Lab Manual For CE Edited
Lab Manual For CE Edited
Lab Manual For CE Edited
I:
SOIL MECHANICS
LABORATORY
MANUAL
Contributors:
Labaguis, Czarah Mercede P.
Mon, Jahzee Kiana L.
Guttierrez, Edna B.
Mangampo, Alyssa T.
Cabatay, Aethelbert V.
Ferrer, Francis Gabriel A.
Tenorio, Ceejay
Table of Contents
No. Title Page
1 Soil Sampling 1
2 Simple Visual and Manual Test in the Field 9
3
4
5
6
Experiment 1: …………………………………………………………………1
Experiment 2: …………………………………..10
Experiment 3: Determination of Unit Weight, Specific Gravity, Moisture Content,
and Degree of Saturation of Soil
……………………………………………13
Experiment 4: Determination of Dry Unit Weight, Void Ratio and Porosity
………………20
Experiment 5: Plasticity of Soil……………………………………………………….
……..26
Experiment 6: Gradation Analysis …………………………………………………….
…….42
Experiment 7: Engineering Classification of Soil …………………………………….
……..53
Experiment 8: Determination of Optimum Moisture Content………………………..
………63
Experiment 9: Field Density Test……………………………………………………..
………71
Experiment 10: Permeability Test …………………………………………………..
………..78
Experiment 11: Seepage (Flownets)………………………………………………..
…………88
Experiment No. 1
SOIL SAMPLING
Introduction
This activity will collect samples of disturbed and undisturbed soil for further
analysis. Soil sampling is the collection or gathering of soil samples from the surface
or from any location that has not been covered with fixed infrastructure. It is the
preliminary step of any infrastructure construction since it will determine the
suitability of the area for any development. Soil sampling must also include relevant
information such as the location, subsurface conditions in the area, extent and
condition of soil layers. To collect the samples, engineers often use drill rig or hand
augers and special sample collection tools to gather both disturbed and undisturbed
soil samples.
Disturbed Samples
Disturbed soil samples do not retain the in-situ properties of the soil during the
collection process. Engineers do not consider these samples to be representative of
underground soils except for geotechnical testing that do not rely on the structure of
the soil itself. Scientists commonly test disturbed soil samples for soil type and
texture, moisture content, and nutrient and contaminant analysis, among other
evaluations. The majority of soil samples engineers and geologists collect are
disturbed samples because they are easier to collect and the precision needed to
collect an undisturbed sample is not required for most geotechnical testing.
The samples that are lost their natural structure during collection process are
called disturbed sample. The only information that can be determined form this
sample are mineral content and composition of soil. The index properties like specific
gravity, grain size and plasticity characteristics can be determined from such sample.
Undisturbed Samples
The samples that retains its natural water content and structure of soil are
known as undisturbed samples. It is a theoretical term as some disturbance is
unavoidable. If all condition meets during collection of samples from bore hole,
during removal of this sample produces change in stress as conditions and get
disturbed. The small the disturbance, the more reliability of results.
Undisturbed samples allow an engineer to determine the geotechnical
properties of strength, permeability, compressibility and fracture patterns among
others. Results of these analyses are instrumental in the design of a new infrastructure.
The engineering properties of soil that are most important for design of
foundation are strength, permeability and compressibility. Undisturbed samples of
cohesive soils can be collected with relatively less difficulty and fairly accurate
evaluation of these properties can be obtained by laboratory tests.
Undisturbed samples of most rock can easily be obtained; but it is almost
impossible to collect an appropriate undisturbed and when the term undisturbed is
used, it refers to a sample that are collected with some precautions to reduce
disturbance of soil skeleton that exist before boring or sampling. In this regard,
undisturbed sample collected by different laboratories may have wide variations.
Requirements of undisturbed sample
• Soil structure should be unaltered due to disturbance
• Water content and void ratio must be unchanged
• No change in chemical properties of constituents.
Objectives
The main objective of this activity is demonstrate how soil samples are being
collected for further test or analysis and at the same time learn the skills of
determining the visual characteristics of soil in correlation to its purpose and
properties.
Method
1. Define field areas to be sampled.
2. Clear the area with a grass in 30 cm deep.
3. Set 1.5 x 1.5-meter area in the field.
Reminders:
As far as possible the place intended for sampling should be in its natural
state. This means that we do not step on it, because this would affect the bulk
density
Soil core samples should be taken in appropriate moisture conditions. Too wet
or too dry soil at sampling can lead to erroneous values.
Make sure that you do not affect the sampled soil much during the sampling.
If possible, do not use the hammer but push the sampling ring into the soil by
hand.
* This is an improvised method from standard method using piston and metal rings.
Sources of Error
Wrong choice of location for extraction of soil sample.
Uncleaned material used in excavating and collecting soil sample.
Contaminated containers for disturbed soil sample.
Undocumented information
Video Link
Disturbed: https://youtu.be/Oy_NTRLIgsg (until 1:16 sec only)
Undisturbed: https://youtu.be/IY4Hl0b4VkE (Starts at 1:04secs until
4:16secs)
Figure 2. Box Sampling (souce: SNU OCW, 2019)
SOIL INFORMATION SHEET
Table 1. Undisturbed and Disturbed Soil Sample Details
Type of Soil Sample Disturbed and Undisturbed
Depth of Soil Sample
Location
Latitude:
GPS
Longitude:
Weather before the date of the
experiment
Weather on the date of the
experiment
Remarks:
Objectives
This activity aims to
Define the texture and color of soil samples through simple visual and manual
tests of soil
Recognize the differences in soil textures of the given samples
Use the Munsell Color Classification System to classify a soil based on Hue,
Value and Chroma
Standard Reference
ASTM D2488 – Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils
(Visual – Manual Procedure)
Method
Identification of Peat
A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of decomposition
that has a fibrous to amorphous texture, usually a dark brown to black color, and
organic odor shall be designated as a highly organic and shall be identified as peat.
Preliminary Identification
Soils can be classified into two general categories: (1) coarse grained soils and (2)
fine grained soils. Examples of coarse-grained soils are gravels and sands. Examples
of fine-grained soils are silt and clays. Procedures for visually identifying these two
general types of soils are decided in the following sections.
The soil is fine grained if it contains 50% or more fines.
The soil is coarse grained if it contains less than 50% fines.
1. Identify the color (e.g. brown, gray, brownish gray), odor (if any) and texture
(coarse or fine-grained) of soil.
2. Identify the major soil constituent (>50% by weight) using Table 2.1 a coarse
gravel, fine gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, or fines.
