mater-
ial evolved from coal during the coking process, as opposed to beehive and other types of ovens
that allow the volatile products to escape. An overall view of a byproduct coke oven battery is
shown in Fig. 7.22. A variety of valuable substances are recovered from the volatile material by
suitable chemical processes, as discussed in Section 7.7 of this chapter.
Because of the physical dimensions of the coking chamber of byproduct ovens (narrow, long and
tall) they sometimes are referred to as slot ovens. They are called recovery type ovens also, because
their design permits recovery of the volatile products of the coking operation.
In this section, reference is made to furnace plants and merchant plants for byproducts cokemak-
ing. Furnace plants generally are owned by or affiliated with iron and steelmaking companies and
produce coke mainly for use in the blast furnaces of the companies. Merchant plants include those
that manufacture metallurgical and industrial grades of coke for sale on the open market; those
associated with chemical companies or gas utilities; and those that supply only a small part of their
output to blast furnaces of local iron works with which they are affiliated.
Fig. 7.22 Overall view of the pusher side of a typical byproduct coke oven battery.
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7.3.2.2 Foundry Coke Production

While the discussion in this section will be primarily about plants producing blast furnace coke, it
would not be complete without some reference to facilities and procedures for making foundry coke.
In 1997, there were six merchant coke producers in the United States that make foundry coke for
melting iron in ironmaking cupolas. Seven operating coke plants involving 17 coke oven batteries
were available for this service. Annual capacity for producing foundry coke from these batteries
was estimated to be 1.8 million tonnes (2.0 million tons).
Annual consumption of foundry grade coke has been in the 1.4 million metric ton (1.5 million net
ton) range. A consensus exists that annual foundry coke requirements will average between 1.3 and
1.5 tonnes (1.4 and 1.7 million tons) during the next five years.
The production of coke for use in foundry cupolas generally involves the use of a blend of six to
eight coking coals in which the volatile content of the blend is in the range of 20–24%. Coke tem-
peratures are significantly lower than in the production of blast furnace coke and seldom exceed
1150°C (2101°F) in the heating flues. Normal coking cycles are longer than in blast furnace coke
production, usually in the 28 to 30 hour ranges. However, it is not uncommon to exceed 32 hours
as a maximum and 26 hours as a minimum coking time.
Coke size requirements for use in cupolas are a function of the cupola diameter, and a rule-of-
thumb generally gives a 10:1 ration of cupola diameter to normal coke size. Nominal sizes for
foundry coke shipments are: (1) 228 mm (9 in.) top size to 152 mm (6 in.) bottom size; (2) 152
mm (6 in.) top size by 101-mm (4-in.) bottom size; and (3) 228 mm (9 in.) top size by 101 mm (4
in.) bottom size, which is most frequently shipped.
Proximate analysis of foundry coke normally shows less than 0.7% volatile matter, less than 0.65%
sulfur, less that 7.0% ash, less than 1% moisture and a fixed carbon content of 92% or better.
Most foundry coke is shipped via trucks; however, a significant amount is shipped in railroad hop-
per cars. Just in time delivery resulting in less than one day delivery and the possibility of main-
taining minimum coke inventories at the foundries is common.
7.3.2.3 Evolution of Byproduct Ovens for Carbonizing Coal

7.3.2.3.1 Early Developments Construction and operation of byproduct coke ovens in the United States
lagged behind European development. The production of manufactured gas from coal in retorts
was started on a commercial basis in both England and the United States in the early 1800s. Tar,
ammonia liquor and gas were recovered in this operation. These ventures, however, were unrelated
to the manufacture of coke.
Prior to and for fully 50 years after industrial installations for making manufactured gas, repeated
efforts were made to develop a single facility that could produce coke similar in quality to that
made in beehive ovens and also provide for recovery of products such as those obtained in gas pro-
ducing retorts. Attention was being directed similarly during this period to the design of an oven
that utilized a principle of coking different from those currently practiced. The se developments
were confined largely to Europe because of the inadequacy of the methods then used in producing
coke of suitable quality from some of the more weakly coking coals known at the time to exist in
various foreign countries but not in the United States.
In 1856, in Commentry, France, Knab built a group of retort ovens with the principal purpose of pro-
ducing gas, tar and ammonia. The gas from the ovens was freed of tar and ammonia in suitable chem-
ical apparatus and then burned in heating flues under the ovens to provide the heat for carbonizing
the coal. The Knab ovens were 7 m (23 ft) long; 2 m (6 ft, 63⁄4 in.) high; and 1 m (39.5 in.) wide.
Prior to this time, however, an oven that embodied vertical flues in its walls was developed in
France and used both in that country and in the Ruhr district of Germany for producing coke. The
purpose of that design was to exclude air from the coking chamber to the greatest degree possible
during the carbonization of coal. The volatile gases were drawn by stack draft through orifices in
the top of the coking chamber into vertical flues in the oven walls. Gas from the ovens and air were
mixed and burned in a downward direction in these flues and passed to the stack through sole flues
under the oven. Known as the Francois oven when built in France and as the Rexroth oven when
used in Germany (hence the combination name, Francois-Rexroth), this so-called waste heat oven
was 8 m (26 ft) long, 1.5 m (5 ft) high, and 0.9 m (35 in.) wide.
In the earliest development of the industry, therefore, various facilities were developed for differ-
ent purposes. From the standpoint that the Francois-Rexroth oven was a rectangular, vertical cok-
ing chamber, which embodied vertical heating flues, it could lay claim to the distinction of being
the forerunner of the modern coking oven, notwithstanding the fact that it was not of the recovery
type and that it was designed primarily to overcome some of the objections to the then prevailing
coking method. The Knab oven similarly could be placed in the category of a pioneer among recov-
ery type ovens, despite its shortcomings in heating facilities. Both the Francois-Rexroth and the
Knab ovens were departures from the then contemporary practice in that air was excluded from the
coking chamber and external heat was supplied for carbonization.
7.3.2.3.2 Development of Vertical Flue Ovens The course that was pursued later in improving oven per-
formance led to two separate and distinct developments.
Carves of England, using the Knab principle, developed an oven in 1862 (Knab-Carves design) that
embodied horizontal heating flues in the oven walls. This oven was an improvement over the Knab
design, providing for greater yield of coke and requiring less time for carbonization. The principal
contribution by Carves, however, was the addition of an exhauster in the chemical recovery appa-
ratus. In the Carves oven system, gas was drawn from the oven by the exhauster, pumped through
the chemical recovery apparatus, and returned to the ovens for use as fuel, the present method of
recovering coal chemicals being based on this same principle. Because of the inclusion of hori-
zontal flues in the oven walls, the Carves system can claim the distinction of being the originator
of the horizontal flue system of oven heating.
Almost simultaneously with the Carves development, Coppee in Belgium, using the basic princi-
ples of the Francois-Rexroth oven, introduced the innovation of reducing the width of the oven and
providing additional vertical heating flues in the oven walls. The ovens built by Coppee at that time
were about 9 m (30 ft) long; 1 m (3 ft, 7 in.) high; and 0.5 m (18 in.) wide. In these ovens, stack
draft was used to draw the gases of combustion from the vertical downdraft flues through waste
heat boilers, recovering the sensible heat as steam. The ovens built by Coppee embodied 28 verti-
cal flues, and one of the chief contributions of this builder was the control of combustion by
dampering the air admitted to the flues. Since the ovens built by Coppee conformed more nearly
to present day conventional width ovens and also contained a substantial number of vertical flues
in the oven walls, this oven may, in some respects, be considered the true predecessor of the mod-
ern coke oven.
Up to that time, all these developments took place in Europe, although ovens of the Coppee or Bel-
gian design were built and operated in the United States. The installations were made at both the
Johnstown plant of the Cambria Iron Company and the Holidaysburg plant of the Blair Iron and
Coal Company, both in Pennsylvania.
Ovens of the Coppee design were built in the Ruhr district of Germany by Dr. C. Otto and Com-
pany, who added further refinements to the earlier Francois-Coppee design. Attempts at converting
these ovens from the so-called waste heat type to the recovery type byproduct ovens have been cred-
ited to this builder. In the ovens of Otto design, the volatile products from the coal were removed
from an opening in the top of the oven and the gas, after passing through the chemical recovery
apparatus, was returned to the flues in the walls of the ovens. The flow of combustion gases in this
oven was different from that of the early Coppee design, with products of combustion rising and
descending in alternate flues, thus forming the basis for the later ovens of hairpin flue design.
Heating of these ovens was rather crude and inefficient. Nevertheless, this early Otto-Coppee
development is significant because it was the first vertical flue oven of the recovery type built with
flues completely surrounding the oven chamber.
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7.3.2.3.3 Horizontal Flue Ovens Evolution of the

horizontal flue oven was also proceeding,
but improvements were largely in the direc-
tion of byproduct recovery rather than in
coke oven design. The basic design of the
Carves-Knab oven was improved later by
Heussner in Germany and Simon in Eng-
land. Heussner, in 1881, developed the
Heussner-Carves oven along more conven-
tional lines by reducing the width and
improving the heating system, making avail- S e m e t - S o l vay o ve n
able a small quantity of surplus gas. Follow-
ing this development, recovery type ovens
were established more firmly in Germany.
Simon, in England, also revised the Carves
oven design and, in 1883, erected a plant in
Durham, England embodying recuperators
for the transfer of heat from waste gases to
incoming air. A reduction of coking time to
48 hours was the principal contribution of
this Simon-Carves oven. O t t o - H o f f m a n o ve n
In 1885, Louis Semet, chief engineer of the
Brussels Gas Works, and his brother-in-law,
Ernest Solvay, built 25 ovens sized at four
tons each near Mons, Belgium. The Semet-
Solvay design, Fig. 7.23, was based on the
Carves principle of horizontal flues. Solvay’s
interest involved supplying the lime kilns
with coke and the soda process with ammo-
nia. It is of interest to recall that the ovens of
horizontal flue design did not embody regen-
erators, such facilities being included some-
time later. Ko p p e r s o r i g i n a l c r o s s - r e g e n e r a t i ve o ve n
The Rothberg oven, a half-divided horizon- Fig. 7.23 Early designs of recovery type coke ovens, not to
tal flue oven, was developed in 1902; the same scale.
first of these ovens in the United States
began operation in 1903.
7.3.2.3.4 Improvements in Heating Facilities Despite the fact that ovens of Coppee, Knab, Carves,
Heussner, Semet-Solvay, Otto and others represented appreciable progress compared with the
simple beehive system such facilities were lacking in heat economy. Temperatures in the ovens
were not high enough to produce an acceptable metallurgical coke, notwithstanding return to the
oven for heating purposes of all or nearly all of the volatile gases from the coal. These ovens left
much to be desired in uniformity of temperature. Their coke product did not compare favorably
in quality with that produced in beehive ovens. As a result of inferior quality and lack of uni-
formity of the produced coke, the use of recovery type byproducts ovens for producing metal-
lurgical coke was viewed with skepticism, until further improvements were made in both design
and operation.
The criticism leveled against this system of coking resulted in greater efforts to improve the facil-
ities. In the ovens of vertical flue design, attention was directed to the improvement of the heating
system. Following the invention of the Siemens regenerator for preheating combustion air used in
steelmaking furnaces, a patent embodying the use of this principle on coke ovens was obtained by
Gustave Hoffmann in Germany. This application brought about far-reaching improvements in

byproduct ovens.
The Otto firm purchased the patents from Hoffmann and in 1883 added these facilities to the Otto-
Coppee oven. This type, known as the Otto-Hoffman oven, Fig. 7.23, was equipped with regener-
ators, parallel to the length of the battery, for preheating both combustion air and fuel gas. The
deposit of carbon from the cracking of preheated coke oven gas in the regenerators soon dictated
abandonment of fuel preheating. Other structural and operational disadvantages required an early
revision of the basic Otto-Hoffmann design but the basic principles of the oven were of unques-
tionable value as witnessed by their widespread use in later years.
In order to provide further regularity of temperature and to increase the capacity of recovery type
ovens, G. Hilgenstock in 1895, using the Otto-Hoffman design as a base, fundamentally altered the
oven originally built by Otto. The changes made by Hilgenstock consisted of providing gas inlets
to the combustion flues beneath the oven bases. Air for combustion was added through small flues
provided in the side of the brick work. The upper terminus of the gas ducts was in the base of the
vertical flues at the approximate level of the oven floor. The use of the under-oven principle for
controlling admission of fuel gas eliminated the gas flues, which in previous designs were a source
of difficulty. This was a marked advance, although the underjet principle of fuel-gas control was
not exploited until much later.
To obviate some of the criticism of the fairly excessive initial investment cost of the recovery type
oven, which in some respects resulted from the inclusion of regenerators, this feature was elimi-
nated from the Otto-Hilgenstock design. This phase in the evolution of the recovery type oven is
significant because it provides a clue to the rather slow adoption of this procedure by the iron and
steel industry. From an economic standpoint, the beehive oven was cheap to build, could be oper-
ated with a minimum of help, and was capable of being shut down or restarted with little or no dif-
ficulty. The recovery type oven, however, was costly to build and difficult as well as expensive to
operate, because of the size of the units and the need for skilled personnel. Consequently, the incen-
tives for building recovery type ovens were lacking in the steel industry until the economic advan-
tages of the ability of the integrated steel plant to use the excess gas had been clearly established.
The industry then began widespread adoption of this process.
Later installation of the Otto-Hilgenstock oven (also variously known as the United-Otto or
Schniewind oven) was equipped with regenerators. A still further modification of this oven
included Cowper regenerative stoves, where special requirements indicated their use.
Until the end of the 19th century, all the ovens equipped with regenerators were built with these
facilities parallel to the length of the battery. The operational difficulties in regulation and control
of air to the individual vertical heating flues presented many problems. An oven design by Hein-
rich Koppers (1904) was developed to overcome such difficulties. In the Koppers design, Fig. 7.23,
the regenerators were placed directly underneath the heating flues and parallel with the length of
the oven; called cross regenerators, this type of regenerator became standard in the coke oven
industry following the expiration of the Koppers patent in 1918. The first oven of this type was
built by the Illinois Steel Company at Joliet, Illinois and the first coke was pushed in September,
1908. The plant consisted of four batteries of 70 ovens each with coal chemical recovery facilities.
Although silica brick as a coke oven refractory was first used in this country by the Cambria Steel
Company at Johnstown, Pennsylvania in the 1890s, a controversy existed between European and
American designers as to its use for coke oven wall construction. In order to obtain an answer to
this problem, the various batteries at Joliet were constructed of different kinds of brick; No. 1 bat-
tery was constructed of silica brick and No. 2 battery was built of St. Louis quartzite, the raw mate-
rial for which was composed mostly of Missouri clays. Quartzite brick imported from Germany
was used in erecting Nos. 3 and 4 batteries. Results demonstrated the superiority of the silica brick
and its use eventually became general.
Aside from the various constructional features, an innovation provided by Koppers was the inclu-
sion of the gas fun flue, by which gas was fed to the base of each vertical flue through a ceramic
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flue and nozzles. The nozzles were removable and made with orifices of various sizes. This per-
mitted control of the volume of gas to individual flues and provided for the replacement of nozzles
when required.
The next significant development in byproduct coke ovens was the erection of Koppers ovens for
the Coal Products Company at Joliet in 1912. These ovens were arranged with combination cross
regenerators to provide for simultaneous preheating of air and producer gas for coke oven under-
firing. By this procedure an additional amount of the richer coke oven gas was released for sale.
This type was the predecessor of the combination oven, so-called because the regenerators are
arranged to preheat both air and fuel gas in separate chambers.
Difficulties were experienced with the single horizontal flue (bus flue) above the vertical heating
flues through which the products of combustion passed from the heating flues to the downflow
flues of the early cross regenerative ovens because it had to be quite large to handle the volume of
combustion gases generated.
This condition was aggravated as ovens of greater capacity were built and increasing use was made
of lean fuels such as blast furnace gas and producer gas. This problem was solved in various ways
by different designers during the 1920s.
One solution to the horizontal bus flue problem was the Koppers-Becker design which incorpo-
rated an entirely new system of heating, as shown later in Fig. 7.58. In these ovens, first installed
as an experimental battery in Chicago in 1922, gas is burned in all of the flues on one wall of an
oven at the same time. The products of combustion from groups of two or more adjacent verti-
cal flues of the wall in which fuel gas is burning enter short horizontal bus flues and are then
conducted over the top of the oven coking chamber through crossover flues to a companion
series of bus flues, whereby the vertical flues of the entire opposite wall are simultaneously con-
ducting waste gases to the regenerator. On reversal of this process, the opposite conditions are
obtained.
Another solution to the horizontal flue problem is exemplified by the Wilputte double-divided
oven, see Fig. 7.58. The size of the flue is limited in these ovens by dividing it at the center of the
oven. Each half of the flue then serves an inner an outer zone of the heating system. Gas is burned
alternately in the two outer zones with the products of combustion being carried by the horizontal
flues to the two inner zones and then to the regenerators. On reversal, gas is burned in the two inner
zones and the products of combustion pass to the regenerators through the two outer zones; in
effect, these designs constitute two short cross regenerative ovens placed end to end.
Various improvements in the design of regenerative systems were made by different builders, and
the systems employed in some modern byproduct ovens are discussed extensively in Section 7.6 of
this chapter.
As vertical flue ovens of greater height came into use, the uniform heating of the flues in the
high walls from top to bottom became a problem, especially when heating with rich gas that has
a characteristically short flame. Some of the solutions for this problem included: (1) dilution of
fuel gas with waste gases to produce a longer flame (Koppers); (2) introducing combustion air
in successive vertical stages along the height of the heating flue (Carl Still); and (3) using high
and low burners in alternate heating flues (Wilputte). Application of these and other combustion
control principles to some modern byproduct coke ovens also is discussed Section 7.4 of this
chapter.
7.3.2.3.5 The Byproduct Oven in the United States Although reasonable success had been achieved
abroad with the byproduct oven, it was not used in the United States prior to 1890. It is pertinent
to recall that the first ovens of the byproduct type installed in the United States were not for pro-
duction of metallurgical coke. The distinction for launching the industry must be accredited to the
Solvay Process Company, which was interested in establishing the soda ash industry in this coun-
try. The plant that was built in Syracuse, New York and placed in operation in 1893 consisted of 12
Semet-Solvay ovens.
It was not until two years later that recovery type (byproduct) ovens were installed in the United
States for producing blast furnace coke. In 1895, the Cambria Steel Company at Johnstown, Penn-
sylvania built a battery of 60 Otto-Hoffman ovens.
Until 1900, only nine plants with 1081 byproduct ovens had been constructed in the United States.
From 1900 through 1910, however, there was a period of rapid industrial expansion, particularly in
the iron and steel industries, and the number of byproduct coke plants more than tripled while the
number of byproduct ovens increased four-fold.
The need for coal tar dyes and explosives in World War I added impetus to this expansion, and by
1918 the byproduct coke industry had 59 plants with over 9000 ovens.
The construction of byproduct ovens for gas utilities in the 1920s further expanded the industry
and, by 1930, there were 89 plants with 12,771 ovens in existence.
Due to a worldwide economic depression, construction of byproduct ovens was halted during the
1930s and by 1940 there were fewer ovens in existence than during the 1930s. However, World War
II started a new construction era and between 1940 and 1950, 2359 ovens were added to the indus-
try total for ovens. The increase in total ovens, however, only partially indicates the vast construc-
tion program of this period because many of the ovens constructed were replacements or rebuilds
of ovens originally built during World War I. Actually, over 5000 ovens were constructed during
this period.
The construction of byproduct ovens continued after 1950, and in 1958 the number of ovens
reached an all-time peak of 16,244. Although ovens increased in number because of the expansion
of blast furnace plants, the number of byproduct coke plants in existence decreased to 77 during
this period, because seven gas utility plants were abandoned as markets for coke oven gas were lost
to natural gas which became available in many areas through the extension of gas pipelines after
World War II.
Since 1960, the total number of byproduct coke ovens in the United States started to decline, due
to a steady reduction in steelmaking output, environmental controls, more efficient coke-to-hot
metal rations achieved in blast furnaces, and ovens with larger capacity coking chambers. By early
1998 the total number of slot type ovens in the United States had declined to 3,409 from 6,350 in
1983. Correspondingly, coke capacity has dropped from 32 to 20 million tonnes annually over the
same period of time.
7.4 General Design and Operating Principles of Modern Byproduct

Ovens
7.4.1 Principal Oven Components
The byproduct coking process, being a true distillation process, involves the use of retort ovens.
While there are many modifications, these ovens consist essentially of three main parts, namely:
the coking chambers, the heating flues and the regenerative chambers—all constructed of refrac-
tory brick. The following discussion of components applies generally to all types of ovens, but is
related principally to those used in the United States.
Ovens are constructed in batteries that have contained from as few as ten to over 100 ovens. In the
United States, large batteries of 45 or more ovens generally have been preferred, while batteries of
fewer ovens have been more common elsewhere.
Coking chambers in a battery alternate with heating chambers so that, in effect, there is a heating
chamber on each side of a coking chamber. The regenerative chambers are underneath the heating
and coking chambers. Separating walls between regenerators also serve as foundation walls for the
heating and coking chambers. The entire structure is supported either from the ground or by
columns under a reinforced concrete or structural steel base.
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The coal is charged through openings in the top of the oven and, after the coal has become coke,
the coke is pushed out from one end by a power driven ram, or pusher, Fig. 7.24. During the cok-
ing period, the ends of the coking chamber are closed by refractory lined doors, which are con-
structed to completely seal the ends of the ovens. The ovens first constructed in the industry
provided a space between the door and the jamb which was filled with a special luting mixture to
seal the oven prior to charging. Later, several types of self-sealing doors were developed, which
seal the opening when put in place and require no luting; several of these are described later in
this section.
To permit the escape of volatile matter driven from the coal during coking, an opening is provided
at the top of the oven at either one or both ends of the coking chamber. Each such opening is fit-
ted with an offtake pipe, which connects the oven with the gas collecting main for the battery.
The combustion chambers consist of a large number of flues which permit uniform heating of the
entire length of the coking chamber. Ovens have been built with either horizontal heating flues or
vertical heating flues, but vertical flues are used almost exclusively in present installations. Some
of the older ovens employed the recuperative principle for preheating combustion air. Modern prac-
tice utilizes the regenerative principle to achieve higher thermal efficiency whereby less gas is
required to heat the ovens. In all modern oven batteries, individual regenerators are provided for
each heating wall and are located under each oven. This permits separate control of the flow of pre-
heated air for combustion to individual vertical heating flue walls and allows close control of heat-
ing. An advantage of individual regenerators is that the control of heating for each oven is relatively
independent of the operation of the remainder of the battery.
7.4.1.1 Coking Chamber Design

The dimensions of the coking chamber are usually a compromise of many interrelated variables
that will best suit the expected production requirements while making the best quality of coke
within practical limits. Past experience with coals of similar properties is the best guide, as there
is no well-defined theoretical method of arriving at definite oven dimensions for specific coals.
In general, the dimension of coking chambers built in North America have ranged from 1.82 m (6
ft) to 6.7 m (22 ft) in height, 9.14 m (30 ft) to nearly 15.5 m (52 ft) in length, and 304 mm (12 in.)
to 550 mm (22 in.) in average width. Some recent ovens have coking chambers 15.25 m (50 ft) in
length and 6.5 m (21 ft) in height. Generally, the preferred width of coking chambers in this coun-
try has been 460–488 mm (18–19 in.) average because: (1) coking chambers of these widths nor-
mally produce coke of a size similar to that desired by blast furnace operators, and (2) the time
required to coke coal in chambers in this width range is acceptable. Narrower chambers (e.g., 356
mm or 14 in. wide) permit a more rapid rate of coking and are used to produce an acceptable blast
furnace coke from western United States coals that make poor blast furnace coke when processed
in wider chambers. However, the lower productivity of the narrower width ovens precludes their
use except where some such special conditions exist. The latest development is coke ovens with
wide chambers of 600 to 620 mm (23–24 in.), 18 m (59 ft) length and 7.8 m (25 ft) height. Sev-
eral such large coke oven plants have been built and are operating successfully in Germany. The
main advantages of the larger ovens are higher productivity and reduced emissions per ton of coke
produced.
The coal is charged into the coking chamber through charging holes provided in the roof of the
oven. The coking chamber and the heating system are designed to process a coal charge of definite
volume, having a level top surface about one foot below the oven roof. The number of charging
holes and the flow characteristics of the coal control the time required to charge an oven with coal.
To prevent escape of gases from the oven during charging in most plants, a steam jet or high pres-
sure flushing liquor aspirator is used to draw gases from the space above the charged coal into the
collecting main; this practice is called charging on the main. Because this puts the oven under a
slight negative pressure, air is drawn into the oven through the charging holes and leveler door. It
is impossible to prevent the introduction of some air into the gas recovery equipment; this is one
Separate
charging
larry
Pusher
E m p t y o ve n
r e a d y fo r
charging
( a ) T h e c h a r g i n g l a r r y, w i t h h o p p e r s c o n t a i n i n g m e a s u r e d a m o u n t s o f c o a l , i s i n p o s i t i o n
o ve r c h a r g i n g h o l e s f r o m w h i c h c o ve r s h a ve b e e n r e m o ve d . T h e p u s h e r h a s
b e e n m o ve d i n t o p o s i t i o n .
Coal
( b ) T h e c o a l f r o m t h e l a r r y h o p p e r s h a s d r o p p e d i n t o t h e o ve n c h a m b e r, fo r m i n g
peaked piles.
L eve l i n g b a r
Coal
( c ) T h e l eve l i n g d o o r a t t h e t o p o f t h e o ve n d o o r o n t h e p u s h e r s i d e h a s b e e n o p e n e d ,
a n d t h e l eve l i n g b a r o n t h e p u s h e r h a s b e e n m o ve d b a c k a n d fo r t h a c r o s s t h e
p e a k e d c o a l p i l e s t o l eve l t h e m . T h e b a r n ex t i s w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e o ve n , t h e
l eve l i n g d o o r a n d c h a r g i n g h o l e s a r e c l o s e d , a n d t h e c o k i n g o p e r a t i o n b e g i n s .
Coke gide
Quenching
car Coke
( d ) C o k i n g o f t h e c o a l o r i g i n a l l y c h a r g e d i n t o t h e o ve n h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d ( i n a b o u t
1 8 h o u r s ) a n d t h e o ve n i s r e a d y t o b e " p u s h e d . " T h e o ve n d o o r s a r e r e m o ve d f r o m
e a c h e n d , a n d t h e p u s h e r, c o k e g u i d e a n d q u e n c h i n g c a r a r e m o ve d i n t o p o s i t i o n .
Ram of pusher
Coke
( e ) T h e r a m o f t h e p u s h e r a d va n c e s t o p u s h t h e i n c a n d e s c e n t c o k e o u t o f t h e o ve n ,
T h r o u g h t h e c o k e g u i d e a n d i n t o t h e q u e n c h i n g c a r.
Fig. 7.24 Schematic presentation of the sequence of operations involved in charging, leveling and pushing in one coking
cycle of a byproduct coke oven.
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of the reasons for keeping the time required for charging to

a minimum. Excessive leveling of the charged coal not only
extends the time during which the leveler door is opened,
but also tends to pack the coal at the top of the charge, par-
ticularly under the charging holes, and may cause localized
erosion of the oven wall.
The coking chambers are narrower on the pusher side and
taper from 50 to 100 mm (2 to 4 in.) toward the coke side.
The extent of taper depends upon the expanding properties
of the coals to be coked. The heating walls on either side of
the coking chambers are built of specially designed shapes
of high quality silica brick, set in silica mortar that forms
ceramic bond at the high operating temperature. The cok-
ing-chamber floor may be of either first-quality fireclay
blocks, or silica bricks.
Effectively, all of the heat for coking the coal is conducted
through the coking chamber liners. The coking therefore,
starts in the coal at the walls and progresses from both walls
to the center of the oven. As coking proceeds in this man-
ner, the coke in the center is not fused together, Fig. 7.25.
This limits the length of any piece of coke to half the width
of the coking chamber minus any shrinkage that may have
occurred. The structure of the coke mass at the end of the Fig. 7.25 View of coke being pushed from
oven, showing central line of cleavage and
coking period is that of two parallel slabs of irregular inter- block-like structure of the coke.
laced pieces. These have sufficient strength to be pushed
from the oven by the pushing ram and exert very little lateral pressure on the oven side walls. How-
ever, the oven walls must be designed with sufficient structural strength to resist a high lateral pres-
sure should the structure of the coke mass be broken for any reason during the pushing. Additionally,
these walls must be gas-tight to prevent any leakage of gases between the oven and the heating flues.
7.4.1.2 Heating System Design

Practically all heating systems may be grouped into two general classes: the gun flue type shown
later in Figs. 7.60–7.62, and the underjet type shown in Figs. 7.63–7.65. In the gun flue type, the
gas is introduced through horizontal gas ducts extending from both sides to the center of each heat-
ing wall. Short connecting ducts lead vertically upward to a replaceable nozzle brick at the bottom
of each of the vertical heating flues. In the underjet type, the fuel gas is introduced into each heat-
ing flue from the gas distribution piping in the basement of the battery through gas ducts built inte-
grally into the regenerator division and flue supporting walls. Each of these separate gas risers is
equipped with a regulating nozzle to control the flow of gas to each flue.
There are many variations of both general types. All attempt to heat the coal being coked at a con-
trolled rate and temperature, uniformly from end to end of the oven, and from top to bottom of the
charge (with the exception of the top few centimetres or inches which may be held slightly lower
for the better control of coal chemical yields) and at the lowest rate of heat consumption per kilo-
gram or pound of coal carbonized.
In recent years, larger, faster operating ovens have been constructed. Designs have been keyed to
higher production rates at lower operating costs, with the use of automation and mechanization.
The higher production rates have been achieved with larger ovens and denser brick, and with spe-
cial design features described in Section 7.6, where more recent designs of byproduct coke ovens
are discussed.
Heating of individual ovens is controlled so that the temperature at the base of the heating flues does
not exceed about 1425–1535°C (2600–2800°F). This is considered the maximum safe temperature
range to which silica coke oven refractories should be heated. With the flues operating within this
temperature range, time required to coke the coal depends primarily upon the width of the coking
chamber and the nature of the coals being coked, although a few other factors are involved. In gen-
eral, a coking time is selected that will produce a uniform skin temperature of the block of coke in
the coking chamber of 1040–1095°C (1900–2000°F) at the time the charge has been coked all the
way through to the center. The skin temperature referred to above applies to the coke adjacent to
the walls of the coking chamber. The time required for coking coal under the above operating con-
ditions generally varies from 16 to 20 hours. Normally, the average time is 17 to 18 hours.
Because the flue temperature should not exceed 1535°C (2800°F), the heating system must be
reversed on a regular basis. The frequency with which the firing of byproduct coke ovens is
reversed generally has been established on a 30 minute cycle. Batteries which require a higher aver-
age temperature level to sustain high production rates can be reversed on either a 15 minute or 20
minute cycle without exceeding maximum permissible temperatures.
Of particular importance in flue design is the position of the gas inlet in the vertical flue in rela-
tion to the air port, and the manner in which the gas and preheated air are mixed at the base of the
flue. Excessive turbulence at this point will result in quick combustion, and a short, intense flame
will cause local overheating at the base of the vertical flue.
Control of the rate of flame propagation and flame length in the vertical flues is desirable. This has
been accomplished in several ways. In some batteries, blast furnace gas is mixed with rich fuel gas
to lower the heating value of the latter and alter its combustion properties. One system recirculates
waste gas from the flues containing waste gas to the nozzle where fuel gas is being burned. This
feature is contained in the Koppers-Becker design, Fig. 7.62. By this recirculation, the flame length
can be controlled without cooling or purification of the waste gas and without having to heat the
diluent as would be required with external mixing. The ratio of recirculated waste gas to fuel gas
is controlled by the orifice size and the fuel gas pressure, and normally approximates one volume
of waste gas to one volume of fuel gas. Waste gas recirculation also prevents the accumulation of
carbon in the underjet gas ducts, as the contained carbon dioxide and water vapor both tend to
inhibit carbon deposition. In ovens not recirculating waste gas, air must be introduced into the gas
ducts during the gas off periods for decarbonization of the nozzles.
A feature of the Wilputte double divided oven shown later in Fig. 7.64 and Fig. 7.65, especially for
those over ten feet in height, is the high-low burner construction. Low burners in flues alternating
with high burners in adjacent flues prevent overheating at the bottom of the flues and improve the
vertical heat distribution.
The latest development is the air stage heating system. In this system gas is fed to the heating flues
through short burners at the bottom which all have the same height, approximately 300 mm (1
ft).The necessary combustion air enters the heating flues through air outlets located in most cases
at two different heights, but as many as six different heights. Instead of the very hot local flames
of a gas stage system, this results in an area of combustion with more even heat development over
the heating wall area. The result is a lower average heating flue temperature at the same coking
time. The emissions (NOx) are reduced as peak temperatures are lower. All presently active coke
oven builders have changed to the air stage system.
7.4.1.3 Gas for Heating

When blast furnace gas or other gases having a low calorie (Btu) content (lean gases) are used for
oven heating, supplementary heating with gas of a higher calorific value may be needed in order
to maintain coke production at as high a rate per oven per operating hour as when firing with a
straight high calorie (rich) gas. It is not practical to add more than a limited amount of rich gas to
the lean gas before the mixture enters the regenerators, as the rich component of the mixed gas can
decompose (crack) partially while passing through the regenerators and cause an objectionable
deposit of carbon. Because of this, any additional rich gas needed is fed through its own gas sys-
tem for burning in the flues at rates needed to achieve the required temperature.
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Some modern coke oven designs can be heated with pure coke oven gas or blast furnace gas.
Because the calorific value of blast furnace gas varies based on the operating conditions of the fur-
nace it is stabilized in an automatic mixing station by the addition of a small amount of coke oven
gas in order to ease the coke oven heating operation.
The rich fuel gas is heated to above its dew point. The fuel gas mains located in the alleys on both
the pusher and coke side (or in the basement in the case of an underjet battery) are insulated to
limit condensation in the headers and to keep the gas at a uniform temperature throughout the
length of the header. Other designs keep the basement/alley temperature controlled in a range
which makes any insulation unnecessary.
7.4.1.4 Air for Combustion

In the gun flue type of oven, the air required for combustion is taken into the sole flue at the base
of the regenerator chambers through an air box equipped with small slats (finger bars) that can be
adjusted to regulate the amount of air taken from the alleys. The temperature, the velocity and the
direction of the wind may have a noticeable effect on the heating and should be compensated for.
In the underjet type, the air for combustion may be taken from the enclosed basement and is there-
fore independent of wind velocity, direction and temperature.
In the Wilputte design of underjet ovens, the basements are sealed and kept at a constant air pres-
sure with only the air required for combustion entering the basement through a wind tunnel extend-
ing along the entire length of the battery. When operating on a fast coking time with lean gas, a fan
is used to deliver sufficient air to the wind tunnel. Spaced along the length of the basement are suit-
able openings equipped with regulating louvers to distribute the air uniformly throughout the base-
ment. In this design, only the air required for combustion is available for basement cooling.
In Koppers-Becker underjet ovens, the air for combustion is introduced in much the same manner
as that just described, with the exception that air in excess of the amount required for combustion is
forced into the basement, the excess finding its way through suitable openings around the buckstays
on the pusher side (the wind tunnel being on the coke side of the basement). In this arrangement,
air in addition to that required for combustion may be circulated through the basement for cooling.
In Thyssen Still Otto underjet ovens the air passes through the basement without the aide of any
fan or duct equipment. The required amount of combustion air, the necessary air exchanges per
hour to avoid any gas pockets, and the temperature differences (summer/winter) are all controlled
by adjustable openings in the alleys.
7.4.1.5 Importance of Heat Control

Faulty heating affects not only the quality and quantity of the coke and coal chemicals produced, but
also the ultimate life of the ovens. The most serious damage to the ovens is caused by fluxing or slag-
ging of exposed brick surfaces due to local overheating beyond the critical temperature of the brick.
This may occur in zones that are not readily accessible for repair. The advantages of an even and con-
trolled heat throughout the oven cannot be overemphasized and remains a constant challenge.
When a new battery, or an old battery that has been allowed to go cold, is to be put into operation,
great care must be taken in bringing the battery up to operating temperature. The major high tem-
perature portion of the battery is high grade silica brick which has a high coefficient of thermal
expansion at lower than operating temperatures, see Chapter 3. Therefore, the rate of heating must
be slow enough to ensure maximum temperature equalization throughout the entire battery struc-
ture. In practice, the heating from cold to operating temperature takes from seven to ten weeks.
This same practice must be reversed when a battery of ovens is taken out of operation for repairs
or an extended shutdown and allowed to go cold. Because the regenerator walls can not be tight-
ened up properly again, such a repaired battery can not be operated on blast furnace gas.
The usual method of heating up a battery begins by burning gas in the coking chambers, using burn-
ers inserted through an opening in the door at each end of each oven. The products of combustion
are allowed to enter the heating system at the horizontal or bus flue elevation through suitable
openings provided for this purpose, which later are plugged and sealed. The hot gases during the
initial or drying out period are vented down through the vertical flues and regenerators to the stack
flue and stack. When the flues become hot enough to ignite fuel gas, the gas is introduced through
the normal heating ducts. Where other gas is not available for
Corner stop heating up, liquid butane or propane may be vaporized and
b o l t ( t y p. )
used. In the earlier period, coal or coke has been used for
heating up by substituting a brick bulkhead for the oven door,
leaving openings for firing and ash removal. The same type
of false hearth is used to protect the oven liner brick. After
heating up, the false hearth and bulkhead are removed and
the oven door is installed.
L eve l e r d o o r
7.4.1.6 Oven Doors

Upper latch As has been mentioned, the ends of the oven are equipped
with removable, refractory lined doors. After a coal charge is
fully coked, suitable machinery located on both the pusher
and coke sides of the battery is used to remove the doors and
S p r i n g b ox ( t y p. )
hold them during the pushing operation. After pushing, the
doors are replaced and sealed preparatory to recharging the
Upper hook
oven.
plate
The original method of sealing the doors was to trowel and
smooth ground refractory mud into a V-shaped opening
Door limit between the door and the doorjamb. In recent years there
s t o p ( t y p. )
have been developed self-sealing doors that do not required
luting, sealing with mud. In principle, the self-sealing door
has finally developed into a spring loaded door that depends
on a metal-to-metal contact between the door and the contin-
uous machined surfaced cast iron or ductile iron jamb.
O ve n n u m b e r Oven door expense is a large factor in overall repair and
p l a t e b r a cke t
maintenance costs. This expense can be controlled by careful
Door limit design of door handling equipment and strict adherence to
s t o p ( t y p. )
good operating practice. The lining of the door is usually sec-
tionalized and made up of clay brick shapes. In some plants
the doors have a monolithic lining of lumnite cement made
Sealing ring with an aggregate of various grades of crushed brick and gan-
ister which give good service. The thickness of the lining and
L ow e r h o o k
plate
the position of the inside face of the lining relative to the end
vertical flue of the oven are important as they influence the
L ow e r l a t c h heating of the ends of the coal charge.
Six popular types of coke oven doors are discussed in detail.
7.4.1.6.1 Koppers Door The Koppers door has a U-shaped seal-
ing ring on a cast iron door, with a series of spring loaded
Heating up
plungers that force the sealing ring to conform to the oven
hole door jamb, Fig. 7.26 and Fig. 7.27.
7.4.1.6.2 Wilputte Door The Wilputte fabricated steel door
Corner stop incorporates a heavy, reinforced channel frame with a sealing
b o l t ( t y p. )
diaphragm with a renewable flexible stainless steel sealing
edge. Heavy duty springs mounted at the locking bar and act-
Fig. 7.26 Face view of a Koppers coke ing through a series of heat resistant spring loaded plungers
oven door of the self-sealing type. provide a constant force to conform the sealing edge to the
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Flue Flue
Cast plug Door jamb