3. Estimate percentages of all other soil constituents using Table 2.1 and the
following terms:
4.
a. Trace – 0 to 50% by weight
b. Few – 5 to 10%
c. Little – 15 to 25%
d. Some – 30 to 45%
e. Mostly – 50 to 100%
Table 2.1 Grain size distribution
Soil Familiar
Size Limits
Constituent Example
Larger than
Boulder 12 in. (305 mm) or more
basketball
Cobbles 3 in (76 mm) – 12 in (305 mm) Grapefruit
3 Orange or
Coarse Gravel in. (19 mm) – 3 in. (76 mm)
4 Lemon
3
Fine Gravel 4.75 mm (No.4 sieve) - in. (19 mm) Grape or Pea
4
Coarse Sand 2 mm (No. 10 sieve) - 4.75 mm (No.4 sieve) Rock salt
Sugar, Table
Medium Sand 0.42 mm (No.40 sieve) – 2 mm (No.10 sieve)
salt
0.075 mm (No.200 sieve) – 0.42 mm (No.40 Powdered
Fine Sand*
sieve) Sugar
Fines Less than 0.075 mm (No.200 sieve) -
6. According to the major soil constituents are, perform the following tests:
Procedure for Identifying Coarse-grained soils
a. The percentages of the following particle fractions are estimated
(i) Gravel fraction (75 mm – 4.75 mm or approximately 5 mm)
(ii) Sand fraction (4.75 mm or 5 mm – 75 micron), and
(iii) Soil fines, i.e., silt and clay fraction (smaller than 75 micron)
b. If the gravel fraction is greater than sand fraction, identify the soil as “gravel” (G).
The gravel fraction may be further divided into
(i) Coarse gravel (75 mm – 20 mm), and
(ii) Fine gravel (20 mm – 4.75 mm)
c. If the gravel fraction is equal to or less than sand fraction, identify the soil as
“sand” (S). The sand fraction may be further divided into
(i) Coarse sand (4.75 mm – 2 mm)
(ii) Medium sand (2 mm – 425 micron), and
(iii) Fine sand (425 micron – 75 micron)
d. Identify the soil further as “clean gravel” or “clean sand” if the percentage of fines
is estimated to be less than 5 percent. Identify it as “gravel with fines” or “sand
with fines” if the percentage of fines is estimated to be more than 15%.
e. Classify the “clean gravels” or “clean sand” as follows:
Identify the soil as well graded gravel (GW), or as a well graded sand (SW) if
there is good representation of all particle sizes.
Identify the soil as poorly graded gravel (GP), or as a poorly graded sand (SP) if it
contains predominantly of one size (uniformly graded) or it has a wide range of
sizes with some intermediate size(s) obviously missing (gap graded).
f. Classify “gravel with fines” or “sand with fines” as follows:
(i) If the other course grained constituent is less than 15% then:
Silty gravel (GM) or silty sand (SM) if the fines have little or no plasticity,
or
Clayey gravel (GC) or clayey sand (SC), if the fines are of low to medium
or high plasticity.
(ii) If the other course grain constituent is greater than 15%, then the group
name shall be a combination from the two columns below:
g. If the percentage of fine is in between 5 – 15% then the group name shall be a
combination from the two columns below:
Well graded gravel With clay
Poorly graded gravel With silt
Well graded sand
Poorly graded sand
Boundary classification: Assume the coarser soil first, when there is a
choice, complete the classification and assign the appropriate symbol.
Then beginning where the choice was made, assume the finer soil, complete the
classification and assign the second group symbol. The examples are as follows: GW-
GP, GM-GC, GW-GM, GW-GC, SW-SP, SM-SC, SW-SM, SW-SC, GW-SW, GP-
SP, GM-SM, GC-SC, SM-ML, SC-CL, etc.
1. Color : ____________________________________________
2. Odor : ____________________________________________
3. Texture : ____________________________________________
4. Major soil constituent : ____________________________________________
5. Minor soil constituents : ____________________________________________
6. For coarse-grained soils :____________________________________________
7. Gradation : ____________________________________________
Particle Shape : ____________________________________________
8. For fine-grained soils : ____________________________________________
Dilatancy reaction
Toughness of plastic
thread
Time to settle in
dispersion test
OBJECTIVES
STANDARD REFERENCE
SIGNIFICANCE
B. Specific Gravity
Dry Soil Sample
Pycnometer (Volumetric flask)
Distilled Water (Absolute)
Weighing Balance
Funnel
C. Moisture Content
Disturbed Soil Sample
Moisture Can
Weighing Balance
Drying Oven
Gloves
Spatula
Volumetric flask
Spatula
SOURCES OF ERROR
Weighing balance sensitivity
Transferring of soil particles
PROCEDURE
A. Unit Weight
1. Weigh the tin cans containing the undisturbed sample.
2. Using the displacement method using beaker the water and the three
undisturbed soil to obtain the volume of each sample.
B. Specific Gravity
1. Determine and record the weight of the empty clean and dry pycnometer,
W1.
2. Place 50g of a dry soil sample (passed through the sieve No. 10) in the
pycnometer. Determine and record the weight of the pycnometer
containing the dry soil, W2.
3. Add distilled water to fill about half to three-fourth of the pycnometer.
Soak the sample for 10 minutes.
4. To remove entrapped air in the volumetric flask, gently roll the flask in an
inclined position until all bubbles are dispersed.
5. Fill the pycnometer with distilled (water to the mark), clean the exterior
surface of the pycnometer with a clean, dry cloth. Determine the weight of
the pycnometer and contents, W3.
6. Empty the pycnometer and clean it. Then fill it with distilled water only
(to the mark). Clean the exterior surface of the pycnometer with a clean,
dry cloth. Determine the weight of the pycnometer and distilled water, W4.
7. Empty the pycnometer and clean it.
C. Moisture Content
1. Record the moisture can and lid number. Determine and record the mass of
empty, clean, and dry moisture can with its lid (M1)
2. Place the moist soil in the moisture can and secure the lid. Determine and
record the mass of the moisture can (now containing the moist soil) with
the lid (M2).
3. Remove the lid and place the moisture can (containing the moist soil) in
the drying oven that is set at 105 °C. Leave it in the oven overnight.
4. Remove the moisture can. Carefully but securely, replace the lid on the
moisture can using gloves, and allow it to cool to room temperature.
Determine and record the mass of the moisture can and lid (containing the
dry soil) (M3).
5. Empty the moisture can and clean the can and lid.
ACTUAL PHOTO
B. Specific Gravity
Placing a 50g dry soil sample on the volumetric flask (left); Checking the temperature
on the volumetric flask (right)
C. Moisture Content
VIDEO LINK
A. Unit Weight: https://youtu.be/bf9qTZQGNHs
B. Specific Gravity: https://youtu.be/1pdhk6z1674
C. Moisture Content: https://youtu.be/AKUQpBeUp2s
CALCULATIONS
A. Unit Weight
M
¿ x 9.81
V
where ,
M = Mass of the undisturbed soil sample
V = Volume of the undisturbed soil sample
B. Specific Gravity
( W 2−W 1 )
Gs =
( W 4−W 1 )−( W 3−W 2 )
where,
W1=Weight of Pycnometer
W2=Weight of Pycnometer+Soil
W3=Weight of Pycnometer+Soil+Water
W4=Weight of Water + Pycnometer
C. Moisture Content
a. Determine the mass of soil solids.
MS = M3-M1
QUESTIONS
1. What factors affect the unit weight and moisture content of soil?
2. What is the difference between bulk and dry unit weight?
3. Does unit weight of soil vary with its moisture content?
DATA SHEET
Table 3.1 Determination of Unit Weight of soil
Specimen number 1 2 3
Weight of Undisturbed Soil
Initial Volume (water)
Final Volume (water+soil)
Volume(Vf-Vi)
Unit Weight of Soil
Average Unit Weight =
Specimen number 1 2 3
Weight of Pycnometer, W1
Weight of Pycnometer + Soil, W2
Weight of Pycnometer + Soil+Water,
W3
Weight of Pycnometer + Water, W4
Specific gravity of the Soil, GS
Average Specific Gravity =
Specimen number 1 2 3
Moisture and lid number
M1 = Mass of empty, clean can + lid
(gm)
M2 = Mass of can, lid and moist soil
(gm)
M3 = Mass of can, lid and dry soil
(gm)
MS = Mass of soil solids (gm)
MW = Mass of pore water (gm)
w = Water content %
Average Moisture Content =
Experiment No. 4
DETERMINATION OF DRY UNIT
WEIGHT, VOID RATIO, AND
POROSITY
INTRODUCTION
volume of the voids to the volume of solids. Porosity (n), the ratio of the volume of
voids to the total volume.
OBJECTIVES
The laboratory experiment was conducted to determine the porosity, void ratio
and dry unit weight of a soil sample. The determination of porosity, void ratio and dry
unit weight are one of the basis to distinguish the soil between different types of silts
and clay. It is also used to characterize soil structure and compaction (Hillel, 1982).
STANDARD REFERENCE
SIGNIFICANCE
Volume change tendency control. If void ratio is high (loose soils) voids in a
soil skeleton tend to minimize under loading – adjacent particles contract. The
opposite situation, i.e. when void ratio is relatively small (dense soils), indicates that
the volume of the soil is vulnerable to increase under loading – particle dilate.
APPLICATIONS
Fluid conductivity control (ability of water movement through the soil). Loose
soils show high conductivity, while dense soils are not so permeable.
Particle movements. In a loose soil particles can move quite easily, whereas in
a dense one finer particles cannot pass through the voids, which leads to clogging.
PROCEDURE
B. Void Ratio
1. Clean first the beaker and make sure that there is no water present in it.
2. Weigh the beaker and record it.
3. Place some quantity of dry soil sample passing Sieve No. 40 into the
beaker then take the total weight of the soil filled beaker.
4. Pour some distilled water into the soil sample and keep the container for
some time so that the entire voids present in the soil get filled with water.
5. Again, take the weight of the beaker with its contents.
6. After obtaining the data needed, calculate the void ratio.
C. Porosity
1. Take a clean beaker and fill it with 100mL dry soil sample passing Sieve
No. 40.
2. Prepare 100mL of distilled water in a graduated cylinder and slowly pour
it into the soil filled beaker until the water just reaches the top of the soil.
3. Record the amount of excess water in the graduated cylinder.
4. Calculate the porosity.
ACTUAL PHOTO
B. Void Ratio
Pouring enough distilled water to fill the void on the soil sample. Make it sealed when
taking the mass.
C. Porosity
a b
(a) Pouring soil sample on the container until in the mark indicated; (b)
Measuring 100ml distilled water on a graduated cylinder then pour enough
amount to fill the void on the soil sample. Record the volume left on the
cylinder.
VIDEO LINK
A. https://youtu.be/bf9qTZQGNHs
B. https://youtu.be/1pdhk6z1674
Calculations
A. Dry Unit Weight
Md
❑d = x 9.81
V
B. Void Ratio
W 3−W 2
e=
W 2−W 1
C. Porosity
100−excess water
n=
100
QUESTIONS
1. What does high void ratio mean in soil?
2. What factors affect the void ratio of soil?
3. What does high porosity mean in soil?
DATA SHEET
Table 4.1 Determination of Dry Unit Weight
Specimen number 1 2 3
Weight of Dry Soil
Initial Volume (water)
Final Volume (water+soil)
Volume(Vf-Vi)
Unit Weight of Soil
INTRODUCTION
The Swedish soil scientist Albert Atterberg originally defined seven ―limits of
consistency‖ to classify fine-grained soils, but in current engineering practice only
two of the limits, the liquid and plastic limits, are commonly used. (A third limit,
called the shrinkage limit, is used occasionally.) The Atterberg limits are based on the
moisture content of the soil. The plastic limit is the moisture content that defines
where the soil changes from a semi-solid to a plastic (flexible) state. The liquid limit
is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a plastic to a viscous
fluid state. The shrinkage limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil
volume will not reduce further if the moisture content is reduced. Awide variety of
soil engineering properties have been correlated to the liquid and plastic limits, and
these Atterberg limits are also used to classify a fine-grained soil according to the
Unified Soil Classification system or AASHTO system.
OBJECTIVE
The Laboratory Experiment will be performed to determine 2 out of 3
Atterberg limits; Liquid and Plastic Limit. Determining the Liquid and Plastic limit is
needed to measure the Liquidity and Plasticity Index of the soil. With the aid of
Plasticity chart, Fine-grained soils are classified based on Atterberg limits rather than
their grain sizes. From there, the group may now distinguish the soil between different
types of silts and clays.
Also, the experiment was performed to determine the Shrinkage Limit which
is one of the three Atterberg’s Limits in determining the moisture content of the soil
sample using the wax method instead of the conventional mercury displacement
method. The shrinkage factors covered in this test method can only be determined on
basically fine-grained (cohesive) soils which exhibit a dry strength when air dried.
STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D 4318 - Standard Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and
Plasticity Index of Soils.
ASTM D 427-04 - Standard Test Method for Shrinkage Factors of Soils by
the Mercury Method
SITE REFERENCE
SIGNIFICANCE
This testing method is used as an integral part of several engineering
classifications systems to characterize the fine-grained fractions of soils and to specify
the fine-grained fraction of construction materials. The liquid limit, plastic limit and
plasticity index of soils are also used extensively, either individually or together, with
other soil properties to correlate with engineering behavior such as compressibility,
permeability, compatibility, shrink-swell and shear strength.
Shrinkage Limit (SL) is defined as the moisture content at which no further
volume change occurs with further reduction in moisture content (SL represents the
amount of water required to fully saturate the soil (100% saturation)). It is needed in
producing bricks and ceramics.