Sealing ring
Door limit stop
Door frame Spring box

Buckstay
Buckstay
Latch hook Latch hook

Latch bar
Latch screw
View at top View at

latch bar spring box
Fig. 7.27 Horizontal section of the self-sealing coke oven door shown in Fig. 7.26.
oven doorjamb. The Wilputte leveler door is constructed with a heavy ductile iron casting with
insulation and a stainless steel sealing edge that is adjusted by set screws. The leveler door latch
spring is made from a heat resistant stainless steel, Fig. 7.28 and Fig. 7.29.
7.4.1.6.3 Thyssen Still Otto Door The Thyssen Still Otto type self-sealing door with its spring-loaded
sealing strip is well illustrated in Fig. 7.30. The door body is a heavy casting. The Z-shaped sealing
fram from special stainless steel is adjusted to the contour of the chamber by separate adjusting bolts
and not by the sealing springs. The sealing spring pressure is 100% available as sealing force.
End flue End flue
Replaceable Replaceable
Door lining
jamb jamb
Replaceable brick brick Replaceable
nose nose
brick brick
Buckstay
Jamb bolted
in place
Adjustable
spring
plunger
Door
Door frame
latch
Fig. 7.28 Cross-section of a Wilputte door and door jamb arrangement.
7.4.1.6.4 Krupp-Uhde Door In response to increasing envi-

ronmental controls on door leakage, Krupp-Uhde devel-
oped the Flexit door. The design incorporates a new
type of door body with a certain flexibility which,
together with the flexible diaphragm seal, can adapt to
the door jamb deflections during operation. The sealing
strip is held on to the doorjamb via springs. The refrac-
tory door plug is designed to expand independently on
the door body and has lateral gas ducts to assure rapid
flow of the coke oven gas into the gas collecting space.
The sealing diaphragm is made of heat and corrosion
resistant steel. The diaphragm has a relatively long free
leg and small wall thickness which provides a very elas-
tic and wide deflection range, Fig. 7.31.
7.4.1.6.5 Saturn Coke Oven Door Saturn doors incorpo-
rate a patented leaf spring supported Inconel seal in
combination with supporting spring plungers and a
rigid but adjustable doorframe. The Inconel seal and
supporting leaf springs attach to a diaphragm plate.
Inconel is used to produce a seal which can withstand
the high temperatures and corrosive conditions without
deterioration or significant dimensional distortion, Fig.
Fig. 7.29 Wilputte design of self-sealing coke 7.32 and Fig. 7.33.
oven doors, showing spring loaded bars that
The seal contacts the jamb surface at an angle thereby
maintain metal-to-metal contact between the
door and jamb. allowing for greater elevational flexibility. The door
incorporates two means of adjustment in order to secure
full contact between the door seal and the jamb sealing
surface. The primary means of adjustment is the turnbuckle adjusted, segmented, flexible door-
frame. The second means of seal adjustment are the spring plungers located above the seal and
Fig. 7.30 Thyssen Still Otto self-sealing coke oven door with spring loaded sealing strips.
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Fig. 7.31 Cross-section of Krupp-Uhde door.
Fig. 7.32 Saturn door awaiting installation. Fig. 7.33 Saturn door cross-section through retrofit
seal.
around the entire door. Basic sealing pressure is applied to the Inconel seal through the plungers
while an even pressure is maintained around the entire length of the seal by leaf spring.
7.4.1.6.6 Thyssen Still Otto Door Thyssen Still Otto has developed the Autoseal door which incor-
porated the Z-type sealing strips. By adapting the sealing strip to the doorjamb contour, the door
can be adjusted without reducing the required forces exerted by the sealing strip. Sealing is
Fig. 7.34 Cross-section through the Thyssen Still Otto AutosealTM door with automatic adjustment of the contact pressure
by means of compressing spring system.
obtained by action of a compression spring system to permit a mechanical self-regulation of the

contact pressure, Fig. 7.34.
7.4.1.7 Gas Collecting System

The oven may be equipped with one or two offtakes to carry off the volatile products liberated in
the coking process. Where one offtake is provided, it is through the oven roof at one end of the
oven, and where two are provided, there is one at each end of the oven. In either case the volatile
products pass through the duct or ducts in the oven top and enter a refractory lined standpipe
(sometimes referred to as an ascension pipe) which in turn is connected to a collecting main
through a damper valve, Fig. 7.35 and Fig. 7.36. Between the damper valve and the oven the
standpipe is equipped with a cap valve, or elbow cover, which, when open, vents the oven to the
atmosphere.
The damper valve is usually a liquid-sealed valve, so designed that the cooling spray furnishes the
seal when the damper valve is in the closed position, the excess spray overflowing into the col-
lecting main. With this arrangement, the cooling spray is always on. The liquid called flushing
liquor, used in damper and collection main flushing, is the condensate from the volatile products
driven off in the coking process.
In the Thyssen Still Otto design illustrated in Fig. 7.35 the standpipe is from fabricated steel and
the standpipe elbow is from cast steel. The standpipe cap is a standard vessel bottom and is tight-
ened on the inside by a metal-to-metal seal and on the outside by a water seal. The flexible con-
nection between the standpipe elbow and the collecting main is a liquor seal filled with bitumen.
The collecting main body is round for ease of manufacturing and to avoid corrosion on horizontal
surfaces.
In the Wilputte design illustrated in Fig. 7.36, the standpipe is fabricated steel and the standpipe
elbow is cast steel. The elbow is equipped with a spring loaded locking cover and fitted with a
renewable stainless steel sealing edge that provides a gas-tight seal. The elbow can be fitted with
a renewable flanged sealing surface.
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Flair pipe with electrical

ignition system
HP _ aspiration liquor
Flushing liquor
Mechanical and manual
operation of water-sealed lid
Pneumatically operated Pneumatically-operated
HP _ aspiration valve bleeder valve
Cool and cleaning

nozzle
HP _ aspiration
Trough for multi-hole nozzle
drain water
Bitumen seal
Fig. 7.35 Thyssen Still Otto collecting main and ascension pipe with oval water-sealed cap for automatic gooseneck cleaning.
The flushing liquor spray nozzle is recessed in the standpipe elbow and protected by a shroud. The
nozzle provides 360° spray coverage of the elbow interior, to maintain maximum cooling and
cleaning. Easy access to the spray nozzles is provided.
The standpipe is lined with refractory brick or castable with a layer of insulation. The elbow is lined
with anchored castable refractory. The lined standpipe and elbow maintain the oven offtake gas at
a temperature high enough to minimize deposition on the walls until the spray in the elbow can
cool the gas and flush any deposits into the collecting main.
A gas-tight floating elbow connection to the collecting main is accomplished by the use of a flush-
ing liquor seal. Additional sprays located in the collecting main provide a flushing spray to the
damper valve housing to maintain trouble free valve operation. The height of the elbow cover per-
mits inspection of the inside of the elbow and the spray pattern when the oven is off the main.
All ovens of a battery thus are connected to a single or multiple pressure equalized collecting main
on either or both sides of the battery. The function of either the single or double collecting main is
not only to collect gas from the ovens but also to maintain at all times an accurately controlled pres-
sure in the oven during the coking process. Pressure in the oven during coking has a pronounced
effect on the coke and coal chemicals. The pressure in the collecting main usually is kept at a point
Locking cover
assembly
Flushing liquor
nozzles
Refractory
lining
Insulation
Liquor seal
expansion joint
Liquor seal
valve
Fig. 7.36 Wilputte arrangement of standpipe, liquid-sealed damper valve, collecting main and automatic elbow cleaner.
that will give about 2 mm (0.078 in.) water gauge pressure at the bottom of the oven at the end of
the coking period. The pressure is regulated by a controller located in the connection between the
collecting main and the suction main which carries the gas to the coal chemical recovery units. The
collecting main also serves to transport to the tar decanters the products condensed from the gas
by the flushing liquor.
The gas passing from the ascension pipe to the collecting main is shock cooled with a flushing
liquor spray which causes precipitation of tar from the gas, and cooling of the gas to the desired
temperature.
7.4.2 Accessory Oven Equipment

7.4.2.1 Coal Storage Bins and Charging Larries
To provide coal for the ovens, every modern plant has an overhead coal bin at the ovens of suffi-
cient surge capacity to permit flexibility in coal preparation without interference to the scheduled
uniform operation of the ovens. The number and size of bins required are determined for each indi-
vidual plant.
All modern byproduct coke ovens are designed to take a definite volume of coal per charge, and
are charged from a larry car operating between the overhead coal storage bin and the ovens on a
track supplied by the battery top, Fig. 7.37 and Fig. 7.38.
The desired amount of coal for an oven charge is drawn from the storage bin and is measured, usu-
ally by using either the track scales at the loading station, or by volumetric sleeves (choke boxes)
on the larry car. When the separate hoppers of the larry, one for each charging hole, are equipped
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Fig. 7.37 View of a coal storage bin and larry car on top of a modern coke oven battery equipped with a double collecting main.
with volumetric sleeves, the gates usually are linked together and power operated as all gates may
be left open until the hoppers are full and the flow of coal is stopped by the sleeves.
The larry car in principle is designed in connection with the number of charging holes per oven so
that a predetermined quantity of coal is charged into the oven through each charging hole, the
mechanism for controlling discharge from each hopper being independently operated by powered
drives on new installations and by gravity on older batteries.
Improvements in larry cars, particularly the method of discharging coal, have been directed toward
making possible better charging practices. The aim has been to reduce the charging time; to reduce
the number of passes of the leveling bar necessary for leveling; to make a smokeless charge; to pre-
vent hanging up of the coal in the larry hoppers; and to make a uniform charge, regardless of coal
bulk density.
On more recent installations, Fig. 7.39, automatic lid lifters are provided to dispense with manual
removal of the charging hole covers.
The gravity discharge larry and the mechanically unloaded larry are the two main types in use at
the present time. The gravity discharge larry is equipped with conical shaped hoppers, shear gates,
and drop sleeve mechanisms. With this type, the coal charge flows by gravity from the hoppers into
the ovens. There are two designs of mechanically unloaded larry cars in use at present; namely, the
turntable and screw discharge types. The turntable larry is equipped with a revolving table serving
as the bottom of each hopper. The revolving table forces the coal through an opening in the side of
Bunker gate operator
Power collector
Coal hopper
Pusher side
Antenna for
inductive radio Thyssen Still Otto
Discharge
equipment
Copyright © 1999, The AISE Steel Foundation, Pittsburgh, PA. All rights reserved
Drop sleeves and
sliding gate
Drive truck Charging hole and lid cleaner Operator cab

Drive truck
423
Fig. 7.38 Front elevation of a coal charging larry for a modern byproduct coke oven.
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Fig. 7.39 View of an automatic charging hole lid lifter assembly as mounted on a coal charging car.
Fig. 7.40 Pusher side equipment of a battery of byproduct coke ovens, showing the machine which is equipped to level
the coal charge in the oven and also push the finished coke out of the oven, as well as remove and replace oven doors
before and after the pushing operation.
the hopper leading to the shear gate and drop sleeve and thence to the oven. The screw discharge
larry is equipped with rectangular shaped hoppers with the lower section tapering to a small open-
ing directly over the screw trough. The trough contains the screw conveyor that forces the coal hor-
izontally to the vertical drop sleeve and shear gate section.
To reduce emissions to the atmosphere a stage charging practice has been adapted, see Fig. 7.71.
With this concept, the two outer hoppers of the charging car, each of which contains approximately
40% of the coal charge, discharges coal into the oven while the charging hole lids of the inner
charging holes are still in place. When coal discharge from the outer hoppers is completed, the
outer lids are replaced and the lids from the inner charging holes are sequentially removed and the
remainder of the coal is charged into the oven. At a predetermined time during the discharge into
the inner charging holes, the leveler bar levels the coal in the oven. With stage charging, the oven
charging takes between three and eight minutes as compared to approximately two minutes
required when coal was discharged from all hoppers simultaneously.
Nearly all modern plants worldwide today use screw feeder coal charging cars as they are a well-
proven design, provide better control over the charging operation, and can be easily integrated into
modern process control systems.
7.4.2.2 Pusher Side Equipment

The pusher side equipment, shown in Fig. 7.40 and Fig. 7.41, is generally similar on all types of
ovens. The pusher is, in general, a combination of three machines: a pusher, a leveler and a door
extractor. It is designed to operate on a track parallel to, but independent of, the battery.
The function of the door extracting element of this machine is to remove and hold the pusher side
door during the pushing operation. It is either electrically and/or hydraulically operated from the
elevated cab which contains all of the machine controls. With self-sealing doors, an important fea-
ture of the door extractor design is that its speed be relatively slow and easily controllable and the
alignment be accurate to avoid damage to the sealing edges of the door. Contained in the head of
the extractor is a mechanism for latching the door.
The function of the pushing element, Fig. 7.24(e) and Fig. 7.41, is to push the coke cake from the
oven. This is done by an electrically powered rack and pinion operated ram, equipped in front with
a suitable head that, when spotted immediately in front of the oven to be pushed, may be moved
forward until all the coke has been pushed from the oven and through the coke guide into the
quenching car.
The ram is equipped with a rider shoe located a short distance behind the pushing head to support
the ram during its passage through the oven. This rider shoe is replaceable, as it is subject to con-
siderable abrasion sliding over the brick floor of the oven, especially as there is always consider-
able coke breeze on the oven floor during the pushing and return. The ram is either a built up box
girder, H-beam or electrically welded open lattice structure. The open lattice construction seems to
be currently in favor as it is more easily repaired and resists the tendency to warp, due to more even
cooling regardless of wind direction. With the box girder type ram, it is necessary to have wind and
rain guards for the ram in its retracted position. The pushing speed of the ram is roughly 15–20 m
(50–60 ft) per minute, and the maximum pressure exerted is controlled by overload relays to pre-
vent damage to the oven brickwork.
The function of the leveling element, Fig. 7.24(b) and (c), is to level the coal charge in the oven, leav-
ing a free gas space below the roof of the charged oven. This is done by an electrically operated lev-
eling bar carried by the pusher machine structure in such a position that it may be introduced through
a suitable opening in the top of the pusher side door. The leveling bar is a fabricated section consist-
ing of two side plates held apart by vertical plates spaced at approximately 0.6–1.2 m (2–4 ft) which
also serve as scrapers. When this bar is moved in and out of the oven, the scraper plates level the peaks
of coal beneath the charging holes into the valleys and, on removal from the oven, drag out all excess
coal into a chute discharging into a receiving bin carried by the pusher machine. This excess coal peri-
odically is dropped into a ground level hopper or container for return to the coal bunker (bin).
Operator and electric cab
Door emission collecting device
426
Leveller bar
Pusher equipment
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Thyssen Still Otto
Structural framing
Maintenance platform
Drive truck
Copyright © 1999, The AISE Steel Foundation, Pittsburgh, PA. All rights reserved.
Counter pressure device
Fig. 7.41 Byproduct coke oven pusher machines, equipped to level the coal charge in the oven, push the finished coke out of the oven and to remove and replace oven door before
and after the pushing operation.
The various platforms, control rooms and

operating cab of the pusher machine should
be designed to facilitate comfortable opera-
tion and accessibility for lubrication, adjust-
ment and repair.
The modern pusher machine is equipped with
devices to remove the carbon buildup from
the doors and jambs so that the door can seat
tightly in place against the jambs to prevent
emission of gases during the coking cycle,
Fig. 7.42.
The battery has a bench serving as a walkway
along its entire length and as a working plat-
form for servicing the doors and jambs. The
level of this bench is about 0.76–0.91 m
(2.5–3 ft) below the oven floor level so that
the pusher ram may pass over the top of the
bench railing.
7.4.2.3 Coke Side Equipment

The coke side of the battery is equipped with
Fig. 7.42 Jamb cleaner mounted on a pusher machine, in
position to remove carbon deposits. a door extracting machine and a coke guide.
The coke side equipment operates on a track
integral with the coke side bench, as shown in
Fig. 7.43.
The function of the door machine is to
remove and hold the coke side door during
the pushing of an oven, and to place an
attached coke guide in the proper position to
conduct the coke across the coke side bench
into a quenching car operating on a ground
level track parallel to the battery; these oper-
ations are shown in Fig. 7.43.
The design and operation of the door extrac-
tor of the door machine is generally similar to
the door extractor of the pusher machine.
Recent developments place the extracted door
behind a heat shield and have details of
design that facilitate door cleaning.
The coke guide is attached to the door extractor
machine by a disconnecting coupler. At mod-
ern plants, the coke guide is equipped with a
movable lattice framework that is power oper-
ated from the door machine. When spotted at
the oven to be pushed this movable framework
is moved into the space between the buckstays
and against the doorjamb, thus preventing
Fig. 7.43 Coke side of a battery of byproduct coke ovens dur-
spillage of coke at this point during pushing.
ing the process of pushing the coke out of one of the ovens.
The quenching car is self-propelled, and carries the coke to a The door extracting machine is equipped simi-
quenching station where it is sprayed with water before being lar to the pusher machine with mechanical
dumped on the coke wharf. devices for cleaning doors and jambs.
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Fume hood _ Emergency duct Fume hood _ Door emission collecting device
Fume hood
Fume hood _ Connection pipe
Fume hood _ Belt lifting car
Thyssen Still Otto
Drive truck
Quench car
Drive truck
Fig. 7.44 Thyssen Still Otto modern coke transfer car.
The latest design machines for the coke side, Fig. 7.44, are called coke transfer cars and combine
in one machine the functions of coke guide, door extractor, door and jamb cleaner as well as the
hood for collection of the pushing emissions. They travel with only one row of wheels on the out-
side of the bench, thus keeping a greater distance between the machine and the battery clear for
more safety The other row of wheels travels either on the ground or on the collecting duct sup-
porting structure.
Generally, most coke oven machinery in the United States operates on direct current (DC) power;
however, on many new installations oven machinery is powered by alternating current (AC) motors
instead of DC motors and AC power generated at the plant can be used without rectification.
Use of AC motors is made possible by silicon controlled rectifiers. There are several advantages in
this method of control. With silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR), stepless control is obtained and
the movement of machines is fast and smooth with reduced stress on equipment.
7.4.3 Coke Quenching

There are two methods for quenching the hot coke pushed from the ovens, namely, wet quenching
and dry quenching, the latter being used mainly in Japan, Europe, Russia and other states of the
former Soviet Union.
7.4.3.1 Wet Quenching of Coke

Wet quenching in most modern plants is accomplished by receiving the charge of hot coke from
the ovens in the quenching station by a locomotive, where the coke is quenched by water. The car
is then taken to a coke wharf where the coke is discharged. The handling of the coke from the wharf
will be discussed later.
The quenching car is designed so that by moving the car during the pushing operation the coke is
caught in a relatively uniform bed about two feet thick on the sloping bottom of the car, Fig. 7.43.
The quenching car has gates at the low side of the sloping bottom, operated by electric or air power,
so designed and arranged that the quenching water not evaporated may drain readily from the car.
When the charge of hot coke has arrived at the quenching station, it is spotted under a system of
stationary sprays located in the quenching tower that is operated by remote control. The purpose of
quenching, obviously, is to cool the coke rapidly to stop any further combustion. However, it must
be recognized that coke with a low moisture content is desired. This is accomplished by so arrang-
ing the sprays and the time of quenching that sufficient heat will remain in the center of the indi-
vidual coke lumps to evaporate excess water. The usual practice is to aim at an average moisture
content of 2.5% in the metallurgical coke after screening.
Modern quenching stations are of the recirculating type in which the water drainage from the
quench car discharges into a settling basin where the coke fines collected with the excess quench
water settle out. The clear water is then reused for quenching. Because of environmental regula-
tions, the makeup water to the quench stations must be fresh water; the discharge of contaminated
water into the quench basin is no longer permitted.
Baffles have been installed near the top of some quenching station stacks to minimize carryover of
entrained dust and water droplets out of the top of the stacks by the steam generated in quenching.
These eliminators consist of wooden grid-type baffles, provided with auxiliary water sprays for
periodic flushing to remove accumulations of dust.
7.4.3.2 Dry Quenching of Coke

When pushed from the oven chamber, the hot coke has a temperature of about 1000°C (1800°F)
and has to be cooled before it can be further handled and used. The usual cooling method in the
United States is wet quenching accomplished by spraying the coke with water in a quenching
tower. This results in heat loss to the atmosphere. With dry quenching (cooling), however, the sen-
sible heat of the hot coke is recovered and utilized for the generation of steam.
Dry quenching is a proven process but it was not much used in the past because of high investment
costs and technical problems and because it was uneconomical. There is a growing interest in dry
quenching due to changes in the economic section in particular, and the more stringent regulations
regarding pollution control and the reduction of emissions from coke oven plants.
Since 1965, more than 50 dry quenching units, some rated at 57 tonnes (63 tons) per hour, have
been installed in the former Soviet Union. NKK of Japan has installed eight dry quenching units,
rated at about 70 tonnes (77 tons) per hour, at their Ohgishima Works. Ruhrkohle AG installed a
250 ton per hour dry quenching plant at the Kaiserstahl Plant in Dortmund Germany in 1993.
In Europe dry quenching plants of up to 200 tonnes (220 tons) per hour have been installed and are
operating successfully.
Fig. 7.45 illustrates a method of dry quenching in which hot coke is pushed from an oven into a
hot coke bucket mounted on a car running on railway tracks. The car transfers the loaded bucket
to a hoisting tower which lifts the bucket to the top of the quench tower where the hoist trolley
moves the bucket into position over one of the quenching chambers. The top cover of the chamber
is removed, the hot coke is discharged from the bottom of the bucket into the chamber, and the
cover is replaced.
The coke is cooled from 1000°C to 200°C (1832°F to 392°F) as it descends through the refrac-
tory lined chamber in 2.5 hours, by recirculating inert gases passing upward through the cham-
bers. The cooled coke is discharged in 2 metric ton (2.2 net ton) batches through lock hoppers
under the chamber onto the conveyor belt that carries it to a screening station. The inert gas which
cools the coke contains 12% CO2 8.5% CO, 3.0% H2 and 76.5% N2. The gas enters the bottom of
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Fig. 7.45 Flow diagram of a dry-quenching system
the quenching chamber at 175°C (347°F) and exits at about 800°C (1472°F). This inert gas flows
from the top of the chamber through a dropout chamber to remove coke particles and then enters
the waste heat boiler that serves as a steam generator. Cooled gas at 175°C (347°F) flows through
cyclones for dust removal prior to entering the recirculating fan. Depending upon the intended
application, as much as 0.46 tonnes (0.5 tons) of steam at 3920 kPa (60 kg/cm 2 or 70 psi) and
440°C (824°F) can be generated per ton of coke.
7.4.4 Charging and Pushing Schedules

A coke oven battery contains many ovens which, obviously, cannot all be charged or pushed at the
same time. The amount of heat required at various stages of the conversion of coal to coke varies
during the time a charge remains in the oven. For these reasons and the necessity of balancing the
heat, operating and combustion requirements for the many ovens contained in a single battery, spe-
cific sequences for servicing the ovens have been developed. The sequence that has the most wide-
spread use in the United States, developed by Koppers Company, numbers all of the ovens in a
battery in order, using a base nine series of numbers; that is, no zero, (10, 20, etc.) appears. The
ovens then are serviced by pushing and charging in sequence all the ovens whose numbers end with
the numeral 1 (1, 11, 21, 31, etc.); next those ovens who numbers end with 3 (3, 13, 23, 33, etc.)
and so on until all of the odd-numbered ovens have been serviced. Next, all the ovens ending in
even numbers, beginning with all the 2’s, are similarly serviced. This results in a favorable local
heating balance with respect to the particular oven to be serviced. At the time any given oven is
scheduled to be pushed according to this system, the oven next to it on its left is 55% of the way
through its allotted cooking time and the cooking cycle of the one on its right is 45% complete.
In another system, termed the Marquard system after its inventor, the ovens in a battery are
divided into three groups identified as A, B, and C. The ovens within each group are then num-
bered consecutively (including those numbers ending with zero). The order of servicing the ovens
then proceeds with pushing and charging all the odd-numbered ovens starting with A-1 (A-1, B-
1, C-1; A-3, B-3, C-3; and so on). The even-numbered ovens are then pushed in a similar
sequence, beginning with A-2. With this system, when an oven is to be pushed, the coking cycle
of the oven next to it on its left is about 52% complete and that of the adjacent oven to its right is
about 48% complete. This system requires that the two odd-numbered ovens be next to each other
where the sections adjoin.
Two other pushing systems used in the United States coke plants are the even-odd series, or 2-1
series, and the 5-2 series. These pushing series are more popular in coke plants in Europe and
Japan. In both of these systems ovens are numbered consecutively.
The even-odd sequence, or 2-1 sequence, is the most basic as all of the even numbered ovens are
pushed in sequence followed by all of the odd numbered ovens in the next round of pushing, i.e.,
1, 3, 5, 7, etc., 2, 4, 6, 8, etc. This pushing sequence allows the ovens adjacent to the oven being
pushed to be about 51% and 49% through the coking cycle.
In the 5-2 series, ovens adjacent to the oven being pushed are 61% and 39% through the coking
cycle. Ovens are numbered consecutively. The first number, 5, indicates the sequence in consecu-
tive ovens pushed in a round from end to end on the battery. The second number, 2, indicates the
difference in the ovens pushed first in each round of pushing. The first oven pushed using this
schedule would be oven No. 1 followed by oven No. 6 (1+5), oven No. 11 (6+5), oven No. 16
(11+5), etc., until the end of the battery is reached. The next round begins with oven No. 3 (1+2),
followed by oven No. 8 (3+5), then oven No. 13 (8+5), etc., until this sequence is completed to the
end of the battery. The cycle is then repeated at oven No. 5 (3+2) and ovens No. 10, No. 15, No.
20, etc. are pushed. The full sequence would be: 1, 6, 11, 16, …; 3, 8, 13, 18, …; 5, 10, 15, 20, …;
2, 7, 12, 17, …; 4, 9, 14, 19, …; and then begin again at 1, 6, 11, 16, …
The Marquard pushing system, the 2-1, and the 5-2 sequence make it possible to design one spot
pusher machines for pushing and charging operations. This is desirable when pushing fast operat-
ing rates since the machinery operating sequence and travel time are more efficient. The system
presently preferred internationally in modern plants is the 5-2 system as it: features pusher
machines that operate pushing and leveling from one spot, reduces machinery sizes, reduces the
traveling distances and provides favorable coking conditions for the ovens next to the one to be
pushed.
7.4.5 Instrumentation and Control

Most instrumentation on coke oven batteries is confined to the heating, pushing and foul gas han-
dling facilities. As has been mentioned, the variable controls such as orifices in the air boxes and
restriction dampers in waste heat boxes are so adjusted that master controls may be installed for
each battery. In this manner, single machines, meters, gauges and other devices control the various
function of the battery system after the individual oven controls have been adjusted. Thus the gas
for underfiring is metered in the battery header, but the correct distribution of the gas to the indi-
vidual heating walls is controlled by a fixed orifice in the gas system at each wall entry. Within
each heating wall, downstream from the control orifice, nozzles of graduated orifice size control
distribution of the gas to each heating flue. The air and waste gases are likewise controlled by indi-
vidually adjustable orifices in the air and waste heat boxes. Finger bars are used to control the air
box openings and butterfly valves control the outlet of waste gas to the stack canal.
A draft regulator operates a butterfly valve to maintain a preset stack draft on the battery.
The choice of a flow meter for the underfiring gas will be influenced in large part by its accuracy
over a wide range of flow. The meter should be recording, preferably one adapted to a uniform
graduated chart for reasons of legibility and computation facility. It is also necessary to control
accurately the pressure in the fuel gas main with an instrument capable of close control at relatively
low pressure. It may be desired to have a recording of these pressures. A recording thermometer is
installed also in the fuel gas header so that the gas quantities may be computed to standard condi-
tions. The battery also is equipped with recording draft gauges, waste heat recording thermome-
ters, and various indicating gauges. Portable pressure gauges, thermometers and pyrometers are
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used in the setting of individual oven controls. Another instrument used is a portable pyrometer
with which periodic temperature readings are taken of the flues and emerging coke. Probably the
most widely accepted pyrometer for the latter purposes is of the incandescent filament type. Newer
pyrometers which can collect temperature data for downloading into computers for records and
analysis are in common use. Recording pressure and temperature gauges also are installed in the
gas collecting mains.
The pressure in the collecting main is controlled by a back pressure regulator located at the junc-
tion of the collecting main with the suction main; its function is to maintain a closely controlled
pressure in the ovens during coking.
Many plants record the regularity of oven operation by some related activity, such as the time of
pushing by the peak-load recording of the pusher power circuit, or by recording the time of quench-
ing of each charge. All utilities have the usual types of instrumentation.
7.4.5.1 Computer Controlled Battery Heating

In general, the control of coke battery heating today still depends on human experience and skill
using the meters, gauges, and manual control valves described above. Because of the complexity
of the heating systems, this function requires relatively large numbers of skilled operators making
numerous manual temperature measurements and adjustments. Difficulties with battery heating
control can result in low fuel efficiency, environmental problems, and poor quality coke. Therefore,
to improve control of this critical battery function, computer controlled battery heating systems are
now being developed and adapted to selected coke batteries both domestically and abroad. These
new systems are proving to be quite successful in optimizing battery heating uniformity. Japanese
and German coke producers have expended considerable effort in battery automation, and U.S.
Steel has installed an automatic system at its Clairton plant. The Clairton system is based on feed-
forward control developed in-house.
The U.S. Steel feedforward heating system is a predictive system requiring specific knowledge of
coal properties prior to charging, fuel gas prior to burning, and periodic final coke temperatures.
The computer control system shown schematically in Fig. 7.46, comprises four, essentially inde-
pendent, subsystems: (1) coal tracking and calculation of battery heat requirements, (2) an under-
firing gas flow control loop, (3) flue gas oxygen cascade control, and (4) a coke temperature
feedback system. One element, coal heat of carbonization, has yet to be defined and measured with
the necessary accuracy. In the present system, as shown, feedback of final coke temperature is nec-
essary to compensate for changes in heat of carbonization and for changes in battery efficiency.
The coal proportioning runs are tracked through the coal handling system to the battery. Coal bulk
density and moisture are entered into a computer for each coal run. The battery heat requirement
is computed based on the coal in the battery at any time, operating rate and battery efficiency. Oven
push count inputs from the pusher machine are used to monitor the operation and charge the coal
into the computer model.
The calculated battery heat requirement is used as the setpoint for the underfiring gas flow control
loop which uses the fuel gas Wobbe Index to control the gas flow to maintain the desired heat input.
The excess oxygen cascade control adjusts the stack draft to maintain a constant stack oxygen for
efficient combustion and proper vertical temperature distribution in the flues. The cascade control
is independent of the computer but the stack draft setpoint, consistent with desired heat input, is
adjusted by the computer to keep within the range of the cascade control.
To account for changes in battery efficiency and heat of carbonization, a coke temperature feed-
back system was developed to close the control loop. Coke temperature is sensed using an infrared
pyrometer mounted on the coke guide and is transmitted to the computer which adjusts the heat
requirement computation to maintain the desired final coke temperature.
Automatic battery heating control systems, in addition to automatic control systems for all other
parts of the coke plant, are today standard equipment in modern plants and are provided by all
coal sampler
Automatic
Coal Bulk Coal
moisture density coking
analyzer analyzer calorimeter
Dynamic Heat input Coal Bunker

battery Expected coke determination inventory depth
model temp
Stack
Target excess flue gas
Fuel gas air
wobbe Gas flow rate Operating analyzer
analyzer calculation schedule
Gas flow Coke oven Draft Draft

Gas stack
supply control battery control
Coke
temps
Fig. 7.46 Feedforward coke oven battery heating control system.
active coke oven building companies. The use of the computer to manage the very complex over-
all battery heating strategy and to make continuous overall underfiring adjustments allows opera-
tors the time to maintain underfiring components, such as gas nozzles, and to fine-tune individual
oven temperature profiles which can be done only by manual adjustments.
7.4.6 Pushing Emissions Control Systems

With the advent of the Clean Air Act of 1990 significant environmental pressures were placed on
the steel industry and in particular coke making facilities. Coke pushing emissions were singled
out as a primary source of air pollution. Subsequently considerable emphasis was given to reduc-
ing pushing emissions through the development of pushing emissions control systems.
The four alternative types of systems considered by the industry are: (1) sheds, (2) bench mounted
hoods with fixed ducts, (3) enclosed hot coke cars with mobile scrubbing systems and (4) water
spray systems.
Enclosed cars, coke side sheds and hood systems traveling on the bench with collecting duct and
stationary gas cleaning systems have demonstrated effective capture of pushing emissions.
Enclosed cars are not generally used any more because of the high operating and maintenance
costs. Most modern plants are equipped with a hood system traveling on the bench, a collecting
duct along the battery and a stationary gas cleaning system on the ground. Capture efficiency of
one shed has been estimated at about 90%, and enclosed cars have been judged to achieve about
the same degree of capture. Even higher efficiencies are achieved today with modern baghouse
cleaning plants.
Many of the new systems use baghouses rather than venturi scrubbers to control particulates
because of the lower pressure drop and reduced power requirements.
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7.4.6.1 Coke Side Shed

The basic design concept of a shed is to completely capture all of the emissions generated during
the pushing cycle, as well as smoke emitting from coke oven doors on the coke side of the battery.
The coke oven shed is constructed to span the entire coke side of the battery including the coke
side bench, hot car tracks and coke side doors. The internal support structure, geometric shape and
method of fume transmission and scrubbing vary with respect to the manufacturer’s design and
customer’s local requirements.
The shed is simply a large structure with enough cubic capacity to hold all the emissions for a sin-
gle push. These emission are held in the shed’s upper portion until system exhaust fans have had
sufficient time to direct all captured gases through an appropriate cleaning system and return clean
air to the atmosphere.
The first shed in the United States was erected and in operation during the first quarter of 1972.
Since then, many sheds have been installed at various steel plants throughout the United States and
Canada. Each of these installations is unique in that they all incorporate modifications to the first
prototype, i.e., different shed dimensions, changes due to local plant conditions, and unlike fume
cleaning systems, Fig. 7.47. Outside of the basic concept, each shed has its own inherent design
and working parameters.
7.4.6.2 Traveling Hoods

The movable hood concept incorporates the addition of a large hood over the hot car from which
the fumes generated during pushing are trapped and conducted to the selected gas cleaning system.
This system was first developed by Mitsubishi and has been installed on many coke oven batteries
in Japan since 1970. Several versions of this Mitsubishi system are in operation within the United
States.
Fume
main
Collection
main
Coke side
Quench door
loco machine
Wharf
Fig. 7.47 Coke side shed for collecting emissions from a byproduct coke oven during the pushing operation.
In this system, an enclosure hood is suspended from the door machine and is fabricated over the
coke guide and extends to cover the hot car. The emissions from the push are pulled by fan into a
large duct extending the full length of the battery. This duct is stationary but allows for the inter-
connection between the hood transition piece and the duct at each oven by designing an appropri-
ate opening at each oven. As the gases are collected in the hood during the push, the hot car moves
under the hood and collects the coke. The effectiveness of the traveling hood design depends
mainly on the designer being able to keep all interface openings between moving parts to an
absolute minimum; that is, the interface points between the coke guide, oven jamb, enclosure hood
and the hot car.
Another similar hooded system is the Minister-Stein system. The basic differences of the Minister-
Stein system are: (1) the fume collecting duct is located outside the hot car track on heavy struc-
tural supports; (2) the duct is covered with a rubber belt and a mobile tripper carried with the hood
is used for introducing the pushing emissions under the belt at the location of the push; (3) a large
heat exchanger is carried with the hood to control the emissions and to protect the rubber belt while
atmospheric air cools the heat exchanger between pushes; and (4) a third rail mounted on the duct
bearing structure supports the hood and heat exchanger.
Fig. 7.48. Thyssen Still Otto modern coke side duct.
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Modern design traveling hood systems, Fig. 7.48, are provided by all coke oven building compa-
nies. In the latest designs the hood is an integral part of the coke transfer car operating during all
coke side functions.
7.4.6.3 Enclosed Quench Cars with Mobile Gas Scrubbing Systems

The use of these systems was stopped in the late 1980s due to excessively high operating and main-
tenance costs.
7.4.6.4 Wet Spray Pushing Emission Control Systems

Wet-spray systems are not literally a capture system, but an attempt to prevent the escape of emis-
sions from the coke battery. These systems consist of a spray header with a series of spray nozzles
which are directed at the coke as it is pushed from the oven.
Various systems for wet spraying coke have been tried with little or no success. Wet spraying has
been judged by trained observers to be strictly cosmetic and not effective with regard to capture of
particulate matter generated during the pushing operation.
7.4.7 Coke Screening and Handling

7.4.7.1 Coke Wharf
A coke wharf is substantially a long, narrow inclined platform with the shorter dimension sloping
away from the quenching car track toward a conveyor belt that runs along the lower side of the
structure. A properly designed wharf should be of such size that it will serve as surge storage for
quenched coke ahead of the screens so that the short delays incidental to screening and loading
Fig. 7.49 General view of a manually-operated coke wharf showing freshly quenched coke being discharged from the
gates of the quenching car onto the brick paved sloping wharf. When the wharf gates are opened, coke slides down the
wharf as at the lower left onto a conveyor belt that carries it to the screening station
operations will not interrupt the desired regularity in oven pushing sequence. Most modern
wharves are paved with hard-burned clay brick.
The coke wharf receives the quenched coke from the quenching car. The coke is spread out on the
wharf in a thin bed for quick drying and visual inspection for the detection of unquenched coke.
Manually directed streams of water are used to quench any still-hot coke detected on the wharf
before the coke is conveyed on rubber belt conveyors to the screens.
The coke is retained on the wharf by a series of gates which, when opened, permit the coke to slide
down the wharf and onto the belt conveyor to be delivered to the screening station. Fig. 7.49 shows
a manually-operated coke wharf. The present trend is to use automatic mechanically-operated
wharf gates, Fig. 7.50, with automatic sequence and memory circuits to maintain proper utilization
of the wharf for surge capacity for the screens and the quenching car. In either case, whether oper-
ated automatically or manually, the wharf design and construction is the same.
The more modern coke wharves are provided with rotating coke plows. The coke wharf is designed
with a flat shelf at the bottom of the sloping wharf. The coke plow consists of a multi-bladed vari-
able speed rotating unit mounted on a frame which automatically travels back and forth over the
length of the wharf. During travel in both directions, the rotating unit discharges coke from the
wharf shelf onto the wharf belt. As the coke belt leaves the wharf, a temperature sensing device
monitors the temperature of the coke and activates water sprays to cool any hot portions of coke.
Fig. 7.50. General view of part of a modern coke wharf with automatic mechanically-operated gates.
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7.4.7.2 Conveyor System for Coke

The transfer of coke from the wharf to the screening station now is accomplished almost univer-
sally by a system of rubber-belt conveyors and chutes.
7.4.7.3 Screening and Crushing

The purpose of coke screening and crushing is to provide coke of a controlled size for blast fur-
nace use from which fines and, in some cases, pieces over a set maximum size are removed. The
latter are crushed and screened before use. The very small pieces, commonly called coke breeze,
usually are used in the coke plants as a boiler fuel, in sintering plants as sinter fuel, or screened for
use in chemical or metallurgical processes.
7.4.7.4 Storage and Shipping

In the loading of blast furnace coke and the subsequent transportation to the blast furnaces, care
must be taken to prevent additional breakage. For this reason, the coke is loaded into railroad cars
and, where practical, is consigned directly to the blast furnaces, as additional handling into and out
of stock results inevitably in coke degradation. When the blast furnaces are located close to the
coke plant, belt conveyors often are used to conduct the coke from the screening station to the blast
furnace stockhouse bins.
7.4.8 Refractory Materials used in Coke Battery Construction

A coke battery is basically a structure made of refractory materials held together by a steel
exoskeleton. While constructed at ambient temperature, it is designed to operate at maximum tem-
peratures up to 1455°C (2650°F). During operation, the maximum temperature can be expected to
cycle downward by as much as 110°C (200°F) as part of normal battery operation. Consequently,
the battery must be constructed of refractory materials that: (1) can withstand the maximum as
well as the cyclic temperatures, and (2) have known and predictable properties related to thermal
expansion, strength and creep, see Chapter 3.
7.4.8.1 Silica Brick

The most abundant refractory used in the construction of a coke battery is silica brick. Silica brick
is manufactured primarily from the mineral quartz in finely crystalline form, and having the proper
characteristics for conversion to cristobalite and tridymite, which are high-temperature crystalline
forms of silica.27 The quartz is obtained primarily from crushed quartzite rock, which is washed to
remove natural impurities. The crushed and washed quartzite is ground further and sized into spe-
cific fractions which are then reblended in specific proportions, along with 2.0–3.5% (CaO), water
and organic binders to achieve the proper brick chemistry. 27
Brick shapes are produced by power and impact pressing, and those shapes that either cannot be
mechanically formed or are only required in small numbers are hand made. 27 Immediately after
forming, the green brick, held together by the organic binders, is dried. The two manufacturers of
coke oven silica shapes in the United States have stopped the production of silica material. Silica
brick is fired in periodic kilns and in some more modern production plants in continuous car tun-
nel kilns. The brick is fired to convert the quartz to cristobalite and tridymite, the stable high tem-
perature forms of silica, which in turn renders the brick volume stable for service. It is necessary
to maintain a carefully planned time-temperature cycle during firing because there are critical tem-
perature ranges through which the silica brick must pass so that a strong, well-bonded brick results.
The normal permanent expansion of silica brick during firing is 12–15%.
Silica brick has a relatively high melting temperature, 1695–1710°C (3080–3110°F), and it has the
ability to withstand a 172 to 345 kPa (25 to 50 psi) load to within 28–56°C (50–100°F) of the ulti-
mate melting point; therefore, it has excellent creep properties. The purity of the brick is impor-
tant; for example, if the sum of alumina, titania, and alkalies content in a brick is 1.0%, the load to
failure will be 28–50°C (50–90°F) lower than in another brick in which this sum is only 0.5%. At
temperatures about 593°C (1100°F), silica brick is nearly volume stable and virtually free from
thermal spalling, while at temperatures below 593°C (1100°F) silica brick is highly susceptible to
thermal spalling.
Since the later 1950s there had been a general trend in the industry to use high bulk density silica
brick (greater than 1858 kg/m3 or 116 lb/ft3) in coke oven battery construction, because increasing
bulk density is accompanied by corresponding increases in cold strength and thermal conductivity.
Therefore, it was presumed that higher heat transfer rates from flue to oven would be realized
because of the higher thermal conductivity.
Measurement of flue to oven temperature differentials on operating batteries conducted by U.S.
Steel showed that higher bulk density silica brick did not result in improved heat transfer over reg-
ular bulk density, 1740–1804 kPa (108–112 lb/ft3) silica brick. In addition, a series of tests on sil-
ica brick of varying bulk density showed that the hot strength in the range of 649–1316°C
(1200–2400°F) did not appreciably change as a function of bulk density, and that the lower bulk
density brick were less brittle and less susceptible to failure from thermal cycling.
7.4.8.2 Fireclay Brick