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS
Liquid Limit
For Casagrande Method:
Liquid limit device
Porcelain (evaporating) dish
Flat grooving tool with gage,
Moisture cans
Balance
Glass plate
Spatula
Wash bottle filled with distilled water
Drying oven set at 105oC
Weighing Scale
Washing Bottle
Drying Oven
Plastic Limit
Mixing dishes
Spatula
Balance
TxDOT recommended Plastic limit device (for this session)
Shrinkage Limit
Casagrande liquid limit device
Grooving tool
Mixing dishes, Shrinkage Dish
Spatula
Balance Scale Sensitive up to 0.01 g
Drying Oven
Straight edge
Wax
Distilled water
Mortar and Pestle
Sieve #40
Petroleum Jelly
PROCEDURE:
(1) Weigh the remaining empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective
weights and can numbers on the data sheet.
(2) Take the remaining 1/4 of the original soil sample and add distilled water until the soil is
at a consistency where it can be rolled without sticking to the hands.
(3) Form the soil into an ellipsoidal mass. Roll the mass between the palm or the fingers and
the glass plate. Use sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter by
using about 90 strokes per minute. (A stroke is one complete motion of the hand forward and
back to the starting position.) The thread shall be deformed so that its diameter reaches 3.2
mm (1/8 in.), taking no more than two minutes.
(4) When the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, break the thread into several
pieces. Knead and reform the pieces into ellipsoidal masses and re-roll them. Continue this
alternate rolling, gathering together, kneading and re-rolling until the thread crumbles under
the pressure required for rolling and can no longer be rolled into a 3.2 mm diameter thread.
(5) Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and place the soil into moisture can,
and then cover it. If the can does not contain at least 6 grams of soil, add soil to the can from
the next trial. Immediately weigh the moisture can containing the soil, record it’s mass,
remove the lid, and place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at least
16 hours.
(6) Repeat steps three, four, and five at least two more times. Determine the water content
from each trial by using the same method used in the first laboratory. Remember to use the
same balance for all weighing.
(1) Place the glass cup in the shallow pan in order to catch any mercury overflow.
(2) Fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury.
(3) Remove the excess mercury by pressing the glass plate with the three prongs
firmly over the top of the cup.
(4) Place the evaporating dish in the shallow pan in order to catch any mercury
overflow. Place the cup filled with mercury in the evaporating dish and rest the
soil pat on the surface of the mercury (it will float).
(5) Using the glass plate with the three prongs gently press the pat under the mercury
and press the plate firmly over the top of the cup to expel any excess mercury.
Observe that there is no air trapped between the plate and mercury,
(6) Measure the volume of the mercury displaced into the evaporating dish either by
means of the glass graduate or by dividing the measured mass of mercury by the
mass density of mercury.
(7) Record the volume in cubic centimeters of the dry soil pat, Vo.
CALCULATIONS
Analysis to Determine Liquid Limit
(1) Calculate the water content of each of the liquid limit moisture cans after they have been
in the oven for at least 16 hours.
(2) Plot the number of drops, N, (on the log scale) versus the water content (w). Draw the
best-fit straight line through the plotted points and determine the liquid limit (LL) as the
water content at 25 drops.
(2) Compute the average of the water contents to determine the plastic limit, PL. Check to
see if the difference between the water contents is greater than the acceptable range of
two results (2.6%).
(3) Calculate the plasticity index, PI=LL-PL. Report the liquid limit, plastic limit, and
plasticity index to the nearest whole number, omitting the percent designation.
M−M o
w= ×100
Mo
VIDEO LINK
Casagrande Method: https://youtu.be/ldgD0fPfKc8
Automatic Fall Cone Method: https://youtu.be/qpPxCu6P408
Plastic Limit: https://youtu.be/b9HvDB8G90k
Shrinkage Limit: https://youtu.be/is19YtpRfqw
QUESTIONS
1. What will be the effect if the Casagrande tool will not be calibrated?
2. What are the ways of preventing of inclusion of air bubbles in shrinkage dish?
3. Why to know liquid limit of soil?
DATA SHEETS
Table 5.2 Determination of Liquid Limit by Automatic Fall Cone Method Data
Sample No. 1 2 3 4
Penetration
Can weight
Can + wet soil
Can + dry soil
Weight of water
Water content w%
Sample No. 1 2 3 4
Can no.
Can weight
Can + wet soil
Can + dry doil
Weight of water
Water content w%
Plastic Limit (PL) = Average w %:
Final Results:
Liquid Limit :
Plastic Limit :
Plasticity Index:
Moisture
Contents
w%
No. of Blows, N
24.2
24
23.8
Moisture Content %
23.6
23.4
23.2
23
22.8
22.6
22.4
17 17.5 18 18.5 19 19.5 20 20.5
Penetration, mm
Figure 4.4: Sample Graphical Representation for Automated Falling Cone Method Data
Appendix A
INTRODUCTION
Distribution of the size grains in a given soil is important to classify a soil for engineering
purposes. Sieve analysis, also known as “gradation test”, is where the percentage of individual
grain sizes present is determined by sieving known weight of soil through successive smaller
sieves. Note that as the sieve number increases the size of the openings decreases. Table6.1 gives
a list of the U.S standard sieve numbers with their corresponding size of openings. For all
practical purposes, the No. 200 sieve is the sieve with the smallest opening that should be used
for the test.
Table 6.1. U.S Sieve Sizes with Number Designation
OPENING OPENING
SIEVE NO. SIEVE NO.
(mm) (mm)
4 4.750 45 0.355
5 4.000 50 0.300
6 3.350 60 0.250
7 2.800 70 0.212
8 2.360 80 0.180
10 2.000 100 0.150
12 1.700 120 0.125
14 1.400 140 0.106
16 1.180 170 0.090
18 1.000 200 0.075
20 0.850 230 0.063
25 0.710 270 0.053
30 0.600 325 0.045
35 0.500 400 0.038
40 0.425
APPLICATION
Gradation is usually specified for each engineering application it is used for. For
example, foundations might only call for coarse aggregates, and therefore an open gradation is
needed.
OBJECTIVES
The sieve analysis experiment was conducted to determine the particle size distribution of
the coarse and fine aggregates. It aims to separate different sizes of particles using the sieve set,
compute the percentage of different sizes contained and also use the soil particle size lower than
0.075mm for Hydrometer Analysis.
STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D422, D1140, and AASHTO T88
SITE REFERENCE
Brajah M. D., Nagaratman S., Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering Book (5th
Edition)
http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/dsafi/files/2015/02/Soil-Laboratory-Manual-Das.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/SarchiaKhursheed/sieve-analysis-of-coarse-andfine-
aggregate-report
SIGNIFICANCE
Sieve analysis is the operation of dividing the aggregate into various fractions, each
consisting of particles of same size. It is performed on coarse and fine aggregates to in order to
check their gradation. This gradation gives an indirect measure if the workability and average
particle size.
Hydrometer analysis is based on Stokes law. According to this law, the velocity at which
grains settles out of suspension, all other factors being equal, is dependent upon the shape,
weight and size of the grain. In case of soil, it is assumed that the soil particles are spherical and
have the same specific gravity. Therefore, we can say that in a soil water suspension the coarser
particles will settle more quickly than the finer ones.
A. Sieve Analysis
B. Hydrometer Analysis
The error that may occur on this laboratory experiment is basically when the summation
of the retained mass is not equal to the initial mass of the dry sample. This is probably because of
soil are missing during sieves are being shaken.
In hydrometer test analysis, source of error are:
Improper sealing of cling wrap in graduated cylinder
Uncalibrated hydrometer
Unstable surface area
Miniscous and temperature correction
Not monitored properly
PROCEDURE
A. Sieve Analysis
1. Prepare the necessary materials needed, including the soil sample that will be used.
2. Make sure that the sand that will be sieved is fully dried. Sand just like the soil can be
dried using air-dry or oven-dry for faster drying. After drying, weigh at least 1000
grams of sand samples to sieved
3. Take suitable quantity of oven-dry soil.
4. Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the
analysis.
5. Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
6. Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of
sieve numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200
sieve. Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap
over it.
7. Shake the sieves for 15 minutes.
8. Remove the stack and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve with its
retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of the bottom pan
with its retained fine soil.
9. Place the retained soil on a plastic bag or any other container and label it on their
corresponding sieve number/ opening.
B. Hydrometer
1. Take about 50 g in case of clay soil and 100 g in case of sandy soil and weigh it
correctly to 0.1 g.
2. In case of soil contains considerable amount of organic matter or calcium compounds,
pre-treatment of the soil with Hydrogen Peroxide or Hydrochloric Acid may be
necessary. In case of soils containing less than 20% of the above substances pre-
treatment shall be avoided.
3. To the soil thus treated, add 100 cc of sodium hexametaphosphate solution and warm
it gently for 10 minutes and transfer the contents to the cup of the mechanical mixer
using a jet of distilled water to wash all the traces of the soil.
4. Stir the soil suspension for about 15 minutes.
5. Transfer the suspension to the Hydrometer jar and make up the volume exactly to
1000 cc by adding distilled water.
6. Take another Hydrometer jar with 1000 cc distilled water to store the hydrometer in
between consecutive readings to the soil suspension to be recorded.
7. Mix the soil suspension roughly, by placing the palm of the right hand over the open
end and holding the bottom of the jar with the left hand turning the jar upside down
and back.
8. Immediately after shaking, place the Hydrometer jar and start the stopwatch. Insert
the Hydrometer into the suspension carefully and take Hydrometer readings at the
total elapsed times of ¼, ½, 1 and 2 minutes.
9. After 2 minutes reading, remove the Hydrometer and transfer it to the distilled water
jar and repeat step 8.
10. Take the subsequent Hydrometer readings at elapsed timings of 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49,
60 minutes and every one hour thereafter. Each time a reading is taken, remove the
Hydrometer from the suspension and keep it in the jar containing distilled water.
11. Continue recording operation of the Hydrometer readings until the hydrometer reads
1000 approximately.
VIDEO LINK
https://youtu.be/QqxfwpUtEoQ
CALCULATIONS
A. Sieve Analysis
1. Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve and record this mass as the mass
retained on the data sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be approximately
equal to the initial mass of the soil sample.
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 − 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆 Eq. (1)
2. Calculate the cumulative mass retained above each sieve by adding the mass
retained on each sieve starting with sieve no. 4 and calculate the percent finer than each
sieve,
∑ M −col . 4
Percent Finer = ×100 Eq. (2)
∑M
Where col.4 is the cumulative mass retained above each sieve.
3. Make a semi logarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.
4. Find the particle size for 10% finer, D10; particle size of 30 % finer, D30; particle
size for 60% finer, D60.
5. Find uniformity coefficient,
D 60
C u= Eq. (3)
D 10
6. Find the coefficient of curvature,
D302
C c= Eq. (4)
D60 × D10
Figure 6.1. Plot of percent finer vs. grain size from the calculation shown in Table __.
𝐷60 = 1.0255 𝑚𝑚
𝐷30 = 0.2199 𝑚𝑚
𝐷10 = 0.0673 𝑚𝑚
Calculation of uniformity coefficient and coefficient of curvature using Eq. (3) and Eq. (4).
D 60
C u= Eq. (3)
D 10
2
D 30
C c= Eq. (4)
D 60 × D 10
1.0255mm
C u=
0.0673 mm
C c =¿ ¿
B. Hydrometer Analysis
D (mm) = K
Questions
DATA SHEET
D10:
D30:
D60:
C u:
Cc
Table 6.4: Hydrometer Analysis Data
Reading Hydro Diameter, Percent
L, cm K
time, min Reading, Rcp mm Finer, %
100
90
80
70
Percent Finer (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 1 0.1 0.01
Experiment No. 7
ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION
INTRODUCTION
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The AASHTO classification system was originally initiated by the Highway Research
Board (now called the Transportation Research Board) in 1943. This classification system has
under-gone several changes since then. This system presently used by federal, state, and county
highway departments in the United States. In this soil classification system, soils are generally
placed in seven major groups: A-i, A-2, A-3, A-4, A-5, A-6 andA-7. Group A-i is divided into
two subgroups: A-i-a and A-i-b. Group A -2 is divided into four subgroups: A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-6
andA-2-7. Soils under group A-7 are also divided into two subgroups: A-7-5 and A-7-6. This
system is also presently included in ASTM under test designation D-3284. Along with the soil
groups and subgroups discussed above, another factor called the group index (Ol) is also
included in this system. The importance of group index can be explained as follows. Let us
assume that two soils fall under the same group; however, they may have different values of OJ.
The soil that has a lower value of group index is likely to perform better as a highway sub grade
material. The procedure for classifying soil under the AASHTO system is outlined below.
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
This classification system was originally developed in 1942 by Arthur Casagrande for
airfield construction during World War II. This work was conducted on behalf of the U.S. Anny
Corps of Engineers. At a later date, with the cooperation of the United States Bureau of
Reclamation, the classification was modified. More recently, the American Society of Testing
and Materials (ASTM) introduced a more definite system for group name of soils. In the pre-sent
form, it is widely used by foundation engineers all over the world. Unlike the AASHTO system,
the Unified system uses symbols to represent the soil types and the index properties of the soil.
This system classifies soils into two broad categories; coarse-grained soil and fined-
grained soil.
OBJECTIVES
This experiment was conducted to classify the soil sample using different method- Visual
Classification, USDA, USCS, and AASHTO. It can be used as a basis on what will be the use of
the soil, can be for agriculture, constructions or roads and highways.
STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM Test Designation D-2487-11
ASTM D3282-09 Standard Practice for Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate
Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes
SITE REFERENCE
Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Fifth Edition) BRAJA M. DAS
SIGNIFICANCE
Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar
characteristics and potentially similar behavior. A classification for engineering purposes should
be based mainly on mechanical properties, e.g. permeability, stiffness, strength. 1 st type of
classification is the Visual Classification where the soil can be classified by observing the sample
using the senses. 2nd type is the USDA Soil Taxonomy developed by the United States
Department of Agriculture provides an elaborate classification of soil types according to several
parameters (most commonly their properties) and in several levels: Order, Suborder, Great
Group, Subgroup, Family, and Series. 3rd type is the USCS or the Unified Soil Classification
System that is a soil classification used in engineering and geology to describe texture and grain
size of a soil. The classification system can be applied to most unconsolidated materials, and is
represented by a two-letter symbol. The 4th type is the AASHTO Soil Classification developed
by the American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials, and is used as a
guide for the classification of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures for highway
construction purposes.
Soil sample
PROCEDURES
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION
1. Determine the percentage of soil passing through U.S. No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm opening).
‘1[35% or less passes No. 200 sieve, it is a coarse-grained material. Proceed to Steps 2 and 4. If
more than 35% passed No. 200 sieve, it is a fine-grained material (i.e., silty or clayey material).
For this, go to Steps 3 and 5.
2. Determination of Groups or Subgroups 2. For coarse-grained Soils, determine the percent
passing U.S. sieve Nos. 10,40 and 200 and, additionally, the liquid limit and plasticity index.
Then proceed to Table 7.1. Start from the top line and compare the known soil properties with
those given in the table (Columns 2 through 6). Go down one line at a time until a line is found
for which all the properties of the desired soil matches. The soil group (or subgroup) is
determined from Column I - 3.
3. For fine-grained soils, determine the liquid limit and the plasticity index. Then go to Table
9.2. Start from the top line. By matching the soil properties from Columns 2, 3 and 4, determine
the proper soil group (or subgroup). Determination of Group Index 4.
4. To determine the group index (GI) of coarse-grained soils, the following rules need to be
observed.
a. OH or soils in groups (or subgroups) A-I-a, A-I-b, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3 is zero.
b. For OJ in soils of groupsA-2-6 and A-2-7, use the following equation:
GI = 0.01 (F - 15)(PI - 10)
where F = percent passing No. 200 sieve PI = plasticity index (9.1) If the 01 comes out
negative, round it off to zero. If the 01 is positive, round it off to the nearest whole
number.
c. For obtaining the GI of coarse-grained soils, use the following equation:
GI = (F200 - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)] + 0.01(F2oo - l5)(PI - 10) (9.2) If the GI
comes out negative, round it off to zero. However, if it is positive, round it off to the
nearest whole number. Expression for Soil Classification
6. Expression for Soil Classification. The final classification of a soil is given by first writing
down the group (or subgroup) followed by the group index in parenthesis.
QUESTIONS
1. How the boundaries between the soil mineral particles (i.e., sand, silt, clay) have been
defined?
2. How important to know the group index of soil when used in pavement construction?
3. How does the plasticity chart useful for classifying fine-grained soil?
4. How is suitability of sub-grade soils assessed by the AASHTO classification system?
Experiment No. 8
DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM
MOISTURE CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the moisture
content and the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort. The compactive
effort is the amount of mechanical energy that is applied to the soil mass. Several different
methods are used to compact soil in the field, and some examples include tamping,
kneading, vibration, and static load compaction. This laboratory will employ the tamping
or impact compaction method using the type of equipment and methodology developed by
R. R. Proctor in 1933, therefore, the test is also known as the Proctor test.
Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed: (1) The Standard Proctor
Test, and (2) The Modified Proctor Test. Each of these tests can be performed in three
different methods as outlined in the attached Table 1. In the Standard Proctor Test, the soil
is compacted by a 5.5 lb hammer falling a distance of one foot into a soil filled mold. The
mold is filled with three equal layers of soil, and each layer is subjected to 25 drops of the
hammer. The Modified Proctor Test is identical to the Standard Proctor Test except it
employs, a 10 lb hammer falling a distance of 18 inches, and uses five equal layers of soil
instead of three. There are two types of compaction molds used for testing. The smaller
type is 4 inches in diameter and has a volume of about 1/30 ft3(944 cm3), and the larger
type is 6 inches in diameter and has a volume of about 1/13.333 ft3(2123 cm3). If the
larger mold is used each soil layer must receive 56 blows instead of 25 (See Table).
OBJECTIVES
1. To measure and determine the optimum water content of a sample of soil.
2. To determine the relationship between the moisture content and the dry density of a soil
for a specified compaction effort using modified proctor test.
STANDARD REFERENCE
SIGNIFICANCE
Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective means of
stabilizing soils. An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers is the
performance and analysis of field control tests to assure that compacted fills are meeting
the prescribed design specifications. Design specifications usually state the required
density (as a percentage of the ―maximum‖ density measured in a standard laboratory
test), and the water content. In general, most engineering properties, such as the strength,
stiffness, resistance to shrinkage, and imperviousness of the soil, will improve by
increasing the soil density.
The optimum water content is the water content that results in the greatest density for
a specified compactive effort. Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of ) the
optimum water content results in a relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle
orientations) that is weaker, more ductile, less pervious, softer, more susceptible to
shrinking, and less susceptible to swelling than soil compacted dry of optimum to the
same density. The soil compacted lower than (dry of) the optimum water content typically
results in a flocculated soil structure (random particle orientations) that has the opposite
characteristics of the soil compacted wet of the optimum water content to the same
density.
DRYING OVEN
MANUAL HAMMER
MIXING PAN # 4 SIEVE
TROWEL
MOISTURE CANS
GRADUATED CYLINDER
SOURCES OF ERROR
PROCEDURE
1. Obtain about 26.5 lb (12 kg) of air-dry soil on which the compaction test is to be
conducted. Break all the soil lumps.
2. Sieve the soil on a No.4 U.S. sieve. Collect all of the minus-4 material in a large pan.
This should be about 22 lb (10 kg) or more.
3. Add enough water to the minus-4 material and mix it in thoroughly to bring the moisture
content up to about 5%.
4. Determine the weight of the Proctor mold + base plate (not the extension), W1 (lb).
5. Now attach the extension to the top of the mold.
6. 'Pour the moist soil into the mold in three equal layers. Each layer should be compacted
uniformly by the standard Proctor hammer 25 times before the next layer of loose soil is
poured into the mold.
7. Remove the top attachment from the mold. Be careful not to break off any of the
compacted soil inside the mold while removing the top attachment.
8. Using a straight edge, trim the excess soil above the mold. Now the top of the compacted
soil will be even with the top of the mold.
9. Determine the weight of the mold + base plate + compacted moist soil in the mold, W 2
(lb).
10. Remove the base plate from the mold. Using a jack, extrude the coma<; ted soil cylinder
from the mold.