Fireclay brick is used throughout the cooler parts of the battery, including the regenerator cham-
bers, checker, battery roof, in the pinion walls, and in the coke wharf. According to ASTM stan-
dards, there are five general classes of fireclay brick: super duty, high duty, semi-silicas, medium
duty, and low duty. Fireclay brick used in coke oven battery construction is generally of the high
duty class.
Blends of five or more ground and sized clays are used to make fireclay brick; some brick, espe-
cially those in the low duty class, may be made from one clay. Mixes for high duty brick commonly
contain raw flint and bond clays, possibly with calcined clays. In the high duty class, a large pro-
portion of the mix is precalcined to control firing shrinkage, as well as to stabilize the volume and
control mineral composition of the final product.
Fireclay shapes are formed by power pressing, extrusion and repressing, air ramming and hand
ramming. The method of forming is selected on the basis of shape complexity as well as the prop-
erties of the fireclay that are required; however, as with silica refractories, small lots of a given
shape may be hand formed. Fireclay shapes formed by all processes are dried on hot floors or in
tunnel or humidity driers. After drying, the shapes are usually fired in continuous car type tunnel
kilns; periodic type, downdraft kilns are rarely used. The firing temperature is dependent on the
nature of the clays used and on the intended service of the brick. Free and combined water are lost
during firing, and iron and sulfur compounds as well as organic matter are oxidized. The particles
of clay are ceramically bonded together to form a strong refractory. High duty fireclay shapes are
more resistant to spalling than medium and low duty products, and they are burned hard enough
so that they are highly resistant to carbon monoxide disintegration.
High duty fireclay brick for coke oven battery construction generally is refractory to about 1704°C
(3100°F); however it does not have the creep resistance of silica brick. High duty fireclay can be
expected to deform 0.5% to as much as 4.0% under a 172 kPa (25 psi) load at 1349°C (2460°F).
Fireclay brick has nearly a linear thermal expansion from ambient temperature to battery operat-
ing temperatures, as compared to silica brick, which has nearly all of its expansion taking place
below 593°C (1100°F). As a result high duty fireclay brick can be repeatedly cycled through low
temperature ranges without spalling failure. As mentioned previously, medium and low duty fire-
clay refractories, being more dense, are more susceptible to thermal shock.
7.4.8.3 Mortars
There are two primary types of mortars used in coke oven battery construction, silica coke oven
mortar and fireclay coke oven mortar. The silica mortar is further divided into a heat-set and an
air-set type; normally the silica brick in a battery is laid up with the heat-set type.
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Silica mortars are made from a sized silica sand for aggregate along with some small amount of
bond clay. The air-set silica mortar is the same composition, but is has a small amount of dry
sodium silicate added. The fireclay mortar is made from a sized calcined kaolin with a small
amount of bond clay. No mortar used in battery construction contains any type of cementitious
bond. Silica mortars are refractory up to about 1682°C (3060°F) and clay mortars up to about
1604°C (2920°F). Shrinkage on drying from a workable or trowelable consistency is an important
parameter, and is specified as less than 2.5% and 4.0% for silica and clay mortars, respectively.
Mortars used in coke oven battery construction do not develop a coherent bond with the refrac-
tory to which they are applied at normal battery operating temperatures. Mortars therefore do not
contribute to the structural integrity of a battery. The mortar used in a battery serves two primary
functions. It is used to compensate for inconsistencies in brick size, and it acts as a sealant
between brick to prevent gas leakage among the combustion air, fuel gas, and foul gas systems
within the battery.
7.4.8.4 Castables
Refractory concretes made with calcium aluminate (CA) cements and various refractory aggre-
gates, are used in various locations in a coke oven battery. The service capability of a castable is
dependent on the purity level of the CA cement as well as of the aggregate. There are three purity
levels of CA cement, low purity, medium purity and high purity. The aggregates can range from
calcined clays to high purity tabular alumina. Size grading of castable aggregates can also vary
considerably.
From a practical standpoint, many castables are used in coke oven battery construction. These
include low and medium purity castables. In addition to regular cement castables, low cement and
ultra-low cement castables are used.
Low purity castables are used to line the waste heat tunnels and flues; it can be formed up and cast
in place or it can be gunited. The gunite application is faster and lower cost. Low purity castables
are also applicable to areas in the battery top, for example as a filler material in the parapet area.
Low purity castables used in battery construction or repairs are generally specified to satisfy
strength requirements and carbon monoxide resistance.
Medium purity castables are used for the higher temperature areas in a battery to which castables
are applicable, for example door plug refractories and standpipe lining.
7.4.8.5 Expansion Joint Fillers

Expansion joints may be filled with vermiculite, an expanded mica, or with ceramic fiber bats of
adequate density and refractoriness.
7.4.8.6 Packing Materials

Packing materials are used to seal between metal components and refractory brick, for example
between the jamb and jamb brick, in stand-pipe split rings and slip joints and around air and waste-
heat boxes. Asbestos rope had been the preferred and most commonly used packing material, but
asbestos has long been replaced by synthetic fiber ropes.
7.4.8.7 Insulating Materials

Various types of insulating materials are used in battery construction, from insulating fire brick
to low refractoriness insulating concrete made of an expanded clay or shale aggregate and cal-
cium aluminate cement. Insulating fireclay bricks which are available from an 871°C (1600°F)
class to a 1760°C (3200°F) class are used to insulate the battery top, areas behind the buckstays,
regenerator walls and pinion walls. Block insulation can be used in non load bearing areas. Insu-
lating concretes can be employed as fillers for irregular areas throughout lower temperature
areas of the battery.
7.4.8.8 Acid Resistant Refractory Construction

The battery stack lining is of acid resistant construction, which consists of high density acid resis-
tant fireclay brick laid up with acid resistant mortars. Acid resistant brick are usually made by the
stiff mud process and are high fired so that low porosity (6–11%) and permeability result. Acid
resistant mortars are generally potassium and sodium silicate bonded fireclay aggregate.27 Ambi-
ent temperature levels are critical for good acid resistant construction. Mortars generally will not
cure at temperatures below 13°C (55°F).
7.4.8.9 Fire Fused Silica

Silica (quartz) that is electrically fused, cooled, reground, then formed and refired is referred to as
a fire fused silica shape. Fused silica is essentially amorphous (non-crystalline), containing low
levels of quartz and cristobalite. Fired fused silica has a nearly flat thermal expansion curve, expan-
sion being on the order of 0.72 K-1 (0.4 3 10-6 in./in./ °F); therefore, it has excellent resistance to
thermal shock. A fairly common use of fired fused silica is for door plug refractories; however,
refractory cost is two to three times that of a castable or brick door plug. Fired fused silica has also
been used as jamb brick with varying degrees of success. Fused silica is useful where resistance to
carbon buildup is desired.
Fused silica grain along with calcium aluminate cement is used to make fused silica castables. The
castables, however, do not have the thermal expansion properties of the fired bodies. In general,
the castables made with fused silica aggregates are subject to similar temperature-volume rela-
tionships as normal silica alumina castables in that aggregate sizing and cement content can have
marked effects on volume stability.
7.4.8.10 Common Brick

Common red brick is used in a number of non-critical areas in battery construction, primarily in
areas of low temperature and minimal exposure to thermal cycling. Common brick is a dense fired
clay body. It is used as a filler in the battery roof, backup material in the pinion walls and often as
an underlying course on the pad.
7.4.9 Coke Oven Repair Work

Coke oven batteries will have an operating life of twenty to forty years, depending upon operating
conditions and battery maintenance. Usually, after twenty to thirty years of service, a battery will
require specific repairs to the refractories, steelwork or machinery. These repairs, if properly per-
formed, will require specific repairs to the refractories, steelwork or machinery. These repairs, if
properly performed, will extend the life of the battery.
Because the coke oven repair work requires considerable expertise, only a few companies are qual-
ified to make battery repairs. The complexity of coke oven repairs will not permit a detailed
description of the procedures; however, Krupp-Wilputte Corporation, offers the following general
description of coke oven repair work.
Brickwork repairs usually undertaken are the replacement of end flues, the replacement of oven
walls between oven floor and oven roof, and emergency repairs inside the oven chamber.
Depending on how well a battery has been maintained, an end flue repair (usually two flues or
more) is undertaken after about 20 to 25 years of service. This repair can be performed while the
battery is in the hot condition making coke or after the battery has been completely cooled to
atmospheric temperature. During the repair the buckstays may be replaced and work may be done
on the oven doors, collecting mains and oven top. An end flue repair is estimated to last for five to
ten years, after which additional repairs may be required.
Oven wall brickwork repair may consist of the placement of through walls (pusher side to coke
side) above the oven floor and below the oven roof. At the same time brickwork repairs may be
done in the corbel area, and face brickwork and individual oven roofs may be replaced.
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If only a few oven walls are to be replaced, the repair is done with the battery in the hot condition
with one or two buffer ovens (empty ovens) on each side of the wall being repaired. The other ovens
of the battery may be producing coke. Before demolition of the damaged wall, roof support beams
must be added in the adjacent ovens, insulating panels must be installed on the adjacent hot walls,
charging car rail bridges must be installed on the oven top, and support provided for the oven roof
under which the wall will be replaced. Care must be taken to maintain the heat in the regenerators
and on the adjacent walls. On an individual oven wall replacement, the heatup period for the
repaired oven is approximately 15 days.
If an entire battery of through walls is to be replaced from the oven floor to the underside of the
oven roof, the repair may be performed with the battery in the idle hot condition or with the bat-
tery refractory cooled to atmospheric temperature.
The idle hot condition means that the ovens are maintained hot while the repairs are done. Pairs of
walls are replaced together with the adjacent ovens maintained in the hot condition. Each pair of
walls being replaced is called an increment and work may proceed on several increments at one
time. The heating of each increment of the repaired walls takes approximately 15 days. Ovens may
be placed back in service before all the walls have been replaced.
The replacement of the through walls of an entire battery may also be accomplished by permitting
the battery to be cooled down to the cold condition under controlled conditions before the repairs
are made. The cool down may take up to 21 days during which time pressure is maintained on the
oven walls by adjusting the upper and lower tie rods. The oven roofs must be supported as
described for the hot repair procedure. After the walls are rebuilt and before heatup, all the check-
ers must be removed from the regenerator and any cracks in the pillar walls must be cleaned and
packed with ceramic floss before the checkers are replaced so as not to hinder brickwork expan-
sion during heatup. The repaired battery is heated up in the same manner as a new battery.
A repaired battery with all new through walls, with proper maintenance can be expected to have a
life of approximately 15 to 20 years at a fraction of the cost of a new coke oven battery.
With through wall replacement of an entire battery, with the repairs done in either the hot or cold
condition, additional items usually replaced include the side buckstays above the bench, collecting
mains, doors and jambs, oven top paving, and tie rods and springs.
Two other repair techniques have come into prominence. Ceramic welding is used to repair cracks,
open joints and spalls in the refractory by fusing a ceramic material to the existing brick. Zero
expansion brick repairs are used for panel patches or end flue repairs. Zero expansion brick repairs
are used for panel patches or end flue repairs. The zero expansion brick repairs can be made under
hot conditions without an allowance for expansion.
Today repairs in hot idle condition are preferred. In the case of a cold repair, the refractory block
of a battery may be heavily damaged during cooling down by the contracting material. Bracing sys-
tems, even with increased forces, can not prevent these damages. If all damage can not be repaired
on cold batteries, operation with blast furnace gas may not be possible due to unavoidable leakages
in the regenerator area. Hot idle battery repairs are somewhat more expensive but provide the oper-
ators with the maximum life expectancy for the ovens.
7.5 Preheating, Stamp Charging and Briquetting of Coals

The growing worldwide shortage of high quality coking coal necessitates developments and mea-
sures which will enable the present range of coking coal to be augmented by coals which are less
suitable for cokemaking. Therefore, in addition to the conventional method of preparing coal and
charging it into byproduct coke ovens, several other methods of coal preparation and charging
exist. Some of these latter methods have gained wide acceptance in the coking industry.
7.5.1 Coal Preheating

Coal drying and preheating prior to charging the coal to the battery ovens is not a novel idea. Ther-
mal treatment of coals has been investigated since the 1920s. Earlier work involved heating the coal
to reduce the moisture content to 1–2% and then charging the coal at ambient temperature into the
coke ovens. In the 1950s studies were made of preheating the coal to elevated temperatures, up to
300°C (570°F), in an essentially inert atmosphere so as not to affect the coking characteristics of
the coal by softening, devolatization or oxidation. The major problem encountered with the pre-
heated coal was the potential hazard in charging the ovens. In the 1960s and 1970s serious interest
in pilot plant scale activity became strong in Europe and the United States, culminating in the con-
struction of commercial coal preheating facilities in England, South Africa, France, the United
States and Japan, Fig. 7.51.
The major advantages of carbonizing preheated coal are listed below:
1. Coal preheating improves the strength and hardness of coke and allows the use of
poorer quality coals. The coke produced from preheated coal is of closer size range,
has smaller pores, higher true and apparent densities and a more homogeneous
structure.
2. Preheated coal increases oven throughput because of reduction in coking time. The
full extent of the production increases has not been realized because of lower than
anticipated bulk density of coal in the oven associated with preheated coal charg-
ing.
3. The drying and preheating of coal in a flash dryer or fluidized bed is more efficient
than in a battery oven. The higher thermal efficiency of coal preheating systems
allows reduction in overall fuel requirements.
4. Charging preheated coal of fairly uniform moisture content results in more uniform
heating of the batteries and less thermal shock to the refractory brickwork when
compared to wet coal charging.
Fig. 7.51 Overall view of a coal preheating facility.
Ironmaking Volume
5. Closed oven charging via pipeline Fan
or chain conveyors has a potential Cyclones

Wet
scrubber
of eliminating emissions during
the coal charging phase.
Wet Measuring bin
coal
The disadvantages of coal preheating are the bin
Chain conveyer
potential safety and operational problems
associated with preheating and handling of
very fine hot coal, overfilling of battery Recycle
gas
ovens, high initial evolution of gases during
the charging step and increased amount of
coal carryover to the byproduct area. Drying
stage
Combustion
Preheating
7.5.1.1 Preheating Systems stage
chamber
Coke oven
Basically two different coal preheating sys- Fig. 7.52 Schematic arrangement of a Rosin-Buttner type of
tems are used in drying and preheating of coal preheating unit.
the coal: (1) the flash drying and preheat-
ing system such as Rosin-Buttner shown in
Fig. 7.52 and (2) a fluidized bed and entrainment system such as Cerchar shown in Fig. 7.53. Other
processes use combinations of different preheaters, conveying and charging systems.
The Rosin-Buttner type preheating unit is a two stage entrainment dryer/preheater. Wet coal is fed
by a centrifugal feeder into the first stage where it is flashdried and preheated to approximately 80°C
(175°F) and 2–3% moisture by concurrent flow of hot gases from the second stage unit. The
entrained coal is separated from the gas in a cyclone and is conveyed to the second stage unit in
which the coal is preheated to 200–230°C (390–445°F). The hot gases flowing concurrently are sup-
plied in part by burning natural gas or coke oven gas in a combustion chamber supplemented by a
recycle stream of inert gas from the first stage. The preheated coal is separated from the gas stream
by a series of cyclones and is conveyed to a set of storage bins to be charged to the battery ether by
drag conveyors or a hot coal larry car. Part of the process gas from the first stage is scrubbed or
cleaned in the electrostatic precipitator and the rest is recycled back to the combustion chamber.
The Cerchar preheater is a single stage fluidized bed and entrainment unit. The wet coal is fed by a
double screw conveyor into a flash drying section. The velocity of gases is high enough to transport
Secondary cyclones
Hammer
mill
Primary
Wet coal cyclone
supply 260 C Screw conveyer
100%
_20mm Coal distribution
Wet coal hopper
feed hopper
To atmosphere Charge bins
40 C Booster fan 250 Cs
Venturi
800 C 250 C
Combustion From fuel fines Steam
chamber recovery area Gas scrubber
Shut-off
Recycle To coal fines valves
blower recovery area
Rotary
Fuel gas Accelerators feeders
To charging
Combustion manifold
air fan
Fig. 7.53 Schematic arrangement of a Cerchar type of coal preheating plant.
all the coal upward. The coal is dried and preheated in a fluidized bed in which a crusher disperser
decreases the size of coal until it is removed from the preheater by entrainment. Coal is separated
from the gas stream in a series of cyclones and is conveyed to a storage bin. The offgas is split, part
of it returning back to the combustion chamber and part of it being cleaned in a wet scrubber.
The most common coal preheating processes operating in the world today are described below.
The Coaltek system is a combination of a Cerchar single stage fluidized bed entrainment preheater
coupled with a pipeline charging system developed by Allied Chemical. The preheated coal is dis-
charged from the storage bin to weigh bins. The bins are pressurized with steam after the proper
amount of coal is loaded, and coal is then conveyed via a pipeline aided by additional steam jets to
the battery oven. The coal and steam entering the oven are then separated by a specially designed
baffle, and the gases emitted during charging are channeled to a specially designed collecting main.
The Precarbon process, developed by Bergbau-Forshung and Didier of Germany, utilizes a Rosin-
Buttner type of double stage entrainment dryer/preheater coupled with sealed drag conveyor charg-
ing of the preheated coal by way of a charging chute system to the battery oven. The charging is
accomplished by specially designed pneumatic level probes which automatically stop charging pre-
heated coal when predetermined coal lines are obtained. Two of the three 6 metre batteries being
operated by U.S. Steel at its Gary Works are equipped with Precarbon processes.
The Otto-Simon Carves system is a combination of a Rosin-Buttner type double stage entrainment
preheating system and a hot larry charging system. This system was one of the first ones com-
mercially installed in South Africa and in England.
A preheater developed by Buttner-Schilde-Haas of Germany was installed by U.S. Steel in 1978.
The BSH process utilizes a single stage entrainment type preheater which is equipped with a solids
recycle system. The classifier at the exit of the column allows recirculating of a variable amount
of coarser material back to the preheat column. The preheat system is coupled with a hot larry car
charging system.
The worldwide steel industry is challenged with providing facilities to produce high strength coke
from increasingly poorer coking coals. Coal preheating combined with charging of preheated coal
is an economically viable process that offers the steel industry a method for attaining this goal, as
demonstrated by general acceptance of the practice of coal preheating.
7.5.2 Stamp Charging

Stamp charging is a process where the entire coal charge to the coke oven is stamped, or com-
pressed, and then pushed into the oven for coking. It is an old process with the greatest amount of
activity in the Saar Basin area near the France and Germany border, in Germany near the Polish
border, and in Poland. Other areas of use include Eastern Europe and India. In the Saar Basin,
stamp charging has been in use for over a hundred years. This process has never been used in the
United States due to an abundance of good coking coals.
In the stamping process, the coal blend is charged into the stamping chamber, Fig. 7.54 and Fig.
7.55, which is part of the pusher machine and has slightly smaller dimensions than the coke oven.
The charging to the stamping machine is done in layers, with each layer approximately 460–500
mm (18–20 in.) in thickness. Each layer is compressed using two stampers which are lifted
mechanically and fall by their own weight on the coal. When enough layers to fill the oven have
been made, the side walls of the chamber are withdrawn and the coal is pushed into the oven on
the movable bottom. The front panel is removed on the coke side and the bottom is withdrawn. The
stamping operation takes about 20 minutes, depending on the height of the oven.
The main advantage of stamp charging is the increased bulk density of the charge. Bulk densities of
up to about 1.15 tonnes/m3 (72 lb/ft3) have been achieved using this process. Excessive coking pres-
sure is avoided by the addition of coke breeze to the blend, which cuts down on blend expansion, and
by using less pressure generating coals in the blend. The stamping process brings the coal particles
Ironmaking Volume
Coal hopper
and compaction chamber
Oven
chamber
Pusher
machine
Coal compaction
chamber
Pusher ram
Coal compaction
and charging unit
Fig. 7.54 Top, side and end elevations of a coke oven pushing machine incorporating a stamp charging unit.
Oven
chamber
Coal h
Fig. 7.55 Schematic section showing side view of a stamp charging unit.
into more intimate contact with each other, which enhances the coking properties. This process was
developed as a way to make high strength coke from the relatively poor quality coking coals found
in these areas. The coals are either too low in rank and/or too high in organic inert contents to pro-
duce strong coke by conventional means without bringing in expensive, better quality coking coals.
Stamp charging produces a more abrasion resistant coke, and the yield of blast furnace size coke
is higher than with conventional charging. In addition, even though some coke oven volume is lost
due to the thickness of the charging chamber floor and the oven taper, and longer coking times are
required, the amount of coke throughput is increased about 5% over conventional charging.
The initial capital costs are high due to the expense of the combination stamping/pushing machine
and the complex charging procedure. There is no need for a larry car, however. Gas emission prob-
lems used to occur during charging, but new procedures such as charging with suction have helped
in this area. The need for better coke quality and higher coal throughputs dictates that stamp charg-
ing techniques must be improved and further developed, especially in view of the fact that cham-
ber heights are continually being increased.
7.5.3 Briquette Blending

Sumitomo Metal Industries and Nippon Steel Corporation in Japan have been engaged for many
years in producing high strength coke from partially briquetted coal blends. This enables them to
use up to about 20% of what they consider to be non-coking or poorly coking coals. This was out
of necessity due to the increasingly large amounts of Australian, Canadian and Russian coals they
import. These coals have low fluidities and high organic inert contents which make them much
poorer in coking quality than American medium and low volatile coals, but they are much less
expensive than American coals, and the supply is more dependable. The processes described in this
section involve partial briquetting of the coal blend with a binder, and charging the briquettes into
the coke oven along with the unbriquetted coal blend.
7.5.3.1 Sumi-Coal System

In this system, about 30% of the coal blend is briquetted, with the briquettes containing about 7%
tar or pitch as a binder. This process enables the use of high inert, low fluidity coals in the blend,
while still producing high strength coke.
In the briquetting process, Fig. 7.56, coking coal is drawn from the fine coal circuit and crushed to
about 85% –3 mm (–1⁄8 in.). The non-coking coals, which are used only in the briquettes, are
crushed through a special hammermill also to about 85% -3 mm (–1⁄8 in.). The coals are mixed in a
ratio of approximately 60–65% non-coking coals to 35–40% coking coal, and brought by chain
conveyor to three briquetting line hoppers. Each hopper feeds two externally heated kneaders
where the binder, which has been heated to above its softening point, is added, and the materials
are well mixed. The heated mixture is conveyed by screw feeder to the briquetting machine where
briquettes, approximately 19.665 cm3 (1.2 in.3) in size, are made in a double roll briquetting
machine. Previously the unbriquetted material was recycled through the briquetting machine, but
now it is fed to the fine coal conveyor belt. The briquettes are then mixed directly into the regular
blend for charging.
The briquette blending in the Sumi-coal system enables the use of up to about 20% non or weakly
coking coals in the blend without adversely affecting coke strength. Use of less than 20% results
in improved coke strength. The improvement is believed to be due to the more intimate contact in
the briquettes between coking and non-coking coal particles, the improvement in fluidity and
dilatation due to the binder, and the approximately 48 kg/m3 (3 lb/ft3) increase in the bulk density
of the charge. The bulk density increase, though, is offset by an approximately 10% longer coking
time required, so that productivity is basically the same at the 30% briquette level.
Sumitomo feels some of the merits of the process are that it generates less coke breeze due to the
increased strength, it provides stable blast furnace operation and a reduction in coke consumption
in the blast furnace, and, therefore, a correspondingly lower amount of imported coal is needed.
Ironmaking Volume
Non-coking coal
Crusher
Coking coal blend

To
Crusher Mixer Steam or hot gas coke
oven
Coal
bin
Kneader 30 40 C
Briquetting
machine
Binder
Briquettes
30% 40%
Fig. 7.56 Simplified flow diagram of Sumi-coal system.
In addition, Sumitomo lists advantages of the briquette blending over coal preheating to be that
more of the cheaper non or poorly coking coal can be incorporated into the coal blend, operating
costs are cheaper, simpler and more stable equipment is used, and installation into existing plants
is easy.
7.5.3.2 Nippon Steel System

The briquette blending system employed by Nippon Steel, Fig. 7.57, is similar to that employed by
Sumitomo. The principle of bringing the coal particles in more intimate contact in the briquettes
and the effect of the binder are basically the same. The major differences are that:
1. The non-coking coal is used to replace approximately 10% of the American medium
and low volatile coals, and the blend is adjusted accordingly.
2. The non-coking coal is not kept separately from the coking coal, but is in the blend;
therefore, some of the non-coking coal is not briquetted.
3. In the mixing and kneading procedure a higher temperature is used, so that the bri-
quettes are cooled before storage.
4. The briquettes are stored separately and not blended with the regular charge blend
until just before entering the larry car for charging.
As with Sumitomo system, Nippon Steel uses approximately 30% briquettes in their coal blends.
By 1976, about 27% of Nippon Steel’s cokemaking capacity had briquette blending facilities. Their
policy has been to use the briquette blending process on existing batteries, and to use coal pre-
heating on new battery construction.
Nippon Steel began work on the briquette blending process in the later 1950s and early 1960s, with
the first commercial use on-line in 1971.
Coal yard Coke oven battery
Blending bin Coal bunker
Fine coal Briquette
Coal crusher Mixer
Binder Kneader
(tar &
pitch) Raw Briquette
material bin
bin
Steam
Mixer
Briquetting
machine
(30 t/hr. x
2 units)
Net conveyor
(cooler)
Fig. 7.57 Schematic flow of diagram of Nippon Steel’s briquette blending system.
7.6 Some Proprietary Designs of Modern Byproduct Coke Ovens

7.6.1 Introduction
Since the publication of the 10th edition of The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel in 1985,28
there has been considerable consolidation among the prominent coke oven designers and builders.
Koppers has become ICF Kaiser Engineers. Wilputte became Krupp Wilputte, a division of Krupp
Uhde. Firma Carl Still and Dr. C. Otto combined to form Still Otto which was purchased by
Thyssen and is now known as Thyssen Still Otto. This consolidation trend is expected to continue.
The most prevalent designs of byproduct coke ovens in the United States have been the Koppers
and Koppers-Becker ovens and the double-divided (also called four-divided) oven design of
Wilputte. Ovens of these designs comprise a majority of the byproduct coking capability of this
country. Batteries designed by Thyssen Still Otto and Krupp Uhde, both of Germany, have gained
popularity in recent years. Metallurgical coke is the primary product, since the coal chemicals
recoverable in the byproduct coking process have strong competition from their counterparts
derived from petroleum (petrochemicals).
Extensive descriptions about the Didier design, the Dr. C. Otto design, the Firma Carl Still design
and the Nippon Steel Corporation design are presented in the 10th edition of The Making, Shap-
ing and Treating of Steel.28 Those designs will not be presented in this section. The reader is
referred to pp. 206–229 of the 10th edition for further information concerning those proprietary
design types.
Ironmaking Volume
Charging holes
Charging holes
Combustion
s
occurs in er flue
verical Crossov
flues
(not shown)
Dividing walls
Com
in bus
to Hot fluedividution oc
s (n al v cur
Coking chamber
he wa
Coking chamber
at ste ot s er tic s in He
regated
Coking chamber
Coking chamber
reg g how al
Coking chamber
n)
Coking chamber
en ase en air
era fro
era s
tor tor m
s
Fu
He el
ga
a s in
Early Koppers oven
reg ted
en air Koppers_Becker oven let ase
s
te g ator
era fro was ner
tor m Hot at rege
h e
Fuel gas to
inlets
Charging holes
Combustion
occurs in
verical
flues
(not shown)
Fuel
gas
inlets
He
Coking chamber
regated
Coking chamber
en air
era fro
Coking chamber
tor m
s
to Hot w
he a
at ste
reg ga
en se
era s
tor
Wilputte oven He
regated
en air
era fro Combustion
tor m occurs here
s
Fig. 7.58 Schematic representation of the differences in firing methods employed in the three most common types of
byproduct coke ovens used in the United States. Individual flues are not shown. The firing procedures shown are for a sin-
gle phase of heating which is reversed at the end of a specified period, at which time the flow directions indicated by the
arrows become reversed.
Inspection openings Outlet for

through top Charging volatile matter
holes
Horizontal
flue
Combustion Door
flues with
gas nozzles Oven
PUSHER
at bottom SIDE
COKE
SIDE
Fuel Fuel
gas gas
main Regenerator main
Regenerator (checker chamber)
(checker chamber)
Cast Cast
iron iron
air box air box
Flue under Dividing Flue under

checkers wall checkers
Flue to Flue to
stack stack
Transverse section Transverse section

through combustion flues and regenerator through an oven and regenerator
Fig. 7.59 Transverse sections of Koppers regenerative single-divided by product coke oven battery. Section at left is
through combustion chambers (flues), that at right is through oven chamber.
The chief differences in the Koppers, Koppers-Becker and Wilputte design types are in the heating
system. Fig. 7.58 illustrates, by simplified sketches, how each of these types is heated. A fourth
general type, the hairpin- or twin-flue oven, is discussed later in Section 7.6.4.
The Koppers oven, more technically referred to as a regenerative, single-divided oven, was the
most prominent from about 1916 to 1928, and many are still in operation. In a typical oven of this
design, Fig. 7.58 and Fig. 7.59, all parts except the regenerator checkers and battery tip are con-
structed almost entirely of high-quality silica brick.
The majority of ovens of this type initially constructed in the United States had a coking volume
of approximately 14 m3 (500 ft3). The general dimensions of these ovens were: length, 11.28 m (37
ft) from face to face of the doors; height, 3 m (9.8 ft) from floor to roof; and width, tapering from
430 mm (17 in.) at the pusher end to about 495 mm (19.5 in.) at the discharge end. Usually, four
charging holes were provided in the top of each oven for admitting the coal charge, while a sepa-
rate opening in the top at one end provided an outlet for volatile matter. The oven is of the verti-
cal-flue type with individual regenerative chambers, Fig. 7.59. The heating chamber has a total of
about thirty vertical flues per flue wall.
The flues are provided with openings to the regenerator chambers, the fuel-gas mains, and to a
large horizontal flue on a level a little below the tope of the coking chamber. A dividing wall near
the middle of the regenerators separates the heating system, except the horizontal flue, into two
parts with (in the case of the thirty-flue wall) sixteen vertical flues on the narrower end of the oven
and fourteen on the wider end. Each end, approximating half of the oven, thus may be heated alter-
nately, and in practice the reversals are made at regular intervals for each battery of ovens by a
reversing mechanism controlled by a timing device. Two large underground flues, one on each side,
extending along both sides in front of and parallel to the battery, and connected to the checker
chambers (regenerators) by cast iron air boxes, provide for escape of the products of combustion.
These flues lead to a stack about 61 m (about 200 ft) high at one end of each battery to furnish the
draft necessary to draw the gases through the heating system.
4
1
4
3 12
12 3
3 3 3
1
9 9
5 5
9
5
5
10
7 10
6
6
6 7
6
11
11
8
8
Fig. 7.60 General perspective cut-away section of Koppers-Becker combination ovens with gun-flue heating facilities (see
Fig. 7.63 for underjet-fired type). Legend: 1. oven chamber; 2. vertical combustion flues; 3. horizontal flues; 4. cross-over
flues; 5. regenerators; 6. oven sole flues; 7. gas and air connections to waste-gas flue; 9. gas ducts for coke oven; 10. oven
gas main; 11. blast furnace gas main; 12. charging holes.
Ironmaking Volume
Ascension pipe
Bus flues
Collecting
main
Oven Door
COKE
SIDE PUSHER
SIDE
Section
thru gas
nozzle
Fuel Regenerator Regenerator Fuel

gas gas
main main
Blast furnace Blast furnace

gas main gas main
Waste Waste
heat fuel heat fuel
Transverse section through heating flues Transvese section through

air ports and regenerator an oven and regenerator
(a)
Flue
Flue
Flue
Flue
Flue
Flue
Fig. 7.61 (a) Transverse section though a Koppers-Becker

combination gun-flue type byproduct coke oven battery; (b)
longitudinal section (left) through gas nozzles and (right)
through air ports of a portion of a Koppers-Becker combina-
tion gun-flue type byproduct coke oven battery.
Section through Section through

gas nozzle air port
Longitudinal section
(b)
The Koppers-Becker oven (Fig. 7.58, Fig. 7.60,

Flue Oven
Flue Fig. 7.61, Fig. 7.62 and Fig. 7.63) employs a
different flue arrangement whereby gas is
burned on an entire wall simultaneously (both
pusher and coke sides). The products of com-
bustion from two or more vertical flues of the
“on” walls in which fuel gas is burning enter
short bus flues and thence are conducted over
the top of the oven through cross-over flues to
a companion series of bus flues whereby the
vertical flues of the entire “off ” wall simulta-
neously are conducting waste gas to the regen-
Section through Section through
erators. On reversal, the opposite conditions
gas nozzle air port occur. This design, by eliminating the large
horizontal flue, is well adapted to ovens of
Fig. 7.62 Enlarged sections through gas nozzles and air
greater size, and to heating with blast furnace
ports of a Koppers-Becker combination gun-flue type of
byproduct coke oven, showing detail of part of Fig. 7.61(b). gas of low calorific value. Because the flues in
each wall (coke side to pusher side) are con-
nected only to the flues in its companion wall,
there are cross-over flues over only every other oven, and the battery thus is limited to an uneven
number of ovens.
The Wilputte byproduct coke oven is offered with various divided zone heating systems, each
depending on the particular application. The double-divided or four-divided oven (Fig. 7.58, Fig.
7.64 and Fig. 7.65) has two outer zones and one double inner zone. Larger ovens with coking
chambers of 39.64 m3 (1400 ft3) and over will be of similar design, but they will be six- or eight-
divided, especially when required to operate on lean gas.
In recent years, larger and faster operating byproduct coke ovens have been constructed. Designs
have been keyed to higher production rates and improved efficiency, with extensive use of auto-
matic control and mechanization. Modern coke oven batteries planned and constructed with these
features will be described in the remainder of Section 7.6. The designs to be described first origi-
nated in the United States and represent those of Koppers in Section 7.6.2 and Wilputte in Section
7.6.3. Descriptions of oven designs developed by Thyssen Still Otto Anlagentechnik GmbH are
presented in Section 7.6.4.
7.6.2 Koppers Design

Modern byproduct coke oven batteries of the Koppers design include a number of different types
and variations which can be tailored to the requirements of each individual installation. The Engi-
neering and Construction Division of Koppers Co., Inc. was purchased by Kaiser Engineers in
1985. This sale included all patents and technical rights to the former Koppers Co. Inc. technology.
Today, ICF Kaiser Engineers continues to offer this technology to the iron and steel industry.
The three types of ovens offered are: (1) the Koppers single-divided oven; (2) the Koppers-Becker
oven; and (3) the Koppers twin-flue oven.
These oven types are built as either underjet or gun-flue ovens. The heating systems are designed
as combinations for heating with either lean or rich gas, such as blast furnace gas or coke oven gas;
or alternatively, for heating with rich gas only.
Oven dimensions vary considerably, depending upon whether the new ovens must meet some
dimensions or clearances set by existing ovens or oven machinery. Where no such restrictions exist,
the trend has been toward higher and longer ovens. Oven heights range from 3 m (9.8 ft) to 6.5 m
(21.3 ft). Oven length ranges from about 11.3 m (37 ft) to about 16 m (52.5 ft). Oven average width
usually is between 432 mm (17 in.) and 467 mm (18.4 in.), although some narrow ovens of 362
mm (14.3 in.) average width have been built to handle poorly coking coal.
Ironmaking Volume
Ascension
pipe
Gas
Coal
collecting
charging car
main
Leveler
Door
Oven
Pusher
COKE PUSHER
SIDE SIDE
Section
thru ports
Regenerator
Blast
furnace
gas main
Air
duct
Coke
oven gas Waste
Fill main heat
flue
Transverse section Transverse section

thru heating flues and underjet gas-ducts thru an oven and regenerator
Oven
Oven
Oven
Oven
Flue
Flue
Flue
Flue
Flue
Flue
Longitudinal section thru Longitudinal section

inspection and waste thru crossover
gas recirculation ducts and air ports
Fig. 7.63 Tranverse and longitudinal sections through Koppers-Becker combination gun-flue type of byproduct coke oven,
showing detail of part of Fig. 7.61(b).
Longitudinal
Standpipe tie rod Oven top fill
Larry car rails
Charging hole Charging hole Inspection hole
Oven cross tie rod
and spring
Oven top
Leveler door Roof blocks
Buckstay
Buckstay Heat up plug
Horizontal flue E
PUSHER SIDE COKE SID
an d ja mb brick
Oven door Nose
bench
Coke side
Pusher side ber bench rails
Vertical Oven cham Coke side
bench heating flue Quench
Pusher machine locomotive
power rails Low burner power rails
Oven floor
er blocks
H igh burn
Door still
mb
Door ja
Checkers Air port erator

Co Regen ion
or rbe divis Bench
all l wall
Face w Regeneratall column
division w
Pi Coke side
Checker lla alley
rw
Venturi suppor ts all es
g brick Gas ris
ersin flue n
Rev hanism
c Bus ct Combustio
m e ue du air duct
Bus fl
lab
ch Deck s
Ben mn
colu
oven
coke
ey Small s piping alve
id e all ga ng v
her s as e ersi
Pus te g ce Rev
Was ing valv
s last f
urna e
lv ain ing
rever a as m oniz
A ir nd b rsing va ment en g c
Fig. 7.64 General reve Base mn e ov e arb pipe
t gas b colu Cok D air
perspective cut- e sla
Blas ce
a Bas
away drawing of a furn main
gas
Wilputte four- as
te g
divided combina- Wasflue
tion underjet-fired
byproduct coke
oven.
455
heating system. The rich gas and lean gas referred to on the drawing are coke oven gas and blast furnace gas, respectively.
Fig. 7.65 Sections through a battery of Wilputte underjet, combination, byproduct ovens, designated as double-divided ovens, having two outer zones and one double inner zone in the
Ascension pipe
Collecting
main Outlet for
volatile materials
Openings through top
Charging holes (inspection holes)
Horizontal flue
COKE PUSHER
SIDE SIDE
Oven
Oven
Flue
Flue
Flue
Flue
Oven Vertical flues
High burner
Door
Low burner
Outer zone Inner zone
regenerator regenerator
Division Bus flue
Rich to outer
Air wall gas Decarboniz-
intake ing air Combustion zone
manifold air inlet
Ironmaking Volume
Waste Lean to basement Bus flue

Rich to inner
gas gas gas main
flue main zone
Longitudinal Longitudinal
section thru section thru
Transverse section Transverse section inspection holes burners and
456
through oven and regenerators through flues, burners and underjet gas-ducts and air ports charging holes
7.6.2.1 Koppers Single-Divided Oven

The Koppers single-divided oven was the original oven type developed by Koppers. Over the years the
design details have been improved and the oven dimensions increased to the point where this design
provides a rugged, simple battery where limited oven height (under 4.27 m or 14 ft) is required.
While most of the Koppers single-divided ovens have been built as gun-flue ovens, this design can
be built as an underjet type. It is usually designed for heating with rich gas only.
The distinguishing features of the Koppers single-divided oven are the single division wall near the
center of the regenerator chamber and the long horizontal flue connecting the tops of all the verti-
cal heating flues in each flue wall. This design is illustrated in Fig. 7.59.
The Koppers single-divided oven is designed so that air flows upward on one reverse through all
the regenerators and vertical combustion flues on the pusher side of the battery, while the products
of combustion flow across the horizontal flue and down through the coke-side vertical flues and
regenerators into the coke-side waste-heat flue. On the next reverse, the flow is upward through all
the coke-side regenerators and vertical combustion flues, across the horizontal flue and down
through the pusher-side vertical flues and regenerators into the pusher-side waste-heat flue. This
arrangement is known as a cross-regenerative system, and is free of any possible cross-leakage
between up-flow fuel gas and down-flow waste gas.
The proper flow of gas to each flue is controlled by calibrated nozzles, while the flow of air is con-
trolled by setting sliding damper bricks in the horizontal flue at the top of each vertical flue. A
single wide regenerator beneath each oven provides air to the flue wall adjacent to that oven.
High-quality silica brick is used throughout the entire regenerator walls and heating flue walls,
eliminating the need for any sliding joints (a serious cause of potential leakage) that would be
Fig. 7.66 Section showing arrangement of flue ends, door and jambs of a Koppers-Becker low-differential combination
underjet coke oven battery.
Ironmaking Volume
required if clay or other dissimilar refractory materials were used in these important areas. The
heating flue walls are constructed of vertically and horizontally tongued-and-grooved hammerhead
and liner brick, spaced with sturdy flue partition shapes, Fig. 7.66. The oven ends are firmly sup-
ported by strong buckstays, face plates and rigid metal jamb castings bolted to the face plates. The
jamb brick are provided with a vertical cleavage joint to permit expansion independently of the hot-
ter interior heating flue brickwork. These features are all provided in all three types of ovens of the
Koppers design.
Uniform distribution of up-flow air (and lean gas when used), as well as down-flow waste gas,
between the sole flue and the regenerator chamber is accomplished by specially designed sole-flue
ports. The size and taper of these ports are varied as required across the length of the regenerators
and sole flues to force the desired distribution of gases. A patented system is also provided to sup-
ply more heat to the checkers at the ends of the regenerators to compensate for heat losses through
the regenerator faces. A high-efficiency extended-surface checker brick is used in the regenerators
to secure efficient heat recovery. These features also are provided in all three types of ovens of the
Koppers design.
7.6.2.2 Koppers-Becker Oven

The Koppers-Becker oven was first developed and built in the 1920s to provide a system for heat-
ing taller ovens with either blast furnace gas or coke oven gas. This design has been refined and
extended to permit uniform heating of modern tall ovens 6.5 m (21.3 ft) or higher. It provides a
number of advantages that are unique to this design.
Many Koppers-Becker ovens have been built as either underjet or gun-flue ovens. The underjet
design is preferred for the modern tall ovens to provide ease of access to the fuel-gas nozzles for
better combustion control. The Koppers-Becker oven is most advantageous for combination ovens
to be heated with blast furnace gas, although a great many have been built for heating only with
coke oven gas.
The distinguishing features of the Koppers-Becker oven are the grouping of the vertical flues with
short, relatively small horizontal flues connecting the tops of the vertical flues in each group, and
with a connection between each horizontal flue section and the corresponding section in the adja-
cent companion heating flue wall by means of crossover flues extending up and over the interven-
ing oven chambers. The regenerator chambers are arranged in groups of three, with a wide
regenerator flanked by two narrow regenerators in each group. This design is illustrated in Fig. 7.67.
This arrangement provides for upward flow of air (and blast furnace gas, if used) through half the
regenerator groups of three, and through the adjacent heating flue walls to which they are con-
nected. These regenerators and flue walls burn upwardly on one reverse for their entire length from
pusher side to coke side. The products of combustion flow out through the short horizontal flue
sections and over the tops of the intervening ovens through the cross-over flues, passing down
through all the vertical flues in the companion heating flue walls, down through the companion
regenerator groups of three, and into the waste-heat flue. Each group of three regenerators feeds
air (and blast furnace gas, if used) to two adjacent heating flue walls, so that every other pair of
adjacent flue walls burns on one reverse, while the alternate pairs are “off ” and receive downflow
combustion products. On the next reverse the flow of combustion media and products of combus-
tion is reversed. Waste-heat flues may be provided on one side or both sides as required.
The regenerator chambers are arranged in groups of three. In each group the flow of gases in all
three chambers is in the same direction with substantially equal pressure (draft) conditions. The up-
flow blast furnace gas regenerator chamber is always located between two up-flow air regenerator
chambers, so that there is little or no tendency for any blast furnace gas leakage to occur. There is
no possibility of dangerous leakage of gas into the down-flow waste gas regenerators or sole flues.
It is only at every third regenerator wall that an up-flow regenerator chamber is located next to a
down-flow one, but here the up-flow regenerator chamber always contains air, so that if leakage
would occur the fuel gas for heating would not be lost, and no damage would result.
5
1 6
2
3 3
16
12 15
10
11
14
15 8
13
17
Fig. 7.67 Sectional view of a Koppers-Becker low-differential combination underjet coke oven battery operating on rich
gas. Legend: 1. oven; 2. burning flue; 3. waste-gas flue; 4. cross-over flue; 5. high air port; 6. low air port; 7. horizontal
collecting flue; 8. recirculating duct; 9. checker brick; 10. sole-flue parts; 11. sole flue; 12. gas port; 13. rich-gas manifold;
14. rich-gas main; 15. blast furnace gas main; 16. gas or air and waste heat boxes; 17. waste heat flue.
The corbel area between the regenerators and the ovens is strong and simple. Symmetrical, short
and direct ducts connect with the regenerators immediately beneath the combustion flues, result-
ing in great strength and tightness.
The regenerators contain no transverse partition walls, but are open for their entire length. Blast
furnace gas and air are metered to each vertical flue by ports at the base of the flues. The open
regenerators supply gas and air at equalized pressure and temperature at the point of metering to
each vertical flue. The open space above the checkers at the top of the regenerators acts as an equal-
izing chamber permitting continued good distribution of blast furnace gas and air to the vertical
flues as the battery ages, even if portions of the regenerators become locally restricted as a result
of blast furnace gas dust deposits.
The wide regenerators are divided longitudinally by specially designed checker brick, and above
these by a baffle wall extending the length of the regenerator, providing for effective control of the
distribution of blast furnace gas or combustion air to each individual flue wall. Pressure (draft) con-
ditions at the top of the regenerators are easily controlled at the reversing boxes.
The vertical heating flues of the oven walls are arranged in small groups. Each group has its own
cross-over flue. Regardless of the length or height of the oven each branch horizontal collecting
flue remains small in cross-section and short in length, giving the walls extra strength where it is
most needed. Low pressure drop through the horizontal flues and crossover flues results in a low
overall pressure drop through the entire combustion system. A standard height stack can be used.
Air and blast furnace gas flows are metered to each flue by the air and blast furnace gas ports,
where pressures and temperatures are equalized across the battery, and distribution does not change
Ironmaking Volume
with coking rate changes. For tall ovens, in order to assure uniform heating for the full height of
the oven, air and blast furnace gas are supplied through ports located part way up the flue, as well
as at the bottom of the flue.
When underfiring with rich gas (coke oven gas), all of the fuel is supplied at the base of the flues.
For tall ovens the combustion is staged by supplying a portion of the air required at the base of the
flue and the remainder at a high elevation. This elongates the flame, creating uniform vertical heat-
ing and eliminating low temperatures near the oven top.
The up-flow rich gas risers are always at substantially the same pressure as the two adjacent regen-
erator chambers which contain up-flow air. There is no possibility of leakage of rich fuel gas into
the down-flow regenerator chambers or sole flues.
To further lengthen the flame, assuring uniform vertical heating when underfiring with rich gas, an
automatic waste gas recirculation system is used. Recirculating ducts connect the bases of the
down-flow and up-flow rich gas risers which are provided with venturi throats, Fig. 7.68. The rich
fuel gas flows through jet-type nozzles into the venturi sections, serving as eductors to aspirate a
portion of the products of combustion from the down-flow flues, through the down-flow risers and
horizontal recirculating ducts, mixing this recirculated portion of waste gas with the rich fuel gas
in the up-flow risers to the burning flues. This results in dilution of the rich fuel gas with inert prod-
ucts of combustion. This mixture burns more slowly, producing a longer flame of lower luminos-
ity, similar to a blast furnace gas flame.
The Koppers waste-gas recirculation system suppresses the tendency to form carbon near the top of
the up-flow fuel gas risers. Any carbon that may be deposited on the up-flow cycle is automatically
consumed during the down-flow cycle by reaction with the excess oxygen, water vapor and carbon
dioxide in the recirculated waste gas. This eliminates the need for a separate decarbonizing air system.
7.6.2.3 Koppers Twin-Flue Oven

The Koppers twin-flue oven was first built in the early 1970s. This design was developed to pro-
vide a tall oven with a simplified refractory brick and oven-top construction. It has been built as
an underjet battery, primarily for heating with rich gas, but is also adaptable to heating with blast
furnace gas.
The distinguishing features of the Koppers
twin-flue oven are the arrangement of the verti-
cal flues of each heating wall in pairs connected
at the top, and the use of regenerators which are
unpartitioned for their entire length, Fig. 7.69.
No horizontal flue is required, providing added
strength to the walls in this critical area.
There is one wide regenerator (two narrow
regenerators for combination ovens) under each
oven, extending the full width of the battery,
separated from the regenerators on both sides
by substantial silica walls of tongued-and-
grooved brick. During a given reverse, every
other regenerator handles up-flow air, while
the alternate regenerators handle down-flow
products of combustion. Air passing up one
regenerator supplies air to alternate up-flow
flues in each of two adjacent flue walls.
Down-flow waste gases from the correspond-
ing down-flow twin flues pass to the down- Fig. 7.68 Waste-gas recirculating duct arrangement for a
flow regenerators on each side, and from there Koppers-Becker low-differential combination underjet
byproduct coke oven battery.
to the waste-heat flue.
4
5
6
3
1 2
8
12
9 13
10
15 11
16
14
Fig. 7.69 Sectional view of a Koppers twin-flue underjet byproduct coke oven battery. Legend: 1. oven; 2. burning flue; 3.
waste-gas flue; 4. turnaround; 5. high gas port; 6. low gas port; 7. differential heating flue; 8. recirculating duct; 9. checker
brick; 10. sole-flue ports; 11. sole flue; 12. air port; 13. rich-gas manifolds; 14. rich-gas main; 15. air and waste-heat boxes;
16. waste-heat flue.
This twin-flue design incorporates most of the structural and design features that have been proven
successful over the years in the Koppers single-divided and Koppers-Becker ovens, which have
been described in the preceding sections. Automatic waste-gas recirculation is achieved by the use
of recirculating ducts connecting the base of the rich-gas risers of each pair of twin flues. The recir-
culating ducts and venturi throats at the base of each riser are built into the silica brickwork of each
heating flue wall. Alternating high and low coke oven gas burners are provided in alternate flues
across each heating flue wall to assure uniform vertical heating of the modern tall twin-flue ovens.
7.6.2.4 Auxiliary Equipment

Some auxiliary equipment which can be used with any of the three types of Koppers oven is
described in this section.
The Koppers doors are of ductile iron or fabricated steel, and have the desired amount of flexibil-
ity to conform to the general shape of the jambs, Fig 7.66. A U-shaped sealing diaphragm is pro-
vided which is backed up by a series of spring-loaded plungers. This arrangement provides added
flexibility to permit the doors to conform automatically to minor differences in contour between
the door and the sealing surface of the jamb. This feature permits door interchanging from oven to
oven with automatic adjustment to the difference in contours. The two latches may be either of the
screw type or spring-loaded type.
The door-extractor ram swings the door 90° and holds it in position in front of the cleaning station.
The patented cleaner frame then moves forward to contact the door with the reciprocating scrap-
ing tools, which automatically clean the door sealing channel both vertically and horizontally, and
also clean the bottom and sides of the door plug. The number of scraping motions may be adjusted
to suit varying conditions.
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The patented jamb cleaner is mounted on a separate ram which positions the cleaner against the
door jamb. Variable settings automatically provide a programmed number of strokes for the scrap-
ing tools which effectively remove deposits from the jamb surfaces. An additional tool enters the
oven at the floor, and as the cleaning head is retracted from the oven the bottom tool removes any
floor deposits which would prevent the door from being properly replaced.
Foul gas is removed from each oven through single or double ascension pipes at the oven ends. The
collecting main is shaped to allow the ascension pipes to be as short as possible, Fig. 7.70. Each
ductile iron return-bend section contains two flushing liquor sprays and is connected to the col-
lecting main by a sealed expansion joint. A liquor-sealed valve at the base of the return bend allows
the oven to be isolated from the main. Charging steam is directed through the return-bend section
to pull the gas and smoke generated during charging into the collecting main. A return-bend cover
is provided for venting the oven to the atmosphere for decarbonizing purposes.
Mechanical-cleaning devices are provided on the coal charging car for removal of carbonaceous
deposits from the return bend and ascension pipe. Other mechanical devices are available to manip-
ulate the covers and dampers from the coal charging car.
7.6.2.5 Pollution Control

The Koppers designs offer facilities and systems to control environmental pollution from coke
oven batteries. Equipment to control pollution is an essential part of all proposals for new coke
ovens whether on new or existing sites throughout the world. The problems of making a coke oven
battery essentially gas-tight are being resolved with improved engineering designs, consistent
operating practices and modernized maintenance practices. To assist the coking industry in this
Flushing
liquor
header
Water-sealed
Steam lid
header Water
header
Charging
steam
Collecting
main
Liquor seal
valve
Water
drain
header
Mean top of oven
Fig. 7.70 Cross-section through a collecting main and ascension pipe on a byproduct coke oven charged with wet coal.
Coal
charging
Crossover main car
Manually-set
Regulator-controlled butterfly valve Collecting
butterfly valve main
Offtake main Pitch trap
Pitch trap
Coke
guide
Quench
car
Pusher
machine
Fig. 7.71 Schematic arrangement of a coke oven equipped for staged charging or sequenced charging
emission control effort, the Koppers designs have available the following facilities and equipment
for these major sources of coke oven emissions.
7.6.2.5.1 Charging Emissions An overall charging concept, commonly called staged charging or
sequenced charging, is available. This system, Fig. 7.71, involves the ability to discharge the coal
from the charging car hoppers in the proper sequence and at the proper times so that the blockages
of the gas passageways from the oven are prevented. Double collector mains or jumper-pipe sys-
tems are available to provide a gas outlet at each end of the oven chamber. Suction is provided by
aspirating steam at both gas outlets during a charge. Successful smokeless charging by this method
is greatly aided by certain auxiliary control devices which include mechanical feeders to control
the flow of coal from the hoppers to the ovens; automatic lid lifters with slide gates; automatic lev-
eler-door operators with leveler-bar smoke seals; mechanical standpipe and gooseneck cleaners;
and self-cleaning steam aspirating nozzles.
7.6.2.5.2 Pushing Emissions The Koppers designs have available a number of systems to reduce the
emissions generated during the pushing operation. A coke-side enclosure or shed has been pro-
vided to contain and collect these emissions. Wet scrubbers and baghouses are being used to clean
the captured emissions from the push and also the gases evolved from the coke-side oven doors.
Another system for control of pushing emissions is the Koppers-Ford system which consists of an
enclosed coke guide with an attached hood that covers a quench car. The hood is connected to a
fume main and a land-based gas scrubbing system to remove and clean the emissions.
7.6.2.5.3 Quenching Emissions Particulate matter entrained with steam from the quenching operation
can be controlled with the use of mist suppressors installed in the quench station stacks. Usually
these are wooden baffles arranged to cover the area of the stack and are installed with cleaning
sprays to wash down the collected particulates.
Dry coke cooling is another method of controlling quenching emissions. In this process, hot coke
is dumped into a chamber and inert gas is circulated through it to cool the coke. This gas is then
passed through a waste-heat boiler where the heat from the coke is recovered and used to generate
steam. Although this system does not emit a plume of steam with particulates, control devices are
still used at coke transfer points and in the gas stream to collect and clean emissions.
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7.6.3 Wilputte Design

Since the early 1960s, Wilputte has been engaged actively in the development of larger capacity
ovens with increased coking rates. Today, Krupp Wilputte is the designer and constructor of this
proprietary design type.
The first advance in this development program was the introduction of high-density silica oven
liner brick. This was followed by the increase in height of the four-divided and twin-flue ovens to
5.2 m (17 ft) with a capacity of 31.15 m3 (1100 ft3). By 1978, 1150 Wilputte ovens, each with a
capacity of 31.15 m3 (1100 ft3), had been constructed, with a designed coking rate of 16 hours.
Experience gained with the operation of these ovens at a fast coking rate, using both coke oven and
blast furnace gas firing, was combined with research and development work on yet higher and
larger capacity ovens. This resulted in the construction of 6.21 m (20.3 ft) high ovens with a capac-
ity of 39.64 m3 (1400 ft3).
Depending upon the particular application, the 31.15 m3 (1100 ft3) capacity ovens were either
twin-flue with coke oven gas firing, or four-divided with combination-gas firing. Gas-gun or
underjet firing systems were employed, depending upon the client’s preference.
The 39.64 m3 (1400 ft3) capacity ovens and 44.46 m3 (1570 ft3) capacity ovens constructed up to
1969 were of the twin-flue design for coke oven gas firing. An underjet firing system is used exclu-
sively for these largest ovens.
Dimensions of the coking chamber of a 39.64 m3 (1400 ft3) oven as compared with those of a 31.15
m3 (1100 ft3) oven are, respectively: heights, 6.21 m and 5.18 m (20.3 ft and 17 ft); lengths, 15.42
m and 14.94 m (50.6 ft and 49 ft). Average width for each is about 457 mm (18 in.).
The new generation of large-capacity Wilputte ovens accounted in 1969 for an installed car-
bonization capacity of 14.5 million tonnes (16 million tons).
Much of Krupp Wilputte’s effort has been directed also toward the more efficient handling of coal
and coke, control of the environmental discharges associated with normal coke oven operation, and
the application of AC drives.
7.6.3.1 Twin-Flue Ovens

Twin-flue ovens are comprised of multiple vertical heating flues arranged in pairs and are designed
to permit burning of gas simultaneously in alternate flues. Every 20 to 30 minutes the supply of
fuel gas is reversed to allow burning in the flues which were carrying waste gas.
7.6.3.2 Four-Divided Ovens

The heating wall of the four-divided oven, Fig. 7.64 and Fig. 7.65, consists of 33 vertical flues;
located between adjacent coking chambers are 17 outer and 16 inner flues. Nine of the outer flues
are located on the coke side and eight are located on the pusher side. The outer flues are arranged
to burn alternately with the 16 inner flues, reversing every 20 to 30 minutes.
7.6.3.3 Pillar Walls

The pillar walls of all sizes of Wilputte ovens are of all-silica construction from the deck slab up
to provide a uniform material of construction without slip joints that could cause potential leaks in
the regenerator. This design also eliminates the complex buckstay bracing system in the bench and
below the oven floor.
7.6.3.4 Wall Construction with High-Density Liners

The wall liner brick in contact with the coal is high-density silica brick. This brick has a minimum
density of about 1.84 g/cm3 (115 lb/ft3) as compared to standard lines with a density of about 1.71
g/cm3 (107 lb/ft3). The increased heat transfer rate and reduced thickness of this brick permit a
lower average flue temperature than required for 114.3 mm (4.5 in.) thick liners of standard den-
sity, or an increased coking rate with the same temperature.
The heating walls are of interlocked header and stretcher brick construction with headers inter-
locked to each other and to the liners as well. Courses are not less than 152.4 mm (6 in.) in height,
thereby reducing the number of joints substantially.
The ends of the heating walls can be constructed with removable nose and jamb brick made of sil-
ica clay or fused silica. The construction is such that all nose and jamb brick can be replaced with-
out disturbing the end flues.
7.6.3.5 Heating
Wilputte coke oven batteries can burn either coke oven or blast furnace gas, or a combination of
these. The changeover may be made from a central control room.
Alternating high and low burners are installed in the heating flues. This arrangement lengthens the
initial vertical combustion zone when heating with rich gas and, by enabling the use of wall liners
of uniform thickness from floor to roof, materially improves the vertical distribution of tempera-
tures when underfiring with lean gas.
The regenerator distribution system using venturi ports which are graduated in size along the bus
flue achieves uniform distribution of flow through the regenerator, thereby improving its effi-
ciency. Also, this graduated venturi-port design, in that it compensates for adverse manifold effects
in the bus flue, permits the use of a single side waste-gas flue.
7.6.3.6 Coke Oven Gas Firing

In Wilputte ovens, coke oven gas may be fired either through an underjet or gas-gun system.
When firing through an underjet system, coke oven gas under regulated pressure is delivered
through the main coke oven gas manifold to the underjet system located in the battery basement.
The underjet system comprises the individual wall manifolds with reversing cocks and connections
to the individual flues, each having an orifice metering device. These metering devices are sized to
accommodate the progressive increase in gas requirements toward the coke side of the oven to
compensate for oven taper and to meet the additional gas requirements of the outer end flues. The
rich fuel gas upon leaving the metering orifices travels upward through a duct in the pillar wall to
a high or low burner.
Ovens with capacities up to 31.15 m3 (1100 ft3) may be equipped with a gun-type fuel gas system.
In this system, gas guns deliver fuel gas through horizontal ducts from which it is distributed
through conventional clay nozzles to the individual heating flues.
7.6.3.7 Blast Furnace Gas Firing

The combustion of low-Btu blast furnace gas must be initiated at the bottom of the heating flue to
avoid a cool bottom condition. This is achieved in the four-divided oven by mixing the preheated
lean gas and air at a point below the oven floor to promote proper flame propagation, and through
the use of uniformly thick wall liners from wall to roof, which materially improves the vertical dis-
tribution of flue temperature.
7.6.3.8 Double Collecting Mains

In order to reduce atmospheric emissions during coal charging, most batteries being built in the
United States are being provided with collecting mains on both sides of the battery so as to pro-
vide a free exit for handling the gas evolved during charging. Double collecting mains with stage
charging can provide for smokeless charging as the gas escape path is unobstructed along the top
of the oven to the standpipes.
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With the double collecting main system, the space about the coal tends to be cooler in the latter
portions of the coking cycle, thus reducing the tendency to form roof carbon. However, care must
be exercised to close off the oven from one of the collecting mains in the latter part of the coking
cycle to prevent the possibility of cool, wet raw gas being drawn into the oven chamber and possi-
bly causing damage to the silica brickwork
Fig. 7.36, shown earlier, depicts the arrangement of the standpipe, damper valve and collecting
main at one end of an oven.
7.6.3.9 Coal Charging

The Wilputte charging car is equipped with magnetic lifters, drop-sleeve assemblies, automatic
gooseneck cleaners, coal bin operating mechanism, smoke abatement units and an operator’s cab.
With one spotting of the car, the following functions are performed: (a) clean the standpipe
elbows; (b) lift lids, drop the sleeves and charge the oven; and (c) lift the sleeves and replace the
lids. With the automated charging car, the travel, loading and weighing of the coal and spotting are
programmed and automatic, but the discrete functions (a), (b) and (c) are performed upon initiat-
ing signals from an operator.
A rotating table-type charging larry simultaneously discharges the coal contents evenly at a con-
trolled rate into all charging holes. This results in an oven charge of uniform bulk density that nor-
mally requires only a single stroke for leveling.
7.6.3.10 Pusher Machine

The Wilputte portal-type pusher is designed for door removal, oven pushing and door replacement
with one spotting of the machine. The hydraulically operated door cleaner locks into the retracted
door, automatically cleaning the sealing edge and the door lining. Simultaneously, a hydraulically
operated jamb cleaner, held in place by the door jamb latch keeper, moves into position for clean-
ing the face and inside of the door jamb.
The leveler bar, provided with a smoke sleeve for sealing the leveler door opening during opera-
tion, discharges the coal withdrawn by the retracting bar into a hopper located on the pusher.
A system of induction coil interlocks prevents pushing the oven before removal of the coke-side
door and positioning the coke guide.
7.6.3.11 Hydraulic Door Machinery

The hydraulically operated door removal and replacement machine has an inherent ruggedness and
reliability superior to the electric model with its multiplicity of gear reducers, brakes, torque-lim-
iting devices, limit switches and interlocks.
The hydraulically operated door and jamb cleaner on the coke-side door machine is similar to the
pusher-side machine and also locks onto the retracted door. The jamb cleaner is positioned by re-
spotting the door machine during the door cleaning cycle and is held in place by the door jamb’s
latch keeper.
7.6.3.12 Tilting Quench Car

The quench car has a tilting floor design for uniform distribution of coke, reduction of the overall
moisture content after quenching, and elimination of hot spots that might otherwise be found in
coke after discharge onto the wharf.
7.6.3.13 Self-Sealing Doors

The sealing edge of the spring-loaded self-sealing doors, shown earlier in Fig. 7.29, is made of a
renewable flexible stainless steel strip that is mounted on a flexible diaphragm and will adjust read-
ily to the contour or the door frame sealing face. The leveler door also is self-sealing.
The Wilputte door jambs can be either the ell-shaped contour or the block contour, securely bolted
to a steel nose plate behind the buckstay so that the jamb and steel nose plate can be held tightly
against the brickwork despite any tendency of the buckstay to distort. This design also permits
replacement of door jambs without removing buckstays while providing maintenance access to the
nose brick.
7.6.3.14 Automation of Coke Wharf

The coke wharf gates are actuated pneumatically and are provided with a sequencing device for
controlling the various movement patterns. Gates are interlocked with the air compressor and close
automatically when the coke wharf conveyor belt stops. An automatic temperature and water spray
system provides protection for the belt.
Another type of automatic wharf has a motor-operated plow running parallel with the coke con-
veyor to unload a run of coke from the wharf. This method of transferring coke onto the wharf belt
promotes uniform screen loading and efficient screening.
7.6.3.15 Electrical Equipment

AC drives have been adopted for coke oven machinery in modern Wilputte installations. Opera-
tional advantages of AC over DC power are: (a) control consists mostly of solid-state components
where the number of moving parts is minimized: (b) highly accurate, stepless and simple control
is obtained; and (c) smooth starting, accelerating and decelerating are achieved.
7.6.4 Thyssen Still Otto Designs

In the 1980s, due to the more difficult business situation worldwide in the iron and steel industry,
the coke oven building companies were also looking for higher efficiencies and a concentration of
their resources.
In 1987 the two coke oven building companies Carl Still GmbH und Co. KG in Recklinghausen
and Dr. C. Otto and Companie GmbH in Bochum merged and formed a new company. Thyssen
Group, one of the largest groups of companies in Germany, held the majority of the shares. The
new company was named Thyssen Still Otto Anlagentechnik GmbH, called TSOA hereafter in this
section.
In 1990 the coke oven division of Didier Engineering was taken over by TSOA. Today, the know-
how of the three coke oven building companies and the financial and management abilities of the
Thyssen Group are concentrated in this new company.
TSOA is today the oldest and largest coke oven builder in the world. The coke oven types and heat-
ing systems of the former companies Still, Otto and Didier can still be provided and build by TSOA
based on equipment existing in a plant and customer preference.
Extensive descriptions about the Didier design, the Dr. C. Otto design, and the Firma Carl Still
design are presented in the 10th edition of The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel.28 Those
designs will not be presented in this section. The reader is referred to pp. 206–224 of the 10th edi-
tion for further information concerning those proprietary design types.
In cases where none of these preconditions exist TSOA offers the following systems of newest
design coke ovens optimized for low emissions, low energy consumption and low operation
expenses. As a compound oven, heating with coke oven gas or blast furnace/mix gas, TSOA offers
a twin-flue air stage oven of the underjet or gun-flue design. As a rich gas oven, heating with coke
oven gas only, TSOA offers a double pair flue air stage oven of the underjet or gun-flue design.
Both systems use the newest air stage heating system were the combustion air enters the flues at
different stages and the gas enters in all flues at the same height at the flue bottom. Only with this
system is it possible to meet today’s stringent air pollution standards for NOx in waste gas. All
presently active coke oven builders have changed to such air stage systems.
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7.6.4.1 TSOA Twin-Flue Air Stage Compound Oven System

7.6.4.1.1 Heating System A major factor in modern cokemaking practice is to achieve optimum dis-
tribution of heat within the coke mass on completion of the carbonization cycle by an effective
heating system.
In the event that there exists within the coke mass a significant temperature differential either in
the vertical or horizontal direction it becomes necessary to overheat the major portion of the coke
mass to ensure complete carbonization of the coolest portion. At these elevated temperatures the
heat transfer efficiency of any coke oven is poor and energy is wasted.
As the bulk density of the coal varies in the vertical and horizontal directions the varying heat
requirement of the charge has to be met by an adaptable heating system with possible adjustments
for the oven taper and the end heating flues.
The TSOA twin-flue system for compound heating enables accurate distribution of the heating
gases and air to be achieved, thus ensuring an even distribution of temperature within the coke.
7.6.4.1.2 Twin-Flue Heating Walls The TSOA heating wall consists of vertical heating flues arranged
in pairs to form twin flues. This design has important technical features which should be noted.
There is high stability of the twin-flue heating wall because every second header wall is bound into
the oven roof structure.
An even heat distribution over the length of the wall is maintained because every second heating
flue is fired. The other flue of the pair is carrying the waste gas down to the regenerator. On the
other side of the charge, the flues opposite the flues carrying waste gas are fired. Therefore, even
heat distribution in horizontal direction of the heating wall is ensured.
Pressure losses and pressure differential are kept to a minimum by a nearly consistent cross-sec-
tional area path for the combustion gases up the flue on fire, over the turnover point, and down the
waste gas flue. Therefore, the likelihood for cross-leakage to occur within the refractory block as
the battery ages is reduced.
In the case of coke oven gas heating, Fig. 7.72, the heating gas is introduced into the flue through one
low burner which has the same height in all flues. Approximately 65% of the air preheated by the
regenerator is entering at the flue bottom and approximately 35% enters as a second stage through a
canal in the header wall through an opening located near the one-third of the chamber height.
In the case of blast furnace gas or mix gas, Fig. 7.73, heating gas and approximately 50% of the
air preheated by the regenerator are introduced at the flue bottom. As a second stage, the balance
of the air enters the flue through the higher air outlet.
The distribution of air to the two stages in different heights is adjusted to the heat requirements of
the charge.
After an incomplete combustion in the lower part of the flue, the gas is diluted by the already devel-
oped waste gas and burned with excess air at the second stage in the upper part of the flue. This
staged combustion reduces the production of NOx.
Any carbon deposits on the gas burners are burned away in the offgas phase by forced decar-
bonizing air.
The waste gas passes through the turnover point into the adjacent flue and is carried down to pre-
heat the regenerator checkerwork.
For fine tuning the heat distribution across the heating wall according to the heat demand of the
charge and the chamber taper, exchangeable metal nozzle plates with adjustable openings are
arranged between sole flues and regenerators. Each twin flue is always serviced by the same regen-
erator compartments, thus forming a heating unit. Such a heating unit consists of the air/mix gas
regenerator compartments, one twin flue, the waste gas regenerator compartments and the coke
oven gas riser openings.
Coke Waste Mix Waste

Air
Air oven gas gas Air
Air
Air gas gas
Fig. 7.72 TSOA twin-flue heating unit system operating Fig. 7.73 TSOA twin-flue heating unit system operating on
on coke oven gas. mix gas.
Each heating unit can be individually controlled and adjusted for optimum battery heating.
A number of these independent heating units arranged side-by-side form the heating wall of the
TSOA oven.
7.6.4.1.3 Underjet System, Coke Oven Gas In the underjet system, coke oven gas is distributed in the
battery basement under the nozzle deck by means of steel nozzle headers off the distribution main
and through steel connections on the riser pipes and openings to the burners in the heating flues.
In the underjet system to coke oven gas is distributed in steel pipes which operate under pressure.
Consequently, a good distribution can be obtained to ensure consistent flow of gas to the individ-
ual flues. By taking maximum advantage of the available fuel gas pressure, graded stainless steel
metering nozzles are installed to ensure an accurate and consistent delivery of fuel gas to each indi-
vidual burner.
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These are external from the battery refractory block and are easily accessible within the basement.
In the underjet system the nozzle headers are supplied from a single distribution main and a pro-
gressive adjustment can be obtained across the length of the heating wall.
The coke oven gas is fed to individual burners in the heating flues through vertical openings within
the refractory block. They are of small diameter, having no detrimental effect o the stability of the
refractory block.
Tightness, especially in the regenerator walls, is achieved by tongue-and-groove brick design with
staggered joints.
All TSOA heating systems may and have been provided as gun-flue systems, based on the special
requirements of the owner.
7.6.4.1.4 Regenerator Arrangement The regenerators are located under the oven chambers and the
heating walls and are continuous from pusher side to coke side. When heating with coke oven gas
two adjacent regenerators are supplied with combustion air and one with mix gas. The regenera-
tors exchange duties with each reversal.
The regenerators with their checker bricks are divided up lengthwise by partition walls into as
many compartments as there are twin flues. Each twin flue is connected with its regenerator com-
partments by short ducts.
The sole flues form a composite part of the regenerator and do not require any lining. The checker
bricks form the regenerator packing above the sole flues.
The packing is subdivided into separate compartments by tiles between the regenerator walls.
These are inserted, dry tightened with ropes, and can be removed should it ever be necessary to
repack the regenerator.
The majority of the checker bricks are manufactured from low alumina fireclay, but in higher
temperature zones of the regenerator the top four layers are manufactured from 40% alumina
fireclay.
Metal exchangeable nozzle plates with calibrated adjustable openings are located above the sole
flues and below the regenerator compartments. The volume of air/mix gas, which is distributed to
the regenerators and effectively into independent compartments, is determined by the adjustable
openings of the nozzle plates. Thus, a uniform and controlled air/mix gas flow is obtained together
with optimum heat recovery in the regenerator.
7.6.4.1.5 Heat Distribution across the Heating Wall Due to the taper of the oven chambers it is neces-
sary to increase the heat input from pusher side to coke side. This is achieved by increasing the
heating flue temperature from pusher side to coke side. Increasing amounts of gas and air have to
be fed to the heating flues in order to adapt the heat distribution across the heating wall exactly to
the heat requirements of the charge.
The major calibrations for this distribution are already built into the system based on design cal-
culations.
For distribution of coke oven gas across the heating wall, steel nozzle headers are installed in the
basement and are connected to each heating flue by riser openings. The calibrated stainless steel
nozzles are exchangeable.
Air/mix gas is distributed to the checkerwork of the regenerators by adjustable metal nozzle plates
arranged between sole flues and regenerator compartments. Waste gas is recollected to the sole
flues by the same nozzle plates.
The fine tuning of the heat distribution across the heating walls is done during commissioning by
adjusting the coke oven gas nozzles in the nozzle headers and the nozzle plates between the sole
flue and the regenerator.
The heat distribution form pusher side to coke side, once adjusted properly, does not need to be
readjusted with changing operating conditions. This is achieved by pause heating as described in
Section 7.6.4.1.8.
The total amount of air fed to any heating wall and the total amount of waste gas collected from
any heating wall are adjusted by finger plates at the air inlets and dampers at the waste gas valves,
which are simple and specially designed for this function, thus ensuring an even and efficient
regenerator loading.
The total amounts of coke oven gas and mix gas fed to any heating wall are adjusted by orifices
installed downstream of the reversing cocks.
7.6.4.1.6 Vertical Heat Distribution A uniform vertical temperature distribution in the coke mass is of
fundamental importance to avoid heat being wasted and to control coke quality.
For vertical heat distribution, the major calibrations are also built into the system based on design
calculations. These are cross-section of the heating flues, cross-section of the air/mix gas entering
the ports at the flue bottom, and cross-section and location of the second air stage.
The fine tuning of the vertical heat distribution is done during commissioning by adjusting the air
inlet and draft at the air inlet boxes and the waste gas valves. For coke oven gas heating, additional
adjustments are possible at the two air regenerators feeding different the different air stages.
Coke oven gas enters above the heating flue sole and partially burns with the air of the lower stage.
Combustion is completed with the additional air at the higher air stage. During mix gas firing, mix
gas and part of the air enter at the bottom of the heating flue. The balance of the air is added in a
second higher stage. In both cases, this combustion results in a soft flame characteristic over the
entire height of the heating flue.
Once the optimum flame length has been obtained, changes in coking rate can be achieved by using
the pause heating facility described in Section 7.6.4.1.8. By using the pause heating facility, opti-
mum vertical heat distribution will maintained at all times.
7.6.4.1.7 Heat Distribution in the Longitudinal Direction of the Battery In the longitudinal direction
of the battery, equal amounts of air and gas must be distributed to each heating wall and, corre-
spondingly, equal amounts of waste gas must be collected from each heating wall into the waste
gas flue.
To avoid the wasting of heat, by increasing the amounts of gas/waste gas from the first to last heat-
ing wall, the amounts of gas/waste gas to and from the heating walls are controlled by throttling
devices in the connections. On the inlet side these throttling devices are orifices in the branches
from the coke oven gas or mix gas distribution main, arranged behind the reversing cocks of each
heating wall.
On the outlet side, throttling dampers are installed in the connecting piece between the sole flues
and the waste gas valves. In case the underfiring is changed from mix gas to coke oven gas, or vice
versa, these dampers must be manually adjusted to the different amounts of waste gas. The air inlet
fingers must also be adjusted.
In the case of changing operating conditions, with changing heat requirements for the battery
unchanged, even heat distribution and optimum pressure and flow conditions are maintained by
pause heating.
7.6.4.1.8 Pause Heating High efficiency of the heating system depends mainly on maintaining the
optimum adjustment and control of the distribution and pressure conditions under all operating
conditions.
This is achieved by pause heating, which keeps all operating parameters constant once they are
adjusted.
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During commissioning, the battery is adjusted to the shortest possible coking time, i.e. maximum
possible heat requirement and maximum possible amounts of gas, air and waste gas. Under these
conditions the battery will be operating at the minimum pause during the reversal of the regenera-
tor half-periods.
If the heat requirements are reduced, i.e. in the case of longer coking times, the amounts of air and
gas entering the system and amount of waste gas leaving the system per unit of time are kept con-
stant and the reduced heat requirements are achieved by a pause between regenerator half-periods.
This simplifies the operation of a coke oven battery. All readjustments normally necessary with
changing coking times are eliminated.
With pause heating, a single timer is set to a certain pause depending on the selected coking
time. No further manual adjustments to the battery are necessary, except at very extreme coking
times.
The amounts of gas, air and waste gas flowing constantly per unit of time result in an even distri-
bution of heat in the longitudinal direction of the battery as well as across the heating wall. At the
same time, a constant flame characteristic in the heating flues at normal coking times results in an
even vertical heat distribution in the coke mass.
Operating times between the nominal coking time and 30% longer coking times are achievable
with consistent, high thermal efficiencies. The consistent heating parameters for all coking times
in this range result in evenly coked charges and consistent coke quality. Furthermore, pause heat-
ing reduces the manning/labor requirements for battery heating control, and therefore reduces
operating costs.
7.6.4.1.9 Thermal Efficiency

The design features and operating modes outlined in this description ensure even heat distribu-
tion in the horizontal direction of the battery and the horizontal and vertical directions of the heat-
ing wall. These features combine to contribute to the high thermal efficiency associated with the
TSOA oven.
Other factors which influence the thermal efficiency include optimum utilization of the regenera-
tor filling, effective oven bracing system, insulation of the oven block, and the exclusion of cross-
leakage in the regenerator area.
The TSOA checker bricks in the regenerator compartments offer a large exchange surface to the
through-flowing media. The checker bricks are shaped so that the gas flow is split up into multiple
streams. This ensures good heat transfer by their large surface area.
Pressure differentials are low because disturbances in the flow from the inlet checkerwork to the
outlet checkerwork are minimal.
Horizontal surfaces which could collect dust in the regenerator are avoided.
7.6.4.1.10 NOx Formation in the Heating System As can be seen from the heating cross-section in Fig.
7.74, the TSOA oven is an “air stage oven” which ensures low NOx formation in case of heating
with coke oven and mix gas.
In developing this heating system, TSOA embarked at first on a test program with extensive labo-
ratory tests, which included tests on small heating flues as well as the construction of cold models
to visualize the flow and mixing conditions in the heating flue.
Because of the results of these tests, test heating flues for 7.5 m high oven chambers were con-
structed in order to study all possible air and gas supply configurations and the resultant impact on
the NOx formation and the vertical temperature distribution.
The outcome of this work was the air stage oven, a design which produces long flames with a low
flame temperature and low NOx values for both mix gas and coke oven gas heating.
After this extensive testing, the heating system was successfully built for owners worldwide.
Numerous batteries, with over 1000 ovens of this design, are in operation today.
7.6.4.1.11 Coke Oven Gas Heating To best illustrate the operation of a twin-flue air stage compound
oven system with coke oven gas, Fig. 7.74 will be extensively referenced in this section. The num-
bers referenced in parentheses, ( ), apply to heating after reversal.
Coke oven gas is supplied to each heating wall from the coke oven gas distribution main, 13, which
runs the length of the battery in the oven basement.
The gas flows through the reversing cocks into the nozzle headers, 15 (15a). Connections off the
nozzle headers incorporate adjustable stainless steel nozzles, 16 (16a), through which the gas
passes vertically upwards via the riser openings, 17 (17a), and enters the heating flues, 11 (11a), at
the burners, 18 (18a).
The combustion air is drawn through the open flaps, 20 (20a), of the air inlets and the sole flues,
3 and 4 (3a and 4a), and distributed to the regenerator compartments, 6 and 7 (6a and 7a), via the
metal nozzle plates, 5.
The heat stored in the regenerator, 6 and 7 (6a and 7a), during the previous reversal period as a
result of the waste gas being drawn off is then transferred to the combustion air that enters the heat-
ing flue, 11 (11a), via short connecting ducts, 8 and 9 (8a and 9a), partially at the heating flue sole
and partially at the higher air stage, 10 (10a).
Each twin flue forms a heating unit with the appropriate regenerator compartments to which it is
connected by short ducts.
Coke oven gas and air flow up the heating flues, 11, during the two stage combustion and wasste
gas flows down the adjacent heating flues, 11a. From there, the waste gas flows to the regenerator
compartments, 6a and 7a (6 and 7), via the ducts.
The waste gas passes through the nozzle plates, 5, and is collected in the sole flues, 3a and 4a (3
and 4), from where it is drawn through the waste gas valves, 19 (19a), and the waste gas flue, 21,
to the chimney. The two sole flues, 3a and 4a (3 and 4), lead to one waste gas valve, 19 (19a).
The coke oven gas burners not on fire are supplied with decarbonizing air. The air flows from the
air main, 22, through the nozzle headers, 15 (15a), and the riser openings, 17 (17a), to the burners,
18 (18a), in order to burn away any carbon deposits.
7.6.4.1.12 Mix Gas Heating To best illustrate the operation of a twin-flue air stage compound oven sys-
tem with mix gas (blast furnace gas stabilized with coke oven gas), Fig. 7.75 will be extensively ref-
erenced in this section. The numbers referenced in parentheses, ( ), apply to heating after reversal.
Mix gas is supplied to each heating wall from the mix gas distribution main, 1, which runs the
length of the battery in the oven basement.
The gas flows through the reversing cocks, 2 (2a), and the sole flues, 4 (4a), and is distributed to
the regenerator compartments, 7 (7a), through the metal nozzle plates, 5. The heat stored in the
regenerators, 7 (7a), during the previous reversal period as a result of the waste gas being drawn
off is then transferred to the mix gas which enters the heating flues, 11 (11a), via short connecting
ducts, 9 (9a), at the heating flue sole.
The combustion air is drawn through the open flaps, 20 (20a), of the air inlets and the sole flue, 3
(3a), and distributed to the regenerator, 6 (6a), via the nozzle plates, 5.
The preheated air enters the heating flues, 11 (11a), via short connecting ducts, 8 (8a), partially at
the heating flue sole and partially at the higher air stage, 10 (10a).
Mix gas and air flow up the heating flues, 11, during the two stage combustion and waste gas flows
down the adjacent heating flues, 11a. From there, the waste gas flows to the regenerator compart-
ments, 6a and 7a (6 and 7), via the ducts.
474
Section A-A Section B-B Section C-C Section D-D Section E-E
E D B A C
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12 12 12
11 11 11
11a 11a 11a 11a 11a
10 10a 10a 10a 10a
10a 10 10
18
18a 18
18a 18a 8a 8
17 9a 9
17 17a 17a
17a 7 7 6a
6a
7a 7 6a 7
6a 7
20,20a 5 5 7a 6
7a 6
19,19a 5 5
4a 4 4 3a
4 3a
3a 4 3a 4
4a 3 4a 3
14,14a 16a 16a 2 2
13 16 15 2a
2,2a 16 16a 15,15a
22 15a 14 1
1
14a 13
21
D B
E A C
Air Coke oven gas Waste gas
Fig. 7.74 Cross-section of the heating system for a twin-flue underjet-fired compound oven operating on coke oven gas.
Section A-A Section B-B Section C-C Section D-D Section E-E
E D B A C
12 12 12
11 11 11
11a 11a 11a 11a 11a
10 10a 10a 10a 10a
10a 10 10
18
18a 18
18a 18a 8a 8
17 9a 9
17
17 17a 17a
17a 7 7 6a
17a 6a
7a
7a 77 7
6a 7 6a
55 55 7a 7a 6
20,20a 6
19,19a 5 5
4a
4a 4 4 3a
4 3a
3a 4 3a 4
4a 3 4a 3
14,14a 16a 16a 2 2
13 16 15 2a
2,2a 16 16a 15,15a
22 15a 14 1
1 14a 13
21
D B
E A C
Air Mix gas Waste gas
Fig. 7.75 Cross-section of the heating system for a twin-flue underjet-fired compound oven operating on mix gas (blast furnace gas stabilized with coke oven gas).
475
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The waste gas passes through the nozzle plates, 5, and is collected in the sole flues, 3a and 4a (3
and 4), from where it is drawn through the waste gas valves, 19 (19a), and the waste gas flue, 21,
to the chimney. The two sole flues, 3a and 4a (3 and 4), lead to one waste gas valve, 19 (19a).
7.6.4.1.13 Waste Gas Flues and Chimneys Batteries are drafted by one single waste gas flue on one side,
which is connected to the chimney located in front of the battery. The waste gas flue is connected
to the chimney by a chimney flue.
The waste gas flue contains a hand-operated damper for control during startup or in case of a fail-
ure of the main butterfly valve.
The chimney flue contains a butterfly valve as a main control damper. This damper is automati-
cally controlled by a regulator.
7.6.4.1.14 Operation of the Battery Heating System The TSOA battery is noted for its ease of operation
and maintenance. This is enhanced, of course, by the presence of single rows of equipment: a sin-
gle row of waste gas valves with air inlets; a single coke oven gas main and reversing/isolating
cocks; single mix gas main and reversing/isolating cocks; and a simple hydraulic reversing gear.
The battery is adjusted by the TSOA commissioning team and is fine-tuned for optimum perfor-
mance before hand-over to the client. Thereafter, no adjustments to the heating system settings will
be necessary between the nominal coking time and 30% longer coking times. However, should the
operators wish to modify the battery settings for any reason, the facility is there and it is easily
accesible.
Provided that the basic maintenance requirements as laid down in the operating and maintenance
manuals provided are satisfied, the design performance of the battery heating system will be main-
tained for the major portion of the battery life. Data for a typical TSOA twin flue compound bat-
tery are presented in Table 7.4.
7.6.4.2 TSOA Double Pair Flue, Rich Gas Oven System
7.6.4.2.1 Double Pair Flue Heating Wall The TSOA heating wall consists of vertical heating flues
arranged in double pairs. The design has important technical features which should be noted. High
stability of the wall is achieved as only every second binder is a hollow binder, resulting in only
half the number of ducts between the regenerators and the heating wall. Uniform vertical heat dis-
tribution on the wall is achieved by multi-stage combustion with low NOx formation. Pressure
losses and pressure differentials are kept to a minimum by a nearly consistent cross-sectional area
Table 7.4 Data for a Typical TSOA Twin Flue Compound Battery
Year in Operation 1992