11. Take a moisture can and determine its mass, W3 (g).
12. From the moist soil extruded in Step 10, collect a moisture sample in the moisture can
(Step 11) and determine the mass of the can + moist soil, W4 (g).
13. Place the moisture can with the moist soil in the oven to dry to a constant weight.
14. Break the rest of the compacted soil (to No.4 size) by hand and mix it with the leftover
moist soil in the pan. Add more water and mix it to raise the moisture content by about
2%.
15. Repeat Steps 6 through 12. In this process, the weight of the mold + base plate + moist
soil (W2) will first increase with the increase in moisture content and then decrease.
Continue the test until at least two successive down readings are obtained.
16. The moist soil has to be poured into the mold in five equal layers. Each layer has to be
compacted by the modified Proctor hammer with 25 blows per layer.
ACTUAL PHOTO
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
VIDEO LINK:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kO5qkzRGek0
Trial 1 2 3 4 5
Specific Gravity
Water Content
Vol of mould, m3
Mass of mould, kg
Mass of mould + soil, kg
Mass of soil, kg
Weight of soil, N
Moist Unit Weight,
kN/m3
Dry Unit Weight, kN/ m3
Zero-air-void, kN/ m3
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the importance of performing standard proctor compaction test?
2. What strategies to improve soil conditions for sampling with auger if the soil is in
compact?
3. What could be the possible errors while performing the soil compactor test?
DATA SHEET
Table 8.1 Determination of Optimum Moisture Content
25
20
Dry Unit Weight, Kn/m3
Dry Unit
15 Weight,
kN/m3
10 Zero-air-void
0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Moisture Content, w%
Figure 8.1: Sample Flow Curve of Dry Unit Weight and Zero Air Void Unit Weight using
Modified Proctor Test
Experiment No. 9
FIELD DENSITY TEST
INTRODUCTION
There are several methods for the determination of field density of soils such as core
cutter method, sand cone method, rubber balloon method, heavy oil method etc. The dry density
of the compacted soil or pavement material is a common measure of the amount of the
compaction achieved during the construction. Knowing the field density and field moisture
content, the dry density is calculated.
OBJECTIVES
To determine the field density of soil sample using sand cone method and rubber balloon
method.
SIGNIFICANCE
Therefore, field density test is important as a field control test for the compaction of soil
or any other pavement layer. The basic principle of sand cone method is to measure the in-situ
volume of hole from which the material was excavated from the weight of the sand with known
density filling in the hole. The in-situ density of material is given by the weight of the excavated
material divided by the in-situ volume.
STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D446-82
PROCEDURES
Sand Cone Method:
1. Prepare a flat and smooth surface of the soil in the field where density needs to be found.
2. Place the density plate on prepared surface and fix it using fasteners provided. The plate
should not move while conducting a test.
3. Now position the balloon density meter exactly on the hole provided in the density plate.
4. Place the rubber bulb pump in the control valve and pump water into the balloon which is
placed at the bottom of the density meter.
5. Water is pumped until the water level in the density meter reached its lowest position. Note
down the reading as initial volume (V1).
6. After recording the initial volume, Invert the rubber bulb pump and pump the water back into
its original position.
7. Now remove the density meter and dig a hole using auger or trowel. The hole dug should be
minimum 4 inches in diameter and 5 inches deep.
8. The soil excavated from the hole should be collected completely in a moisture tight container.
Its weight (W) should be noted and it is also used to determine the water content of the soil.
9. Place the balloon density meter over the excavated hole and pump the water into the balloon
using a rubber bulb pump.
10. When the water level reached its lowest position, note the reading as the final volume (V2).
11. Now pump the water back into its original level using a rubber bulb pump with vacuum side
connected to the control valve.
ACTUAL PHOTO
VIDEO LINK
Sand cone Method :
https://youtu.be/nlfy6fOPfns
Rubber Balloon Method: https://youtu.be/IlF3m4OLFwc
CALCULATIONS
The basic principle of sand cone method is to measure the in-situ volume of hole from which
the material was excavated from the weight of the sand with known density filling in the hole.
The in-situ density of material is given by the weight of the excavated material divided by the in-
situ volume.
In calculating the weight of sand in the hole and then the volume of the hole as follows:
W sand ∈hole =W sand cone initially−W sand cone final−W sand∈cone + plate
W sand ∈hole
V hole =
Υ sand
Where:
W soil
Υ soil =
V hole
Rubber balloon test is a quick method and gives more accurate results compared to other in-situ
methods. In this method, rubber balloons are used to determine the volume of excavated soil
hole. Rubber balloon test is generally suitable for well-compacted soils. For very soft soils, that
deform easily, rubber balloon method is not suitable.
W soil
Υ soil =
V hole
Where:
W = Weight of the soil excavated
V = Volume of hole excavated
V= V1 – V2
Where:
Where:
w = Water content of excavated soil
QUESTIONS
1. Why are we using sand to replace the soil excavated from the hole?
2. How can we judge a field whether it reached standard compaction or not, is there any
standard value or percentage?
3. Why is it important to measure the field density? by using in-situ density tests?
Experiment No. 10
PERMEABILITY TEST
INTRODUCTION
Permeability is a measure of the ease in which water can flow through a soil volume. It is
one of the most important geotechnical parameters. However, it is probably the most difficult
parameter to determine. In large part, it controls the strength and deformation behavior of soils. It
directly affects the following:
APPLICATION
OBJECTIVES
The constant head test method is used for permeable soils (k > 10-4 cm/s) and the falling
head test method is mainly used for less permeable soils (k < 10-4 cm/s).
STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D 2434 - Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant
Head) (Note: The Falling Head Test Method is not standardized)
SITE REFERENCE
Permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) refers to the ease with which water can flow
through a soil. The knowledge in the coefficient of permeability is much useful in solving
problems involving yield of water bearing strata, seepage through earthen dams, stability of
earthen dams, and embankments of canal bank affected by seepage, settlement etc.
Permeability depends on a number of factors-
The size of the soil grains
The properties of the pore fluid
The void ratio of the soil
The shape and arrangement of pores
The degree of saturation
Stopwatch
Thermometer
Sieve # 4
and 200 with pan
SOURCES OF ERROR
Measuring error such as the inner diameters of the apparatus, the distance between two
standpipes, the length of the soil column, the volume of water and the head difference in
the two standpipes and as the time delay. Also, if there’s a leakage on the apparatus the
volume of outflow water and time it takes can be affected.
PROCEDURE
A. Constant Head Test:
1. Remove the cap and upper chamber of the permeameter by unscrewing the knurled cap
nuts and lifting them off the tie rods. Measure the inside diameter of upper and lower
chambers. Calculate the average inside diameter of the permeameter (Dinner).
2. Place one porous stone on the inner support ring in the base of the chamber then place a
filter paper on top of the porous stone.
3. Mix the soil with a sufficient quantity of distilled water to prevent the segregation of
particle sizes during placement into the permeameter. Enough water should be added so
that the mixture may flow freely.
4. Using a scoop, pour the prepared soil into the lower chamber using a circular motion to
fill it to a depth of 1.5 cm. A uniform layer should be formed.
5. Use the tamping device to compact the layer of soil. Use approximately ten rams of the
tamper per layer and provide uniform coverage of the soil surface. Repeat the compaction
procedure until the soil is within 2 cm. of the top of the lower chamber section.
6. Replace the upper chamber section, and don’t forget the rubber gasket that goes between
the chamber sections. Be careful not to disturb the soil that has already been compacted.
Continue the placement operation until the level of the soil is about 2 cm. below the rim
of the upper chamber.
7. Level the top surface of the soil and place a filter paper and then the upper porous stone
on it
8. Place the compression spring on the porous stone and replace the chamber cap and its
sealing gasket. Secure the cap firmly with the cap nuts.
9. Measure the sample length at four locations around the circumference of the permeameter
and compute the average length. Record it as the sample length.
10. Adjust the level of the funnel to allow the constant water level in it to remain a few
inches above the top of the soil.
11. Connect the flexible tube from the tail of the funnel to the bottom outlet of the
permeameter and keep the valves on the top of the permeameter open.
12. Place tubing from the top outlet to the sink to collect any water that may come out.
13. Open the bottom valve and allow the water to flow into the permeameter.
14. As soon as the water begins to flow out of the top control (desiring) valve, close the
control valve, letting water flow out of the outlet for some time.
15. Close the bottom outlet valve and disconnect the tubing at the bottom. Connect the funnel
tubing to the top side port.
16. Open the bottom outlet valve and raise the funnel to a convenient height to get a
reasonable steady flow of water.
18. Measure the time it takes to fill a volume of 750 - 1000 mL using the graduated cylinder,
and then measure the temperature of the water. Repeat this process three times and
compute the average time, average volume, and average temperature. Record the values
as t, Q, and T, respectively.
19. Measure the vertical distance between the funnel head level and the chamber outflow
level, and record the distance as h.
Repeat Step 1-11 as described in constant head test for the preparation of the specimen.
10. Supply water using a plastic tube from the water inlet to the burette. The water will flow
from the burette to the specimen and then to the funnel. Check to see that there is no leak.
Remove all air bubbles.
11. Allow the water to flow for some time in order to saturate the specimen. When the funnel
is full, water will flow out of it into the sink.
12. Using the pinch cock, close the flow of water through the specimen. The pinch cock is
located on the plastic pipe connecting the bottom of the specimen to the funnel.
13. Measure the head difference, h0 (cm) (see Fig. 8.1). Note: Do not add any more ~a1:e'r to
the burette.
14. Open the pinch cock. Water will flow through the burette to the specimen and then out of
the funnel. Record time (t) with a stop watch until the head difference is equal to h1 (cm)
(Fig. 8.1). Close the flow of water through the specimen using the pinch cock.
15. Determine the volume (Vw) of water that is drained from burette in cm3.
16. Add more water to the burette to make another run. Repeat Steps 13, 14·and 15.
However, hi and h1 should be changed for each run.
17. Record the temperature, T, of the water to the nearest degree (0C).
ACTUAL PHOTO
Tips: To make the water overflow on the funnel for it to be at constant height.
VIDEO LINK
https://youtu.be/BqJqcTdf4FY
CALCULATIONS
QL
k t ℃=
Aht
Where,
K = Coefficient of permeability
Q = Collected volume of water
L = Length of soil column
π D2
A = Area of the soil column =
4
h = Head difference
t = Time required to get Q volume
D = inner diameter of the specimen
ηT ℃
k 20℃ = k T ℃( ¿
η20 ℃
ηT ℃
Table 10.1 Variation of
η20 ℃
B. Falling Head Test
aL h
k t ℃=2.303 log 0
At h1
Where;
a = inside cross-sectional area of the burette
h 0 = initial head difference
h1 = final head difference
Q
a=
h0−h1
ηT ℃
k 20℃ = k T ℃( ¿
η20 ℃
QUESTION
Test No. 1 2 3
Average flow, Q (cm3)
Time of collection, t (s)
Temperature of water, T (℃ )
Head difference, h (cm)
Diameter of specimen, D (cm)
Length of specimen, L (cm)
2
πD
Area of specimen, A =
4
QL
k t ℃= , (cm/s)
Aht
Average k (cm/s) =
ηT ℃
k 20℃ = k T ℃( ¿=
η20 ℃
k =(2.303aL/At)log10(h1/h2), cm/s
Average k =
Experiment No. 11
SEEPAGE ANALYSIS (FLOWNETS)
INTRODUCTION
In many instances, the flow of water through soil is not in one-direction only, and it is not
uniform over the entire area perpendicular to the flow. In such cases, the groundwater flow is
generally calculated by the use of graphs referred to as flow nets. A flow net is a graphical
representation of two dimensional steady-state groundwater flows through aquifers. It is a
combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential lines. A flow line is a line along which
water molecules will travel from the upstream to the downstream side in a permeable soil
medium. An equipotential line is a line along which potential head at all points is equal. These
two lines are perpendicular to each other
OBJECTIVES
In order to understand seepage, a flow net demonstration is being used as illustration for
better discussions and understanding about the topic. The flow net demonstration is based on
Laplace’s Equation of Continuity wherein a sheet of pile or a dam is to be used. The experiment
will help the students in analyzing every detail connected to the topic that will make them easily
understand the preceding course subject required in Civil Engineering.
SIGNIFICANCE
Aquarium
Sand
Pump
Sheet pile
Food Color or Dye
Aquarium Sand Sample
Water Pump
SOURCES OF ERROR
PROCEDURE
1. Prepare the aquarium to be used. Check if there are holes because an impermeable layer
should be used as the base.
2. Put a divider to create a thin volume of space for easier demonstration of flow nets.
3. Put the sand into the thin space and insert the sheet pile in the middle. The sheet pile
should also be impermeable.
4. Put water on both sides creating a higher level on the upstream side than on the
downstream side.
5. Put a pump on the downstream side to maintain the level of water lower on the
downstream than on the upstream.
6. Inject the dye or food color unto the sand. This is for the flow to be visible enough to be
observed properly.
7. Observe and wait for the flow to curve and show the behaviour a flow should create.
VIDEO LINK
https://youtu.be/zJiF3FPPKSY
CALCULATIONS
Nf
q= kH
Nd
where,
q = rate of flow
k = hydraulic conductivity
H = head difference between the upstream side and the downstream side
= H1 – H2
Nf = number of flow channels
Nd = number of potential drops
SITE REFERENCE
QUESTIONS
1. The quantity of water, flowing through a saturated soil mass can be estimated by which
theory?
2. Is there will be a change in the degree of saturation in the zone of soil through which
water seeps?
3. What is the purpose of seepage pressure?