Number of Ovens 66
Chamber height, mm 6780
Chamber width, mm (average) 440
Chamber length, mm 16,597
Oven Type Compound
Coke Oven Gas Firing Underjet
Heating Wall Twin Flue
Air Stages 2
Coking time, h 17.5
Heating Flue Temperature, °C (average) 1310
Heat Consumption of Coke Oven Gas, kcal/kg 513
Heat Consumption of Mix Gas, kcal/kg 552
NOx in Waste Gas from Coke Oven Gas, mg/m3 316
NOx in Waste Gas from Mix Gas, mg/m3 234
path for the combustion gases to travel up the flues on fire, over the turnover point and down the
waste gas flues. Therefore, the likelihood of cross-leakage to occur within the refractory block as
the battery ages is reduced.
Two adjacent heating flues burn in each double pair flue unit, while the other two discharge waste
gas. The four flues are connected at the top by a small horizontal channel.
On the other side of the charge, the pair opposite the pair carrying waste gas is fired. With the
reversing after each regenerator half-period, the pattern of firing is changed.
Rich gas controlled by the calibration of the nozzles is introduced only on the base of each heat-
ing flue via a short burner. Combustion air preheated in the regenerator is introduced in the indi-
vidual heating flues through vertical hollow binders with calibrated slot openings at several
elevations over the height of the heating flue. The calibrated slot openings feed the combustion air
at a specific angle into the heating flue.
Each pair of heating flues has a central hollow binder channel directly connected to the regenera-
tor. Through this channel each pair of flues is either supplied with combustion air or after the rever-
sal, discharged of waste gas.
Solid header walls divide the individual flue groups within a heating wall and connect into the oven
roof.
After an incomplete combustion at the lowest stage, the air/gas mixture is diluted by the already
developed waste gas at each stage and finally burned with excess air at the highest stage in the
upper part of the flue. This staged combustion reduces the production of NOx.
To burn away any carbon deposits at the burners, decarbonizing air is fed through the 3-way revers-
ing cocks into the offgas nozzle headers by a forced air system.
The waste gas passes through the connecting canal into the adjacent flues and is carried down to
preheat the regenerator checkerwork before it leaves the system via the single waste gas flue and
the chimney.
Sliding bricks are arranged on top of the heating flues for fine tuning the heat distribution across
the heating wall according to the heat demand of the charge and the chamber taper.
Each double pair flue is always serviced by the same regenerator compartments, thus forming a
heating unit. One heating unit, Fig. 7.76, consists of the air regenerator cell, one group of heating
flues, the waste gas regenerator cell and the straight coke oven gas riser openings. Each heating
unit can be individually controlled and adjusted. Several heating units side-by-side build up the
heating wall.
7.6.4.2.2 Underjet System for Coke Oven Gas In the underjet system, coke oven gas is distributed in the
battery basement under the nozzle deck by means of steel nozzle headers off the distribution main
and through steel connections to the riser pipes and openings to the burners in the heating flues.
The coke oven gas is distributed in steel pipes which operate under pressure. Consequently, a good
distribution can be obtained to ensure consistent flow of gas to the individual flues. By taking max-
imum advantage of the available fuel gas pressure, stainless steel metering nozzles are installed to
ensure an accurate and consistent delivery of fuel gas to each individual burner. These are external
from the battery refractory block and are easily accessible within the basement.
The nozzles headers are supplied in the underjet system from a single distribution main and a pro-
gressive adjustment can be obtained across the length of the heating wall.
The coke oven gas is fed to individual burners in the heating flues through vertical openings within
the refractory block. They are of small diameter, having no detrimental effect on the stability of the
refractory block.
Tightness, especially in the regenerator walls, is achieved by a tongue-and-groove brick design
with staggered joints.
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Fig. 7.76 Heating unit for a double pair flue underjet oven operating on coke oven gas.
All TSOA heating systems have also been provided as gun flue systems, based on the special
requirements of the owner.
7.6.4.2.3 Regenerator Arrangement The regenerators are located under the oven chambers and heat-
ing walls and are continuous from the pusher side to the coke side. They are divided into simple,
wide chambers. Each regenerator chamber operates on combustion air or waste gas. Two adjacent
regenerators always operate on different media.
The regenerator chambers, with their checker bricks, are divided by partition walls into cells. The
regenerator cells are calibrated to the different heat requirements of the heating flues due to the
chamber taper by built-in flow resistance.
The corbel section contains only half of the number of connection ducts between regenerator cells
and heating flues found in other designs as only every second binder wall has a canal.
The two tapered sole flues form a composite part of the regenerator and do not require any lining.
The checker bricks, which form the regenerator packing, are supported by supporting bricks above
the sole flues.
The packing is sub-divided into the separate compartments by tiles. These are inserted dry and can
be removed should it every be necessary to repack the regenerator.
The majority of the checker bricks are manufactured from fireclay, but in the higher temperature
zone of the regenerators the top four layers are manufactured from 40% alumina fireclay.
Distribution bricks with calibrated openings are located above the sole flues and below the regen-
erator cells. The volume of air which is distributed to the regenerators is effectively sub-divided
into independent cells by the calibrated openings of the distribution blocks. Thus, a uniform and
controlled air flow is obtained together with optimum heat recovery in the regenerator.
7.6.4.2.4 Heat Distribution across the Heating Wall Due to the taper of the oven chambers it is neces-
sary to increase the heat input from the pusher side to the coke side. This is achieved by increas-
ing the heating flue temperature from the pusher side to the coke side. Increasing amounts of gas
and air must be fed to the heating flues to adapt the heat distribution across the heating wall exactly
to the heat requirements of the charge.
The major calibrations for this distribution are built into the system based on design calculations.
For distribution of coke oven gas across the heating wall, steel nozzle headers are installed in the
basement connected to each heating flue by riser openings. The calibrated stainless steel nozzles
are exchangeable.
Air is distributed to the checkerwork of the regenerators by calibrated distribution bricks arranged
between the sole flues and the regenerator compartments. Waste gas is recollected to the sole flues
by the same calibrated distribution blocks. The different flow resistances necessary for the distrib-
ution of air and the recollection of waste gas is ensured by the configuration of the calibrated open-
ings, which result in different flow resistances for different flow directions.
The amount of air fed to the heating flues is pre-calibrated by the built-in flow resistance of the cells.
The fine tuning of the heat distribution across the heating walls is done during commissioning by
adjusting the coke oven gas nozzles in the nozzle headers and the sliding bricks arranged at the top
of the heating flues.
The heat distribution from the pusher side to the coke side, once adjusted properly, does not need
to be readjusted with changing operating conditions. This is achieved by pause heating as described
in Section 7.6.4.2.7.
The total amount of air fed to and the total amount of waste gas collected from any heating wall
are adjusted by finger plates at the air inlets and by dampers at the waste gas valves. These ele-
ments are simple and specially designed for this function to ensure a uniform and efficient regen-
erator loading.
The total amounts of coke oven gas fed to any heating wall are adjusted by orifices installed down-
stream of the reversing cocks.
7.6.4.2.5 Vertical Heat Distribution A uniform vertical temperature distribution in the coke mass is of
fundamental importance to avoid heat being wasted and to control coke quality.
Ironmaking Volume
For vertical heat distribution, the major calibrations are also built into the system based on design
calculations. These are cross-section of the heating flues, cross-section of the air canals in the
binder walls, and cross-section and location of the air stages.
The fine tuning of the vertical heat distribution is done during commissioning by adjusting the air
inlet and draft at the air inlet boxes and the waste gas valves.
Coke oven gas enters above the heating flue sole and partially burns with the air of the lower stage.
Combustion is completed with the additional air at the higher air stage. This results in a soft flame
characteristic over the entire height of the heating flue when burning high calorific gas.
Once the optimum flame length has been obtained, changes in coking rate can be achieved by using
the pause heating facility described in Section 7.6.4.2.7. By using the pause heating facility, opti-
mum vertical heat distribution will maintained at all times.
7.6.4.2.6 Heat Distribution in the Longitudinal Direction of the Battery In the longitudinal direction of the
battery, equal amounts of air and gas must be distributed to each heating wall and, correspondingly,
equal amounts of waste gas must be collected from each heating wall into the waste gas flue.
To avoid the wasting of heat, by increasing the amounts of gas/waste gas from the first to last
heating wall, the amounts of gas/waste gas to and from the heating walls are controlled by throt-
tling devices in the connections. On the inlet side these throttling devices are orifices in the
branches from the coke oven gas distribution main, arranged behind the reversing cocks of each
heating wall.
On the outlet side, throttling dampers are installed in the connecting piece between the sole flues
and the waste gas valves.
In the case of changing operating conditions, with changing heat requirements for the battery
unchanged, even heat distribution and optimum pressure and flow conditions are maintained by
pause heating.
7.6.4.2.7 Pause Heating High efficiency of the heating system depends mainly on maintaining the
optimum adjustment and control of the distribution and pressure conditions under all operating
conditions.
This is achieved by pause heating, which keeps all operating parameters constant once they are
adjusted.
During commissioning, the battery is adjusted to the shortest possible coking time, i.e. maximum
possible heat requirement and maximum possible amounts of gas, air and waste gas. Under these
conditions the battery will be operating at the minimum pause during the reversal of the regenera-
tor half-periods.
If the heat requirements are reduced, i.e. in the case of longer coking times, the amounts of air and
gas entering the system and amount of waste gas leaving the system per unit of time are kept con-
stant and the reduced heat requirements are achieved by a pause between regenerator half-periods.
This simplifies the operation of a coke oven battery. All readjustments normally necessary with
changing coking times are eliminated.
With pause heating, a single timer is set to a certain pause depending on the selected coking time.
No further manual adjustments to the battery are necessary, except at very extreme coking times.
The amounts of gas, air and waste gas flowing constantly per unit of time result in an even distri-
bution of heat in the longitudinal direction of the battery as well as across the heating wall. At the
same time, a constant flame characteristic in the heating flues at normal coking times results in an
even vertical heat distribution in the coke mass.
Operating times between the nominal coking time and 30% longer coking times are achievable with
consistent, high thermal efficiencies. The consistent heating parameters for all coking times in this
range result in evenly coked charges and consistent coke quality. Furthermore, pause heating
reduces the manning/labor requirements for battery heating control, and therefore reduces operat-
ing costs.
7.6.4.2.8 Thermal Efficiency The design features and operating modes outlined in this description
ensure even heat distribution in the horizontal direction of the battery and the horizontal and ver-
tical directions of the heating wall. These features combine to contribute to the high thermal effi-
ciency associated with the TSOA oven.
Other factors which influence the thermal efficiency include optimum utilization of the regenera-
tor filling, effective oven bracing system, insulation of the oven block, and the exclusion of cross-
leakage in the regenerator area.
The TSOA checker bricks in the regenerator compartments offer a large exchange surface to the
through-flowing media. The checker bricks are shaped so that the gas flow is split up into multiple
streams. This ensures good heat transfer by their large surface area.
Pressure differentials are low because disturbances in the flow from the inlet checkerwork to the
outlet checkerwork are minimal.
Horizontal surfaces which could collect dust in the regenerator are avoided.
7.6.4.2.9 NOx Formation in the Heating System As can be seen from the heating cross-section in Fig.
7.77, the TSOA oven is an “air stage oven” which ensures low NOx formation in the case of heat-
ing with coke oven gas.
In developing this heating system, TSOA embarked at first on a test program with extensive labo-
ratory tests, which included tests on small heating flues as well as the construction of cold models
to visualize the flow and mixing conditions in the heating flue.
Because of the results of these tests, test heating flues for 7.5 m high oven chambers were con-
structed in order to study all possible air and gas supply configurations and the resultant impact on
the NOx formation and the vertical temperature distribution.
The outcome of this work was the air stage oven, a design which produces long flames with a low
flame temperature and low NOx values.
After this extensive testing, the heating system was successfully built for owners worldwide.
Numerous batteries, with over 1000 ovens of this design, are in operation today.
7.6.4.2.10 Coke Oven Gas Heating To best illustrate the operation of a double pair flue with underjet
firing operating with coke oven gas, Fig. 7.77 will be extensively referenced in this section.
The rich gas distribution main, 13, is arranged in the oven basement opposite the waste gas flue
and extends the length of the battery. The gas supply to the individual heating walls is controlled
by adjusting shut-off and reversing cocks with the gas being fed through the gas headers, 15, in the
oven basement extending the longitudinal direction of the heating wall. From these gas headers, the
gas flows via short connecting lines, 16, into the vertical rich gas risers, 17, and to the burners, 18,
at the flue bottom. Control of the gas volume is effected by means of replaceable nozzles in the
connecting lines, 16.
The decarbonizing air main, 22, is arranged beside the rich gas main and serves the purpose of
feeding a minor amount of air to the rich gas burners, not on gas in the heating flues, via the rele-
vant distribution pipes and rich gas risers. This enables the prevention and burning away of any car-
bon deposits on the burners.
Combustion air is taken in through the alley and open air intake flaps, 20 and 20a, and drawn into
the sole flues, 3 and 4, from where it is distributed over the regenerator compartment, 7, via cali-
brated distribution bricks, 5. By means of throttling equipment mounted in the air intake boxes the
air volume allowed to enter a heating wall can be controlled and adjusted. The stored heat, which
the hot waste gas has conveyed to the checker bricks before heating system reversal, is absorbed
by air flowing through the regenerators. Through connecting ducts, 8, in the regenerator covering
and duct, 10, running up the binder, the hot air flows to the opening locations in the heating flue.
482
Section D-D Section E-E
Section A-A Section B-B Section C-C
E D
B A C
Ironmaking Volume
12 12
11a 11 11 11
11 10 11a 10 12
10a 11
10 10a 11a
18a 10 10a
18 10
18a 9
18 9a 8
18 9 8a
17 17 8 7a
7a 7
7a 17a 8a 7
20,20a 7
17a 17 9a 9 7a
5 7 5
5 5 7a
7 7a 3a
4
3a
4a 4 3a 4 4
4a 3 4 3
19,19a 16 16 3a
15 16a 4a
14,14a
14 15a
16 16a 15 14a
14a
13 14
21 22 13
E D B C
A
Fig. 7.77 Cross-section of the heating system of a double pair flue underjet heating oven operating on coke oven gas.
In the case of the double pair flue group carrying gas, the gas is burned in several stages accord-
ing to the staged supply of air. The ascending combustion gases pass the reversal point of the dou-
ble pair flue, flow downwards in the neighboring flue pair, and are then discharged through
connecting ducts in the regenerator compartment, 7a, where the transfer of heat to the checker
bricks takes place. Via the distribution bricks, 15, the cooled waste gas flows into the regenerator
sole flues, 3a and 4a, and on to the chimney through waste gas valves, 19 and 19a, and the waste
gas collecting flue.
When the regenerator heating system reversal has been effected, the flow of the media is reversed.
The gas supply is changed over to the second gas header, 15a, of the heating wall and the other flue
pair of the double pair flue is now on gas. The functions of the regenerator are also then reversed.
7.6.4.2.11 Waste Gas Flues and Chimneys Batteries are drafted by one single waste gas flue on one side,
which is connected to the chimney located in front of the battery. The waste gas flue is connected
to the chimney by a chimney flue.
The waste gas flue contains a hand-operated damper for control during startup or in case of a fail-
ure of the main butterfly valve.
The chimney flue contains a butterfly valve as a main control damper. This damper is automati-
cally controlled by a regulator.
7.6.4.2.12 Operation of the Battery Heating System The TSOA battery is noted for its ease of opera-
tion and maintenance. This is enhanced, of course, by the presence of single rows of equipment: a
single row of waste gas valves with air inlets; a single coke oven gas main and reversing/isolating
cocks; and a simple hydraulic reversing gear.
The battery is adjusted by the TSOA commissioning team and is fine-tuned for optimum perfor-
mance before hand-over to the client. Thereafter, no adjustments to the heating system settings will
be necessary between the nominal coking time and 30% longer coking times. However, should the
operators wish to modify the battery settings for any reason, the facility is there and it is easily
accessible.
Provided that the basic maintenance requirements as laid down in the operating and maintenance
manuals provided are satisfied, the design performance of the battery heating system will be main-
tained for the major portion of the battery life. Data for a typical TSOA double pair flue rich gas
battery are presented in Table 7.5.
Table 7.5 Data for a Typical TSOA Double Pair Flue Rich Gas Battery
Year in Operation 1995

Number of Ovens 82
Chamber height, mm 6251
Chamber width, mm (average) 447
Chamber length, mm 15,424
Oven Type Rich Gas
Coke Oven Gas Firing Underjet
Heating Wall Double Pair Flue
Air Stages 6
Coking time, h 18
Heating Flue Temperature, °C (average) 1310
Heat Consumption of Coke Oven Gas, kcal/kg 520
NOx in Waste Gas from Coke Oven Gas, mg/m3 223
CO in Waste Gas, mg/m3 90
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7.6.4.3 TSOA Major Battery Silica

Equipment Fireclay
TSOA uses for both coke
oven systems, presented ear-
1.4
lier, the same major battery
equipment systems. Of course
there are differences in the 1.2
detail design based on the
detailed heating differences.
Expansion (%)
The following describes the 1.0
systems for the example of
the twin flue underjet com-
0.8
pound coke oven.
7.6.4.3.1 Refractory Oven Block 0.6

The traditional materials used
in the construction of coke
ovens are silica and fireclay. 0.4
Both materials demonstrate
different characteristics and 0.2
both are markedly superior to
one another under different
conditions. The TSOA design 0.0
employs the right materials in
the right places, thus taking 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
maximum advantage of the
superior qualities of both sil- Temperature ( C)
ica and fireclay. Fig. 7.78 Thermal expansion of silica and fireclay material.
7.6.4.3.2 Refractory Material Characteristics The graph in Fig. 7.78 illustrates the thermal expansion
characteristics of fireclay and silica over the operating temperatures encountered in the coke oven
battery. The following trends are noted. Silica undergoes practically no dimensional change
between 800°C and 1400°C (1450°F and 2550°F). Fireclay undergoes a significant dimensional
change over the range of 800°C and 1300°C (1450°F and 2350°F). At this upper temperature it has
already reached its safe working limit beyond which its mechanical properties diminish.
Over the range 375–800°C (705–1450°F), silica undergoes some dimensional change, but far less
than that of fireclay. Below 400°C (750°F) silica undergoes a dramatic, non-linear dimensional
change. In contrast, fireclay undergoes a linear dimensional change below 400°C (750°F), a
change which is far less severe than that of silica.
In addition to thermal expansion, other characteristics must be taken into account. Silica maintains
its mechanical properties up to a temperature of 1600°C (2900°F), while low alumina fireclay is
serviceable only up to temperatures of 1000°C (1830°F). Silica resists chloride attack, while fire-
clay is susceptible to attack from chlorides within the coal. The closed pore surface structure of
fireclay provides a better resistance to sulfur attack than the open pore structure of silica.
7.6.4.3.3 Sole Flues and Lower Regenerator Section By design, the regenerators undergo a time-related
temperature fluctuation, normally on a 30 min. cycle. The sole flue and the lower section of the
regenerator (approximately 65% of the total regenerator height) operate within a range of
95–350°C (200–950°F). Within this range, silica undergoes a 1% linear expansion, an expansion
which is critical in the range of 200–300°C (400–600°F).
In contrast, fireclay undergoes an expansion of less than half that of silica and the expansion curve
is linear, thus there is no critical zone on the temperature curve.
Sillimanite
clay
Fire
Qoin brick
Silica
Fireclay
Heating wall layer
Fig. 7.79 Refractory cross-section of a twin flue underjet Fig. 7.80 Wall bond for a twin flue underjet oven
compound oven. system.
The TSOA oven design, Fig. 7.79, therefore employs fireclay for the construction of the regenera-
tor sole flues and the major part of the regenerator walls.
Experience shows that a battery with regenerator walls constructed solely from silica will usually
display signs of cross-leakage between regenerators after heatup, particularly in the critical zone
where the normal reversal temperature fluctuations are in the region of 320°C (600°F). In contrast,
a fireclay wall with proper bracing will remain tight for the duration of the battery life.
7.6.4.3.4 Upper Regenerator Section and Heating Walls Above the critical temperature of 800°C
(1450°F) silica displays characteristics far superior to those of fireclay both in thermal expansion
and in mechanical properties. Therefore, in the TSOA design the upper portion of the regenerator
walls, the strong corbel section in the battery center, and the oven heating walls are constructed of
silica and not fireclay, Fig. 7.80.
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In the case of the heating walls, the wall surface temperature may fluctuate between 1000°C and
1250°C (1850°F and 2250°F) as hot coke is pushed and cold, wet coal is charged. However, the sil-
ica volume is stable over this temperature range and therefore negligible thermal stresses are devel-
oped within the walls.
7.6.4.3.5 Oven Roof By the same logic fireclay is more suitable than silica for the construction of the
battery roof above the cover blocks of the oven chamber.
Temperature fluctuations occur within the oven roof and where this is constructed of silica a weak-
ening will develop in the critical zone below 800°C (1450°F). By employing fireclay, the TSOA
design in Fig. 7.81 enables the roof to be maintained tight and strong for the duration of the bat-
tery life.
7.6.4.3.6 Silica and Fireclay Interface There are few coke oven designers who would argue against the
selection of fireclay as the most suitable material of construction for the regenerator walls. How-
ever, most important for the design is the achievement of an adequate joint between the silica and
fireclay layers at their interface.
In the case of the TSOA oven, the design is based on many years of experience. A special sliding
joint is constructed between the fireclay substructure and the upper silica section, a joint system
which has been proven over many decades on tens of thousands of TSOA coke ovens of every size.
The performance of the sliding joint is most important during the heat up of the coke oven battery,
Fireclay
Silica
Light weight insulating bricks Red bricks
Insulating bricks Refractory concrete
Fig. 7.81 Oven top design.
when silica and fireclay undergo their different expansions. This differential expansion is not only
accommodated by the sliding joint, but also controlled precisely by the TSOA bracing system
described in Section 7.6.4.3.9. The end result is a gas-tight joint necessary for the integrity of the
overall battery structure.
A sliding joint is also employed between the silica and fireclay layers of the oven roof. Again, by
special design of the joint and the controlled bracing, a gas-tight structure is assured.
It will be noted here that in the case of the coke oven gas riser pipes, trumpet bricks are provided
at the interface between the concrete and fireclay and at the interface between fireclay and silica.
This is a well-proven and practical method of accommodating the difference in expansion which
may occur in deviation to the theoretical calculation. It ensures that there is no restriction within
the riser pipe and that a clear through-way is available for rodding of the riser pipes following rou-
tine maintenance grouting. This design is a standard TSOA feature and is incorporated in all of the
battery designs.
7.6.4.3.7 Quoin Design for the Heating Wall End The quoin brickwork is particularly vulnerable to tem-
perature changes and is subject to thermal shock each time an oven door is removed. Silica can be
used in the construction of the quoins, but in operational practice it tends to crack and spall, result-
ing in a high level of corrective maintenance.
In the TSOA design, Fig. 7.82, the silica bricks are replaced by special spall-resistant sillimanite
bricks.
This material has proved eminently suitable for quoin duty on TSOA batteries around the world
over many years.
The special bricks are bonded into the silica end brickwork. This ensures uniform expansion of the
quoins as well as gas tightness in this critical zone of the heating wall. Should the need arise, the
quoin brickwork can be replaced without opening or disturbing the brickwork of the last heating flue.
7.6.4.3.8 Insulation of the Oven Block In the design of the TSOA battery, particular attention is paid to
thermal insulation. This promotes good thermal efficiency, comfortable working conditions, and
minimizes heat degeneration of the battery steelwork and ironwork.
Sillimanite
Qoin brick
Fig. 7.82 End flue design, wall perspective.
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Particular areas of insulation and the protection afforded are: concrete nozzle deck of the battery
beneath the sole flues to prevent radiation into the basement; regenerator faces to reduce radiation
into the alleys; brickwork at the battery ends to protect the buttress walls; and the large, flat oven
roof to prevent radiation to the atmosphere.
The insulation is provided by courses of insulating brick.
Also, the charging hole lids are insulated against heat radiation by special design and being filled
with an insulating compound.
7.6.4.3.9 Battery Bracing System In battery design, proper and effective bracing of the refractory block
is considered to be of paramount importance, and the current TSOA design reflects many years of
development, testing and site experience. The importance of the battery bracing is very often
underestimated both by battery designers and operators, and it plays a different but equally impor-
tant role during the heating up and subsequent operation of the battery. Many instances of prema-
ture battery failures around the world can be traced back to inadequate bracing control, either
during the battery heatup or during its early years of operation.
The bracing system of a coke oven battery has to perform two functions: (1) restrain the fireclay
refractory brickwork during the heatup expansion to allow the silica refractory brickwork to slide
over or under it due to its higher expansion, and (2) to restrain the battery block during operation.
The vertical and longitudinal expansion of the refractory oven block is allowed for by expansion
joints built into the brickwork.
The forces arising in the vertical direction are taken up by the weight of the oven block.
The bracing forces in the horizontal direction are adjusted such that the expansion joints are nearly
closed and that the fireclay material is not taken apart at the sliding joints by the more expanding
silica material in the lower temperature range.
Due to the higher expansion of silica compared with fireclay material, the silica part of the oven
block is built up with recesses in the horizontal direction.
After complete expansion, a gap of 10–20 mm between the buckstay and the oven quoin avoids a
direct heat transfer into the buckstay.
7.6.4.3.10 Buckstays and Tie Rods The buckstays represent the heart of the battery bracing system and
it is from these that loads and forces are distributed to the critical areas of the refractory block to
ensure that it is correctly restrained. On the one hand, the bracing system from the buckstays must
be sufficiently flexible to allow the battery to breath and move normally throughout its life, while
on the other hand it must be sufficiently strong to ensure that such movements are not unrestrained
to the detriment of the battery life.
Opposite buckstays are drawn towards the oven heating walls by two upper cross-tie rods per heat-
ing wall inside protection channels made of stainless steel. Two bottom cross-tie rods per wall will
be installed in the nozzle pad openings. The cross-tie rods are spring loaded from the buckstays
and thus controllable and measurable forces are exerted at these points, ensuring that the correct
pressure is maintained during heat up and operation. The springs are protected from heat and dirt
accumulation and are equipped with spring position indicators.
Buckstays and upper and lower tie rods form a frame around the refractory block in the cross-direc-
tion of the battery.
The cumulative forces from the cross-tie rods are then distributed from the buckstay onto the
refractory block through the bracing system. Furthermore, the buckstays are capable of supporting
additional peripheral equipment, including gas collecting mains, coal charging car collectors wire
supports and the like.
Against vertical loads during heat up, the buckstay bases are connected to the concrete waste gas
flue/basement bottom slab by vertical anchors. The horizontal mobility of the buckstay bases is
ensured by slotted holes and friction bearings.
In the longitudinal direction of the battery, a frame

of the concrete bottom slab, the two pinion walls
and the spring-loaded longitudinal tie rods are all
bracing the oven block.
The tension of the longitudinal tie rods is also con-
trolled by springs in order to ensure that the correct
pressure is maintained through the pinion walls at
all times during heat up and operation.
The longitudinal expansion in the area of the oven
roof and the regenerator top is controlled in such a
way that the expansion joints are closed during heat
up to form a solid mass of refractory between the
pinion walls.
Thus, it is ensured that during heat up the expansion
joints in the horizontal direction are closed, the bat-
tery is restrained during operation, and the pinion
walls are held in vertical position by the controlled
forces applied to the longitudinal tie rods by the
springs.
7.6.4.3.11 Heating Wall Armoring The heating wall ends
are covered and protected by cast iron armoring
plates and door frames. Controlled forces are
applied from the buckstays via spring-loaded pres-
sure bolts to the armoring plates, then from the
armoring plates to the door frames by pressure
bolts, and thus onto the liner walls, Fig. 7.84. There-
Fig. 7.83 Bracing system for a twin flue underjet

oven system.
fore, no load is applied to the center of the

last heating flue.
The load distribution from the buckstays
onto the armoring plates is adjusted to the
different requirements of the heating wall
in the vertical direction. This non-uniform
introduction of loads provides additional
horizontal support to the heating walls and
reduces movement in this area.
These forces also do hold the armoring
plates and the door frames in position, and
reduce door frame deflection due to tem-
perature differences between the inner and
outer surface.
In order to seal the armoring plates against
Fig. 7.84 Cross-section of the bracing system. the oven walls, all gaps are filled with a
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stamping compound. Cast-in grooves with gaskets are arranged at the back sides of the door
frames. T-bars laid in between the roof brick layers and supported from the buckstays by pressure
bolts hold the fireclay roof brickwork above the door frames on both the pusher side and the coke
side of the oven. Steel plates located under and sloped downward from the oven doors to the bench
are provided. They are designed to prevent coke spillage from passing between the battery and
benches to the alleys below.
7.6.4.3.12 Regenerator Bracing In the TSOA design the lower portions of the regenerator walls are
constructed from fireclay, which displays expansion characteristics different from those of silica.
To prevent the fireclay from being torn apart by the silica material as it expands during heat up, a
regenerator bracing is installed.
Controlled forces are applied by springs from the buckstays to hold the silica and fireclay parts of
the regenerator top and regenerator wall sections together while the silica slides over the fireclay.
The regenerator wall under the chamber is held by a spring-loaded I-beam and the regenerator wall
under the heating wall is held by a U-profile that is spring loaded from the buckstay.
7.6.4.3.13 Operation of the Bracing System

7.6.4.3.13.1 During Construction The pressure through the buckstays onto the wall armoring plates is
set after construction so that as the main springs onto the cross-tie rods at the top and bottom of the
buckstays are tensioned, the buckstays assume their correct position against the wall armoring plates.
The pressure bolts between the armoring plates and the door frames are tightened until the entire
load is transferred by the frames to the liner walls and there is no load from the wall armoring
plates onto the center of the heating wall end.
All springs of the roof and regenerator bracing are then adjusted to the heatup dimensions, which
impart the heatup bracing load.
7.6.4.3.13.2 During Heat Up The heatup restraining load is maintained at all points throughout the hea-
tup program by adjusting the springs to maintain a constant load. Thus, expansion of fireclay and
silica is permitted to take place under a pre-determined load which ensures tight joints and proper
performance of the sliding joint between the fireclay and the silica layers.
7.6.4.3.13.3 During Operation On completion of the battery expansion the individual springs of the
bracing system are adjusted to their operating lengths which impart a different load than that
required during heat up. Thus, an adequate restraint is maintained while permitting the battery to
breath with its normal fluctuations in temperature.
7.6.4.3.14 Reversing System The mechanical reversing of the heating system is implemented by an
electro-hydraulic reversing system. The reversing system changes the position of the coke oven gas
and mix gas reversing cocks, the flaps of the air inlet boxes and the waste gas valves.
In case of a failure of the electric motor for the hydraulic operating pump, it is possible to operate
the reversals by an air motor-driven hydraulic standby pump. In case the air motor should fail too
it is possible to carry out two complete reversals with a piston-type accumulator in conjunction
with nitrogen bottles. In addition, a hand pump is supplied.
The control voltage for the hydraulic valves is backed up by batteries. The reversing system is auto-
matically controlled.
The reversing system consists mainly of the reversing rods and the hydraulic cylinders. The
hydraulic cylinders operate the rods which are linked with the coke oven gas reversing cocks, mix
gas reversing cocks, air flaps and waste gas valves. The reversing rods for the waste gas valves and
flaps of the air inlet boxes are installed all around the battery in the upper area of the waste gas
alley. They are redirected at the concrete pinion walls of the batteries by return chain pulleys.
The two reversing rods for the coke oven gas and mix gas reversing cocks are installed parallel to
the coke oven gas and mix gas distribution mains in the basement and all around the battery similar
to the upper area rods. The hydraulic cylinders and the hydraulic power unit are located in a sepa-
rate room near the coal charging station.
In the event of a gas failure during a heating up period, the valves of the walls on fire are closed
automatically. The position of the air inlet flaps and the waste gas valves remains unchanged and
the battery is purged with air.
In the case of a gas failure during a reversing operation, the actual reversal of the flaps/valves is
completed to achieve defined purging conditions as well.
To monitor the correct operation of the individual reversing elements, an infrared safety system is
provided.
7.6.4.3.15 Raw Gas System Each battery normally incorporates a single gas collecting main on the
pusher side or the coke side, Fig. 7.85. The gas collecting main handles the raw gas evolved from
the battery when operating at its design maximum coking rate. The gas collecting main is divided
down into sections based on the number of ovens, with each section incorporating a raw gas offtake.
A flushing liquor feed connection is installed at the end of each main to enable the mains to be
flushed through at selected intervals.
Flair pipe with electrical

ignition system
HP _ aspiration liquor
Flushing liquor
Mechanical and manual
operation of water-sealed lid
Pneumatically operated Pneumatically-operated
HP _ aspiration valve bleeder valve
Cool and cleaning

nozzle
HP _ aspiration
Trough for multi-hole nozzle
drain water
Bitumen seal
Fig. 7.85 Cross-section through the collecting main.
Ironmaking Volume
Each gas collecting main section is provided with two bleeder stacks, one at each end. Each bleeder
stack is closed by a liquor-sealed valve which is actuated remotely and automatically in the event
of high gas collecting main pressure. An electric system ensures ignition and a cowl induces air to
the bleeder stack. The flame will be stabilized by the addition of steam to the center of the com-
bustion burner.
The ascension pipes are mounted in cast iron base sockets which are set into the battery top. The
ascension pipes have a refractory material lining.
The ascension pipe top section is of mild steel and is refractory lined as in the case of the ascen-
sion pipes. They are equipped with water-sealed ascension pipe caps, operated from the battery top,
which consist of a cast iron water trough bolted to the ascension pipe top and a double skin lid. The
lower plate of the lid is fabricated in steel and is designed to withstand the radiant heat from the
oven. This plate forms a seal against the inner face of the cast iron trough. The upper plate is a stan-
dard vessel bottom from steel fitting into the water trough which is the primary seal. The air gap
between the two plate ensures that the lower plate remains hot, thus preventing condensation of tar.
The goosenecks are cast iron and are equipped with wide-angled liquor sprays which ensure that
the entire surface is wetted and remains clear of deposits. These normally remain clean down to
bare metal.
This nozzle also cools the gas prior to entering the collecting main.
High pressure nozzles are installed in the goosenecks directed towards the collecting main valve.
The positioning and design of these nozzles ensure maximum aspirating efficiency with minimum
liquor consumption. The liquor valves associated with the nozzles are operated from the battery top.
Oven chamber isolation from the gas collecting main is possible by a cast iron collecting main
valve which is irrigated by the flushing liquor to form a liquor seal. Each collecting main valve is
housed in a separate casting external from the gas collecting main so that it can be easily main-
tained, and should the need ever arise, it can be replaced without undue difficulties. These valves
are operated from the battery top.
A flushing liquor distribution main is installed along the coke side gas collecting main, complete
with branches including isolation cocks to each flushing liquor spray in the goosenecks, collecting
main and bleeder stack.
Additionally, branches are provided with valves to the ends of each gas collecting main.
Gas collecting main supports are secured to the top of the buckstays at every second oven.
Industrial water mains, complete with branches, are installed on the coke side of the battery along
the length of the gas collecting mains to supply water to the troughs of each ascension pipe lid.
Each branch is fitted with an isolation cock.
Water from the ascension pipe lid seals overflows through a coarse steel mesh filter into an open
trough. Each trough is connected to a drain main on the coke side which runs the entire length of
the battery. The water is collected in a closed recirculation and treatment system. The surplus water
is discharged into the collecting main for final treatment in the byproduct plant.
An emergency water main is provided. This main is connected into the flushing liquor main adja-
cent to the battery. This main includes isolation valves.
7.6.4.4 TSOA Coke Oven Doors and Frames

7.6.4.4.1 Causes for Door Emissions
7.6.4.4.1.1 Thermal Deformation of Door Body and Chamber Frame The door body and the chamber frame
are subjected to bending deformation, particularly in their longitudinal direction, due to thermal
stresses whereas the deformation of the door body and the chamber frame may differ substantially
depending on their design.
Moreover, deformations of door bodies and chamber frames vary both in the long and short term
due to operationally conditioned temperature variations.
However, it is not the absolute temperature but rather the temperature gradient in the door body
and the chamber frame that is the determinant of thermal deformation. The thermal deformation
of the door body and/or the chamber frame can be determined by the following relationship:
T . DT . L2
YT = 8H (7.6.1)
where
YT = thermal deformation
T = thermal expansion coefficient
DT = temperature difference in the element
L = element length
H = door body web height.
The deformations due to thermal stress for a chamber frame and door body are plotted over the
chamber height in Fig. 7.86. The resultant deformation difference, more or less wide gaps, must be
closed by the sealing element.
7.6.4.4.1.2 Gas Pressure in Sealing Element Area The tightness of a coke oven door furthermore is influ-
enced by the level of gas pressure in the sealing element area and by the configuration of the gas
discharge duct which is formed by the heating wall door plug and sealing element.
The development of the gas pressure mainly depends on the type of charged coal (i.e. volatile mat-
ter, grain size and bulk density) and the coking time.
An example of the chronological development of gas pressure in the area of the door seal is pre-
sented in Fig. 7.87. The maximum is reached shortly after charging.
Measurements revealed that the gas pressure mostly is approximately 100 mm WG shortly after
coal charging, although pressure peaks of 500 mm WG and more were also noted.
The gas pressure, however, can be influenced by the appropriate choice of the gas discharge duct.
Fig. 7.88 shows the dependence of gas pressure on the cross-section of the gas discharge duct.
7.6.4.4.2 Demands on Modern Coke Oven Doors Modern coke ovens, with chambers up to 8 m (26.3 ft)
tall and up to 600 mm (24 in.) wide, demand increased performance of the coke oven doors. Door
Gap between chamber frame and door body
Locking
Chamber frame contour
Overlap between chamber frame and door body
Door body contour

Locking
Gap between chamber frame and door body
Fig. 7.86 Deformation differences between the chamber frame and the door body.
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Pressure (mm WG)
Pressure in gas discharge duct
Time (hrs)
Fig. 7.87 Pressure development in the gas discharge duct after the start of the coking time.
emissions must be prevented. The sealing system +

must be flexible enough to seal even very tall oven
chamber during normal operation ranges automat-
ically, so as to maintain a positive pressure in the
Pressure (mbar)
chamber. The sealing system must be adjustable

to varying chamber frame and door body contours
as well as local unevenness of the chamber frame
surface, without any bending of the sealing frame
profile and without loosing its flexibility. The
sealing system must also maintain equal sealing
strip compression forces. The adjustment must be
possible with a low amount of work on only one +
element of the door. Ingress of air into the oven
chamber must be prevented, even under negative Cross-section (cm2)
pressure conditions. Heat losses from the oven
Fig. 7.88 Dependence of gas pressure on the gas dis-
chamber must be reduced. The doors, and espe- charge duct cross-section.
cially the sealing element, must be strong enough
for mechanical cleaning. These demands must all
be met with low expenditures for maintenance
and repair.
7.6.4.4.3 Description of TSOA Coke Oven Doors
7.6.4.4.3.1 Concept The TSOA door has been designed and developed to meet the demands in Sec-
tion 7.6.4.4.2. In contrast to other systems, its sealing system can be adjusted to varying door body
and chamber frame contours while maintaining the theoretical compressive forces of the sealing
strip onto the chamber frame at the entire door circumference.
The door body is a U-cross-sectional casting of heat resistant cast iron. The door is locked onto the
chamber frame latch hooks by two spring-loaded latch bars.
The compressive force effective at the sealing strip between the upper and lower latches amounts
to approximately 10 N/mm2 (14.5 ksi) and increases evenly outside the latches up to approximately
16 N/mm2 (23.3 ksi) on the sealing strip length towards the door ends.
The coke oven door is vertically supported by means of a round carrier bar installed horizontally
through the door body, resting on cams that are cast to the chamber frame.
Between the sloped inner surfaces of the chamber frame and the door plug side surface, gas escape
channels are created on both sides that may be cleaned mechanically.
Gas developing behind the door seal can freely escape into the free gas space on top of the charge,
and thus the buildup of an excessive gas pressure at the seal is safely prevented.
The distance between the door plug and the wall is approximately 20 mm (0.8 in.). This narrow gap
prevents the ingress of coal into the gas escape channels and the resultant pressure accumulation
at the seal.
7.6.4.4.3.2 Sealing System The efficiency of the TSOA door sealing system is based on the follow-
ing features and properties.
The sealing strip is adaptable to variations in the frame and door contours and local unevenness,
up to approximately 50 mm (2 in.), just by moving the sealing system (spring casing, sealing spring
and sealing strip) with the set screws above the spring casings.
There is no bending to the cross-section of the Z-sealing strip profile. The 90° angle in the profile
cross-section is maintained. The entire spring deflection of the sealing system is thereby retained
for the automatic adaptation.
The theoretical spring forces and therefore the compressive force of the sealing strip onto chamber
frame contact surface adjust themselves automatically.
At the same time, the adaptation of the sealing system to the chamber frame contour, as well as the
spring forces onto the sealing strip, are adjusted by the set screws above the spring casings.
Automatic adaptation to variations in the bending line of the chamber frame and the door body due
to temperature variations during the coking time are effected by the spring-loaded sealing strip.
Distances between adjustment points are approximately 200 mm (8 in.), making the adaptation for
local unevenness of the chamber frame possible.
The door and especially the sealing element is strong enough to withstand mechanical cleaning.
Only by combining all of the above features can TSOA door, Fig. 7.89, fulfill and meet today’s
demands and requirements at normal temperatures.
7.6.4.4.3.3 Door Plugs The door plug must protect the door against overheating, reduce heat losses
from the oven chamber, and bridge the gap between the door and the first heating flue to ensure
coked out ends of the coke cake.
The door plugs can be of fireclay refractory brickwork and held in place by cast iron brick retain-
ers or precast fused silica blocks.
7.6.4.4.3.4 Leveler Door The leveler door body is made of cast iron. A spring-loaded Z-shaped seal-
ing strip is clamped to the leveler door body and automatically adapts itself to the machined sur-
face of the leveler door frame contact surface.
The leveler door has a center spring-loaded latch which is hinge-mounted, opening upwards (to one
side in most older plants).
7.6.4.4.3.5 Door Positioning in the Chamber Frame Adjustable stopper bolts, limiting the horizontal
movement of the door toward the chamber frame, are installed to protect the sealing strip when the
door is placed into the chamber frame.
Furthermore, the door is equipped with four guide pieces in the area of the latch hooks.
To avoid damage to the door as it is moved in and out, the distance of the guide pieces toward the
latch hooks is adjusted by shims to 3mm (0.12 in.). Thereby, the gap between the chamber wall and
the door plug on both sides is kept the same as much as possible.
Ironmaking Volume
Fig. 7.89 Cross-section of a door and sealing element.
For vertical positioning, the door is equipped with a carrier bar resting on two cams cast to the
frame.
The machining of these cams ensures an exact positioning of the door in the vertical direction.
7.6.4.4.3.6 Chamber Frame The pusher side and the coke side chamber frames are made of heat resis-
tant cast iron.
They are easily replaceable in the oven without the necessity to loosen buckstays. Their nearly
square cross-section keeps temperature differentials, and thereby deflection, low.
Pairs of latch hooks are bolted to each frame to accommodate the coke oven door.
Supporting cams are cast on to the chamber frame for vertical door supporting.
The chamber frame is held in position by pressure bolts from the wall armoring plates.
Devices placed on each side of the chamber frame and acting from the wall armoring plates pre-
vent hour glassing.
The sealing surfaces on the chamber frame front are machined for contact with the door sealing strip.
7.7 Recovery of Coal Chemicals

7.7.1 Collection of Volatile Products from Ovens
In the collection system for the recovery of the volatile products from coal, the first operation
reduces the temperature of these products, which are generally referred to as foul gas. This takes
place in a system of gas mains through which the foul gas passes.
The foul gas passes out of the oven chamber through a refractory-lined ascension pipe and into a
gooseneck which connects into the collecting main through a damper valve. The collecting main
serves an entire battery of ovens, running parallel with the battery and extending above it on one
side or on both sides, depending on whether it is a single or double collecting main operation.
The gas and vapors ordinarily leave the oven at temperatures in the range 600–700°C
(1100–1300°F), and are shock-cooled by spraying with flushing liquor in the goosenecks and fur-
ther cooled by spraying again with flushing liquor at different points along the collecting main. The
cooling is effected by the evaporation of a portion of the water from the flushing liquor which
removes some of the sensible heat from the gas and condenses some of the vapors, with the resul-
tant condensation of heavy tar from the gas.
The gas and remaining vapors pass from the collecting main through one or more cross-over mains
into the suction main. A pressure-regulating valve, automatically controlled, is located in each
cross-over main. After the gas and vapors have passed this control valve their temperature drops to
a range of 80–100°C (175–212°F), as a result of atmospheric cooling and further evaporation of
the flushing liquor.
The flushing liquor, used for cooling in the spray system, is liquor which has been condensed in
the mains, collected and recirculated, amounting to 3–4.5 m3 (800–1200 gal) per ton of coal car-
bonized in coke oven batteries with a single collecting main and up to approximately 7.5 m3 (2000
gal) on those with two mains. The flushing liquor, which cools and condenses various vapors in the
gas, provides a carrying medium for the condensable tars and other compounds formed in the oper-
ations. These liquid materials flow from the collecting main through a seal into a downcomer and
are delivered through the return flushing lines to a collecting unit customarily called a flushing
liquor decanter, Fig. 7.90 and Fig. 7.91.
The uniform flow of gas and vapors into the system is accomplished by the charging of coal into
the ovens at regularly prescribed intervals and the withdrawal of the evolved gases at a constant
rate. This constant rate of removal of the gas is controlled by varying the speeds of the turbines and
exhausters which pull the gas away from the ovens and by automatic pressure regulators in the
cross-over main. This pressure regulator provides a slight pressure of about 1 mm (0.04 in.) of
water at the base of the oven prior to pushing. This control of pressure is for the purpose of elimi-
nating the infiltration of atmospheric air or gases from the heating system into the oven, which
would have a deleterious effect on the quality and quantity of the coke and coal chemicals.
As a consequence of this practice, the pressure on the collecting main is about 8–12 mm (0.3–0.5
in.) of water with a variable suction of about 200–300 mm (8–10 in.) of water in the cross-over
main after the regulating valve.
These pressure differentials are maintained by the use of either low speed positive turbo or cen-
trifugal-type exhausters designed to remove the gases and vapors at a controlled rate.
7.7.2 Recovery of Crude Coal Tar

7.7.2.1 Flushing Liquor Decanter Tank
The flushing liquor decanter tank, Fig. 7.91, serves a two-fold purpose in the processing of the liq-
uid condensates and recirculating liquor in the primary liquid system: (1) it provides a settling
basin in which the velocity of the tar and liquor is reduced to permit separation of the tar and liquor
by the difference in specific gravity; and (2) it serves as the first settling point for carbonaceous
and other finely divided material that is carried along with tar and liquor from the collecting main.
The flushing liquor decanter is a rectangular steel tank, inclined at one end to facilitate removal of
solid accumulations. The tar and flushing liquor enter the decanter and flow into a trough which is
designed to minimize agitation of the mixture in the decanter. The mixture overflows the trough
into the main compartment, where the velocity is reduced to permit the tar, which has a higher spe-
cific gravity than the flushing liquor, to settle to the bottom. The liquor flows over a fixed weir at
the opposite end of the decanter through an adjustable seal, known as a decanter valve, which can
be raised or lowered. Tar quality is controlled by adjusting this seal wither upwards or downwards
River
498
Fig. 7.90 Flowsheet showing the major steps
Coal hoist involved in the carbonization of coal by the
byproduct process and the subsequent recovery
Conveyer belts of coal chemicals from the gases generated.
Coal
R.R. car storage
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dumper Bin
mixing
X
Primary
cooler
Coal bridge
Precipitator Flushing liquor
Flushing
liquor Crusher
decanter Coke
crusher
Metallurgical coke
Tar Tar Coke
Coke ovens
storage Coke screenings
Dehydrator
Raw Quenching Coke Screening
gas station wharf station
Primary Gas for underfiring coke ovens

For further cooler
Tar
processing
Acid
or for fuel Primary
cooler Ammonia Light oil
decanter scrubber Gas Booster
Precipitator absorber
holder station
Gas to
Weak ammonia steel plant
Phenol
liqour Reheater Final Hydrogen
extractor Exhauster
settling cooler sulfide
tanks scrubber
NH3
Ammonium Debenzolized wash oil
sulfate From stripper
Ammonia
still Benzolized wash oil
To stripper
Sodium phenolate
for further
processing Naphthalene
Incoming tar
and liquor
Flushing liquor
to oven collecting
main
Flushing liquor
decanter tank
Drag scraper Perforated Tar level
baffle plate control From primary cooler
Pitch
sludge Flushing To tar collecting tank
liquor
Tar Flushing liquor
Pump
collecting tank
Tar drain
Tar from final
To ammonia storage tank cooler
Fig. 7.91 Schematic representation of a flushing liquor decanter tank or hot tar drain tank
to regulate the retention time of the tar in the decanter. Carbonaceous deposits in the bottom of the
decanter are continuously removed by scrapers dragged slowly along the bottom by two endless
chains.
Normally, the tar recovered from the flushing liquor contains 2–5% water. When the water content
of the tar is in excess of 5%, further decantation or blending may be required to reduce the water
content. This is usually accomplished by placing tar receiving tanks and separating tanks in the
process lineup prior to the tar storage tanks. Tar receiving tanks are simply intermediate storage
tanks which receive the tar from the decanters prior to being pumped into the tar storage tanks.
Depending on the water content of the tar in a receiver, the tar may be pumped directly to storage,
heated to lower the water content, or be pumped back into the decanter system.
7.7.2.2 Circular Flushing Liquor Decanting Tank

In modern plants the tar and flushing liquor separation is accomplished by a combination of a so-
called heavy tar box (or decanter) and a circular decanting tank, Fig. 7.92, for the separation of tar
and liquor from the flushing liquor.
Coke oven gas

Coke oven gas to primary cooler
and
flushing
liquor Decanter
Heavy tar
box
Tar / water
Heavy to primary cooler
tar
Excess
flushing
liquor
Flushing
liquor
Tar
Fig. 7.92 Flushing liquor handling system with a circular decanting tank
Ironmaking Volume
With this arrangement, the heavy tar or sludge is separated before the actual tar decantation takes
place. This separation occurs by passing the flushing liquor through the openings of a slowly rotat-
ing sleeve drum. Large size particles or agglomerations will not pass through the drum. Instead,
they settle in the bottom of the tar box. A continuously moving drag conveyor carries the heavy tar
out of the box into a container. To prevent plugging of the sieve drum, brushes remove deposits off
of the rotating drum.
The pre-cleaned flushing liquor flows from the inside of the sleeve drum to the actual tar/water
decanter (circular decanting tank). The decanting tank consists of three compartments: the tar
water separating zone, the conical bottom where the tar will settle, and the outer chamber where
the cleaned flushing liquor will flow into after overflowing a weir in the upper part of the decanter.
This outer chamber serves as a pumping tank for the flushing liquor and, more importantly, pro-
vides the heat to the conical section that is necessary for a good tar/water separation. From this
outer chamber, the excess ammonia liquor (or virgin liquor) will be withdrawn and pumped back
to the gas collecting main of the coke oven battery.
This liquor/tar handling system contains all moving parts in a relatively small vessel and therefore
a spare can be provided at low cost. The decanter itself is a sophisticated tank and therefore needs
no spare. Because of the relatively high undisturbed settling time, a low-moisture tar is produced.
There is another beneficial side effect with this type of decanter. On the outer perimeter, at a cer-
tain elevation, a special tar with low viscosity and a high solubility for naphthalene can be with-
drawn. This quality of tar is the ideal additive to the primary cooler circulation liquor in the case
of direct primary coolers or the correct flushing medium for indirect primary coolers for the pre-
vention of naphthalene deposits.
Certain modifications have been made, mainly to eliminate the so-called heavy tar box, from the
system, Fig. 7.93. No matter what type of tar/liquor separation system is installed, a certain quan-
tity of heavy tar (sludge) is produced. This fraction must be removed from the tar or it will plug
lines and settle in the tar storage tanks.
In most plants this heavy tar is fed into a container and then carried to the coal yard and mixed onto
the coal. Because the heavy tar is a hazardous and strong-smelling material, it is becoming more
and more difficult to handle. As such, some plants have begun to process the heavy tar in a machine
where the particles are ground down.
Because the particles produced with this machine will stay in suspension with the tar, it is no
problem to feed the ground heavy tar solution to the liquor flow entering the decanter. As the
Downcomer
Coke oven gas
Coke oven gas to primary cooler
and
flushing
liquor Decanter
Tar / water
to primary cooler
X Excess
flushing
liquor
Flushing
liquor
Tar
Fig. 7.93 Flushing liquor handling system without a heavy tar box.
Downcomer
Coke oven gas
Coke oven gas to primary cooler Tar centrifuge
and
flushing
liquor Decanter
Fines to
coal
Tar / water
to primary cooler
X Excess
flushing
liquor
Flushing
liquor
Fig. 7.94 Flushing liquor handling system with a centrifuge to reduce fines content.
quantity of heavy tar, <0.5% of all tar produced, is negligible, the increase of fines in the tar prod-
uct is minimal.
With more stringent pollution control on coke oven batteries, the concentration of coal and coke
fines in tar is steadily increasing. To counteract complaints from tar processors, some plants have
installed centrifuges, Fig. 7.94, to free the tar from most of the fines before it is sent to the stor-
age tanks.
In these centrifuges, nearly all particles greater than 75 m are removed. The particles are recovered
in the form of a very dry powder-like fraction, which can be easily mixed with coal.
7.7.2.3 Primary Cooler

The non-condensed gas and vapors leaving the Gas in
collecting and suction mains at a temperature
of 75–80°C (167–1276°F) require further
cooling to 35°C (95°F) to remove additional
tar and a major portion of the water vapor and
to reduce both volume and temperature of the
gas before its admission to the exhausters.
This cooling may be conducted in either direct Primary
cooler
or indirect primary coolers.
The direct primary cooler, Fig. 7.95, consists
of a tall, cylindrical scrubbing tower fitted
with hurdles or baffles usually constructed of
Gas out
wood. The top portion is equipped with a
series of spray nozzles and the lower portion To flushing liquor
contains a chamber to collect the liquor and decanter tank
Liquor
condensate. Ammonia liquor

coolers
The gas enters the bottom of the tower and the
cooling liquor is pumped into the top of the Pump
tower through the spray system to provide a To tar
downward flow of cooling liquor into counter- collecting tanks
current flow to the gas stream. This direct con-
tact between the gas and liquor provides for Fig. 7.95 Schematic diagram of a direct primary cooler
Ironmaking Volume
Downcomer
Suction main
Coke oven gas
from battery
Vents
Motor-operated
valve
Parition
plates
Tar spray
Steam
Inspect
hole
Manhole
Drain
Water
Tar to decanter tank

steam-traced
and insulated Cooled coke oven
Tar seal pot
gas to exauster
Water
Fig. 7.96 Three indirect primary coolers of the vertical tube type.
exchange of heat which is transferred from Gas in

the hot gas to the liquor. This heat is
removed from the liquor by indirect heat
Cooling
exchange, through tubular heat exchangers, water
out
with circulating water. As a result of this
cooling, 20–25% of the total tar recovered is
condensed along with a considerable quan-
tity of weak liquor containing ammonia. Primary
These condensates are processed either sep- cooler
arately or in conjunction with the tar and

liquor condensates from the collecting
main. Flushing
circuit
There are two different types of indirect
coolers: (1) the vertical tube type, Fig. 7.96,
which preferably will be installed when
only contaminated cooling water is avail- Cooling
water
able; and (2) the horizontal tube type, Fig. in
7.97, which is preferably operated with a Excess liquor
Gas out
closed cooling water circuit. The horizontal
type provides the best temperature approach Pump
between cooling water in and gas out. High
Seal pot
efficiency is maintained by a specific con-
tinuous flushing circuit, which simultane- Fig. 7.97 Schematic diagram of a horizontal tube type indirect
ously effects naphthalene removal. cooler.
Tar/liquor Coke oven gas 7.7.2.4 Primary Gas Cooling

from main
It is well known that a primary cooler system providing
} Heat
recovery
stage
Cooling water
direct contact between gas and cooling liquor should not
cool the gas below 30–35°C (86–95°F), otherwise the
resultant plugging problem for the vessel(s) and heat
exchangers becomes too severe. With the indirect pri-
mary cooler in Fig. 7.98, gas outlet temperatures of
18–24°C (64–75°F), depending on available cooling
water temperature, are typical. The benefit of a gas tem-
perature that low for the subsequent byproduct train is
obvious. With a continuous spray of tar/water mixture
form the tar and flushing liquor decanter onto the tubes
of the primary cooler, a naphthalene absorption takes
place which will lower the naphthalene dewpoint of the
by 1–2°C (2–4°F) below the gas outlet temperature. This
Cooling water is even more important if one considers the fact that the
Chilled water
gas leaving a direct primary cooler is supersaturated
with naphthalene in the form of aerosols. Deposits in the
Coke oven gas Chilled water top of these primary coolers and in the gas outlet lines
to
Electrostatic Condensate are caused by this carryover of naphthalene.
precipitator
In warmer climates, this indirect primary cooler may be
Fig. 7.98 Indirect primary cooler operated with chilled water in the lower part of the cool-
ing bundles to achieve the required low gas temperature.
For heat recovery purposes, some coolers have been designed to produce hot water in the upper
section. This hot water may be used for heated buildings or sanitary purposes.
7.7.2.5 Electrostatic Precipitator

The gas leaving the primary coolers still contains small amounts of tar that would cause difficulty
in the operation of the subsequent units in the recovery system. The method used for removal of
this entrained tar is through electrostatic precipitation. The electrostatic precipitator may be placed
before or after the exhausters. The preferred location is after compression of the gas (following the
exhausters) to prevent infiltration of air into the precipitator. In the electrostatic precipitator, Fig.
7.99, removal of tar fog from gas is achieved by passing the gas between electrodes having a high
electrical potential. The discharge electrode is of small cross-section, such as wire or a series of
points, in order to develop the high-intensity electrical field at its surface which is required for ion-
ization of gas. The collecting electrode has a large cross-section and serves as a collector for the
suspended particles which are ionized and transferred to this electrode. In this operation, the elec-
trostatic precipitator, in addition to its function as a collecting unit for dispersoids, also serves to
catalyze the formation of vapor-phase gums formed by oxides of nitrogen and unsaturated hydro-
carbons.
7.7.3 Recovery of Ammonia

The ammonia formed during coking appears in both coke oven gas and the weak liquor condensed
from the gas. Typically, 20–25% of the total ammonia is found in the liquor.
The recovery of this ammonia can be accomplished by two different methods: (1) the semi-direct
process in which the ammonia in the weak liquor produced during carbonization is removed by dis-
tillation and alkali treatment and added to the gas stream, the gas containing all of the ammonia
then being passed through an absorber containing an absorbing solution for the ammonia; or (2)
the indirect process in which the ammonia is removed from the gas by scrubbing with water and
then removed from the water by distillation and treatment with an alkali, after which the ammonia
and steam are passed through an absorber.
Ironmaking Volume
Vent Purging
steam Suspension compartment
Manhole
Clean gas
Coke oven
gas from Oil compartment
exhausters Entrance bushings
Manhole/handhole
Insulator heater
Insulator
Tube assembly
Bus duct
Bus
High voltage bushings
Ground switch housing
Ground switch
Transformer
Tar drain Discharge electrode
seal pot
Vent Weights
To condensate sump
Fig. 7.99 Electrostatic precipitators of the tube type.
The ammonia present in the weak liquor is in two forms classified as free and fixed. The free
ammonia is that which is readily dissociated by heat, such as the ammonium carbonate, sulfide,
cyanide, and so on, while the fixed
ammonia is that which requires the
presence of a strong alkali to effect To ammonia cooler
displacement of the ammonia from and absorber
Cooling water
Dephlegmator
the compound in which it is present, Cooling water
such as ammonium chloride, thio-
cyanate, ferrocyanide, sulfate, and
so on. The operation to recover this
ammonia is carried out in an ammo-
nia still. Lime Free leg
leg
Ammonia
Lime water
7.7.3.1 Conventional Ammonia Still still
In the processing of the liquor, a

uniform flow of liquor is fed to the
top of the free leg of the ammonia
still, Fig. 7.100, and passes down
the column over a series of trays.
Steam
This liquor is contacted by an

upward flow of steam which vapor- Ammonia
liquor Steam
izes the ammonia and acidic gases. from storage
The vapor leaves the top of the free
leg at a temperature of 96–100°C Still feed To waste liquor
(205–212°F), and passes into a pump sump
dephlegmator to cool the vapor and Fig. 7.100 Diagrammatic representation of the essential parts and oper-
remove excess water which is ation of an ammonia still.
returned to the still. The vapor leaving the dephlegmator consists of ammonia which may vary
between 10–25%, depending upon the vapor temperature, with the balance consisting of water and
some acidic gases and neutral oils.
The liquor leaving the base of the free leg passes into the lime leg where it is treated with milk of
lime. The calcium hydroxide reacts with the fixed ammonium salts of which ammonium chloride
is the main constituent.
The liquor then flows into the fixed leg which consists of a series of trays to provide effective strip-
ping of the ammonia by a counter-current flow of steam. The steam pressure required at the base
of the still is of the order of 21–28 kPa (3–4 psi). Some ammonia stills are operated with caustic
soda (NaOH) instead of lime to avoid the column fouling caused by lime salts. However, the cost
of caustic soda is several times that of lime.
The vapors leaving the ammonia still are added to the gas stream so that all of the ammonia can be
recovered in the ammonia absorbers.
7.7.3.2 USS CYAM System

New environmental regulations on water discharged from coke plants have prompted development
of more efficient ammonia stills. The technology for meeting these standards typically consists of
a highly efficient still system followed by a biological treatment plant. The USS CYAM system was
developed to provide the efficient cyanide and ammonia removal to allow a biological treatment
plant to function efficiently. The combination can achieve a high degree of removal of ammonia,
cyanides, sulfides and organics including phenols.
In the CYAM system, the wastewater flow path is similar to that through a conventional ammonia
still. However, ammonia from the fixed still is not introduced into the free still. This allows the bot-
tom section of the free still to become neutral or slightly acidic, greatly enhancing the volatility of
acid gases in the free still.
Ammonia and
acid gases
Free-still
Cooling
condenser
water
Acid gas
seperator Fixed
Free still
still
Free-still
jet compressor
Wastewater
feed Steam
Steam
Phosam Fixed-still
fractionator bottoms jet
Tray washwater
compressor
Flash
Slaking
Lime column
water Free-still
reboiler
Cooling water
Prelimer
Reflux
Lime handling Pump tank
accumulator
and Clarifier Treated
slaking system wastewater
Lime slurry Lime

sludge
Fig. 7.101 Flow diagram of the USS CYAM system.
Ironmaking Volume
A second feature of the process is its relative freedom from fouling by lime salts, achieved by a
combination of process design and an anti-fouling additive. The system can operate a year or more
without cleaning, which negates the need for a spare still. The CYAM system can also use caustic
soda (NaOH) and achieve high cyanide removal, if higher alkali cost is accepted.
The flowsheet in Fig. 7.101 shows a typical arrangement of the CYAM system in which steam
jet compressors are used to recover heat (low pressure steam) from the effluent stream. Overhead
vapor from the fixed still, typically 70–84 kPa (10–12 psig), flows into the free still reboiler
where it is partially condensed to generate ammonia-free stripping vapors for the free still. Over-
head vapor from the free still, normally at 28–42 kPa (4–6 psig), is passed through a partial con-
denser to achieve the desired concentration, which is typically in the range of 12–16 wt%
ammonia. Remaining vapors from the free and fixed stills are then sent to the coke oven gas
upstream of the ammonia recovery equipment. Stripping-stream requirements are about
0.12–0.14 kg of steam per litre of feed (1.0–1.2 lbs of steam per gallon of feed). Lime require-
ment are roughly 2.2 kg of 90% CaO per kg of fixed ammonia (2.2 lbs of CaO per lb of fixed
ammonia).
Ammonia nitrification and removal of carbonaceous material can be achieved in a single totally-
mixed aeration basin when CYAM effluent is treated in a biological treatment plant. Ammonia
concentration can be reduced from the 25–100 ml/m3 (25–100 ppm) range normally produced
by the CYAM system to about 10 ml/m3 (10 ppm). Free cyanide concentration (CNA) in treated
water from the CYAM system is about 1–2 ml/m3 (1–2 ppm) and is further reduced to about 0.25
ml/m3 (0.25 ppm) in the biological treatment plant. Sulfide removal is essentially complete in
the CYAM system, and effluent from the biological treatment plant is normally below 0.3 ml/m3
(0.3 ppm).
7.7.4 Recovery of Ammonia as Ammonium Sulfate
7.7.4.1 Saturator
At coke plants built prior to about 1930, ammonia-absorbing facilities consisted mainly of devices
called saturators. These were large dome-shaped, cast iron, lead-lined vessels. Gas was admitted to
the saturator through a distributor called a cracker pipe. This arrangement provided for direct con-
tact between the ammonia and dilute acid, which reacted according to reaction 7.7.1 to form
ammonium sulfate.
2NH3 + H2SO4 = (NH4)2SO4 (7.7.1)
More modern processes have superceded the saturator.
7.7.4.2 Ammonia Absorber

In an Otto-type absorber, coke oven gas enters the ammonia absorber, Fig. 7.102, near the bottom
and is sprayed with a dilute solution of sulfuric acid as it rises to the top of the absorber.
As the dilute sulfuric acid sprays the gas rising through the ammonia absorber, the ammonia in the
gas combines with the acid to form ammonium sulfate. The resulting solution drains to a crystal-
lizer from which it is recirculated to the absorber. A constant flow of sulfuric acid is added to the
ammonia absorber to replace the acid neutralized by the ammonia in the coke oven gas. After the
solution becomes supersaturated, crystals of ammonium sulfate are precipitated in the crystallizer
and accumulate as a slurry in the bottom. A portion of this slurry is removed from the crystallizer
and is pumped to the slurry tank where the salt settles, the liquid overflows and returns to the
ammonia absorber. The concentrated slurry is withdrawn from the bottom of the slurry tank and is
fed continuously or in batches to the centrifugal dryers. These dryers are arranged to perform the
following sequence of operations automatically:
Tar sludge
tank
Gas
outlet To mother
liquor trough
Overflow to Gas Tar sludge
liquor receiver inlet to ladles
Liquor
To to liquor
centrifugal receiver
dryers Ammonia
absorber
Down- Liquor
Crystallizer comer from tar
sludge tank
Benzol acid
Dryer drains
Slurry tank
Tar
overflow
Fresh sludge
acid tank
Overflow
tank
Liquor Mother
receiver liquor
Slurry
Crystallizer trough
pump Overflow
pump
tank pump
Tar sludge
pump
Fig. 7.102 Schematic flowsheet of the operation of an Otto spray-type absorber for the recovery of ammonia as ammo-
nium sulfate.
(1) rinse the dryer basket screen with water;

(2) feed the slurry into the basket;
(3) neutralize the acid remaining in the salt with a dilute solution of aqueous ammonia;
(4) rinse the salt with water to remove excess ammonia;
(5) centrifuge the water from the salt in the basket;
(6) remove the dried salt from the basket;
(7) and discharge it onto a conveyor belt.
The liquid portion of the slurry is recovered and returned to the ammonia absorbers. The partially-
dried ammonium sulfate is conveyed to heated rotary drum dryers for final drying to a water con-
tent of approximately 0.1%. All equipment is made of stainless steel.
Another process used for the recovery of ammonia is the Wilputte low-differential controlled-crys-
tallization process for producing ammonium sulfate, the equipment for which is constructed of
stainless steel throughout, Fig. 7.103. In this process, the gas is passed through a spray-type
absorber over which is circulated a 6% solution of sulfuric acid nearly saturated with ammonium
sulfate. The acid-entrainment arrestor is an integral part of the absorber. Leaving the absorber, the
solution is delivered to the solution circulating system of a crystallizer in which crystallization
takes place by the combined cooling and concentrating effects of vacuum evaporation.
By the variation of circulating rate and the degree of concentration, the size range of the product can
be controlled closely within narrow limits. As the crystals grow in size, they settle or gravitate to the
bottom of the suspension tank from which they are delivered to a slurry feed tank and from there to
a continuous centrifuge or filter, followed in either case by a dryer. The accumulation of deposits of
hard salt within the equipment is minimized and killing for removal of such deposits is very infre-
quent. The product can be made with a size consist favorable to almost any type of application.
Fig. 7.103 Flow diagram of the Wilputte low-differential controlled-crystallization process for producing ammonium sulfate.
To atmosphere
H R STM
Cooling
Ammonia absorbers water
Scrubber
fan Scrubber
Gas out Gas out
PIC PIC To To circulation
circ tank Vent tank
Cake wash
Crystallizer 0.8 gpm Centrifuge
LRC Crystallizer Slurry Bay water
LRC feed tank 5 gpm
Gas in
Gas in
Fluid bed Circulation
To hotwell dryer pump
Water DRC DRC
H SO
2 4 Overflow from High pressure
slurry feed Screw conveyer steam
tank
To bucket
elevator Air
in
Air fan Condensate
Recirc pump Recirc pump to flash
Air heater tank
FM Filtrate Filtrate
pump tank
Slurry
pump
Absorber Circulation
feed tank
Transfer pump Slurry
pump pump
FM Transfer pump FM
Steam
To
Crystallizer Crystallizer Heater intercepting
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feed pump feed pump sump

Hotwell
508
7.7.5 Recovery of Ammonia as Anhydrous Ammonia

The USS PHOSAM process was developed by U.S. Steel Corporation for recovery of the ammo-
nia in coke oven gas and gas liquor as high-quality anhydrous ammonia. This process is applicable
to the recovery of ammonia from any gas or vapor stream and is especially advantageous when
H2S, CO2 or other acidic gases are present. A sharp separation of ammonia from these contami-
nants is obtained by using a highly selective absorbent solution.
Fig. 7.104 shows the essential features of the process, as applied to the direct recovery of ammo-
nia from coke oven gas. Coke oven gas, from primary coolers, exhausters, and conventional gas
cleaning equipment is passed through a two-stage spray-type absorber. Ammonia is scrubbed from
the gas by counter-current contact with ammonia-lean phosphate solution, which enters the top of
the absorber. The gas leaves the absorber with 98–99% of its ammonia removed, and is suitable as
such for further processing. The absorbing solution is stable and non-volatile, and does not require
periodic replacement or purification. It is highly selective for ammonia, rejecting acidic gases such
as hydrogen sulfide and organic compounds that are present in the feed gas.
Absorber pressure drop is low, normally 980–1470 Pa (100–150 mm of water), and the operating
pressure is that imposed by downstream equipment. Depending on the temperature and humidity
of the inlet gas, the gas may be heated slightly or cooled in passing through the absorber, where
ammonia is absorbed and water is evaporated.
It should be noted that the placement of the PHOSAM absorber just downstream from exhausters
and tar precipitators is conventional, but not the only possible location. The absorption of ammo-
nia is carried out at relatively high temperatures of 40–60°C (104–140°F), always above the naph-
thalene dewpoint established in the primary coolers. Therefore, there is no need for naphthalene
scrubbers, H2S scrubbers, nor secondary coolers ahead of the PHOSAM ammonia absorber. When
ammonia liquor stills are operated, the vapor from the still is added to the absorber feed gas.
The ammonia-rich solution from the absorber is pumped through heat exchangers into the stripper,
recovering heat from the stripper bottoms and overhead vapor. In the stripper, the solution is
counter-currently contacted with steam at elevated pressure, stripping out the absorbed ammonia
and regenerating the lean solution. The lean solution is cooled and returned to the absorber. Auto-
matic controls make it easy to operate the plant efficiently, despite variations in the feed gas, and
to control the water content of the solution.
Clean
coke oven gas
(ammonia-free)
water
Water
Coke oven Water
gas
Anhydrous
Vapor from ammonia
ammonia steam steam (NH3)
liquor still
Rich Lean
phosphate phosphate water
solution solution
Aqua ammonia Ammonia
fractionator
Absorber Stripper
Fig. 7.104 USS PHOSAM process for producing anhydrous ammonia.
Ironmaking Volume
The overhead vapor from the stripper is condensed to form an aqueous ammonia feed to the frac-
tionator where anhydrous ammonia is produced by pressure fractionation, again by using direct
steam. The overhead product is liquid anhydrous ammonia, of high purity, ready for shipment.
Both of the distillation operations are conducted under pressure for reasons of economy. The opti-
mum pressures depend somewhat on the cooling water temperature, but are generally in the range
124–1515 kPa (180–220 psig). This means, in turn, that steam at a gage pressure of 1380–1725
kPa (200–250 psi) is required.
Stripper and fractionator towers in the PHOSAM process are quite small in diameter, and, together
with the associated heat exchangers and vessels can be accommodated in an area of about 9.1 3
21.3 m (30 3 70 ft).
When indirect processes for ammonia removal from coke oven gas are used (water wash or liquors
associated with desulfurization processes), ammonia-rich vapors generated in these systems can be
passed through a hot PHOSAM absorber to recover the ammonia. The hot absorber would operate
in the range of 80–100°C (176–212°F). The absorbing solution (ammonia-lean phosphate solution)
from the hot absorber would be processed in a conventional PHOSAM stripper and fractionator to
produce liquid anhydrous ammonia.
7.7.6 Recovery of Phenol

The water, i.e. weak ammonia liquor, recovered with the volatile products of coal carbonization
contains 0.5–3.0 g/dm3 ( about 0.031–0.187 lb/ft3 or 0.004–0.025 lb/gal) of phenol, sometimes
called carbolic acid, and its homologues. In order to recover this phenol, a solvent extraction
process is used.
The solvent extraction process is based on the principle that phenols are more soluble in benzene or
light oil than in water and that the phenols can be extracted from benzene or light oil with caustic soda.
In the operation of a solvent extraction process for the removal of phenols from weak ammonia
liquor, Fig. 7.105, the liquor is pumped into the distributor header located near the top of the
ammonia liquor scrubber. This scrubber has wooden grids to ensure good contact between the
counterflowing liquids.
The liquor passes downward through the scrubber and comes in contact with a counter-current flow
of benzene or light oil. The benzene or light oil is immiscible with and has a lower specific grav-
ity than the liquor; therefore, it rises to the top of the scrubber as it absorbs the phenol from the
liquor.. When the ammonia liquor reaches the base of the scrubber, the phenol extraction is com-
plete, and the liquor flows to a storage tank for further processing.
The benzene or light oil reaching the top of the scrubber is phenolized. This solvent then flows to
the caustic washer through an overflow line connecting the ammonia liquor scrubber and the light
oil caustic treatment tower.
The light oil caustic treatment tower is divided into three compartments. The bottom compartment
is the benzene or light oil circulation tank which is the pumping chamber for the dephenolized ben-
zene or light oil. The upper two sections are the caustic washing compartments, packed with
ceramic tile. In these two compartments, the phenolized benzene or light oil passes through the
caustic (NaOH) to remove the phenols by the chemical reaction between the caustic (base) and the
phenols (acid).
The phenolized benzene or light oil passes from the ammonia scrubber to the distributor header on
No. 1 washer, through No. 1 washer to a distributor header on No. 2 washer, and through No. 2
washer to the overflow line, where the benzene or light oil, now dephenolized, is returned to the
recirculation tank.
After a week or two, the caustic in No. 1 washer is saturated with phenols. When this happens, the
recovery operation is shut down so that the plant can be recharged with fresh caustic soda solution.
light oil
Dephenolized
Light
light oil
oil
To dephenolized Caustic
ammonia liquor charge
storage tank Washer
No.1
Water
charge
Washer
No.2
Vent to
atmosphere
Light oil To
L1 circulation sump
tank tank
Carbolate Carbolate Caustic soda
Phenolized concentrator storage storage
ammonia
liquor LLCV
Ammonia Light oil

liquor caustic washer
scrubber
Fresh light oil

Orifice plate from benzol plant
for flow meter
Ammonia Light oil Carbolate & caustic
liquor pump soda pump
Fig. 7.105 Diagrammatic representation of the equipment for recovery of phenol by the solvent extraction process.
The sodium phenolate in No. 1 washer is drained into the carbolate concentrator. When this is com-
plete, the partially phenolized caustic in No. 2 washer is drained to No. 1 washer, leaving No. 2
washer empty to receive a fresh supply of caustic soda solution. The plant is then ready to resume
operation.
The sodium carbolate in the concentrator is boiled to remove entrained solvent and moisture. It is
then neutralized with carbon dioxide to liberate crude phenols and phenol homologues.
7.7.7 Recovery of Coke Oven Light Oil

7.7.7.1 Light Oil
The gas leaving the ammonia absorbers contains light oil. This oil is a clear yellow-brown oil with
a specific gravity of about 0.880. It is a mixture of all those products of coal gas with boiling points
mostly ranging from 0–200°C (32–390°F), containing well over a hundred constituents, some of
which are identified in Table 7.6. Most of these are present in such low concentrations that their
recovery is seldom practicable. Many of the constituents, such as olefin and diolefin hydrocarbons,
some straight chain and cyclic paraffins, and sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen compounds are present
in small quantities. The principal usable constituents are benzene (60–85%), toluene (6–17%),
xylene (1–7%), and solvent naphtha (0.5–3%). Light oil constitutes approximately 1% of the coal
carbonized.
512
Table 7.6 Fractions of Coke Oven Gas Light Oil and Boiling Points of Some of Their Constituents
Constituent Forerunnings Crude Benzene Crude Toluene

Group (2% Light Oil) (60% of Light Oil) (18% of Light Oil)
Aromatics Traces of Benzene Benzene C6H6 80.1°C Toluene C6H5CH3 110.6°C

Paraffins n-Pentane C5H12 36.1°C n-Hexene C6H14 68.8°C
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2-Methylhexane C7H16 90.3°C n-Heptane C7H16 98.4°C

n-Heptane 98.4°C n-Octane C8H18 125.6°C
Cycloparaffins Cyclopentane C5H10 51.0°C Cyclohexane C6H12 80.8°C Methylcyclohexane C6H11CH3 C7H14
Naphthenes Cycloheptane 100.3°C 120.3°C
Unsaturated Butene-1 C4H8 –6.5°C Hexene-2
(Olefins and
Diolefins and
Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
with
Unsaturated
Side Chains)
Pentene-1 C5H10 30.1°C Hexadiene-1,3
Amylenes 20 to 40.1°C N-Heptylene C7H14 99.0°C
n-Hexylene C6H12 64.0°C Cyclohexene Unidentified Compounds
Cyclopentadiene-1,3 C5H6 42.0°C
Butadiene-1,3 C4H6 –5.0°C Unidentified Compounds
Sulfur
Compounds Carbon disulfide CS2 46.3°C
Hydrogen sulfide H2S –59.6°C
Hydrogen cyanide HCN 26.0°C
Carbonyl sulfide COS –50.2°C Thiophene C4H4S 85.0°C Methylthiophene C5H6S 112 to 115°C
Methyl mercaptan CH3SH 7.6°C Diethyl sulfide (C2H5)2S 91.6°C
Ethyl mercaptan C2H5SH 34.7°C
Dimethyl sulfide (CH3)2S 36.2°C
Nitrogen and
Oxygen
Compounds Pyridine C5H5N 115.3°C
(continued)
Table 7.6 (continued)
Constituent Crude No. 1 Solvent Crude No. 2 Solvent Crude Residue

Group (8% of Light Oil) (6% of Light Oil) (6% of Light Oil)
Aromatics n-Propyl Benzene 158.6°C

o-Xylene 144.0°C Ethyl Toluenes C9H12 161.2 to 164.9°C
m-Xylene C6H4(CH3)2 139.1°C Mesitylene 164.6°C
p-Xylene 138.4°C Pseudocumene C6H3(CH3)3 169.2°C
Ethyl Benzene C6H5C2H5 136.2°C Memimellitene 176.2°C
Cymenes C10H14 175.5 to 177.3°C
Durenes C6H2(CH3)4 196.0 to 198.0°C
Paraffins n-Octane C8H18 125.6°C n-Decane C10H22 174.0°C
n-Nonane C9H20 150.7°C
Cycloparaffins Cyclo-octane C8H16 150.0°C Cyclononame C9H18 172.0°C
Naphthenes
Unsaturated Wash Oil 275 to 360°C
(Olefins-
Diolefins
and Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
with
Unsaturated
Side Chains)
Naphthalene 218°C
Octylene C8H16 126.0°C Coumarone C8H6O 175.0°C Solvents Above 200°C
Styrene C8H8 146.0°C Dicyclopentadiene 170.0°C Pitch residue
Indene C9H8 182.0°C
Unidentified Compounds
Sulfur Trimethylthiophene 160 to 163.0°C
Compounds
Thioxenes C6H8S 137 to 146.0°C Thiophenol 169.5°C
Tetramethylthiophene 182 to 184.0°C
Nitrogen and Cresols C7H8O 190 to 203.0°C
Oxygen
Compounds
Picolines C5H7N 131 to 143.0°C Dimethyl Pyridines C7H9N 143 to 164.0°C
Phenol C6H6O 182.0°C
513
Ironmaking Volume
7.7.7.2 Light Oil Recovery Processes

The removal of light oil from coal gas is generally the last step in the coal chemical recovery
process.
There are three general methods used for the recovery of light oil: (1) refrigeration and compres-
sion, involving temperatures below –70°C (–94°F) and pressures of 10 atm (7600 mm Hg); (2)
adsorption by sold adsorbents, involving the removal of light oil from the gas by passing it through
a bed of activated carbon and recovering the light oil from the carbon by heating with direct or indi-
rect steam; and (3) absorption by solvents involving washing the coal gas with a petroleum wash
oil, a coal tar fraction, or other absorbent, followed by steam distillation of the enriched absorbent
to recover the light oil. Processes employing petroleum wash oil and coal tar fraction will be dis-
cussed further below.
7.7.7.2.1 Process using Petroleum Wash Oil The practice of using petroleum wash oil, Fig. 7.106, is
the one almost universally followed in the United States due to the availability and low cost of
petroleum wash oil. The efficiency of recovery varies widely with the seasons in that one of the
major considerations is the temperature of the coal gas and wash oil entering the absorbing process.
Another consideration is the ratio of wash oil to gas. The absorption equipment should be of rea-
sonable design as to size and contact time. The oil-to-gas ratio varies depending on the equipment
design and the light oil content of the gas prior to light oil removal.
Typical operating conditions are as follows: the temperature of the coke oven gas entering the
absorption process is 15–30°C (59–86°F); the temperature of the wash oil entering the process is
17–32°C (60–90°F); and the wash oil circulated per tonne of coal carbonized is 525–825 dm3
(150–200 gal/net ton).
The boiling point of the wash oil should be well above 200°C (390°F) so as to permit an effective
separation of light oil from wash oil in debenzolization. The oil should not thicken and should have
Spray header
and piping
Gas Gas
in out
(From final
cooler)
Light oil vapor Gas

Light oil Benzolized
and steam Vapor-to-oil
condenser
heat exchanger wash oil
Pump
Cooling water Light oil
Light oil vapor scrubbers
and steam (spray type)
Debenzolized
Pump Benzolized
Reflux wash oil
tank wash oil
Water Steam
out
Seal for Cooling water Fresh wash
Preheater
Light oil oil out oil tank
decanter Debenzolized
wash oil
To Wash oil
refining coolers
plant Waste Pump
Light Light oil Crude Wash Pump Muck to
crude oil rectifying residue oil oil separating Wash oil Wash oil
Wash oil
basin recovery from
column To purifier stripping Wash oil
refining still decanter Wash oil tank tank cars
plant circulation
tank
Fig. 7.106 Flowsheet of a light oil recovery system.
a low viscosity to permit its distribution in the scrubbing towers. It should not deteriorate readily
but maintain its initial properties as long as possible to keep makeup oil at a minimum. It must be
especially stable with respect to the repeated heating which takes place in the recycling of the oil
in the process. Its absorptive capacity should be very high and it should not react with or contam-
inate the coke oven gas. The specific gravity should be low enough to permit effective separation
of wash oil and water in the processing and keep emulsification of the two to a minimum. The spe-
cific heat should be low because the oil is subjected to repeated heating and cooling as it is recy-
cled in the process.
The petroleum wash oil normally used for this absorption process has a boiling range of
270–350°C (518–622°F). Other specifications which are general for petroleum was oil include a
specific gravity of about 0.830, a viscosity of 45 Saybolt seconds at 38°C (100°F), a pour point of
2°C (35°F), an emulsification of 95% separation in 50 seconds, a flash point of 150°C (300°F), a
fire point of 168°C (335°F), and a low residue under 0.10% when heated for a period of five days
at approximately 150°C (300°F).
7.7.7.2.2 Process using Coal Tar Coal tar wash oil, having a boiling range of 230–300°C (446–572°F),
is used for light oil removal in a packed-type absorptive tower. The benzolized oil, which has a per-
fect heat stability, is preheated by the regenerated oil and finally heated to 185°C (365°F) in a tubu-
lar furnace before being flashed into the wash oil still for regeneration. Through oil-to-oil heat
exchange and because of the use of a tubular furnace, steam consumption is minimized. There are
two processing sections in the still: (1) the top one for light oil rectification, including top reflux
and side-stream draw-off for the naphthalene oil fraction; and (2) the bottom one for wash oil
debenzolization. A split stream of wash oil is passed through a purifier where by direct steam injec-
tion volatile components are returned into the bottom section of the still and heavier components,
such as pitch at 70°C (158°F) solidification point, are withdrawn from the purifier bottom. The
activated wash oil is reused for light oil absorption after heat exchange and cooling. A typical flow-
sheet of a light oil recovery system is shown in Fig. 7.107.
7.7.7.2.3 Final Cooler The first step in the recovery of light oil by absorption in a liquid medium is
that of cooling the gas leaving the ammonia absorbers at a temperature of 50–60°C (112–140°F)
by direct contact with water in a tower scrubber called a final cooler. The facilities are so named
Wash oil still

Gas out
Light oil
Debenzolized
Cooler/condenser
Wash oil Reflux
Rectifying Ligt oil
Tubular
section decanter
furnace
Light oil
scrubber
Water
Light oil to refining

Wash
oil
Naphthalene oil
cooler
Gas in Purifier
Stripping
section
Injector
Air Fuel Steam
blower gas
Pump
Wash oil Pump Pitch
heat exchanger
Fig. 7.107 Typical flowsheet of a light oil recovery system with coal tar wash oil.
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as the gas is here given its final cooling during coal chemical processing. This is necessary to
remove naphthalene from the gas and also to cool the gas prior to its admission to the wash oil
scrubbers.
The tower consists of a tall cylindrical shell of steel approximately 3–4.5m (10–15 ft) in diameter
and 15–23 m (50–75 ft) in height, filled with a suitable packing material that is either wooden or
metallic. The gas enters near the bottom of the tower and passes up through the tower and out near
the top. The cooling water enters the top of the tower through a spray system and the water passes
down through a tower, coming in direct contact with the gas in a counter-current manner. The water
leaves the tower at the bottom through a sealed outlet pipe to prevent escape of any gas. The heat
from the gas is transferred to the water, which in turn is cooled in an induced-draft water cooling
tower with air or in an atmospheric water spray cooling operation. Cooling of the water depends
upon air circulation and the vaporization of a part of the water in circulation, the latent heat of
vaporization of the water being responsible for additional cooling. Operating practice is to cool the
water, and in turn cool the gas, to as low a temperature as practicable, depending upon atmospheric
temperature, as most effective absorption of light oil is obtained at low temperatures. Cooling is
not carried out below 15°C (60°F), because below that temperature petroleum absorbing oil
becomes too viscous to flow freely.
This direct cooling operation causes the condensation of a major portion of the naphthalene and
any entrained tar and vapor-phase gums. The naphthalene is recovered in a sump operation and is
either added to the tar or refined directly to provide a salable product.
In some of the more modern facilities, the lower part of the final cooler tower is redesigned to per-
mit the outlet water to come in direct contact with tar in order to dissolve the naphthalene as it is
being removed from the gas.
This cooling operation may also be carried out using petroleum wash oil instead of water. A small
bleed stream of debenzolized wash oil from the light oil stripper may be used for this purpose. In
this case, the wash oil will absorb most of the naphthalene so that the gas leaves with less than
about 460–685 g/m3 (2–3 gr./scf) of naphthalene in the gas. However, the quantity of wash oil used
is small enough so that the light oils are not absorbed to any great extent in the final cooler.
A typical final cooler is divided into two spray compartments, Fig. 7.108. Each compartment is
provided with its own set of recirculation pumps in order to recirculate wash oil from the top-sec-
tion drains to the bottom section. The wash oil which is recirculated in the bottom section is cooled
in a series of wash oil coolers. An oil-water separator is provided at the bottom of the column to
decant condensed water from the wash oil.
The naphthalene which is absorbed in the wash oil may be stripped out by feeding the wash oil into
the top of the wash oil scrubber at a point which is about 16 trays above where the benzolized wash
oil is introduced. Otherwise, the naphthalene may be stripped out in a separate still.
Depending on the byproduct plant system, semi-direct or indirect, there are different technologies
to cool the pre-cleaned coke oven gas down to the temperature necessary for further processing.
In the so-called semi-direct byproduct plants, it is necessary to install a final gas cooler down-
stream of ammonium saturators to cool the water-vapor saturated coke oven gas to an optimum
temperature for the naphthalene and light oil removal.
As the ammonia absorption with sulfuric acid is a strongly exothermic reaction, an intensive final
gas cooling is needed before the gas enters the benzol/naphthalene scrubbing.
One intensive final cooling method is the so-called three stage tower, developed and built by Dr. C.
Otto and Company. This tower consists of a primary cooling stage in the lower part, a naphthalene
washing stage in the middle part, and a low temperature cooling stage in the upper part, Fig. 7.109.
The significance of this arrangement is that mixing of gas condensate and wash oil is avoided. In
the primary cooling stage, the gas is cooled down to a temperature just above the naphthalene dew-
point of the gas. Therefore, there is no fouling of the cooler due to naphthalene deposition.
Gas
Primary
sprays
Resprays
Naphthalene-rich
Gas wash oil Make-up
wash oil
Cooling
water
Respray Final Wash oil
pump cooler Oil-water Pumps coolers
separators
Fig. 7.108 Final cooler of the wash oil spray type
To increase the washing efficiency of the naphthalene washing stage, it is filled with ceramic rings.
Wash oil corresponding to the necessary wetting rate, is recirculated through this stage. Part of the
wash oil is continuously blown down to the oil regeneration plant. A corresponding amount of lean
(fresh) oil is pumped as makeup to the wash oil recirculation. Enriched naphthalene oil leaves the
sump of the washing stage via seal pot and passes to the regeneration plant.
The gas leaving the naphthalene removal stage will receive its final cooling per section, using recir-
culated liquor, which in turn is cooled in indirect heat exchangers using cooling water.
The first cooling stage, as well as the low temperature cooling stage, are designed without internals.
Several spraying systems provide adequate spraying of the cooling liquor in both cooling stages.
In the gas mains connecting the three stages, and the main leaving the final cooler, demisters are
installed to prevent carryover of oil and water droplets to the next stages.
7.7.7.2.4 Wash Oil Scrubber The second step in the recovery of light oil is its absorption in the liquid
petroleum wash oil. The gas comes in direct contact with the wash oil in one or more tall scrub-
bing towers. The gas passes from the first tower to the last in series and the wash oil travels from
the last tower to the first in reverse series. The flow of gas and wash oil is counter-current in each
tower. The steel towers are approximately 4.5–6.7 m (15–22 ft) in diameter and 30.5 m (100 ft) in
height.
The wash oil is introduced through a number of sprays in the top of the tower and comes into direct
contact with the gas, which flows from the bottom to the top. An oil storage tank is provided in the
base of the tower to receive the oil and maintain a surge capacity for pumping the oil away. The oil
passes from the gas compartment to oil storage through a sealed pipe. It is pumped from the base
of one tower to the spray system in the top of the next tower in series. From the last tower the oil
is pumped at a controlled rate to the stripping stills for separation of light oil from wash oil. Wash
oil prior to light oil absorption is called debenzolized and after absorption it is called benzolized.
518
Ironmaking Volume
Steam
Condensate
Cooling water feed
Wash oil
outlet
Cooling water return
Wash oil
Wastewater inlet
Coke oven gas Coke oven gas
inlet outlet
Fig. 7.109 Direct final gas cooling in a three stage tower with a naphthalene washing stage.
The benzolized wash oil contains 2–3% light oil. The debenzolized wash oil is cooled in indirect
coolers to a temperature several degrees higher than that of the gas entering the scrubbers, which
is 15–25°C (60–75°F). This is to prevent condensation of water from the gas, which would form
an emulsion with the oil, causing clogging of the free space in the packing of the tower. The rate
requirement for the circulation of oil through the scrubbers is a function of the vapor pressure dis-
tribution between the light oil dissolved in the absorbent oil and that remaining in the gas at tem-
perature of operation. From 90–95% of the light oil content is recovered in this operation. The wash
oil, after being cooled, passes through a large decanting tank which acts as a settling compartment
for the emulsified and resinous materials present in the wash oil. This material accumulates in the
bottom of the tank, and the wash oil decants off at a higher level to a small receiving tank, from
which it is pumped to the top of the first scrubbing tower in the series. Generally, two decanting
and two receiving tanks are provided to permit cleaning the residue from the tanks periodically.
Recent designs of wash oil scrubbers are not fitted with hurdles and packing used in the previous
types. Contact between the gas and absorption oil is accomplished by the use of single conical
sprays placed at three or four different elevations within the tower, as shown in Fig. 7.110.
Each of the sets of sprays is provided with its own set of recirculation pumps. The wash oil is recir-
culated in each set to obtain adequate contact between the gas and liquid in the scrubber. The wash
oil is collected and recirculated by chimney trays at the bottom of each spray chamber, except at
the bottom where the oil is pumped from the scrubber sump.
7.7.7.2.5 Debenzolization of Wash Oil In the debenzolization step, light oil (2–3%) in the benzolized
wash oil is separated by steam distillation. The carryover of absorbing oil into the light oil is kept
to about 5% and the debenzolized absorbing oil contains 0.2% light oil.
In the straight steam distillation process at atmospheric pressure, the benzolized was oil is pre-
heated to approximately 100°C (212°F) with a vapor-to-oil and an oil-to-oil heat exchanger. Heat-
ing is continued to 145°C (295°F) with an indirect preheater of the shell-and-tube type, with the
oil flowing through the tubes, using steam as the heating medium on the shell side. The preheated
Mist suppressor
Gas
Koppers
spray type
light oil
scrubbers
Overflow
pipe
From Weir
light oil
plant
A A
To B B
light oil
plant Wash oil
suction
Downcomer
Section A - A
Gas Annular
chamber
Wash oil Light oil Wash oil Light oil Overflow

pumps scrubber recirculating scrubber Section B - B pipe
pumps
Fig. 7.110 Flow diagram of spray-type light oil scrubbers.
Ironmaking Volume
oil is introduced near the top into a multi-plate bubble-cap fractionating column leaving several
plates above the feed to keep entrainment of wash oil to a minimum. The benzolized wash oil flows
down the column counter-current to upward flow of live steam, which is introduced in the base of
the still column. The debenzolized wash oil leaving the base of the column through a sealed outlet
at a temperature of 145–150°C (290–300°F) passes through the oil-to-oil exchanger in which it is
cooled to 100°C (212°F), giving up its heat to the incoming benzolized wash oil. Water separates
out at this point and is drained off. The wash oil passes through a pumping tank and is pumped at
100°C (212°F) to cooling coils for cooling prior to being used again as an absorbent for the light
oil in the scrubber towers.
The mixture of steam and light oil vapors leaving the top of the column flows through the tubu-
lar vapor-to-oil heat exchanger which recovers heat and also acts as a partial condenser. Sufficient
heat is imparted to the incoming benzolized oil to raise its temperature 25°C (45°F) and, at the
same time, the vapors are cooled to cause a portion of the steam and high-boiling constituents of
light oil to condense (the condensate of which carries along some of the wash oil which was car-
ried over the top of the column as entrainment). The mixture of oil and water is separated in a
gravity in a gravity separator tank, the water flowing to the sump system and the oil being
returned to the debenzolized oil streams. The mixture of steam and light oil vapors leaving the
vapor-to-oil heat exchanger passes to a water-cooled condenser, which is of a multi-pass design,
with the vapor and water flowing counter-current to each other. The condensate flows to a grav-
ity separator effecting a separation of the light oil and water, the light oil flowing to storage and
the water to the sump system.
In some designs, an additional fractionating column is added to the debenzolization process for
rectifying the light oil vapors from the vapor-to-oil heat exchanger. In this case, the condensate of
the vapor-to-oil heat exchanger, after separation of the water, is also introduced into the rectifying
column. The mixture of steam and light oil vapors enters the multi-plate bubble-cap rectifying col-
umn near the middle section. The light oil is separated into two fractions: (1) the distillate con-
taining forerunnings, benzene, toluene, xylene and low-boiling solvent, and (2) a residual fraction
containing an admixture of high-boiling solvents, naphthalene and wash oil. A portion of the dis-
tillate is returned to the top of the column as reflux, the control point being the vapor temperature
at the top of the column.
In the more modern debenzolization processes, the benzolized wash oil is processed at a
temperature of 90–120°C (195–250°F) and this eliminates the need for an oil-to-oil heat exchanger
in the process lineup.
7.7.8 Hydrogen Sulfide Removal

The first successful liquid purification process for removal of hydrogen sulfide from coke oven gas
was the Seaboard process introduced in 1921 by Koppers Company. In this process, the coke oven
gas is washed with a sodium carbonate solution in an absorber to remove the hydrogen sulfide from
the gas. The solution is revivified by spraying it into an actifier where it is blown with air which
transfers the hydrogen sulfide to the air.
The Seaboard process was replaced by the Koppers vacuum carbonate process, Fig. 7.111, which
removes hydrogen sulfide from coke oven gas and recovers it in the form of a concentrated acid
gas stream from which the hydrogen sulfide can readily be converted to either elemental sulfur or
sulfuric acid.
Although coke oven gas technology has been practiced for a number of years, modern sulfur emis-
sion specifications require improvement of the old processes or development of new technology to
meet regulatory requirements.
Commercial coke oven gas desulfurization processes can be divided into two categories: (1) those
processes which use wet oxidation to produce sulfur, and (2) those which absorb and strip hydro-
gen sulfide for subsequent conversion into sulfur or sulfuric acid.
Gas
outlet Mist
suppressor Seconda
ry
actified
solution
Primary
foul
solution
Secondary stage
Primary stage
Secon Vapor
dary
foul
solutio
n
Primary
ejector Second
Water ary
Primary stage
Flash ejector
Sec. foul solution

solu
heate tion Steam
Water r
Afte
Vent conde r
Primary actified sol.

nser
Secondary stage
Solutio Solutio
n n
cooler cooler
Cond
NA C Steam .
Ma 2 O3
ke Water Flushin Vapor
wat -up
er g liqu conde
Flash to batte or n Vent Acid g
To solutio ry Flash s sers Inte as
efflu n Actifie olution
trea nt e d
soluti
conde r
nser
tme on
nt Fresh Flash
soluti Vapor
Abso
rbe sol. Conde
n
pump on knock
tower r sate
out dru
Soluti m
circu on Flush Vent
latin in
tank g liquo g
Fresh r
solu
mixin tion Actifi
g tan er Conde
n sate
k towe
r
Flush Conde To sulf
in Con nsate u r plan
to flas g liquor
h solu
dens
ate and p tank
or t
heat umps s
excha tion acid p
nger lant
Fig. 7.111 Flow diagram of a two-stage vacuum carbonate process for removal of hydrogen sulfide from coke oven gas.
521
Ironmaking Volume
Table 7.7 Major Wet Oxidation Desulfurization Processes and Their Catalysts
Process Catalyst
Takahax Process Naphthoquinone-sulfonic acid

Holmes-Stretford Process Anthraquinone-disulfonic acid and sodium
ammonium vanadate
Fumaks Process Picric acid
Thylox and Giammarco Vetrocoke Sodium thioarsenate
7.7.8.1 Wet Oxidation Processes

All wet oxidation processes utilize a reduction-oxidation catalyst to facilitate the wet oxidation of
hydrogen sulfide to elemental sulfur or sulfate. All of these processes are characterized by a very
efficient removal of sulfur, but have the disadvantage of producing highly contaminated waste
products which require elaborate waste treatment facilities as a part of the process. For example,
all the hydrogen cyanide that is absorbed is converted into thiocyanates and a portion of the sulfur
is converted into thiosulfate requiring treatment in the waste treatment facility. In addition, the
solution is relatively sensitive to contamination and must be controlled to a uniform composition.
The major commercial wet oxidation processes which are used in the world today, along with their
reduction-oxidation catalysts, are listed in Table 7.7.
The Takahax process, Fig. 7.112, can be designed in four different ways, depending upon the alka-
line solution used in the absorber for the end product desired. In the desulfurization process, crude
coke oven gas is counter-currently contacted with the alkaline solution in the absorber. Hydrogen sul-
fide removal up to 90–99% and hydrogen cyanide removal of 85–95% can be obtained. Solution from
the bottom of the absorber is sent to a regenerator where it is air-blown to regenerate the catalyst. In
order to maintain the absorbability of the solution, part of the solution is split from the system and
treated by the waste solution treatment process. The desulfurization process is similar in all four
types, except that Type A and B use ammonia and Type C and D use sodium carbonate as the alka-
line solution. The main difference in the four types of processes is in the waste treatment systems.
Coke
Sweet oven
gas Air
coke oven gas
H2S,Na2CO3
Absorber Regenerator
Make-up
solution Submerged
Sour combustion
coke oven gas plant
Purge solution
Sulfur
seperation
Sulfur Sulfur
purifier
Fig. 7.112 Flow diagram of the Takahax process for desulfurization of coke oven gas.
Type A Takahax oxidizes the waste solution with compressed air to form ammonium sulfate.
Ammonium sulfate crystals are recovered in a conventional crystallizer. Type B Takahax inciner-
ates the entire waste solution, along with the sulfur cake produced in the absorber, to produce sul-
fur dioxide gas that is converted to sulfuric acid. Type C Takahax produces sulfur cake from the
absorber and a portion of the sulfur is bled off and sent to a combustion furnace along with the
waste solution. In the submerged combustion furnace, fuel is burned in a reducing atmosphere to
convert the sulfur compounds to hydrogen sulfide. The hydrogen sulfide gas and the remaining sul-
fur are sent to the sulfuric acid plant. Type D Takahax produces sulfur cake, and a portion of the
sulfur cake and waste solution is sent to the submerged combustion furnace as in Type C. Hydro-
gen sulfide produced in the combustion furnace is re-absorbed in the Takahax absorber, so that the
entire discharge of sulfur from the process is elemental sulfur. Sulfur cake is melted in an autoclave
to purify the product, producing a sulfur with a purity of 98–99%.
All of the wet oxidation processes produce a low-grade sulfur and a highly contaminated waste
stream requiring elaborate waste treatment facilities. Operation of these processes requires a more
sophisticated chemical control than the absorption stripping processes.
The Holmes-Stretford process is used to economically remove hydrogen sulfide from coke oven
gas. In addition to the basic hydrogen sulfide absorption plant, an effluent treatment plant is
included to convert the plant waste streams for recycling through the plant. This process will
remove all but a trace of hydrogen cyanide, reduce the hydrogen sulfide content to substantially
less than 0.23 g/m3 (10 gr./100 ft3) of gas, and produce a very saleable grade of liquid sulfur. An
elementary flow diagram of the process is presented in Fig. 7.113.
The Holmes-Stretford process provides for scrubbing of coke oven gas with an alkaline solution of
sodium ammonium vanadate which oxidizes the hydrogen sulfide in the gas to form free sulfur.
Sulfur is collected as a froth which is washed, concentrated and purified to a final molten product.
The reduced vanadate solution is re-oxidized with anthraquinone disulfonic acid and air to its orig-
inal state and is recycled to the hydrogen sulfide scrubber.
The basic plant utilizes the Holmes-Stretford process parts which are available under license from
the British Gas Corporation. The complete plant consists of: (1) basic hydrogen sulfide removal
system, (2) sulfur recovery and purification system, and (3) spent liquor reprocessing system. The
combines systems result in a plant with economical operating costs, a saleable grade of sulfur prod-
uct, and no effluent waste streams.
Clean
gas out Vent
Flash
Centrifuge tank
Liquor
heater/cooler Sulfur
seperator
Air
Steam
Sour
gas in Sulfur Spent
meter liquor
Product reprocessing
system
sulfur
H2S Oxidizer Reslurry Spent Spent Recovered
Pump Slurry Slurry Reslurry pump liquor liquor
absorber (2) tank tank pump tank solution
tank pump tank pump
Circulation
liquor pump
Fig. 7.113 Flow diagram of the Holmes-Stretford process for desulfurization of coke oven gas..
Ironmaking Volume
7.7.8.2 Absorption Stripping Processes The absorption stripping processes are characterized by
generally lower hydrogen sulfide removal, but, since air is not included in the regenerating system,
contaminated waste products are minimized or eliminated. The processes can be operated to
produce sulfuric acid or a very high purity elemental sulfur.
7.7.8.2.1 Vacuum Carbonate Process In this process, the gas is contacted with a solution of sodium car-
bonate in an absorber tower to remove the hydrogen sulfide and other impurities such as hydrogen
cyanide. The foul solution from the base of the absorber is circulated over the actifier where the
hydrogen sulfide is removed by counter-current stripping with water vapor under vacuum. The act-
ified solution is pumped from the base of the actifier through a cooler back to the absorber.
The actifier is maintained under a relatively high vacuum to reduce the quantity of heat required
to generate the water vapor for actifying the solution. The mixture of hydrogen sulfide and water
vapor leaving the top of the actifier is passed through a condenser where most of the water vapor
is condensed. The vacuum in the actifier and condenser is maintained by a two-stage steam ejec-
tor. After the ejector system the concentrated acid gas stream is further cooled and processed in a
Claus plant to produce elemental sulfur, or in a sulfuric acid converter.
The heat requirements to generate the water vapor to strip the hydrogen sulfide from the foul solu-
tion in the actifier can be obtained almost completely from indirect heat exchange of the solution
in the base of the actifier with the vapors at the discharge of the steam-jet vacuum pumps, and sup-
plemental indirect heat exchange with the flushing liquor from the coke oven batteries or from
other waste heat sources.
The single-stage vacuum carbonate process is economical for removal of approximately 90% of the
hydrogen sulfide from typical coke oven gas. In order to meet more stringent requirements in some
locations, the Koppers two-stage vacuum carbonate process was developed to remove approximately
98% of the hydrogen sulfide, producing a clean gas with no more than 0.23 g/m3 (10 gr./100 ft3).
In the two-stage process, the coke oven gas flows upward through two sections of a packed
absorber. In the lower section the gas is contacted with sodium carbonate solution from the upper
stage of a two-stage vacuum actifier tower, and about 90% of the hydrogen sulfide is removed.
The gas then flows to the upper stage of the absorber where it is contacted with a smaller stream
of sodium carbonate solution from the lower stage of the actifier. This solution has been very
highly actified, and removes 80–90% of the remaining hydrogen sulfide, for an overall removal
of 98%.
The same stripping steam is used in both sections of the two-stage actifier, resulting in high
removal efficiency and low operating cost. The condensing system, vacuum system, and heat
exchange system are substantially the same as those used for the single-stage process.
The choice between the Koppers single-stage and two-stage vacuum carbonate processes depends
upon the stringency of the regulatory requirements which must be met.
7.7.8.2.2 Hydrogen Sulfide and Ammonia Removal The ammonia/hydrogen sulfide circulation scrubbing
process (AS circulation scrubbing), developed and patented by Carl Still in 1971, lends itself ide-
ally to the removal of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen cyanide (partially) from the coke
oven gas.
This process works according to the neutralization principle and utilizes as its basic component the
ammonia present in the gas. With the help of an inherently generated ammonia liquor mixture and
without making use of external chemicals the acidic components hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen
cyanide are eliminated by scrubbing.
As shown in Fig. 7.114, the system mainly consists of four columns: a hydrogen sulfide scrubber,
an ammonia scrubber, a hydrogen sulfide desorber (deacifier), and an ammonia desorber (still).
The two absorbers (scrubbers) are normally turbulent-flow expanded metal stage scrubbers, while
the desorbers are normally tray-type columns. The coke oven gas passes first through the hydrogen
H2S-scrubber NH3-scrubber NH3-still deacifier Coke

oven
gas
NaOH NH3/H2S
vapors
Coke
Excess Steam
oven
flushing
gas Waste water
liquor
Fig. 7.114 Schematic of the ammonia/hydrogen sulfide circulation scrubbing process.
sulfide absorber and through the ammonia absorber. The scrubbing solution used in the in hydro-
gen sulfide scrubber is the liquor drained from the ammonia scrubber as well as an ammonia-rich
liquor from the desorption process. The heat released during the absorption process is eliminated
by pumping the scrubbing solution through intermediate cooling stages. In this manner, the favor-
able absorption isotherm is maintained and the spraying density increased.
Stripped liquor coming from the desorption stage is fed to the top of the ammonia scrubber. On its
way to the sump of the tower, this solution is enriched with ammonia and from the sump it is with-
drawn and passed as scrubbing solution to the hydrogen sulfide absorber.
The enriched scrubbing liquor is passed from the sump of the hydrogen sulfide scrubber to the
regeneration unit (desorption). In the regeneration system, which consists mainly of a still and a
deacifier, components such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen cyanide
absorbed from the gas are stripped off by means of steam. As a result of the special mode of regen-
eration column operation, a deacified liquor rich in ammonia but having a low acid gas content is
produced along with a stripped steam of wastewater quality.
This process arrangement enables the thermal energy contained in the ammonia still overheads to be
utilized in the deacifier. Further savings in steam can be realized by making use of steam ejectors.
Part of the liquor flows from the sump of the deacifier to the hydrogen sulfide scrubber as scrub-
bing solution and another stream is passed to the top of the ammonia still. The virgin liquor (excess
ammonia liquor) can also be fed in at this location. Part of the stripped liquor is used as ammonia
washing solution while the excess quantity will be sent to the wastewater treatment plant for fur-
ther processing.
If necessary, the so-called fixed-ammonia compounds can also be split up by mean of alkaline,
such as sodium hydroxide, and the fixed ammonia can be driven off.
The amount of wastewater branched off corresponds with the virgin liquor quantity fed into the
system plus stripping steam condensate.
The deacifier overheads contain all of the substances absorbed from the gas and stripped from the
virgin liquor, e.g. ammonia and hydrogen sulfide. These components are converted in downstream
process steps to obtain products such as liquid sulfur or sulfuric acid form the hydrogen sulfide and
ammonium sulfate, or the ammonia may be cracked.
Ironmaking Volume
With the system described above, a hydrogen sulfide removal efficiency of 0.4 g/Nm 3 can be
achieved. Innovations introduced to the process by Thyssen Still Otto enable even lower hydrogen
sulfide levels to be reached. As may be needed for the individual application, a final purity of 0.2
g/Nm3 of hydrogen sulfide per Nm3 of coke oven gas can be realized by modification of the AS
circulation scrubbing system. This modification may be beneficially applied in cases where ammo-
nium compounds that cannot be cracked thermally, e.g. chlorides and SO4, must be eliminated
from the excess ammonia liquor. Up to 90% of the sodium hydroxide needed for this purpose can
be used first for the cleaning of the coke oven gas.
7.7.8.2.3 Ammonia Cracking and Liquid Sulfur Production In conformity with the trend in recent years, a
modified Claus plant has been provided for the processing of the hydrogen sulfide where, simul-
taneously, the total amount of ammonia is cracked.
Apart from the nitrogen-laden compounds such as ammonia and hydrogen cyanide, vapors con-
taining hydrogen sulfide produced in a coke plant also carry organic products such as naphthalene
and phenols. A processing of these vapors in a conventional Claus plant has not been feasible as
evidenced by all of the experience to date. Complete conversion of ammonia and hydrogen cyanide
to nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide gas and water vapor and conversion of hydrocarbon compounds by
means of water steam to carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas are both sensibly not feasible with the
given process parameters of a Claus process.
It is well known that incompletely converted ammonia in a Claus system entails a formation of salt
in the waste heat boiler downstream of the Claus furnace that will plug it. Moreover, it is a well-
known fact that the soot formation in a Claus furnace blocks the catalyst beds, causing substantial
interferences in operation and thus inevitably some unacceptable environmental performance.
These facts and the many years of operational experience gained by Thyssen Still Otto in the field
of catalytic cracking of ammonia from still vapors gave birth to a process combination illustrated
in Fig. 7.115. In this process the conventional Claus furnace was replaced by a cracking reactor,
which is equipped with a special catalyst.
The most significant benefits of this modified Claus principle are listed here:
1. Processing of hydrogen sulfide vapors from deacifiers/desorbers with ammonia and
hydrogen cyanide constituents as well as organic products such as naphthalene, phe-
nols, etc. is possible to obtain Claus sulfur.
2. It is feasible to process the hydrogen sulfide vapors with the entire ammonia vol-
ume from the coke plant.
Catalytic oven Claus reactors Sulfur

reactor separators
Acid gas
Air Boiler
Boiler feed
feed Steam water Steam
water Tail gas to
coke oven gas
main
Molten sulfur
to storage
Waste heat Sulfur

boiler condenser
Fig. 7.115 Schematic of an ammonia cracking process with a cracking reactor in the place of the conventional Claus furnace.
3. Return of the Claus residual gas (tail gas) into the coke oven gas at a reduced sul-
fur dioxide content is possible.
4. Recycling of Claus residual gas into the pre-cracking stage by addition of oxygen
is possible.
The process can be planned to run on one or more catalytical Claus reactor. If a return of Claus resid-
ual gas upstream to the hydrogen sulfide scrubbing of coke oven gas is applied, then the hydrogen
sulfide conversion in the Claus stage bears no significance, such that one catalytic Claus stage or pos-
sibly two should be adequate for an economic operation. A reduction in the residual sulfur dioxide
content towards zero should be targeted in order to avoid any additional load on effluents with salts.
7.7.8.2.4 Sulfiban Process The Sulfiban process was developed jointly by Bethlehem Steel Corp. and
Applied Technology Corp. The process utilizes monoethanalamine (MEA) as the absorbing solu-
tion. In the Sulfiban process, coke oven gas is contacted counter-currently with an aqueous solution
containing 13–18% MEA. The process is reported to remove organic sulfur as well as hydrogen sul-
fide, and sulfur content in the treated gas is guaranteed less than 0.23 g/Nm3 (10 gr./100 scf).
Rich solution from the absorbers is pumped to the still, where hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen
cyanide are steam-stripped and the regenerating solution from the bottom of the still is cooled and
recycled to the absorber. The steam for the stripping operation is produced in a steam-heated
reboiler connected to the still. A small amount of insoluble compounds, mainly ferrocyanide, are
formed and must be removed from the system. About 3% of the circulating stream is sent to a
reclaimer which is heated with high pressure steam to totally evaporate the water and MEA. Vapors
from the reclaimer are sent to the still and solids are periodically removed for disposal.
Acid gases from the top of the still, containing both hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen cyanide, are
sent to a cyanide reactor where the cyanide is catalytically converted to ammonia so that it will not
interfere with the operation of the sulfur plant. This ammonia could be recovered with a USS
PHOSAM absorber. Where a USS PHOSAM plant already exists, the integration of this small
absorber into the system would be inexpensive and advantageous.
Gas from the cyanide reactor passes to a plant for conversion to high purity sulfur.
7.7.8.2.5 Carl Still or Diamox Processes Both the Carl Still and Diamox processes utilize aqueous
ammonia as the absorbing solution to desulfurize coke oven gas. The difference in the two
processes is primarily in materials of construction and in some operating refinements. Either
process can be synergistically combined with a USS PHOSAM process to recover both ammonia
and high-grade elemental sulfur.
Coke oven gas following the naphthalene scrubber passes through the hydrogen sulfide scrubber,
where it is counter-currently contacted with ammonia solution. The ammonia-absorbing solution
is made up of ammonia liquor from the free leg of the coke plant ammonia still, recycled solution
from the deacidifier, and ammonia from the top of the PHOSAM stripper. If the hydrogen sulfide
absorber is operated with no recycled ammonia from the USS PHOSAM stripper, it will remove
hydrogen sulfide to a level of 0.92–1.14 g/Nm3 (40–50 gr./100 scf). If about 15% of the ammonia
from the PHOSAM stripper is recycled to the hydrogen sulfide absorber, the hydrogen sulfide con-
centration will be reduced to about 0.23 g/Nm3 (10 gr./100 scf). The only penalty for the improved
hydrogen sulfide removal is 15% additional capacity in the PHOSAM stripper. Absorbing solution
from the bottom of the hydrogen sulfide absorber is pumped to the deacidifier, where it is con-
tacted with steam from the coke plant ammonia still, augmented by additional low pressure steam.
Stripping solution from the bottom of the deacidifier is cooled and recycled to the hydrogen sulfide
absorber. Acid gases from the top of the deacidifier, containing hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, hydro-
gen cyanide and carbon dioxide, are sent to a small PHOSAM absorber, where the ammonia is selec-
tively removed. Acid gases from the PHOSAM absorber pass to a hydrogen cyanide reactor, where
the hydrogen cyanide is catalytically decomposed. Gases from the hydrogen cyanide reactor then
pass to a plant for production of high purity sulfur.
Ironmaking Volume
The integration of the Carl Still process with the USS PHOSAM process permits reduction of
hydrogen sulfide in the coke oven gas from about 1.03 to 0.26 g/Nm3 (about 45 to 10 gr./100 scf).
In addition, removal of ammonia from the acid gases is advantageous to the operation of the sul-
fur plant. The successful combination of these two processes offers a new technology in coke oven
gas desulfurization.
The Diamox process is similar to the Carl Still process, except that it operates with lower ammo-
nia concentrations so that ammonia recycle from the PHOSAM stripper and the acid gas PHOSAM
absorber can be eliminated.
7.7.8.2.6 DESULF Process The dominating coke oven gas liquid desulfurization process in Europe,
which started in the 1940s, uses ammonia water. This process, in fact, combines hydrogen sulfide
removal with ammonia removal. The basic process has been updated recently to achieve lower
hydrogen sulfide figures in the purified gas and to adjust to the climatic conditions (higher ambi-
ent temperatures) of other countries.
In the DESULF process, Fig. 7.116, the gas is contacted counter-currently by the liquor in three
absorptive towers operated in series where the liquor’s ammonia content decreases in the direction
of the gas flow. The first washer provides for hydrogen sulfide bulk removal; in the second washer,
ammonia and hydrogen sulfide are absorbed; while the third washer effects final removal of ammo-
nia (0.02 g/Nm3 or 0.82 gr./100 scf) and hydrogen sulfide (0.2 g/Nm3 or 8.2 gr./100 scf). The
absorption liquor streams are as follows: fresh water is used in the third tower and pumped from
the tower bottom up to the top of the second washer, where activated ammonia liquor is also added;
the liquor is pumped to the middle section of the first washer, while weak ammonia liquor and liq-
uid ammonia enter its top section.
The loaded ammonia liquor is preheated and activated in the deacidifier which is equipped with
bubble-cap trays. Activated ammonia liquor is pumped out of the bottom section and, after heat
exchange and cooling, reused in the second washer. Surplus liquor is pumped from the deacidifier
into the ammonia still, where the ammonia is removed by direct low pressure steam injection. After
Weak ammonia liquor

Desulfurized ammonia-free gas
Condenser Excess NH3 + sour gas
Fresh water
Condenser
Flash
Receiver
pot
1st 2nd 3rd

Ammonia
Washer Washer Washer
still Deacidifier
Ammonia
fractionator
Gas L.P.
in Flash High
Steam
pot pressure
steam
Loaded ammonia liquor

Activated ammonia liquor
Waste water
Liquid ammonia
Fig. 7.116 Flowsheet of the DESULF process.
heat exchange, the liquor is discharged into the wastewater system. The vapors from the ammonia
still are directed into the bottom section of the deacidifier. Top vapors from the deacidifier partially
condense, so that hydrogen sulfide and the like remain as sour gas, while steam and ammonia
mostly condense. A controlled proportion of the condensate is refluxed; most of the flow is pumped
into the ammonia fractionator after heating and flashing off any still-entrained sour gases. The
fractionator is operated at increased pressure. The concentrated ammonia liquor is fractionated by
direct steam injection into lean liquor, which is returned to the deacidifier bottom, and into
ammonia vapor, which is liquefied in the condenser and then directed into the first washer.
This process can be easily adjusted to changed operating conditions by modifying the ratio of acti-
vated ammonia liquor to liquid ammonia.
7.7.9 Coke Plant Wastewater

Public law has mandated that wastewaters must be treated to remove certain contaminants before
these waters can be discharged to public waterways. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) was given the responsibility of controlling and regulating these discharges, and of develop-
ing uniform guidelines for required treatment of municipal and industrial point sources. Discharges
from coke plants are one of the many areas in the steel industry that come under these Federal
guidelines; refer to Section 6.6.5.
Coke plant wastewater is made up of blowdown from the flushing liquor system, discharges from
the primary and final coolers, decanted water from the light oil decanters, discharges from the tar
recovery and the chemicals recovery operations, and finally from other small miscellaneous
sources throughout the coke plant. Because the carbonaceous and nitrogenous compounds in coke
plant wastewater are amenable to biological treatment, this method has been widely used to reduce
or remove these contaminants from the water before discharge to public waterways. A simplified
block diagram of this process is presented in Fig. 7.117. Heavy solids or grit are removed from the
wastewaters by use of bar screens or other similar devices, followed by oil and tar removal in set-
Ammonia
Oil acid gases
Coke-plant Solids Oil and tar Steam

wastewater removal removal distillation
Solids Tar
disposal
Dilution
water
Biological Clarification
treatment Equalization
Biosolids Solids
recycle disposal
Public waterway
Clarification Filtration discharge
Solids
disposal
Biosolids
disposal
Fig. 7.117 Simplified diagram of a system for biological treatment of coke plant wastewaters.
Ironmaking Volume
tling tanks. Oil is skimmed from the top and tar is recovered from the bottom of these tanks. From
the settling tanks, the wastewater is normally steam-stripped to reduce ammonia and acid gases,
primarily hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen sulfide, prior to biological treatment. The CYAM
process, discussed in Section 7.7.3.2, is a particularly efficient steam-stripping system. It is com-
posed of a free-ammonia still. The free ammonia and the acid gases are removed in the fixed still
after addition of lime. The wastewater stream from the stills is clarified and then flow and con-
centration equalized before undergoing biological treatment.
In most instances, biological treatment or activated sludge treatment of coke plant wastewater is an
aerobic process, or one that requires oxygen. Oxygen is normally obtained from the air by mechan-
ical mixing of the water and air or sparging with air from air blowers. Some processes that use pure
oxygen gas have also been developed. The biological process is one where active bacteria, in the
form of solids, are suspended in a containment vessel commonly referred to as an aeration basin.
The raw wastewater, sometimes diluted with relatively clean process water to reduce the waste-
water toxicity, enters the aeration basin where it contacts the suspended bacteria, which absorb the
contaminants from the water and biologically oxidize them to ultimately carbon dioxide and water
in the case of carbonaceous compounds and to nitrate in the case of ammonia and other nitroge-
nous compounds. Generation of biological solids, which must be periodically removed from the
system to maintain control, is a direct result of this process. Typically, wastewater is held in the aer-
ation basin about two days to complete the biological process, while the biological solids are kept
in the system about fifty days. The former is referred to as the hydraulic retention time of the bio-
logical system, and the latter is referred to as the solids retention time or sludge age of the system.
These two parameters are very important control points which need to be maintained if a quality
discharge is to be realized.
Following biological treatment, the wastewater is clarified and usually filtered through dual media
filters or other filtering devices, or routed through large settling or polishing ponds to reduce the
suspended solids content before finally discharging into a public waterway. Refer to Table 6.30 for
expected effluent quality.
7.7.10 Uses of Coke, Coke Oven Gas and Coal Chemicals

7.7.10.1 Metallurgical Coke
Coke is used for production of iron in blast furnaces and coke breeze is used as a fuel for sintering
plants and for steam generation in boiler houses.
7.7.10.2 Fuel Gas

After the recovery of coal chemicals, coke oven gas provides fuel for heating the coke ovens, and
the excess gas is used as a fuel in various steelmaking operations. When practicable, other gas of
lower calorific value may profitably replace coke oven gas for firing coke ovens.
7.7.10.3 Ammonium Sulfate

The ammonium sulfate recovered from coke oven gas is used for admixture with phosphate and
potash constituents to provide balanced agricultural fertilizers for the various requirements, or it
may be used for direct application where nitrogen is the only requirement at the time of use.
7.7.10.4 Anhydrous Ammonia

The ammonia recovered from the coke oven gas and waste liquor as anhydrous ammonia liquor is
a main source of nitrogen in making fertilizer. Ammonia is a major fertilizer in its own right, being
introduced directly into soils. Special high purity ammonia is used in chemical synthesis, in refrig-
eration and in steel plants for generating reducing atmospheres.
7.7.10.5 Phenol
Phenol (C6H5OH), sometimes called carbolic acid, is recovered from both coal tar and ammonia
liquor. Its most important use is in the manufacture of resinous condensation products by reaction
with formaldehyde, for example Bakelite. As a chemical intermediate it is used in the preparation
of synthetic tannins, dye intermediates, perfumes, plasticizers, picric acid, salicylic acid, and in the
refining of lubricating oils.
7.7.10.6 Ortho Cresol

Ortho cresol (CH3C6H4OH) is also used in the production of synthetic resins to control the plas-
ticity of the resin. It is nitrated to produce insecticides and week killers. It is used in various organic
syntheses and in the production of artificial flavors and perfumes.
7.7.10.7 Meta-Para Cresol

Meta-para cresol (CH3C6H4OH) is used chiefly in the production of synthetic resins and the plas-
ticizer tricresyl phosphate. It is also used in organic synthesis and in the production of insecticides,
dyestuffs, pharmaceuticals and photographic compounds.
7.7.10.8 Naphthalene
A large percentage of the naphthalene produced from coal is converted to phthalic anhydride. The
principal use of the anhydride is in plasticizers, such as dioctyl phthalate and disoctyl phthalate,
for use in synthetic resins. Nearly as much phthalic anhydride is used, however, in the alkyd resins,
the important outlet for which is in coatings. In addition, polyester resins, dyes, agricultural chem-
icals, pharmaceuticals, insect repellents, beta-naphthol, surface active agents, tanning agents, and
insecticides consume large volumes of phthalic anhydride.
7.7.10.9 Creosote
Creosote (from coal tar) constitutes a large part of the distillate from tar, and is a blend of different
fractions to meet specifications established by the American Wood Preservers Association. Practically
all of it goes into the pressure impregnation of wood such as piling, utility poles and railroad ties.
7.7.10.10 Pitch
Pitch is employed as a binder in making carbon electrodes, as roofing pitch, fiber pitch, road tars,
and in pipeline enamels.
7.7.10.11 Benzene
Recovered from refining light oil, benzene is industrially the most important member of the aro-
matic family. The principal use is for the manufacture of styrene, which goes into polystyrene
resins and important grades of snythetic rubber. Other important uses of benzene are for manufac-
ture of phenol, nylon, synthetic detergents, aniline, and a host of other important organic chemi-
cals, including DDT, maleic anhydride, benzene hexachloride, mono- and dichlorobenzene and
nitrobenzene. The uses for some these benzene derivatives are evident, but others are intermedi-
ates, in turn, for additional chemicals, plastics, dyes, fungicides, and the like.
7.7.10.12 Toluene
The principal uses for toluene are in the manufacture of synthetic organic chemicals, detergents,
resins, plasticizers, explosives, solvents, dye intermediates, and pharmaceuticals, and for conver-
sion to benzene.
Toluene is converted through synthesis to phenol, benzoic acid, benzoyl chloride, benzoates, para-
cresol, dye intermediates, toluene sulfonates, di-isocynates and trinitrotoluene. Considerable quan-
tities of toluene are also used as a diluent in various types of coatings.
Ironmaking Volume
7.7.10.13 Sulfur
Approximately 90% of the sulfur produced in the Western World is utilized for the production of
sulfuric acid. Sulfur is also burnt to produce sulfur dioxide needed as bleaching agents for wool,
silk, gelatin, straw, and other materials.
Roughly 10% of the sulfur is consumed as elementary sulfur to produce vulcanizing agents, is used
as an additive for forming sand in the aluminum industry, or is used to produce sulfuric putty, black
powder and fireworks, sulfur dyes and carbon disulfide. In agriculture sulfur is utilized to jacket
fertilizers, as an important fungicide, and moreover as an additive to animal feed.
In pharmaceuticals sulfur is exploited for production of ointments or colloidal sulfur preparations
against scabies, acne, seborrhea, and other skin diseases, and moreover to produce sulfurated baths
against rheumatism.
More recently, sulfur has also found new fields of application in the production of sulfuric con-
crete. Substantial portions of asphalt contained in road pavement are already substituted by sulfur
without any adverse effects.
7.7.10.14 Sulfuric Acid

Sulfuric acid is utilized in many branches of industry. The biggest consumer of sulfuric acid world-
wide is the fertilizer industry, using it for the production of phosphoric acid or triple-superphos-
phate, mono- and diammonium phosphate, as well as superphosphate and ammonium sulfate. In the
Western World, nearly 60% of the sulfuric acid production output is utilized in fertilizer production.
Another major consumer of sulfuric acid are the organic-chemical and petrochemical industries.
Sulfuric acid is employed as auxiliary means in many syntheses, such as: nitrification; sulfonat-
ing; the production of both organic semi-finished products and dyes as well as plastic materials;
and for refining, alkylating, and cleaning of oil distillates. In the inorganic-chemical industry, sul-
furic acid is utilized in the production of titanium dioxide pigments and hydrochloric acid and also
explosives, detergents, and foodstuffs. Sulfuric acid is used by the leather, chemical fiber, paper
and cellulose industries. In the metal processing industry, sulfuric acid is employed for leaching of
copper, uranium and vanadium ores as well as for the production of electrolytic zinc baths. A frac-
tion of sulfuric acid is utilized as accumulator acid.
7.8 Recent Developments in Cokemaking

7.8.1 Introduction
The aging of cokemaking facilities around the world, and particularly in North America, coupled
with high capital replacement costs and more stringent environmental regulations have resulted in
the development of new cokemaking technologies which promise the production of high quality
coke in an environmentally sound manner. This section has been added to provide a brief review
of a variety of these technologies. Most have been tested on a prototype scale or larger. The mod-
ern non-recovery process has been in commercial operation for a number of years, but the coupling
of non-recovery cokemaking facility to an energy recovery/power generation facility is a recent
development.
7.8.2 Jewell Thompson Non-Recovery Cokemaking with Heat Recovery and

Power Generation29
Jewell Coal & Coke Company, a subsidiary of Sun Coke Company has developed a non-recovery
coke oven to produce a high quality blast furnace coke without the generation of hazardous or toxic
emissions usually associated with a byproduct recovery coke oven. In a non-recovery oven, all of
the coke oven gas generated is burned in the process.
Common waste heat tunnel The ovens, known as Jewell-Thomp-

Uptakes son ovens, have a unique sole flue
heating design to equalize the coking
Crown rate from the top and bottom to pro-
duce a uniform product. Because the
ovens operate under negative pressure
Buckstays with a horizontal design, a wide vari-
ety of coals can be used which will
still comply with the requirements of
Air port
the existing and proposed emission
Door
regulations.
A perspective representation of a sin-
Oven floor
Oven Bottom
gle Jewell-Thompson coke oven is
Air space Sole flue
shown in Fig. 7.118. The floor area of
the oven chamber measures 3.6 m 3
Foundation 13.7 m (12 ft 3 45 ft) which translates
to over one ton of coal charge per inch
Fig. 7.118 Schematic view of Jewell-Thompson coke oven. of depth in the oven. Because the vol-
ume of charge is not constrained by the
oven chamber volume, it is possible to vary charge weights with appropriate changes in coking
times. The charging machine is adjustable which permits changing charge weights as desired.
Primary air for combustion is introduced into the oven chamber above the charge through ports
located in the doors. These ports are fitted with adjustable dampers to control the amount of air to
maintain the desired oven crown temperature. The partially combusted coke oven (offgas) gas exits
the oven chamber though downcomer passages in the oven wall to the sole flues.
The sole flue arrangement, shown in Fig. 7.119, is divided into two sections, each with four passes
for combustion of the offgas prior to exiting the heating system. Thus, the coke side and the pusher
side can be controlled independently for uniform heating. An inlet air damper is installed at the
turn from the first pass to the second pass of the sole flue. This additional damper permits the intro-
duction of air to complete combustion of the offgas while still in the sole flue. Usually additional
air is required in the sole flue only during the first hour or two after charging when gas evolution
rate is the greatest. Waste gas is conducted to a common collecting tunnel through uptake passages
in the oven wall. As a further means for controlling oven temperatures, a specially designed uptake
damper is used to control the flow of gas exiting the oven to the exhaust system.
The common waste heat tunnel is located atop the centerline of the battery and extends the entire
length of the battery. The number of ovens per exhaust stack can be varied by changing the diam-
eter of the common tunnel. Each stack has a pneumatically-operated lid which permits closing off
the battery should it be necessary for operating reasons or when co-generation is employed.
Because the coke ovens operate under negative pressure at all times, there is a minimum of fugi-
tive emissions to the atmosphere. Pushing and quenching emissions are controlled with state-of-
the-art equipment similar to that used in a byproduct plant.
Heating of the Jewell-Thompson oven begins with the coking chamber crown by allowing a lim-
ited amount of air to enter the chamber, thus burning some of the volatile matter driven off from
the coal. The partially burned gas is directed from the crown through passages in the walls leading
to the sole flue where further combustion is carried out. Heat released in the sole flue heats the
charge from below by heat conduction through the refractory floor. The gases from the sole flue
exit through uptake ducts leading to a common collecting tunnel atop the battery. All unburned
volatile matter remaining after exiting the sole flue is burned in the common tunnel afterburner.
The temperature in each oven is controlled individually by adjusting the amount of combustion air
entering the oven through dampers located in the doors on each end of the oven. The aim maxi-
mum temperatures are 1370°C (2500°F) in the crown and 1480°C (2700°F) in the sole flues.
Ironmaking Volume
D.C. - Downcomer
U.T. - Uptake
Adjacent oven
D.C. D.C. D.C. U.T. U.T.
Thermo-
couple
Gas flow Inlet

air
Thermo- damper
couple
U.T. U.T. D.C. D.C. D.C.
Adjacent oven
Fig. 7.119 Sole flue arrangement.
Charging is done through an open door using a conveyor-charging machine. Coal is discharged
onto the oven floor by a drag conveyor which can be adjusted to accommodate various coal depths.
Charging starts at the pusher side door and progresses into the oven to the coke side door.
Oven pushing and quenching is basically the same as the byproduct coke ovens except that the
pushing machine is an integral part of the charging machine. When operating on a 48-hour cycle,
odd numbered ovens are pushed and charged on one day and the even numbered ovens the next.
Thus, there are fewer pushing and charging operations or cycles on the machine for the same pro-
duction of coke.
In general, blast furnace operators require minimum 60 A.S.T.M. stability coke, particularly for the
large blast furnaces. Coke produced has averaged 62 stability with a standard deviation of 0.4. The
amount of a +75 mm (+3 in.) coke averages over 40% of the run-of-oven coke primarily due to the
deep coal bed charge.
One of the greatest environmental concerns that affects the cokemaking industry today is the emis-
sion of hazardous chemicals. A test of emissions using a blend of high, medium and low volatile
coals showed stack emissions to be below the maximum levels allowable in the U.S.
In that all of the volatile products are combusted within the system, there is a large quantity of ther-
mal energy available which can be recovered in the form of steam used to drive electric generators.
The products of combustion would be cooled sufficiently to permit sulfur dioxide and particulate
scrubbers to lower the emissions to acceptable levels. Provisions have been made for the inclusion
of heat recovery for steam production and power generation.
In 1998, utilizing the Jewell Technology, the Indiana Harbor Coke Company30 commissioned the
first non-recovery coke plant in North America coupled to a co-generation facility for conversion
of the waster heat into electrical power. The plant consists of four 67-oven batteries designed to
produce 1.21 million tonnes (1.33 million tons) of coke per year. At peak production, the co-gen-
eration facility can produce 87 MW of electricity.
7.8.3 The Single Chamber System (SCS)

The European Cokemaking Technology Center completed the work on the single chamber coking
system, which was developed by Ruhrkohle AG in cooperation with the German coke oven engi-
neering companies and Bergbau-Forshung, the coal mining research institute.
The SCS was developed recognizing coke required for the blast furnace process would have to be
produced at low cost, with high quality, using a wide range of coals, with high thermal efficiency
and in an environmentally benign manner.
An essential characteristic of the new coking system is the process-controlled single chamber reac-
tor in combination with coal preheating. This means that the conventional multi-chamber system
with heating walls and coking chambers arranged alternately has been converted to a single cham-
ber system, abbreviated SCS, while maintaining the chamber principle. In terms of modular tech-
nology, the single chamber is a structurally and operationally independent component in a coke plant.
This arrangement offers a range of advantages: greatly increased static load-bearing capacity by
means of side-anchoring of the heating walls; an increase of approximately 100% throughput or
more, due in particular to coal preheating and productivity and as a result of this; a ≥ 50% reduc-
tion in the number of coking units; an increase in production flexibility due to individual computer
control of the coking process; more flexibility in the coal basis and/or improved coke quality; a
reduction in the specific energy consumption; increased freedom when determining the dimen-
sions of the coking chamber and the heating walls; and a decrease in harmful emissions from the
underfiring.
The emphasis in development work was focused on: proving the operability of the single reactor
design (SCS); determining the SCS potential for improving coke quality and for a greater usage of
poorly coking coal components in coal charging blends; proving high thermal efficiency in coke
production; and proving the operability of all of the integrated process techniques to improve envi-
ronmental performance.
7.8.3.1 Description of Test Installations

The SCS demonstration plant was erected on the RAG coke plant Prosper in Bottrop, Germany in
1992. For operational testing on the SCS, two construction alternatives with half-chamber length
were evaluated.
Construction alternative I with the standardized construction principle for chamber, heating flue
and regenerator arranged below, named SCS-B in Fig. 7.120, was evaluated with steel sidewalls
made of 1000 mm (39.4 in.) I-supports.
Construction alternative II with neighboring regenerator, named SCS-S in Fig. 7.121, was evalu-
ated with 1200 mm (47.2 in.) thick sidewalls made of concrete.
The most substantial characteristic data of the SCS units are: dimensions of 0.85 m (33.4 in.)
width, 10.0 m (32.8 ft) height, and 10.0 m (32.8 ft) length; liner brick thickness of 60 mm (2.4 in.);
zero oven chamber taper; program-controlled heating as per CODECO-process; lean gas heating
(exclusively); and omission of the top anchoring.
The main components of the SCS demonstration plant included: the two SCS units; the Pre-car-
bon coal preheating process with a permanently connected drag chain conveyor as the charging
installation; the conventional coke pusher machine; and the coke cassettes which were planned pri-
marily as the hot coke transport system. In the experimental plant, however, these cassettes were
also used for coke cooling.
A mixing station generated lean gas by mixing the coke oven gas and waste flue gas.
7.8.3.2 Plant Operation

Heating up of the reactors began in January, 1993. The reactor incorporating the classical regener-
ator arrangement was heated up without any problem to an initial operating temperature of 1200°C
(2190°F). However, the SCS-S reactor incurred damage due to an improper side anchoring and the
unit was shut down permanently. First coke was pushed in April, 1993.
During the 3.5 years of operation, phase coking times as run ranged between 36 and 24 hours, car-
bonizing both German and international coals. Special attention was paid to product quality and
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5650
7400
1000
1200
850
60 850
60
10000
10000
Regenerator
Chamber floor
Chamber floor
Regenerator
Fig. 7.120 Construction alternative I, SCS-B. Fig. 7.121 Construction alternative II, SCS-S.
imbalanced coking pressure impacts on structural mechanics. Heat engineering investigations and
measurements on environmental protection were made.
7.8.3.3 Results
The test using various charging coal blends demonstrated that significant improvements were
achieved in the CSR values, providing more flexibility in the coal basis and improved blast furnace
coke quality. The main causes for this are coal preheating and higher bulk density. Consequently,
it is possible to achieve the required coke quality necessary for high rates of oil or coal injection
into the furnace and/or to use a greater proportion of cheaper, poor coking coals in the charging
coal blend.
The process of combining coal preheating with program-controlled heating reduced heat con-
sumption for the underfiring by a total of approximately 8%, improving thermal efficiency. By
incorporating coke dry quenching in addition to coal preheating, thermal efficiency can be
increased from its present level of 38% to over 60%.
The coking technique of the future must offer an economical solution regarding environment pro-
tection and safety at the workplace. The single chamber system fulfills an important technological
need for the environmentally friendly process of the future. First of all, there is a reduction of emis-
sion sources by the use of low-emission or emission-free components in the process. There is a
reduction in coking units utilized. The charging system is a completely sealed transportation
method; there is no need for leveling because of preheating of the coal charge. Coke pushing is car-
ried out into a cassette which is coupled to the reactor chamber by a perfect sealing system. The
result in total is a reduction in emissions by approximately one-half.
An economic evaluation of capital and operating costs for a large-scale plant indicates that cost
savings may be realized compared to conventional cokemaking.
7.8.4 Calderon Cokemaking

Calderon Energy Company has developed an integrated, continuous cokemaking process com-
prised of sealed coking reactors discharging coke to a sealed quenching system and cleaning of the
foul coke oven gas in a sealed hot gas cleanup (HGC). Only two raw materials are required for the
process, metallurgical coal and limestone. The only products are coke, coke breeze, desulfurized
syngas and elemental sulfur.
Being completely sealed, the process requires no doors, chuck doors, offtakes, lids, pushing emis-
sion control, charging emission control, quenching station, wastewater treatment plant, byproducts
plant or gas blanketing. Syngas desulfurization is accomplished in the (HGC) and does not require
a separate unit such as Stretford, Sulfiban or Still. No Claus or acid plant is necessary. A condenser
condenses the sulfur from the tail gas leaving the HGC. The chemistry is summarized in Table 7.8
by the following reactions.
The entire system is designed to operate at elevated pressure with no gas exhausters or boosters
required. Depending on the final use of the syngas, the operating pressure will be no lower than
0.97 bar (14 psig) and may be designed to operate as high as required for the consuming process.
A prototype unit was designed to operate at 24 bars (350 psig) and was operated as high as 12.5
bar (180 psig).
In previous test work, Calderon produced coke with quality equal to or greater than coke produced
from the same coal blend in conventional slot ovens. Based on this work Calderon has designed a
modular, full-sized commercial coking reactor to demonstrate continuous cokemaking. Included in
the demonstration is an HGC module designed with all the operating parameters (temperatures,
pressures, flows, etc.) of a commercial plant. After demonstration, the coking reactor will be repli-
cated and installed side-by-side in batteries. Space required for the process is less than half that of
conventional ovens.
Current design data indicate that sixteen reactors are required to produce 0.9 million tonnes per
year or 1.0 million tons per year at a 90% operating rate. Annual production at a 100% operating
rate would be 1.0 million tonnes (1.1 million tons).
7.8.5 Antaeus Energy Cokemaking Process

Converting coal to coke involves devolatilization over a wide temperature range under controlled
heating conditions. The average time to convert coal to coke varies from 18–24 hours in conven-
tional processes. However, if the devolatilization patterns for most coals are examined, it can be
seen that there are two distinct zones in the coal devolatilization process. One is at relatively low
temperatures (300–600°C or 570–1110°F) and the other is at higher temperatures (800–1100°C or
1470–2010°F). These two zones are separated by a non–reactive region, as shown in Fig. 7.122.
Coke quality is mostly controlled by the second phase of the devolatilization zones.
Table 7.8 Chemical Reactions in Calderon Cokemaking
Cracking 2CxHy+1100°C → yH2 + 2xC

Desulfurization CaO + H2S → CaS + 2H2O
Regeneration 2 CaS + 3O2 → 2CaO + 2SO2
2 C + O2 → 2CO
2 CO + SO2 → 2CO2 + S
Water Gas H2O + C + 760°C → H2 + CO
Ironmaking Volume
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Te m p erature ( C )
Fig. 7.122 Throughput for coal devolatization process.
Antaeus Energy has developed the Antaeus Continuous CokeSM process, which uses a two-stage
pyrolysis-based process to produce high quality coke for both foundries and blast furnaces. The
process takes advantage of the split in the devolatilization process by minimizing the reaction res-
idence time and managing the coke quality by adding suitable binders before the secondary pyrol-
ysis zone. The process can produce coke in five hours. For these reasons, it is estimated that the
Antaeus Continuous CokeK process operating and capital costs can be significantly reduced. In
addition, a wide variety of coal feeds can be used to produce acceptable quality coke for foundry
and furnace use. Moreover, the process can produce other premium carbon products made from
waste materials such as spent automobile tires and coal tar. Another positive feature of the two-
stage pyrolysis coke production process is that it can produce marketable byproducts. The char pro-
duced is a marketable intermediary product used in ferroalloys production.
An important feature of this two-stage cokemaking process is that it is environmentally advanta-
geous. Not only can the process significantly reduce the air emissions problems associated with
traditional cokemaking; it will actually benefit the environment by the reclamation of coal waste
sites into safe and attractive properties for future use.
7.8.5.1 Overview of the Technology

A schematic of Antaeus Energy’s patented Continuous CokeSM process is shown in Fig. 7.123. This
process can use either coal fines or coal as its feedstock. Coal-fine wastes can be recovered from
tailings ponds or other waste piles and processed to remove impurities. The processed coal fines
then undergo a two-stage pyrolysis process that converts them first into char and then into coke.
During the first stage of pyrolysis, the coal fines undergo carbonization in a twin-screw pyrolyz-
ing reactor vessel, as shown in Fig. 7.124. Coal fines enter the reactor from the feed port with the
help of the screw feed. During stage one, coal or coal fines are subjected to low-temperature pyrol-
ysis in a twin-screw reactor vessel at moderate to low heating rates with a reaction residence time
of less than one hour to produce the intermediate carbon product, char. The hollow screw reactor
consists of two hollow screws with flights that overlap one another at the center of the reactor. The
screws are enclosed within the reactor shell wall to provide the bed for the coal fine feed. The reac-
tor is heated indirectly in the outer shell and within the hollow screws. The heating of the outer
shell is divided into zones, each of which heats different areas of the reactor.
Volatile gases produced during the devolatilization process are allowed to escape from the reactor
through a gas outlet pipe. In that the process is a non-recovery process, the condensable and non-
condensable gases are not separated, but instead all of the volatile gases evolved are used to pro-
vide energy for the pyrolysis process.
C om bus ter
Vol ati l e
Vent
gas es
C l ean
c oal
Coal fi nes
fi n e s Pr i m ar y
De- ashing Dewater ing C har
D r y i ng py r ol y s i s
F l ue
gas es
Pon d
Gas
c ondi ti oni ng Vent
Vol ati l e
gas es
Binder s C ogenerati on
Char blend Gr een

br i q uettes
Br iquetting Sec ondar y C oke

C ha r Quenc hi ng
Blending py r ol y s i s
Supplem en tal
ener gy
Fig. 7.123 Schematic of the Antaeus Continuous CokeSM process.
S t ack gas es
NOx por t N o n - c o n d ens i bl es
C o a l fe e d Liquids
To t. vo l
Air
Te m p p o r t s
C har
Coal
H eat i ng gas es
Fig. 7.124 Antaeus pyrolyzing reactor vessel.
Ironmaking Volume
During carbonization, the coal fines undergo thermal breakdown of their hydrocarbon bonds that
attempt to escape the coal matrix. This process leads to a buildup of gas pressure, forming a
pseudo-plastic regime. The result is coal swelling and liberation of hydrocarbons. The pyrolyzing
reactor vessel, which is heated at atmospheric pressure, removes part of the hydrocarbons, result-
ing in a carbon known as char. The char undergoes particle agglomeration and subsequently exits
the reactor after being cooled.
During stage two of the pyrolyzing process, the char is ground into fine particulate and blended
with suitable binders under a unique formulation to produce stable green briquettes with a uniform
distribution of porosity and strength. These green briquettes are pyrolized at high temperatures for
calcination in a rotary kiln/tunnel furnace to produce uniformly shaped and sized, high-quality
coke briquettes. The process has been optimized to reduce the residence in the high-temperature
kiln to two to five hours followed by the gradual coking process. The size of the coke briquettes
can be customized to meet the requirements of the coke consumer.
The volatile matter from the devolatilization process are combusted in a reducing atmosphere to
provide supplemental energy sources for the coking process. The flue gases are conditioned and
cleaned before being vented to the atmosphere.
The sensible heat from flue gases can be utilized to generate power through a co-generation sys-
tem. It is estimated that for 500,000 tons per year of coke production, a total of 30 MW of electric
power can be produced through the Antaeus process.
7.8.5.2 Scale-up of the Antaeus Energy Technology

Studies have shown that a large-scale (500,000 tons per year) Continuous CokeSM process is both
technically feasible and economically viable. A coal recovery plant has been built in West Virginia
to recover about 0.5 million tons per year of clean, high-quality coal from tailing ponds and con-
vert it into char as the first stage of the pyrolysis process. The second stage, converting char to
coke, is expected to be implemented at another site in Pennsylvania.
7.8.6 TSOA/PACTI Non-Recovery Cokemaking31

In the TSOA/PACTI non-recovery oven system, two coking chambers with a gas collecting cham-
ber in between form an oven unit, Fig. 7.125. The coking chambers have a tunnel-like shape with
a rectangular floor area and a roof designed as an arch. The oven chamber is 13.7 m (45 ft) long,
4.0 m (13 ft) wide and has a height of approximately 2.4 m (8 ft) from the oven floor to the crown
of the roof arch. Silica refractory is the basic material used for the ovens. Only 36 individual brick
shapes are required for the entire silica brickwork structure. Similar to conventional horizontal
chamber ovens, the ovens are charged from the top through charging holes. Typical coal charging
levels in the oven range between 700–1000 mm (27–40 in.), corresponding to approximately 30–40
tonnes (33–48 tons) of wet coal per oven charge. As a result of the relatively large free space above
the coal mass in the oven and the correspondingly low gas velocity in the range of 2–3 m/s (6.5–10
ft/s), carryover of coal fines into the sole flues during charging is avoided.
A number of vertical gas ducts (downcomers) are arranged in the side walls of the oven chamber
connecting the chamber free space with the sole flues underneath the oven floor. Through these
downcomers the partly combusted raw gas is transferred to the sole flues where combustion is
completed. In each downcomer, a slide brick is installed to allow for adjustment during commis-
sioning of the gas pressure distribution in a predetermined pattern between the chamber and the
sole flues. The slide bricks can be adjusted from the oven top through inspection holes very simi-
lar to the conventional slot-type coke oven.
In the longitudinal direction of the chamber, the ovens are supported by a buckstay bracing system
including top and bottom cross tie rods and spring plungers resembling the bracing components
used for the conventional horizontal chamber oven. Rigid pinion walls are arranged to maintain the
stability of the oven banks in a longitudinal direction.
B raci ng system
Wa s te gas
Charging hole
collecti ng mai n
Door
C a st a bl e
R e f ra ct o r y
Air inlet
C oke D ow ncome r R C sl a b
Gas c ol l ecti ng S ol e fl ue C astabl e
cha mber
Fig. 7.125 TSOA/PACTI non-recovery cokemaking oven unit.
541
Ironmaking Volume
The oven doors are made of steel equipped with a refractory door liner. Door jambs are made of
cast iron. Because the pressure in the oven chamber is negative, there is no need for technically
sophisticated sealing systems.
The charge car rails are located above the oven roof, arranged such that no load is introduced into
the brick crown. Charging holes with frames and lids are arranged in the roof and are located on
the centerline of the chamber.
The oven substructure below the sole flues is made of refractory castable and the entire bank rests
on steel beams. The free space between the I-beams running in the longitudinal direction of the
chamber allows air cooling to protect the base plates and the foundation against overheating.
The non-recovery ovens are arranged in such a way that two ovens with one intermediate gas col-
lecting chamber form a unit, Fig. 7.125. Six such units form one bank which is approximately 61
m long and 20 m wide (200 ft 3 3 85 ft).
The oven machinery needed to operate a non-recovery cokemaking plant consists of one set of each
of the following: the charging car, the pusher machine, the quench car and locomotive, and the sta-
tionary coke pushing device. Charging a single oven takes approximately 90 seconds for a 44 tonne
(48 ton) coal charge with a leveled coal bed height of 1000 mm (40 in.). Charging emissions will
not occur because the ovens are operated under negative pressure and both the pusher side and coke
side doors are closed.
In order to achieve a uniform coke quality in the wide chamber non-recovery oven, it is important
to provide for a constant coal bed height. It is therefore required that the coal mass in the chamber
is properly leveled after charging. Leveling through a partially opened pusher side door has been
successfully demonstrated in Australia.
As soon as the coal is charged and comes into contact with the hot oven chamber and radiation heat
from the oven cavity, coke oven gas begins to evolve. The raw gas produced is subsequently burned
in two stages and provides the heat required for carbonization.
In the first stage, i.e. in the oven cavity above the coal mass, the raw gas burns in the presence of
a sub-stoichiometric air volume at temperatures around 1200–1300°C (2200–2370°F). The heat
transfer into the coal bed takes place mainly by radiation. In this way, the coal is progressively car-
bonized from the surface of the coal mass down towards the oven sole. The required primary air
flow enters through the oven doors and is controlled with the help of manually-operated air
dampers. The control variable in this case is the cavity temperature.
Combustion of the residual raw gas volume is completed in the sole flues which are arranged hor-
izontally underneath the oven sole and connected with the oven cavity via downcomers. Combus-
tion in the presence of excess air in the range of 6–8% of oxygen in the waste gas leads to a
complete incineration of the raw gas at temperatures of 1300–1400°C (2370–2550°F).
From the front face of the ovens, the supply of air to the sole flues can be adjusted by means of
slide bricks located below the sole flues. Air flow is induced and maintained by the negative pres-
sure inside flue chambers, similar to the primary air supply. In the event that the coke plant is oper-
ated without energy recovery facilities, a suitable waste gas stack will produce the required
negative pressure by natural draft.
In plants with energy recovery systems, the required additional negative pressure is created through
fans located downstream of the waste heat boiler. In addition, an emergency stack will be provided
to ensure the required suction in case of a power failure.
As a result of the transfer of heat from the sole flues through the oven sole, carbonization pro-
gresses from the oven sole towards the surface of the coal mass. Identical carbonization rates from
the top and bottom surfaces can be achieved by appropriately adjusting the primary and secondary
air flows. Uniform coking velocities from top and bottom will result in a coke seam located in the
middle of the coke mass.
To accomplish as uniform heating as possible of the coal mass via the oven floor, the sole heating
flues are designed in a double serpentine configuration. The raw gas-waste gas mixture from the
oven cavity passes to the outer sole flues via downcomers. The required combustion air is induced
to the sole flues in stages via ducts arranged below the sole flues.
With this unique heating system with nine downcomers per oven and staged combustion air sup-
ply, a uniform temperature profile is achieved, comparable to that in the proven heating system of
the horizontal chamber oven.
In addition, the multi-staged heating system with air introduced at different levels leads to the for-
mation of lower NOx levels in the waste gas. From the sole flues, the waste gas enters into the gas
collecting chamber.
From the gas collecting chamber, the hot waste gas enters a collecting main supported upon the
coke side buckstays. Twelve individual ovens each are connected via six collecting chambers to a
single collecting main. For control reasons and due to thermal expansion of the hot collecting
mains, the number of ovens connected to a single main has to be limited. Due to high waste gas
temperatures, the entire collecting main up to the waste heat boiler has to be refractory lined.
The collecting mains of two banks of twelve ovens each connect into one suction main through
which the hot waste gas enters the waste heat boiler. As a rule and depending on the sulfur content
of the coal feedstock, a flue gas desulfurization unit is provided to meet the environmental regula-
tions.
The coke pushing operation starts with unlatching and extracting the oven doors on the pusher and
coke side. Following this, the pusher machine and the quench care are exactly spotted in front of
the oven to be pushed.
The electro-mechanically driven pusher ram pushes the undisturbed coke cake into the quench box.
A most significant characteristic of the pushing operation is that the coke is not dumped, but is
pushed horizontally into the quench box. The shape that the coke cake had inside the chamber is
maintained. Emissions normally encountered when coke is dumped are therefore avoided.
This concept of pushing the coke cake onto a flat-bed quench car has been in practice for over 80
years in Australia. In a modern plant, the quench box is provided with a moveable cover to elimi-
nate windblown ash. This cover slides sideways when the quench car enters the quench tower.
The coke is quenched in a tower similar to the system being used in a conventional coke oven plant.
Quenching commences after the cover over the coke bed is removed. After the quenching process
has been completed, the quench train moves onto a stationary coke pushing station. This station
mainly comprises of two pusher rams, one for each bay of the wharf, including a common drive,
that engages either ram alternately.
The quench train operator aligns the loaded quench box with the pusher ram of the stationary unit
and the coke wharf. At this point, the coke is pushed out of the quench box onto the coke wharf.
Some typical characteristics of the TSOA/PACTI coke produced from blends of Queensland, Aus-
tralia coals are presented in Table 7.9.
Table 7.9 Typical Characteristics of TSOA/PACTI Coke Produced from Blends of

Queensland, Australia Coals
Ash 12.6%
Volatile Matter 1.4–1.5%
ASTM Stability 60–61
Hardness 60–64
CSR 60–62.6
CRI 24.6–24.7
Ironmaking Volume
References
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mary Operations at Inland Steel Company,” ISS-AIME Proc., Vol. 49, 1990, pp.235–242.
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Japan,” Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 1978, No. 2, pp. 49–60.
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Quality of Metallurgical Coke,” ISS-AIME Proc., Vol. 28, 1969, pp. 170–179.
4. Valia, H.S., et al., “Production and Use of High CSR Coke at Inland Steel Company,” ISS-
AIME Proc., Vol. 48, 1989, pp. 136–146.
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mal Sintering, Cokemaking, and Blast Furnace Operation,” Ironmaking and Steelmaking,
1995, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp. 255–364.
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Inland Steel Company,” Iron and Steelmaker, May 1989, pp.77–87; also in Iron and Steel
Soc. Trans., Vol. 11, 1990, pp. 55–65.
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Resultant Coke,” ISS-AIME Proc., Vol. 41, 1982, pp. 2–11.
8. Marsh, H., and Walker, P.L., Jr., “The Effects of Impregnation of Coal by Alkali Salts upon
Carbonization Properties,” Fuel Processing Technology, Vol. 2, 1979, pp. 61–75.
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teristics of Coals,” Koks-i-Khim, 12, 1957, pp. 9–12.
10. Schapiro, N., et al. “Recent Developments in Coal Petrography,” Blast Furnace, Coke Oven,
and Raw Materials Committee Proc., Vol. 20, 1961, pp. 89–112.
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Vol. 40, 1981, pp. 381–392.
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Australian Black Coal, Austral. Inst. Min. Metall., 1975, Illawara, pp. 251–263.
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Fuel Soc. Japan, 1970, Vol. 49, No. 10, pp. 736–743.
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AIME Proc., Vol. 38, 1979, pp. 385–397.
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Chapter 7

Manufacture of Metallurgical Coke and

7.1.2 Chemical Effects of Coking

7.1.3 Kinds of Coke

7.1.4 Important Properties of Metallurgical Coke

7.1.5 Methods of Manufacturing Metallurgical Coke

7.1.6 Products of Coal Carbonization

Per Metric Ton Per Net Ton

Blast Furnace Coke 600–800 kg 1200–1400 lb

7.1.6.1 Ammonia Liquor

7.1.6.2 Light Oil

7.1.7 Recovery of Coal Chemicals

7.2 Coals for Metallurgical Coke Production

Vendor’s Data Laboratory Testing Pilot Oven Carbonization Plant Trial

3) Assess cost/ 3) Order coal for pilot 3) Conduct contraction and

4) Request 5 lb. coal 4) Recommend for plant trial.*

1. Coal blend design to satisfy coke physical properties.

7.2.1.2 Coal Blend Design to Satisfy Physical Properties

as determined through Nippon Steel

At Ispat Inland, CSR is predicted by 30

tics: these include the plastic range

early additive property. Thus, the

coals can be predicted from individ-

application of the additivity law (Fig. 70

sition points for two coals such as A- 60

blend compositions that could possi- A

bly result from mixing A and B or C

can also be used for monitoring the

reserve evaluation, and mine and

in an Ambient Temperature Condition

referred to drum strength properties Catalytic Index

Coke resistant to crushing Coke resistant to abrasion

Coke from medium volatile coals

Large Foundry Coke Metallurgical Chemical Coke

Composition Balance Index

Fig. 7.5 Japanese D130/15 prediction method. (From Ref. 12)

St. Sewell 2 Jewel Pocahontas

Calculated total dilation

Free Swelling Index Gray-King Coke Type

Free Swelling Index Roga Index

In North America, the coal 85

Total coke yield (%, dry basis)

7.2.1.4 Coal Blend Design to Satisfy Coke Oven Pushing Performance

0.2 Low volatile

1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3

new coal blends. SHO contraction and 74

dependent on operating parameters such

7.2.1.5 Coal Blend Design to Maximize Usage 14

7.2.1.6 Economic Evaluation of the Designed Blend

ommended for implementation at the coke plant.

7.2.2 Preparation of Coal Charge for Byproduct Ovens

7.2.2.1 Coal Unloading

7.2.2.2 Bed Blending

7.2.2.4 Blending Bins and Weigh Feeders

Fig. 7.15 Cut-away view of a rotary Bradford breaker.

7.2.2.5 Coal Screening

7.2.2.6 Secondary Crushing (Pulverizing)

Rotor shaft Rotor

Fig. 7.16 Sectional view of a reversible hammer mill.

The hammer mill is a commonly used type. a